CRIM.

6: CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND STATISTICS

Meaning of Research
= scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality.
= systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical proposition about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena.

KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

A. According to Purpose
1. Predictive or Prognostic Research – has the purpose of determining the future operation of the
variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better
2. Directive Research – determines what should be done based on the findings this is to remedy an
unsatisfactory condition, if there is any
3. Illuminative Research – is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being
investigated, as for example, “interaction of the components of educational systems and aims to show
the connections among, for example, students’ characteristics, organizational pattern and policies,
and educational consequences

B. According to Goal
1. Basic or pure Research – is done for the development of theories and Principles.
2. Applied Research – is the application of the results of pure search. This is testing the efficacy of
theories and principles. aims to test theories and concepts developed for verification, application,
development and support and their relationship to the existing fund of knowledge

C. According to the Level of Investigation

1. Exploratory Research – the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.
2. Descriptive Research – the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.
3. Experimental Research – the experiment studies the effects of the variables on each other.

D. According to the Type of Analysis

1. Analytical Research – the researcher attempts to identify and is isolate the components of the
research situation.
2. Holistic Research – begins with the total situation. Focusing attention on the system first and then
on its internal relationships.

E. According to Scope – Under this category is Action Research. This type of research is done on
a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It is almost problem solving.

F. According to Choice of Answers to Problems

1. In Evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and identified and the
researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
2. In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable instrument or
process than has been available.

G. According to Statistical Content

1. Quantitative or statistical research – is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to determine
the results of the study. Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square, analysis of variance, etc.
are used to test the hypothesis. This type of research usually includes comparison studies, cause-
and-effect relationships, etc.
2. Non-quantitative research – This is research in which the use of the quantity or statistics is
practically nil. This is especially true in anthropological studies where description is usually used.
Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.

H. According to Time Element

1. Historical research describes what was.
2. Descriptive research describes what is.
3. Experimental research describes what will be.

Steps in Scientific Method of Research (Sequential)

1. Determining (recognizing) the problem
2. Forming a hypothesis
3. Doing the library search
4. Designing the study
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5. Developing the instruments for collecting data
6. Collecting the date
7. Analyzing the data
8. Determining implications and conclusions fro the findings
9. Making recommendations for further research.

Standard format of Thesis Writing

1. The Problem and the Setting
2. Related Literature and Studies
3. Methods of Research and Procedures
4. Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data
5. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.

Principles of the Scientific Method

1. Rigid control – is the manipulation of the research variables.
2. Objectivity – is that there should be no bias or partiality in treating the result of inquiry.
3. Systematic organization – refers to proper and accurate tabulation of data as well as presenting
them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.
4. Rigorous standards – refers to the setting up of standards or principles which serve as Basis for the
evaluating the findings of a study. This also refers to the accurate statistical computation and
interpretation of qualified data.

Three (3) Major Research Methods

Historical
Descriptive
Experimental methods of research

Attributes of Good Research Problem

S = Specific – specifically stated
M = Measurable – easy to measure by using research instrument in collection of data
A = Achievable – data are achievable using correct statistical treatment/techniques to arrive at
precise results
R = Realistic – real results are not manipulated
T = Time-bound – time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of
the activity the better

Capsulizing Research Problem into Title

1. It should clearly and specifically stated
2. Variables investigated should by all means be written as part of the title
3. Relationship between and among variables should be indicated
4. Target population should be indicated in the title to achieve specificity
5. It should have a maximum of twenty substantive words.
6. Function words should not be placed at the end of each line
7. Title must take the form of an inverted pyramid
Note:
Avoid redundancies like “A Review of…”, “An Analysis of…”, An Evaluation of…”, “An
Assessment….” and the like because even without those terms, the researcher will review, evaluate,
assess or analyze the problem posted in the study.

Avoid Plagiarism
Plagiarism is an act of incorporating into one’s work the work of another without indicating the source
= the unacknowledged used of somebody else’s words or ideas
= an act wherein the writer uses passages, ideas, writings, and statements of others without giving
due credit

Construction of the Main Problem and Sub-problem of the Study

1. The main problem of the study may be stated by briefly pointing out the objectives, the subject and
the coverage of the study.
Ex. The study aimed to assess the acceptance of an accurate polygraph results as evidence in court.
2. Specify the sub-problems of the main problem.
Ex. Specifically, it sought to answer the following sub-problems:
1. To what extent does the application of polygraph examination affect the attainment of an
accurate results to be presented as evidence in court in terms of:
1.1. examiner’s competency;
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 1.2. facility and instrument;
1.3. techniques and procedures; and
1.4. subject’s condition?

Theoretical Framework
 Theoretical framework is the foundation of the study.
 The theory should have a relationship with the issues posted in the study

Types of Theories
1. Descriptive Theory = seeks to describe a phenomenon
2. Prescriptive Theory = seeks to tell how and sometimes why one should or ought to behave in
certain ways

Guidelines in Choosing Theory

1. Research must be well-founded on universally accepted, known and tested theory, principles or
concepts.
2. Research may be anchored on several theories available.

Presentation of Theoretical Framework

Ex. The framework of the study is anchored on …………..……………

Conceptual Framework
= an illustration of how research problems are generated from the theoretical framework of the study
= it may be some sort of modification of the theoretical framework or personally conceptualized by the
researcher

Presentation of Conceptual Framework/Paradigm

1. The research paradigm must clearly show the major impact of the cited theory on the variables
(dependent and independent variables) of the study.
2. An existing theory may be capsulized in a research paradigm which may be adopted with some
modifications.
3. There must be textual explanations of the variables in the paradigm. Textual explanations should
come before the figure or paradigm.

Assumption and Hypothesis

1. Assumption = self-evident truth which is based upon known fact or phenomenon. it is not usually
answered or proven because it is assumed true or correct which are beyond the control of the
researcher.
Note: In historical and descriptive researches, it is often times not explicitly expressed but left implicit,
that is, unwritten
2. Hypothesis = tentative conclusion or answer to specific question raised at the beginning of the
investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question.

Types of Hypothesis
1. Descriptive Hypothesis = use to answer descriptive questions
Ex. Sub-problem:
1. What is the profile of the polygraph examiners of law enforcement agencies in terms of:
1.1. age;
1.2. marital status;
1.3. educational attainment; and
1.4. Length of Service
Ex. Hypothesis
“Majority of the respondents belong to the age bracket of 30 to 40, male, college graduate and about
20 years in service.”

2. Statistical Hypothesis = use to answer questions on the relationship or differences of data

obtained in descriptive questions.

Forms of Statistical Hypothesis

1. Null Form = always the first temporary solution to a problem
= basis of the action of acceptance or rejection
= the word null in mathematics means empty zero
= asserts that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variable
= stated in negative
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Ex. There is no significant difference between

2. Operational/Alternative (Ha) = stated in affirmative

Three forms of alternative hypothesis:
1. non-directional hypothesis
2. positive directional hypothesis
3. negative directive hypothesis

Nondirectional Hypothesis – indicates that the researcher is not interested on whether one variable
is greater or lesser than the other, but only in the difference.
Ex. Drug A and Drug B have significant effects on the cure of fever.
Ha: A = B
Positive Directional Hypothesis
Ex. Drug A is more effective than Drug B on the treatment of fever.
Ha: A > B
Negative Directional Hypothesis
Ex. Drug B is more effective that Drug A on the treatment of fever.
Ha: A < B
Formulating Hypothesis
A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been
concluded. It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical
background of the problem.

Guidelines in the Formulation of Explicit Hypothesis

In experimental investigations, comparative and correlational studies, hypothesis has to be
explicit or expressed.
In descriptive and historical investigations, hypothesis are seldom expressed if not entirely
absent. The specific questions serve as the hypothesis.
Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is easier than
a hypothesis in the operational form.
Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based.
Ex. of Statistical Hypothesis
Sub-problem:
Is there any significant difference on the assessment of the groups of respondents with regards to the
extent of application of polygraph examination in the attainment to be accurate results to be presented
as evidence in court in terms of examiner’s competency, facility and instrument, techniques and
procedures, and subject’s condition?

Hypothesis:
The is no significant difference on the assessment of the groups of respondents with regards to the
extent of application of polygraph examination in the attainment of accurate results to be presented
as evidence in court in terms of examiner’s competency, facility and instrument, techniques and
procedures, and subject’s condition.

Research Designs
A. Qualitative Research Design = involves in depth analysis of the problems. Its focused is to
provide accurate description of problems w/o attempting to treat or employ sophisticated statistical
tools or describe problems.

Types of Qualitative Research

1. Historical = systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using the critical
method in the understanding and the interpretation of facts, which are applicable to current issues and
problems.
2. Ethnographic = aims to provide a holistic view of the problem. Data are gathered through
observation, interview and participation
3. Case Study = intensive investigation of a particular individual, institution, community or any group
considered as a unit which includes the development, adjustment, remedial, or corrective procedures
that suitably follow diagnosis of the causes of maladjustment or of favorable development.

B. Quantitative Research Design = its focused is to describe problems descriptively and

numerically. It utilizes more statistical tests to explain the nature, characteristics, relationships and
differences of variables.

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 Types of Quantitative Research
1. Descriptive = describes and interprets WHAT is. It is concerned with conditions or relationship that
exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and processes that are going on, effects that are being felt or
trends that are developing.

Sub-types of Descriptive Research

a. Descriptive-Survey = involves collection of information on people, events and other topics of
interest to the researcher.
b. Descriptive-Documentary = involves content analysis because the documentary technique
includes analysis of content. It is used when data cannot be obtained through questionnaire or
observation.
2. Correlational = it measures the extent or magnitude of association between two variables.
=measures the existing relationship of variables
=also known as Associational Research
3. Experimental = the researcher manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or independent variables
to see the effects on the dependent variables.
=most commonly used methods to advanced scientific knowledge

Sampling Designs
A. Scientific Sampling = each member of the population is given the chance of being included in the
sample.
Population = specific aggregation of the elements
= also known as universe
Sample = representative portion of a whole
= subset of a population

Types of Scientific Sampling

1. Restricted Random = applicable only when the population being investigated is homogenous.
2. Unrestricted Random = the best random sampling design because no restriction is imposed and
every member of the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
3. Stratified Random = it divides first the population into two or more strata. For each stratum, the
sample items were drawn at random
4. Systematic = a design which all individual in the population are arranged in a methodical manner,
i.e. alphabetical or chronological (age, experience) and the name may be selected in the construction
of the sample
5. Multistage = done in several stage, it can be two-stage, three, four or five stage, etc…, depending
on the number of stages of sampling to be used.
6. Cluster Sampling = population is group into clusters or small units, for instance, block or districts,
and are selected by random sampling or systematic sampling.
=advantageous when individuals in the districts or blocks belong to the heterogeneous group
B. Non-Scientific Sampling = in this sampling there is subjectivity on the on the part of the
researcher because not all the individual in a population are given an equal chance of being included
in the sample

Types of Non-Scientific Sampling

1. Purposive = based on choosing individuals as sample according to the purposes of the researcher
2. Incidental = a design applied to those samples which are take because they are most valuable
= the researcher simply takes the nearest individual as subjects of the study until the sample reaches
the desired size
3. Quota Sampling = popular in the field of opinion research due to the fact that it is done by merely
looking for individuals with requisite characteristics

Research Instrument = a device designed or adopted by researcher for data gathering

Classification of Research Instrument

1. Researcher Instrument = the researcher obtains information or data himself with little or no direct
involvement of the other people
2. Subject Instrument = the information is collected directly from the respondents
3. Informant Instrument = the information or data is collected from those knowledgeable of the
subject matter

Commonly Used Instruments

1. Questionnaire = written or printed form containing the questions to be asked on the respondents.

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 Types of Questionnaire
a. Open-Ended = respondents are forced to answer the questions asked in the questionnaire.
=best suited to a qualitative research study
b. Closed-Ended = also referred as guided response type, closed form or restricted.
= respondents are guided in answering questions
= options may be provided like in multiple choice test while answers are based on the rating scales
provided

2. Interview = involves face to face contact between the interviewee and the interviewer

Types of Interview
a. Structured Interview = there is a set of carefully prepared questions and their expected answers
are provided
b. Unstructured Interview = respondents are free to express their opinions
= also termed as non-directive or informal

3. Observation = may be defined as perceiving data through the sense: sight, hearing, taste, touch
and smell
=sense of sight is the most important and most used
= most direct way and most widely used in studying behavior

Types of Observation
a. Formal Observation = researcher makes a guide on what to observe. Possible responses may
also be outlined
b. Informal Observation = needs critical evaluation of the observation made to avoid biased results
= recommended for qualitative research

Recording of Results of Observation

1. Checklist = contains the items to be observed
2. Rating scale = used in observing behavior
3. Anecdotal Forms = provides for the fewer breakdowns of dimensions or factors
4. Mechanical Record = use of motion or still pictures, sound recording
5. Stenographic Recording

Qualities of Good Research Instrument

1. Validity = degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure

Types of Validity
a. Content-Related Validity = refers to content and format of the instrument which must answer the
following criteria: appropriateness; logical; adequate; and, proper format
b. Criterion-Related Validity = refers to the relationship between scores obtained using one or more
instruments or measures
c. Construct-Related Validity = refers to the nature of psychological construction or characteristics
being measured by the instrument

2. Reliability = extent to which the instrument is dependable, self-consistent and stable

=consistency of responses from moment to moment
= even a person takes the same test twice, the test yields the same results
= reliable test may not always be valid

3. Usability = otherwise known as Practicability

= degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used. It may be determined thru:
a. ease of administration
b. ease of scoring
c. ease of interpretation
d. low cost
e. proper mechanical make up

Statistics = science which deals with the systematic process of collecting, organizing, classifying,
presenting, interpreting and analyzing data

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Types of Statistics
A. Descriptive Statistics = it is used to determine the nature of variables without any attempt to
critically compare the extent of relationships or differences with other variables

Tools of Descriptive Statistics

1. Frequency Counting/Distribution
2. Percentage
3. Ranking
4. Measures of Centralities
a. Mean
b. Median
c. Mode
d. Measures of Variability

B. Correlational Statistics = used to determine the degree or magnitude of association between two
variables.
=treats bivariate and multivariate problems

Specific Measures of Correlational

1. Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (Pearson r)
2. Spearman Rank-Order Coefficient of Correlation (Spearman rho)
3. Kendall’s Tau Coefficient of Correlation
4. Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance W
5. Point Biserial Coefficient of Correlation
6. Phi Coefficient of Correlation

C. Inferential Statistics = used when in making inferences on the magnitude of differences of the
samples from a large universe.
= used in testing hypothesis like differences bet. two or more variables
= treats bivariate and multivariate problems

Types of Inferential Statistics

1. Parametric Test = applicable when the data measured is in interval or ratio scales

Types of Parametric
a. T-Test and Z-Test = used to determine two variable means which differ significantly
b. F-test = (Analysis of Variance – ANNOVA) used to determine significant differences between three
or more variables

2. Non-Parametric = used in ordinal or rank or nominal data

Types of Non-parametric
a. Chi-Square Test (X2) = used to compare the frequencies obtained in categorized variables
= used to determine the difference between three or more variables
b. Mann-Whitney U-Test
c. Sign Test
d. Lambda
e. Kruskall-Wallis
f. Friedman Analysis of Variance
g. McNemar Test
Data Analysis = an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality, attribute, trait, pattern,
trend, relationship among others so as to answer research questions which involve statistical
techniques and procedures

Types of Data Analysis

1. Univariate = tests a single variable to determine whether the sample is similar to the population
from which it has been drawn
2. Bivariate = it tests two variables on how they differ from each other
3. Multivariate = it tests three or more independent variables at a time on the degree of relationship
with dependent variables
4. Normative = the results of the study is compared with the norm
5. Status = stresses real facts relating to current conditions in a group of subjects chosen for study
6. Descriptive = describes the characteristics, compositions, structures that occur as units within the
larger structure
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7. Classification = analysis which is usually employed in natural science subjects
8. Evaluative = it appraises carefully the worthiness of the current study
9. Comparative = the researcher considers at least two entities and establishes a formal procedure
for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the two is
better
10. Cost-Effective = applicable in comparing the cost between two or more variables and to
determine which of the variable is most effective

Interpretation of Data = an act or instance of interpreting an explanation. This is done to give

meaning to data generated from the instrument to answer the problems raised in the study

Levels of Interpretation
1. Table Reading
2. Implications or Meaning of Data
3. Cross referencing or corroboration wherein the results are to be compared with the existing
knowledge or finished studies

THESIS FORMAT

Preliminary Pages
a. Title Page
b. Approval Sheet
c. Acknowledgment
d. Dedication
e. Table of Contents
f. List of Tables
g. List of Figures
h. Abstract

CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTNG
Introduction
 Presents the problem. What the problem is all about
 Rational or reasons for conducting the study
Setting of the Study
 Locality of the study. Place where the study is to be conducted
Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
 Theoretical / conceptual foundation of the study
Statement of the Problem
 General and specific statement of the problem determined in the study
Assumption or Hypothesis
 Self-evident truth based upon known fact or phenomenon (Assumption)
 Tentative conclusion or answer to specific questions (Hypothesis)
Significance of the Study
 Contribution of the result of the study to individuals, institutions, administrators, society,
etc…
Scope and Limitation of the Study
 Boundaries in terms of time, sample, location (Scope)
 Weakness of the study beyond the control of the researcher (Limitation)
Definition of Terms
 It can be lexical or operational definition or a combination thereof of different terms
used in the study which are arranged alphabetically

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Foreign Literature
 Published articles from foreign countries
Local Literature
 Locally published articles

Foreign Studies
 Foreign unpublished articles
Local Studies
 Locally unpublished articles
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Synthesis
 Relevance of literature and studies to the present research

CHAPTGER 3
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Research Method
 Brief description and justification of the research method used in the study
Population and Sampling Scheme
 Brief presentation of the entire population of the study and the type of sampling
techniques used in selecting sample respondents
Description of the Respondents
 Contains detailed description of the respondents as to age, sex, marital status, nature
of employment, etc…
Research Instrument
 Explanation on how the instrument used in gathering data was develop as well as its
detailed description.
Validation of Instrument
 States brief discussion on how the instrument was validated
 Instrument is tested on individuals who are knowledgeable of the subject matter but are
not part of the respondents of the study
Procedures in Gathering Data
 Contains the step by step procedures used by the researcher in reaching the
respondents in order to gather data
Statistical Treatment
 Contains discussion on the statistics used in consonance with the specific problem and
hypothesis to be tested

CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
 Contains the answers to all the sub-problems of the study
 Answers to the problems are stated one by one according to the arrangement of sub-problems
for clarity and understanding
 Answers are presented in textual and tabular forms. Textual explanations come after the
tables

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The introductory paragraph should contain the summary of statement of the problem,
hypothesis as well as research design.

Summary of Findings
 Contains the specific findings/results of the study
 Presented as they were organized and categorized in the sub-problems of the study
 Written in past tense
Conclusions
 Written in present tense
 Should be based on the findings of the study
 Logical and valid outgrowth of the findings
 Should not contain any numerals from the findings
 Organized and categorized according to the sub-problems

Recommendations
 An appeal to people or institutions concerned to solve the problems discovered in the
study
 No recommendations that will be made for problems that were not discovered in the
study
 Practical and attainable

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