Table of contents

S.No Topics Pg.no

List of abbreviations

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Chapter #1 Introduction 1-8

Introduction 1-2

1.1 Objectives 2

1.2 Description of study area 3

1.3 Population and density 3

1.4 Topography 3

1.5 Geology 4

1.6 Hydrology 4

1.7 Agriculture 4

1.8 Horticulture 5

1.9 Livestock 5

1.10 Industry 5

1.11 Climate 5

1.11.1 Temperature 5

1.11.2 Rainfall 6

1.11.3 Wind and humidity 6

1.12 Flora and fauna 6

1.12.1 Flora 6
1.12.2 Fauna 7

1.13 Communication 7

1.14 Local environmental issue 8

Chapter #2 Literature review 9-14

Chapter #3 Materials and methods 15-17

3.1 Soil sampling and analysis 15

3.2 Sample preparation 16

3.3 Soil sample preparation 16

3.3.1 Plant sample preparation 16

3.3.2 Soil digestion 16

3.4 Plant digestion 17

3.5 Heavy metal analysis 17

Chapter # 4 Results and discussion 18-26

4.1 Plant contamination 20-22

4.2 Soil contamination 23-26

Chapter #5 Conclusion and recommendations 27-28

5.1 Conclusion 28

5.2 Recommendations 29

References 30-33
List of Tables

S.no Title Pg.no

3.2.1 Names of plant species. 15-16

4.1.1 Maximum permissible limits of Heavy Metals in Plants by WHO in 20

mg/kg.

4.1.2 Concentrations of Cd in plant samples of Peshawar. 20-21

4.1.3 Concentrations of Zn in plant samples of Peshawar. 21-22

4.1.4 Concentrations of Pb in plant samples of Peshawar. 22-23

4.2.1 Maximum permissible limits of Heavy Metals in soil according to 23

Indian and EU standards in mg/kg.

4.2.2. Concentrations of Cd in soil samples of Peshawar. 24

4.2.3. Concentrations of Zn in soil samples of Peshawar. 25

4.2.4 Concentrations of Pb in soil samples of Peshawar. 26

List of figures

S.No Title Pg.No

4.1 Location map showing sampling points 18

4.2 Heavy metal concentrations average in plant samples 22

4.3 Heavy metal concentrations average in plant samples 27

List of Abbreviations

Abbreviation Extension
Sox Oxides of Sulfur
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
Cox Oxides of Carbon
EU European union
COD Chemical oxygen demand
BOD Biological oxygen demand
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
CO Carbon monoxide
PPM Parts per million
dB Decibel
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity unit
s/m Siemens per meter
g/kg Gram per kilogram
NEQs National Environmental Quality Standards
Ml Milliliter
Cd Cadmium
Zn Zinc
Pb Lead

HCl Hydrochloric acid

HNO3 Nitric acid

Acknowledgement

All praises to Allah, the most merciful and beneficent, and source of all knowledge,
wisdom within and beyond our comprehension. He is the only God who can help us in
every field of life. All respect and possible tributes goes to our Holy Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH), who is forever guidance and knowledge for all human beings on this earth.

Heartful thanks to Dr. Hizbullah Khan chairman Department of Environmental Sciences,

University of Peshawar who approved our research topic.

We are very grateful to our research supervisor Dr. ShahlaNazneen Associate

Professor Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Peshawar. Infact, all
credit goes to her, who not only help us in selecting research topic but also helped us
through timely suggestions, valuable advises and specially the supportive attitude, which
was always a source of motivation for us.

Many thanks to CRL laboratory for their help in our research work. We are
proud to say that we are very grateful to our families whose kind prayers and co operation
helped us in every step of our work. Mr. Imtiaz Ahmad Librarian of Department of
Environmental Sciences, also deserve great vote of thanks for his help and providing
relevant literature.

A special thanksto my colleague Ms. TalyaaNajam for her help throughout my research
work.

Our acknowledgement cannot be completed if we do not mention our class fellows as

their behavior and friendly attitude made this work possible. We are really proud to have
such nice class fellows.
Abstract

This study was conducted to evaluate the levels of selected heavy metals (Cd, Zn, Pb) in
roadside soils and plants (Bougainvillea glabra, Eucalyptus globules, Alianthusaltisisma,
Rosa sinesus, AlstoniaScholaris) and to investigate the relationship of Primary,
Secondary and Tertiary (Controlled Group) road’s traffic density with the concentrations
of Pb, Cd, and Zn in Peshawar. The samples were prepared through drying, grinding,
digestion and finally heavy metals were determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry, using atomic absorption spectrophotometer in CRL laboratory,
University of Peshawar. Results indicated that zinc and cadmium exhibited high levels in
all selected species of plants along the road whereas lead contamination was only found
in Rosa sinesus out of the selected species. In roadside soil and plants samples the
contamination of Cd, Zn, Pb was within the permissible limits.
CHAPTER # 1

INTRODUCTION

Heavy metals are regarded as one of the main sources of pollution in the environment
(Jozik et al., 2009) due to high toxicity and persistency in the environment. Vehicular
emissions, industrial discharge and other manmade activities are considered to be the
main sources of heavy metals in urban environment (Morton et al., 2008). The number of
automobiles has been dramatically increased with the rapid development of human
civilization and industrialization that is responsible for air pollution with heavy metals
and other pollutants. The pollution caused by traffic activities is a great threat to urban
environment (Li et al., 2007) and transportation causes air contamination particular with
Pb and Cd along with other toxic pollutants (Sanchchez-Martin et al., 2000).

The determination of Pb and Cd in environmental sample is very important. The

presence of these metals in the environment can cause various physiological and
chemical changes in living organisms. These metals are known for their toxicities in the
environment and human beings. Previously, it is investigated that Pb can cause various
health risks like anemia, neurological disorders, hyperactivity and enzyme changes in
humans (Marsden et al., 2003).Similarly, Cd poisoning can affect lungs, kidneys, bones,
and reproductive system (Godt et al., 2006).

However, in plants they can cause damage to chlorophyll contents, relative water
content, carotenoids, ascorbic acid and pH(Joshi and Swami., 2007). It is known that
there is direct relationship between Pb concentrations and traffic density (Fakayode and
Olu-owolabi, 2003). The seasonal and meteorological conditions like wind, rainfall and
traffic intensity can also influence the concentrations of these metals in the roadside soils
(Othoman et al., 1997).

Generally, Pb contained gasoline has been banned for several years throughout
the world. However, the Pb is still present in roadside soils, as reported previously. Pb
contamination of roadside soils and vegetation is mainly due to vehicular exhausts
(Bakirdere and Yaman, 2008). Pb compounds such as tetraethyl lead, tetramethyl lead
and diethyldimethyl lead were used as antiknock agents in regular Pb contained gasoline
(Rhueet al., 1992). Cd is commercially used in accumulators and carburetors as alloy that
that make their way to release in to environment during combustion (Arsalan, 2001).
After release the Pb and Cd are deposited on soils and plants and then find their way into
plants tissues (Liu et al., 2007).

In the past numerous studies were conducted (Bakidere and Yaman., 2008;
Naszradi et al., 2004; Nabulo et al., 2006) that showed the contamination of roadside
soils and plants with Pb and Cd. However, very limited area is available on Pb and Cd
contaminations on roadside soils and plants from Pakistan. The main objective of this
study was to investigate the relationship of Primary, Secondary and tertiary road’s traffic
density with the concentrations of Pb, Cd and Zn in soils and plants.

1.1 Description of the Study Area

Peshawar perhaps one of the ancient amongst the living cities of Pakistan, sites on the
right of the old Bara River, a tributary of the Kabul, and the stood guard at the eastern
mouth of the famous Khyber Pass, hardly 15 kilometers away. Peshawar is the provincial
Capital of KPK, and is also the largest city in the Province. District Peshawar lies
between 33° 44' and 34° 15 m latitude and 71° 22' and 71° 42' east longitude. The total
area of this district is 1,257 square km. (DCR, 1998), while the city is spread over an area
of 1.257 square km (Nadiem, 2007).
1.2 Population

The city of Peshawar has a population of 1,970,042 according to the 2017 census, making
it the largest city in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the sixth-largest in Pakistan, while
Peshawar District has a population of 4,269,079. Peshawar is the provincial capital of
KPK and is the 6th largest city of Pakistan.

1.3 Topography

The district is almost a fertile plain. There is a small hilly area in the south east which is
a part of main Khattak ranges. It is approximately 1173 feet (358 m) above sea level. The
central part of the district consists of fine alluvial deposits. The cultivated tracts consists
of a rich, light and porous soil, composed of a pretty even mixture of clay and sand which
is good for cultivation of wheat, sugarcane and tobacco (DCR, 1998).

1.4 Geology

Peshawar valley is covered with consolidated deposits of silt, sands and gravel of recent
geological times. There is a small hilly area in the Southeast, which is a part of main
Khattak ranges. The highest point is at Tarakai with a height of about 700 m (DCR,
1998).

1.5 Hydrology

The foods Plains/Zones are the areas between Kabul River and Budni Nala. The meander
flood plain extends from Warsak in the Northwest towards Southeast in the upper
Northern half of the district. The Kabul River enters the district in the Northwest. On
entering the Peshawar plain, the Kabul River is divided into several channels. Its two
main channels are the Adizai River Eastward flows along the boundary with Charsadda
District. Another channel branching from the right bank of the Naguman River is the
Shah Alam, which again merges with Naguman River further in the East. In general the
sub-soil strata are composed of gravels, boulders, and sands overlain by silts and clays.
Sand, gravel and boulders are important aquifer extends to a depth of about 200 feet. As
further confined water bearing aquifer occurs at depths greater than 400 feet (DCR,
1998).

1.6 Agriculture

Peshawar valley is famous for its fertile and densely cultivated land soil. The district is
famous for producing both food and cash crops. The main food crops are wheat, maize
and barley. The main cash crop is sugarcane. An important institution in the field of
agriculture in the district is the Agriculture Research Institute, Tarnab located along the
Grand Trunk Road about 16 Km from Peshawar towards Nowshera. (DCR, 1998)

1.7 Horticulture

The principal fruits are plum, peach, pear, apricot, watermelon, muskmelon, apple,
guava, mango, persimmon and loquat. The principal vegetables grown in the district are
turnip, carrot, spinach, tomato, cauliflower, cabbage, peas, radish and ladyfinger. (DCR.
1998

1.8 Livestock

Asses, buffaloes, cattle, goats, horses, mules and sheep are found in the district. There are
also several poultry farms in the district (DCR, 1998)

1.9 Industry

Peshawar district is comparatively developed area in the KP. Khazana sugar mill
and a number of small industrial units at Kohat road, Jammrud road, Karkhano market
are functioning which are manufacturing hosiery, small arms, leather and foot wear,
garments, ghee, soap, etc. Match factories, flour mills and steel re-rolling units are also
operating in the district. (DCR, 1998)

1.10 Climate

1.10.1 Temperature
Winter in Peshawar is starts from mid November to March; summer months are May to
September. The mean maximum temperature in summer is over 40°C and the mean
minimum temperature is 25°C. The mean minimum temperature during winter is 4°C and
maximum is 18.35°C. The spring comes somewhere around the middle of March which
is the most pleasant period of the year. (DCR, 1998)

1.10.2 Rainfall

Rainfall is received both in winter and in the summer. The winter rainfall due to western
disturbances shows a higher record during the months of February and April. The highest
winter rainfall has been recorded in March, while the highest summer rainfall in the
month of August. The average winter rainfall is higher is higher in winter than that of the
summer. Based on a 30 year record, the average annual precipitation has been recorded as
400 millimeters (DCR, 1998).

1.10.3 Winds and Humidity

Wind speeds vary during the year from 5 knots in December to 24 knots in June. The
relative humidity varies from 46% in June to 76% in August (DCR , 1998).

1.11 Flora and Fauna

1.11.1 Flora

The common trees are mesquite, her, acacia and jhand. The common shrubs are Spynda,
akk, small red poppy, spera, camel thorn, paighambarigul and Drab grass. Common herbs
are R/trichophyllus, H.trilobum, T.torulosa, and S/pakistanicum. All kinds of roses like
guledawoodi, chamba, ramble, nargis, kasmalo, ganderi, mori and other seasonal flowers
are planted and shown in district. (DCR, 1998

1.11.2 Fauna

Wildlife Department KP, Peshawar is working for protection and conservation of wildlife
through declaring protected areas. It helps to rehabilitate wildlife species that are
threatened or becoming endangered or extinct. The common wildlife species found are
gray partridge, black partridge, chakur, partridge, and see etc. Birds found in Peshawar
are house sparrow, Red Vented Bulbul, Common Myna, House Sparrow, Rose Ringed
Parakeet, Common Babbler, Pariah kite, Common Swallow, Blyth s Reed Warbler, White
Cheeked Bulbul and Crested Lark. (DCR, 1998)

1.12 Communication

Peshawar has good networks of roads. The main road namely Shahra-e Pakistan ( old
Grand Trunk Road) enters the city at Tarnab bridge and old Bara River and leaves at
Bab-e Khyber in Khyber agency. The road passes through the middle of the city from
east to west. All other major and minor roads are linked with this road at different places.
In all there are about 8584.03 km black topped roads while 4434.25 km shingled thus
making the total of 13018.28 km in length. Next we have a railway line in Peshawar. The
railway line enters the KP at Attock and Peshawar district at Akbarpura and ends at
LandiKotal, Khyber Agency.

The total length of railway line in the existing Peshawar is twenty km which plays a
pivotal role on overcoming the deficiency of public transport system. Alter that, there is
an airport known as Peshawar airport, it falls at a distance of three km from the city. The
airport holds the international flight facility, the airport security force, air traffic control
tower and full pledge district office. Along with this there are a number of post offices
that provide both country wide and international postal services, that are further boosted
with telefax, telex, telegraphs, pager and the private companies sponsored cord less
telephone like the paktel, instaphone, voice links has further replenished the
communication.

1.13 Local Environmental Issues

Environment of the vicinity has suffered tremendously due to an ever increasing

population, unplanned growth and a poor regulatory framework. Air, surface water and
noise pollution along with solid waste problem are significant issues in several parts of
the city and the water quality, once considered to be exceptionally good, is also fast
deteriorating. Air Pollution is attributed to many sources, the most prominent being
vehicular pollution, dust particles, emissions from the large number of small scale brick
kilns, stone crushers and major contribution from industrial state of Hayatabad. The air
pollution is responsible for many environmental problems like emissions of NOx, COx,
SOx, Hydrocarbons and particulate matters that contain different heavy metals are mostly
due to industries and Vehicular exhausts. Besides gaseous exhausts emitting from the
engines, vehicles are producing noise pollution. The noise level is recorded 90-100 dB
which is above than permissible limit that is 85 dB. The drinking water quality which was
one considered to be very good is now on the verge of deterioration.
This made a many fold increase in the BOD and COD level of the surface water. In
Kabul River that passes near the city, contains 1600- 1800 number of Faecal Caliform
Bacteria/100 milliliters of water which should not be more than 3/100 milliliters of water
(Khushi et al., 2003)
1.14 OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the concentration of heavy metals (Pb, Cd, and Zn) in roadside soils and
plants.
2. To investigate the relationship of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary road’s traffic
density with the concentrations of Pb, Cd, and Zn in soils and plants.
CHAPTER # 2

LITERATUREREVIEW

In order to collect valuable material regarding the actual study the literature was
reviewed. The already existing relevant information, findings and research work of the
various researchers were studied. After evaluations and extraction process the most
relevant information to this present study along with reference is given as under;

 Bakirdere et al., (2008) investigated the concentrations of Pb, Cd and Zn and Cu

in roadside soils and plants in Elazig, Turkey. Soil samples were collected at
different distances from the roadside. The concentration of these metals was
measured by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (FAAS). Analysis
showed that there was a considerable contamination of Pb, Cd, Zn and Cu in both
soil and plants affected from traffic intensity. Standard reference material (SRM)
was used to find the accuracy of the results of soil analyses.
 Belykh et al., (2007) studied the quantitative indices of the distribution of
substances in the soil-plant system. The aim of this work was to study the
regularities responsible for the distribution of different substances in the soil-plant
system and to perform the quantitative assessment of the processes operating in
the system related to the concentration of substances in the soil. The quantitative
indices may be successfully used for the quantitative studies of the mechanism
and the intensity of the absorption of substances by plants, for the prediction of
the accumulation of substances in the tropic chain, and the assessment of soil self-
purification (Detoxification) and comparative ratings.
 Carmen et al., (200) studied the heavy metals contamination of natural soils due
to atmospheric transport. The distribution of heavy metals was studied along the
soil profile and at specific distances from the pollution sources particularly traffic
caused pollution. Lower Pb concentrations were observed in the deeper soil
 horizons. From soil profile distributions it was concluded that Cd was also
supplied in appreciable amount to the top soil from the same pollution sources,
whereas the trend was weaker for zinc and chromium.

 The paper by Dukhovskis et al., (2003) explained the effect of various

concentrations of Cu & Pb on the growth of plants at various temperatures. Low
copper concentrations enhanced plant growth although this effect was not
statistically significant. However, they found that even at the lowest
concentrations. Pb ions suppressed growth of seedlings and narrowed the
temperature and tolerance area. Pb strongly inhibited pigment synthesis in plant
leaves. The decrease in pigment content was mostly pronounced when denser
populations were exposed to lead.
 Fakayode and Owolabi (2004) determined the concentrations of heavy metals
particularly Pb, and Cd in the roadside topsoil in Osogbo, Nigeria. The levels of
the metals at the high density roads were significantly higher than the
corresponding levels at the medium and low traffic density roads. There was a
rapid decrease in the level of the metals with distance, with the metal levels at a
distance of 50 m horn the road almost reaching the natural background levels of
the metals at the control sites.
 Guitao et a1., (2008) conducted a detailed study of the determination of heavy
metals in soils and dust samples collected from the urban environment. The
amount of Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Cd and Ni were determined. The results indicated that
concentration of all metals except Ni in soils was significant, and metal pollution
was even severer in roadside dust.
 Hamidullah et al. (1998) carried out a detail study to determined heavy metal
concentrations in air dust, soil and sewerage of the Peshawar metropolis. At
different chowks of the city both the individual metal and total dust fall showed
positive correlation with the total number of vehicles, indicating that the moving
traffic is the major cause of keeping metal-loaded dust in the air. However, these
 vehicles may not be considered as a major source of emanating these metals from
their exhausts. Along with traffic density the studied showed that other major
sources of heavy metals in the western part of Peshawar metropolis are small
metal shops, workshops, construction projects, rusted bridges, fences and damage
sewerage systems.

 Jim at al. (2008) in their research examined the ecosystem service of trees to control
the serious and aggravating air pollution in Chinese cities that were causing
environmental problem undermining the sustainability of urban ecosystems and the
quality of urban life. Besides technical solutions to abate air pollution, urban
vegetation is increasingly recognized as an alternative, ameliorative method by
removing some pollutants mainly through dry deposition process. They concluded
that the efficiency of atmospheric cleansing by trees in congested Chinese cities could
be improved by planting more trees other than shrubs or grass, diversifying species
composition and biomass structure.

 Joshi and Swami (2007) carried out a study to determine the physiological
response of few economically important tree species viz., Mango
(Mangiferaindica), Eucalyptuscitriodora, Sagon (Tectonagrandis) and Sal
(Shorearobusta) to roadside automobile pollution. By determining some
physiological parameters, which included chlorophyll, total chlorophyll,
carotenoids, ascorbic acid, pH and relative water content, impact of automobile
exhaust on these species was assessed. The data obtained were analyzed by using
one-way ANOVA and a significant change in all these parameters was found in
the leaf samples collected from road side trees, exposed to automobile exhausts in
comparison to control.
 Lagriffoul et a1., (1998) determined Cadmium toxicity effects on growth, mineral
and chlorophyll contents, and activities of stress related enzymes in young maize
plants. Plants were cultivated in a nutrient solution containing increasing
 cadmium concentrations under strictly controlled growth conditions. A decrease
in shoot length, chlorophyll pigments and leaf dry biomass was found to be
significant at low concentrations of Cd. While, changes in enzyme activities were
observed at lower Cd concentrations in solution leading to lower threshold values
for Cd contents in plants than those observed for growth parameters.
 Naszradi et a1., (2004) investigated the heavy metal content in meadow plants located
in a cultivated area situated along the M3 motorway (Hungary). Meadow plant
samples were collected at different distances from the motorway and moss samples
were exposed at the same distances. The Zn, Pb and Cd content of meadow plants and
moss samples were analyzed by spectrophotometry. It was found that the Zn, Pb and
Cd contents of the meadow plants decreased as the distance increased from the
motorway. A significant difference between values was even measured at the
distances of 5 m and 10 m.
 Wang et al. (2007), studied the inter and intra specific variations of cadmium
accumulation in leafy vegetables species in a green house experiment. Under low Cd
treatment shoot and root Cd concentration was highly significantly different among
cultivars within the same species. In roots the Cd concentration was highly significant
under high Cd treatment. This study showed that the intra specific variations were higher
than the inter specific variations in shoot and root. Cd concentrations under both levels of
Cd exposure.
 Zhuang et al. (2008), studied the health risk from heavy metals via consumption
of food crops in the vicinity of Dabaoshan mine, south China. The results indicated that
the heavy metals concentration in soil samples collected from paddy and garden soils
exceeded the permissible limits for Chinese agricultural soil. The maximum
concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd were found in paddy soil at Fandog village. Among
the food crops rice can accumulate the high concentrations of Cd and Pb in grain parts.
The concentration of heavy metals like Cd, Pb and Zn were also higher than the standard
set for vegetables in China. Bioaccumulation factors for heavy metals in different
vegetables showed a trend in the order: Cd > Zn > Cu >Pb. Leafy vegetables have
showed a higher bio-accumulation factor than non-leafy vegetables. They showed that the
consumption of contaminated food crops like rice and vegetables grown around the mine
pose a great health risk to the residents of the study area.
 Rodri ‘ guez et al. (2008), in Spain investigate the impacts of a Pb-Zn mine on the
heavy metals pollution of soil belonging to both mine tailing sand the surrounding arable
and pasture areas. Heavy levels of metal pollution were detected in the entire mine area,
with almost all the samples exceeding the maximum tolerable concentrations for Pb. Zn
and Cd established by European Directive 86/278/EEC for the agricultural use of sludge
from wastewater facilities.

 Yan-J et al. (2007) carried out a study to investigate the Pb and Cd uptake for
common deciduous street trees in Beijing. They come up with the results that
different plant species have different ability of accumulating Pb and Cd. A metal
accumulative index (MAI) was developed to identify the specie that had the highest
accumulative capacity.

 The paper by Yasir et al., (2009) did the assessment of heavy metal pollution level in
dust generated on the Expressway. The samples were analyzed for heavy metals (Cd,
Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn). They concluded that the concentrations of all these metals were
lower than the values cited in literature. However, the integrated pollution index (IPI)
was in order of Cu >Pb> Zn > Cd > Ni. It is concluded that the pollution level was
expected to increase due to rapid urbanizationof the area.
CHAPTER # 3

METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.1 Soil Sampling and analyses

Soil samples were collected from each site at a depth of 0 to 25 cm with stainless steel
auger. Samples were collected from three different points along roadside i-e, Primary,
Secondary and Tertiary (Controlled Group) from different locations of Peshawar. The
samples were brought to laboratory in polythene bags for analysis.

3.2 Plant Sampling and analyses

The plant samples were collected from the same sampling sites as for soil. The plants
were taken out along with their roots. Each sample was cut into three pieces i.e., root,
shoot and fruit. The roots were washed with de-ionized water to remove the soil. The
samples were then stored in separate paper bags. The selected plant species with their
scientific names are given in the table below.

Table3.2.1 Names of plant species

S. Common Name Scientific Name Family Specie

No

1. Tasmanian/Sothern Eucalyptus Myrtaceae E. globules

Blue-Gum Globulus

2. Paper Flower Bougainvillea Nyctaginaceae B. glabra

Glabra

3. Tree of Heaven AlianthusAltissima Simaroubaceae A.Altissima

(Alianthus)

4. China Rose Rosa Sinensis Malvaceae H. rosa-

sinensis

5. Blackboard Tree AlstoniaScholaris Apocynaceae A.Scholaris

3.3 Sample Preparation

3.3.1 Soil Sample Preparation

The soil samples were air dried covered with cloth to prevent contamination. After drying
the soil samples were mechanically ground to obtain less 2mm soil fraction.

3.3.2 Plant Sample Preparation

The plants were dried in oven at 100C for 48 hours. The dry vegetable samples i.e., root,
shoot and fruit were powdered using clean mortar and pestle. The samples were then
stored in paper bags at room temperature for further analysis.

3.4 Soil digestion

Soil samples were digested according to FAO methods, 1983. A well-mixed sample of 1g
from the dried and powdered soil of each sample was taken into a glass beaker and 15ml
of aqua regia was added. The samples were kept overnight and heated on the hot plate
until no brown fumes were given off, they were then cooled and 5ml concentrated HNO3
were added. The solution was evaporated near to dryness, filtered and then diluted with
distilled water to 50ml.

3.5 Plant digestion

Plants samples were digested according to FAO methods, 1983. Accurately weighed 1g
of powdered plants of each sample was taken into a glass beaker, added 10 ml of nitric
acid and kept overnight, then heated on hot plate. After evaporation near to dryness, the
samples were cool and added 5ml of HCl and again heated for some time, filtered into
clean volumetric flasks and diluted to 50ml with de-ionized water.
3.6 Heavy metals analyses

The concentration of heavy metals was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry,

using atomic absorption spectrometer in CRL laboratory, University of Peshawar. The
soil and plants samples were analyzed for Cd, Zn, and Pb.
CHAPTER # 4

Results and Discussion

Studyarea

This map shows the sample points from where the soil and plants samples were collected
and also primary, secondary and tertiary roads. It also shows the study area where the
whole study was conducted

Fig 4.1: Location map with sample points

4.1 Plants Contamination

The concentrations of Zn, Cd and Pb of selected plant species grown on primary,

secondary and tertiary roads were compared with WHO standards. Results indicate that
Cd and Zn concentrations were above the limits set by WHO whereas no Pb
contamination was found in selected plant species except Rosa Sinesis which exhibited
elevated levels of Pb.

Table 4.1.1 Maximum permissible limits of Heavy Metals in Plants by WHO in mg/kg.

Heavy Metals WHO Standards

Pb 2

Cd 0.02

Zn 50

Cadmium

Table 4.1.2.shows the concentrations of Cd in selected plant species collected from

different sites of Peshawar. The Cd concentration ranged from 0-1.4 mg/kg. Results
indicate that cadmium exhibits high levels of contamination in roadside plants. The
concentrations of cd are shown in table.

Table 4.1.2 Concentrations of Cd in plant samples of Peshawar

Names of plants Locations Road type Cd

mg/Kg
Bougainvillea glabra Sethi town (Haji camp) Primary road 1.4
Bougainvillea glabra Forest bazaar Secondary road 0
Bougainvillea glabra UOP Tertiary road 0
Eucalyptus globulus Khyber road Primary road 0
Eucalyptus globulus khalid bin waleed road Secondary road 0.7
Eucalyptus globulus UOP Tertiary road 0.2
Alianthusaltisisma Haji camp Primary road 1.1
Alianthusaltisisma Palosai road Secondary road 1.1
Alianthusaltisisma UOP Tertiary road 1.4
Rosa sinesus Main university road Primary road 1.3
Rosa sinesus Palosai road Secondary road 0.7
Rosa sinesus UOP Tertiary road 0
AlstoniaScholaris Khyber road Primary road 0.4
AlstoniaScholaris Khalid bin waleed road Secondary road 0
AlstoniaScholaris UOP Tertiary road 0.2

Zinc

Table 4.1.3.shows the concentrations of Zn of selected plant species. Zn concentration

ranged from 52.4-915.3mg/kg. Results indicate that Zn in plants next to the roadside
exhibited elevated levels.

Table 4.1.3 Concentrations of Zn in plant samples of Peshawar

Names of plants Locations Road type Zn

mg/kg
Bougainvillea glabra Sethi town (haji camp) Primary road 739.9
Bougainvillea glabra Forest bazaar Secondary road 337.4
Bougainvillea glabra UOP Tertiary road 625.4
Eucalyptus globules Khyber road Primary road 498.7
Eucalyptus globules Khalid bin Waleedroad Secondary road 133.5
Eucalyptus globules UOP Tertiary road 490.9
Alianthusaltisisma Haji camp Primary road 358.4
Alianthusaltisisma Palosai road Secondary road 127.6
Alianthusaltisisma UOP Tertiary road 905.3
Rosa sinesus Main university road Primary road 915.3
Rosa sinesus Palosai road Secondary road 614.7
Rosa sinesus UOP Tertiary road 342.8
AlstoniaScholaris Khyber road Primary road 52.4
AlstoniaScholaris Khalid bin waleed road Secondary road 75.2
AlstoniaScholaris UOP Tertiary road 109.6

Lead

Table 4.1.4Shows the concentrations of Pbinselected plant species.The concentration of

lead near roadside plants was found to be 0mg/kg except Rosa sinesus which exhibited
elevated levels of lead according to WHO standards.

Table 4.1.4 Concentrations of Pb in plant samples of Peshawar

Names of plants Locations Road type Pb

mg/kg
Bougainvillea glabra Sethi town (haji camp) Primary road 0
Bougainvillea glabra Forest bazaar Secondary road 0
Bougainvillea glabra UOP Tertiary road 0
Eucalyptus globules Khyber road Primary road 0
Eucalyptus globules khalid bin waleed road Secondary road 0
Eucalyptus globules UOP Tertiary road 0
Alianthusaltisisma Haji camp Primary road 0
Alianthusaltisisma Palosai road Secondary road 0
Alianthusaltisisma UOP Tertiary road 0
Rosa sinesus Main university road Primary road 0
Rosa sinesus Palosai road Secondary road 60.5
Rosa sinesus UOP Tertiary road 0
AlstoniaScholaris Khyber road Primary road 0
AlstoniaScholaris Khalid bin waleed road Secondary road 0
AlstoniaScholaris UOP Tertiary road 0

600

500

400

Cd
300
Pb
Zn
200

100

0
Primary Roads Secondary Roads Tertiary Roads

Fig 4.2 Heavy metal concentrations (average) in plant samples.

Soil Contamination

The concentrations of Cd, Zn and Pb in soil samples collected from primary secondary
and tertiary roads were compared with EU standards and Indian standards. The standards
of Cd, Zn and Pb are given in table below.

Table 4.1 Maximum permissible limits of Heavy Metals in soil according to Indian

and EU standards (mg/kg).

European Union
Heavy Metals
Standards Indian Standards

Pb 100 250-500

Cd 3 3-6

Zn 300 300-600

Cadmium

Table 4.2.2shows the concentrations of Cd in soil samples collected from different sites
of Peshawar. The Cd concentration ranged from 0-0.9 mg/kg. results indicate that
Cadmium exhibits low levels of contamination when compared with EU and Indian
standards
Table 4.2.Concentrations of Cd in soil samples of Peshawar

Cd
Soil samples Locations Road type
concentration
mg/kg
Soil 1(Bougainvillea
glabra) Sethi town (haji camp) Primary road 0.05
Soil 2(Bougainvillea Secondary
glabra) Forest bazaar road 0
Soil 3(Bougainvillea
glabra) UOP Tertiary road 0.5
Soil 1(Eucalyptus
globulus) Khyber road Primary road 0.4
Soil 2(Eucalyptus Secondary
globulus) khalid bin waleed road road 0
Soil 3(Eucalyptus
globulus) UOP Tertiary road 0.35
Soil
1(Alianthusaltisisma) Haji camp Primary road 0.1
Soil Secondary
2(Alianthusaltisisma) Palosai road road 0.9
Soil
3(Alianthusaltisisma) UOP Tertiary road 0
Soil 1(Rosa sinesus) Main university road Primary road 0
Secondary
Soil 2(Rosa sinesus) Palosai road road 0
Soil 3(Rosa sinesus) UOP Tertiary road 0
Soil 1(Alstoniascholaris) Khyber road Primary road 0
Secondary
Soil 2(Alstoniascholaris) Khalid bin waleed road road 0
Soil 3(Alstoniascholaris) UOP Tertiary road 0.5

Zinc

Table 4.2.3shows the concentrations of Zn in soil samples collected from different

selected sites. The Zn concentration ranged from 83.3-359.2 mg/kg. Results indicate zinc
concentration was higher at University of Peshawar, Haji camp and Khalid bin waleed
road according to EU standards. While according to Indian standards zinc concentration
was below. The concentrations of zinc in roadside soil are shown in table 4.2.2.

Table 4.2.3 Concentrations of Zn in plant samples of Peshawar

Zn
Soil samples Locations Road type concentration
mg/kg
Soil 1(Bougainvillea Sethi town (haji
glabra) camp) Primary road 216.1
Soil 2(Bougainvillea Secondary
glabra) Forest bazaar road 132.8
Soil 3(Bougainvillea
glabra) UOP Tertiary road 359.2
Soil 1(Eucalyptus
globulus) Khyber road Primary road 185.75
Soil 2(Eucalyptus khalid bin waleed Secondary
globulus) road road 142.85
Soil 3(Eucalyptus
globulus) UOP Tertiary road 205.25
Soil 1(Alianthusaltisisma) Haji camp Primary road 331.35
 Secondary
Soil 2(Alianthusaltisisma) Palosai road road 118.7
Soil 3(Alianthusaltisisma) UOP Tertiary road 226.4
Soil 1(Rosa sinesus) Main university road Primary road 121.75
Secondary
Soil 2(Rosa sinesus) Palosai road road 83.3
Soil 3(Rosa sinesus) UOP Tertiary road 165.15
Soil 1(Alstoniascholaris) Khyber road Primary road 234.05
Khalid bin waleed Secondary
Soil 2(Alstoniascholaris) road road 302.6
Soil 3(Alstoniascholaris) UOP Tertiary road 136.2

Lead

Table 4.2.4shows the concentrations of Pb in soil samples collected from different

selected sites. The Pb concentration ranged from 9.8-52.7mg/kg. Results show thatlead
exhibits low levels of contamination in all selected sites.

Table 4.2.4 Concentrations of Pb in soil samples of Peshawar

Pb
Soil samples Locations Road type concentration
mg/kg
Soil 1(Bougainvillea Sethi town (haji
glabra) camp) Primary road 12.45
Soil 2(Bougainvillea Secondary
glabra) Forest bazaar road 19.1
Soil 3(Bougainvillea
glabra) UOP Tertiary road 17.65
Soil 1(Eucalyptus Khyber road Primary road 52.7
globulus)
Soil 2(Eucalyptus khalid bin waleed Secondary
globulus) road road 16.95
Soil 3(Eucalyptus
globulus) UOP Tertiary road 28.5
Soil 1(Alianthusaltisisma) Haji camp Primary road 23.5
Secondary
Soil 2(Alianthusaltisisma) Palosai road road 20.95
Soil 3(Alianthusaltisisma) UOP Tertiary road 25.05
Soil 1(Rosa sinesus) Main university road Primary road 18.7
Secondary
Soil 2(Rosa sinesus) Palosai road road 9.8
Soil 3(Rosa sinesus) UOP Tertiary road 22.05
Soil 1(Alstoniascholaris) Khyber road Primary road 17.15
Khalid bin waleed Secondary
Soil 2(Alstoniascholaris) road road 15.25
Soil 3(Alstoniascholaris) UOP Tertiary road 19.65
 250

200

150
Cd
Pb
100 Zn

50

0
Primary Roads Secondary Roads Tertiary Roads

Fig 4.3 Heavy metals concentration (average) in soil samples

CHAPTER # 5

Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusions

 The roadside plants in Peshawar are relatively contaminated with cadmium and
zinc when compared with WHO standards.
 No Lead contamination was found in selected plant species except for Rosa
sinesus which indicated high level of contamination according to different
standards.
 The concentration of lead and cadmium in roadside soil was found to be very low.
 The contamination of roadside soil with zinc was higher in some places when
compared with standard values.

5.2 Recommendations

The fuel regulations 1999 should be strictly implemented so that further addition of
heavy metals particularly Pb and Cd to the environment can be reduced.

Auto shops, metal and metal related shops and industries should be shifted outside the
main metropolis and must run according to strict environmental laws.

Green fuels like natural gas, bio-fuel (ethanol) should be used in automobiles instead
of leaded gasoline.

Vehicles with faulty engines and exhaust system should be strictly abandoned.

Carburetors and other spare parts of automobiles made up of Cd as an alloy should

be regularly checked and replaced incase of wear and tear.

The replaced or wear out spare parts of automobiles having Cd concentrations should
not be dump openly in the environment.
 Plant or tree species having high metal accumulative index (MAI) should be grown
on the banks of the roads in the study area so that the contamination of the surrounding
environment can be reduced.

Play grounds, shops, and small cabins should be constructed away from very busy
roads sides.

Food business near heavy traffic roads should be discourages traffic pollution can
spoils food items and creates health hazards.

General awareness messages regarding the environmental and health effects of Pb

and Cd should be replaced on the bus stations and roadsides for transporters as well as
general public.
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