Math 21 Module (1stAY1920) PDF

University of the Philippines Diliman
MATHEMATICS 21
Elementary Analysis I
Course Module
Institute of Mathematics
MATHEMATICS 21
Elementary Analysis I
Course Module
Institute of Mathematics
iv
2018
c by the Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.
All rights reserved.
No part of this document may be distributed in any way, shape, or form, without prior written
permission from the Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.
Mathematics 21 Module Writers and Editors:
Carlo Francisco Adajar

Michael Baysauli
Katrina Burdeos
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Lawrence Fabrero
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Alip Oropeza
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Contents
1 Limits and Continuity 1

1.1 Limit of a Function: An Intuitive Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 An Intuitive Approach to Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Evaluating Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Other Techniques in Evaluating Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
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1.2 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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1.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
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1.3 Limits Involving Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
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1.3.1 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
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1.3.2 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
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1.3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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1.4 Limit of a Function: The Formal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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1.4.1 The Formal Definition of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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1.4.2 Proving Limits using the Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

1.4.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
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1.5 Continuity of Functions; The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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1.5.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.5.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.5.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.6 Trigonometric Functions: Limits and Continuity;
The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.6.1 The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.6.2 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7 New Classes of Functions: Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.1 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.7.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.7.3 Inverse Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.7.4 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.7.5 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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2 Derivatives and Differentiation 79

2.1 Slopes, the Derivative, and Basic Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1.1 The Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1.2 Definition of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.1.3 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.1.4 Techniques of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2 The Chain Rule, and more on Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2.1 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2.2 Derivatives from the Left and from the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2.3 Differentiability and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.2.4 Graphical Consequences of Differentiability and Non-differentiability . . . . . 93
2.2.5 Higher Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.2.6 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.2.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.3 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
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2.3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
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2.3.2 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
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2.3.3 Derivatives of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Derivative of f (x)g(x) , where f (x) > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.3.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
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2.4 Derivatives of Other New Classes of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

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2.4.1 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

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2.4.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

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2.4.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

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2.4.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

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2.5 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

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2.5.1 Rolle’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

2.5.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.5.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.6 Relative Extrema of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.6.1 Relative Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.6.2 Critical Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.6.3 Increasing/Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.6.4 The First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.6.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.7 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.7.1 Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.7.2 Point of Inflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.7.3 The Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.7.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.8 Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.8.1 Graphing Polynomial Funtions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
CONTENTS vii
2.8.2 Review of Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

2.8.3 Graphing Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.8.4 The Graph of f from the Graph of f 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.8.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3 Applications of Differentiation 143

3.1 Absolute Extrema of a Function on an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.1.1 Absolute Extrema on Closed and Bounded Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.1.2 Absolute Extrema On Open Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.1.3 Optimization: Application of Absolute Extrema on Word Problems . . . . . . 148
3.1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.2 Rates of Change, Rectilinear Motion, and Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.2.1 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.2.2 Rectilinear Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.2.3 Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.2.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
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3.3 Local Linear Approximation, Differentials, and Marginals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
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3.3.1 Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
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3.3.2 Local Linear Approximation and Approximating ∆y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.3.3 Marginals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
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3.4 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

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3.4.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

0 ∞
3.4.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
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3.4.3 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

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3.4.4 Indeterminate Forms of Type 1∞ , 00 and ∞0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

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3.4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

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4 Integration and Its Applications 191

4.1 Antidifferentiation and Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.1.1 Antiderivatives or Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.1.2 Particular Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.1.3 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.1.4 Rectilinear Motion Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
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4.1.5 Antiderivatives of f (x) = and of the other Circular Functions . . . . . . . 198
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4.1.6 Antiderivatives of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.1.7 Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.1.8 Antiderivatives of Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.1.9 *Antiderivatives Yielding Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.1.10 Summary of Antidifferentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.1.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.2 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.2.1 Area of a Plane Region: The Rectangle Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.2.2 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
viii CONTENTS
4.2.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

4.3 The Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.3.1 First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.3.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.4 Generalization of the Area of a Plane Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.5 Arc Length of Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.5.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.6 Volumes of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.6.1 Volumes of Solids of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.6.2 Volume of Solids by Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.7 Mean Value Theorem for Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.7.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
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Chapter 1
Limits and Continuity
1.1 Limit of a Function: An Intuitive Approach

We begin this course with an introduction to the core concept needed in studying calculus: the limit
of a function. We start studying the notion of limits in an informal, intuitive way. We treat limits
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using a descriptive, graphical, and numerical approach. We then develop computational methods
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in evaluating limits of algebraic expressions.
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At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
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• interpret the limit of a function through graphs and tables of values;
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• compute the limit of polynomial and rational functions using limit theorems; and
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• evaluate limits of functions using substitution, cancellation of common factors,

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and rationalization of radical expressions (for indeterminate forms 0/0).

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1.1.1 An Intuitive Approach to Limits
(
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x − 1, x 6= 1
4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) = 4 h(x) =
x−1 0, x=1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
−1 −1 −1
Figure 1.1.1: Graphs of y = f (x), y = g(x) and y = h(x) in Illustration 1.1.1.
In this subsection, we use graphs of functions in order to develop an intuitive notion of the basic
concept of limits. We make a distinction between the value of a function at a real number a and
1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
the function’s behavior for values very near a. A function f may be undefined at a, but it can be
described by studying the values of f when x is very close to a, but not equal to a. To illustrate
our point, let us consider the following functions:
Illustration 1.1.1.
1. Let f (x) = 3x − 1 and consider the tables below.
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5 1.5 3.5
0.9 1.7 1.1 2.3
0.99 1.97 1.001 2.003
0.99999 1.99997 1.00001 2.00003
In the tables above, we evaluated f at values of x very close to 1. Observe that as the values
of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 2. If we continue
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replacing x with values even closer to 1, the value of f (x) will get even closer to 2.
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3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)(x − 1)
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2. Let g(x) = = . Note that g(x) is undefined at x = 1. Observe
x−1 x−1
though that if x 6= 1, then g(x) = 3x − 1 = f (x). Thus, g is identical to f except only at
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x = 1. Hence, as in the first item, if x assumes values going closer and closer to 1 but not
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reaching 1, then the values of g(x) go closer and closer to 2.

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(
3x − 1, x 6= 1
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3. Let h(x) = . Here, h(1) = 0. If x 6= 1, then h(x) = f (x) and as in above,

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0, x=1
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h(x) goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer to 1. (See Figure 1.1.1 for a
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comparison of f , g and h.)

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In each of the above examples, we saw that as x got closer and closer to a certain number a, the
value of the function approached a particular number. This does not always happen, but in the
case that it does, the number to which the function value gets closer and closer is what we will call
the limit of the function as x approaches a.
Let f be a function defined on some open interval I containing a, except possibly at a. We say
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that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, where L ∈ , denoted
lim f (x) = L,
x→a
if we can make f (x) as close to L as we like by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but not
necessarily equal to a).
Remark 1.1.2. Alternatively, lim f (x) = L if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as x
x→a
assumes values going closer and closer to a but not reaching a.
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 3
Example 1.1.3. Since the value of 3x − 1 goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer
to 1 as shown in Illustration 1.1.1, we now write
lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1
Remark 1.1.4. Note that in finding the limit of f (x) as x tends to a, we only need to consider
values of x that are very close to a but not exactly a. This means that the limit may exist even if
f (a) is undefined.
3x2 − 4x + 1
Example 1.1.5. In Illustration 1.1.1, we see that g(x) = is undefined at x = 1.
x−1
However, since x only approaches 1 and is not equal to 1, we conclude that x − 1 6= 0. Hence,
(3x − 1)(x − 1)
lim g(x) = lim = lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1 x→1 x−1 x→1
Remark 1.1.6. If lim f (x) and f (a) both exist, their values may not be equal. In other words, it
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x→a
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is possible that f (a) 6= lim f (x).
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x→a
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Example 1.1.7. Recall that (
3x − 1, x 6= 1
h
h(x) =
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0, x=1
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from Illustration 1.1.1. Here, h(1) = 0 but lim h(x) = 2.

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x→1
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Remark 1.1.8. If f (x) does not approach a real number as x tends to a, then we say that the
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limit of f (x) as x approaches a does not exist (dne).

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Example 1.1.9. Let H(x) be defined by

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
1, x≥0
H(x) =
0, x<0
This function is called the Heaviside step function. The graph of the function is given below:
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
From the graph, we see that there is no particular value to which H(x) approaches as x approaches
0. We cannot say that the limit is 0 because if x approaches 0 through values greater than 0,
the value of H(x) approaches 1. In the same way, we cannot say that the limit is 1 because if x
approaches 0 through values less than 0, the value of H(x) approaches 0. In this case, lim H(x)
x→0
does not exist.
1.1.2 Evaluating Limits

In the previous subsection, we tried to compute the limit of a given function using tables of values.
However, this method only gives us an estimate of the limit, not guaranteeing that the value which
the function seems to approach is indeed the limit. In this section, we will compute limits not by
making tables of values or by graphing, but by applying the theorem below.
Theorem 1.1.10. Let f (x) and g(x) be functions defined on some open interval containing a,
except possibly at a.
1. If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique.

x→a
2. If c ∈ R, then x→a
lim c = c.
3. lim x = a
x→a
4. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 where L1 , L2 ∈

x→a x→a
R, and c ∈ R.
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(a) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L1 ± L2
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x→a
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(b) lim [cf (x)] = cL1
x→a h
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(c) lim [f (x)g(x)] = L1 L2
x→a
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f (x) L1
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(d) lim = , provided that g(x) 6= 0 on some open interval containing a, except
x→a g(x) L2
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possibly at a, and L2 6= 0.
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(e) lim [f (x)]n = (L1 )n for n ∈

x→a
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N, n > 1 and provided that L1 > 0 when n is even.

p
n
p
n
(f ) lim f (x) = L1 for n ∈
UP
x→a
Example 1.1.11. Determine lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1
Solution.
From the theorem above,
lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = lim 2x3 − lim 4x2 + lim 1

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
= 2 lim x3 − 4 lim x2 + 1
x→−1 x→−1
= 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1
= −5.
(x − 3)(x2 − 2)
Example 1.1.12. Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 + 1
Solution.
First, note that
lim (x2 + 1) = lim x2 + lim 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0.
x→1 x→1 x→1
Using the theorem,
(x − 3)(x2 − 2) lim (x − 3)(x2 − 2)

x→1
lim =
x→1 x2 + 1 lim (x2 + 1)
x→1
lim (x − 3) · lim (x2 − 2)
x→1 x→1
=
lim (x2 + 1)
x→1
lim x − lim 3 lim x2 − lim 2
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= 2
lim (x + 1)
x→1
(1 − 3)(12 − 2)
=
2
= 1.
ic s
√
at
2x + 5
Example 1.1.13. Evaluate: lim
em
x→2 1 − 3x
Solution.
h
at
First, note that
M
lim (1 − 3x) = lim 1 − lim 3x = 1 − 6 = −5 6= 0.

of
x→2 x→2 x→2

Also,
e
ut
lim (2x + 5) = lim 2x + lim 5 = 4 + 5 = 9 > 0.

x→2 x→2 x→2
tit
Thus, using the theorem,

s
In
√ √ q
√
lim 2x + 5 lim (2x + 5)
2x + 5 x→2 9 3
UP
x→2
lim = = = =− .
x→2 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x −5 5
x→2 x→2
Theorem 1.1.14. Let f be a polynomial or rational function. If a ∈ dom f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
Example 1.1.15. Evaluate lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1
Solution.
Using Theorem 1.1.14,
lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1 = −5.

x→−1
4
1 − 5x
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4
Solution. 4
1−5x
Let f (x) = 1+3x 2 +x4 . Note that 1 ∈ dom f . By Theorem 1.1.14,
4 4
1 − 5x 1 − 5(1) 1
lim = = .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4 1 + 3(1)2 + 4(1)4 16
1.1.3 Other Techniques in Evaluating Limits

In this part, we shall see that there are functions whose limits cannot be calculated using only the
previous techniques. For instance, Theorems 1.1.10 and 1.1.14 do not apply to
F (x) 3x2 − 4x + 1
lim = lim
s
x→1 G(x) x−1
ic
x→1
at
(where F (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1 and G(x) = x − 1) in Illustration 1.1.1. This is because lim G(x) = 0.
em
x→1
F (x) h
Now, observe that lim F (x) = 0 = lim G(x). We call the limit lim an indeterminate form.
at
x→1 x→1 x→1 G(x)
3x2 − 4x + 1
M
Such limits may or may not exist. Example 1.1.5 showed us that the limit lim exists,
x→1 x−1
of
and is in fact equal to 2. We shall see that limits with indeterminate forms, if they exist, may be
determined using algebraic manipulation.
e
ut
tit

f (x) 0
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim is called an indeterminate form of type .
s
x→a x→a x→a g(x) 0

In
UP
Remark 1.1.17.
f (x)
1. If f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then is undefined at x = a, and NOT indeterminate.
g(x)
f (x)
Remember that the term “indeterminate” only applies to the limit lim , and not the
x→a g(x)
f (a)
function value .
g(a)
2. By our intuitive notion of the limit, recall that when computing the limit, we are not concerned
with the function value when x = a.
3. A limit that is indeterminate of type 00 may exist, and to compute the limit, one may use

cancellation of common factors and rationalization of expressions (if applicable).
x2 + 2x + 1
x→−1 x+1
Solution.
The limit of both the numerator and the denominator as x approaches −1 is 0. Thus, this limit in
its current form is indeterminate of type 00 . However, observe that x + 1 is a common factor of

the numerator and the denominator. Thus, we may simplify the function as
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2
= = x + 1, provided x 6= −1.
x+1 x+1
Therefore, we obtain the limit as follows:
x2 + 2x + 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 0
x→−1 x+1 x→−1
x2 − 5x + 6
x→2 x2 − 4
Solution.
x2 − 5x + 6 0

Note that lim is an indeterminate form of type 0 . Using the same technique,
x→2 x2 − 4
x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 2)(x − 3) x−3 1
s
lim = lim = lim =− .
ic
x→2 2
x −4 x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2) x→2 x + 2 4
at
em
x2 − 16
Example 1.1.20. Evaluate lim √ . h
x→4 2 − x
at
Solution.
M
x2 − 16
√ is an indeterminate form of type 00 . Observe that in its current form, the

Again, lim
of
x→4 2 − x
numerator and denominator do not have common factors. So we multiply the numerator and
e
√
ut
denominator by 2 + x to get
tit
√ √
x2 − 16 2 + x (x − 4)(x + 4)(2 + x) √
√ · √ = = −(x + 4)(2 + x),
s
In
2− x 2+ x 4−x
provided x 6= 4. Thus, we have
UP
x2 − 16 √
lim √ = lim −(x + 4)(2 + x) = −32.
x→4 2 − x x→4
√
x+5−3
x→4 x−4
Solution.
This limit is also an indeterminate form of type ( 00 ). Similar to the previous example,
√ √
x+5−3 x+5+3 (x + 5) − 9
lim ·√ = lim √
x→4 x−4 x+5+3 x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 − 3)
x−4
= lim √
x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 + 3)
1
= lim √
x→4 x+5+3
1
= .
6
1.1.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Let f be the function whose graph is shown in the figure below.
0 2 4
Evaluate f (0), f (2), and f (3). Evaluate also lim f (x), lim f (x) and lim f (x).
x→0 x→2 x→3
ic s
B. Evaluate the following limits.
at
em
1. lim x(x − 2)(x + 2) 3
2z − z 2
h
x→−1 6. lim
at
z→2 z2 − 4
3x2 + 2x − 1 √
M
2. lim x2 + 3 − 2
x→−1 x3 + 1 7. lim
of
√ x→−1 x2 − 1
t−2−4 √ √
2x − 6 − x
e
3. lim 8. lim
ut
t→18 t − 18 x→2 4 − x2
tit
2s2 − 7s + 3 p3 − 1
4. lim 9. lim √
s
s→3 s2 − 4s + 3 2p − 1 − 1
In
p→1
2x2 − 13x + 20 6x + 2x2

UP
5. lim 10. lim √

x→4 x3 − 64 x→−3 −1 − 3 2x + 5
C. Do as indicated.
1. Find lim f (x) where f (x) = x2 for all x 6= 10 but f (10) = 99.
x→10
x
2. Determine the values of the constants a and b such that lim √ = 1.
x→0 ax + b − 2
Supplementary Exercises
A. Evaluate the following limits.
q3 + q2 − q − 1 x3 − x2 − x + 1
1. lim 9. lim
q→−1 q2 − 1 x→−1 x3 − 3x − 2
2y 2 − 3y + 1 t−1
2. lim 10. lim √
2
6t + 3 − 3t
y→1 y3 − 1 t→1
√
6 + x − x2 4x2 + 5x + 9 − 3
3. lim 2 11. lim
x→−2 x − 4x − 12 x→0 x
√ √ √
2− 7−a 8 − x − 1 − 8x
4. lim 12. lim √ √
a→3 2a2 − 3a − 9 x→−1 3 − x − 6x + 10
x3 − x2 − x + 10 (x + t)3 − x3
5. lim 13. lim
x→−2 x2 + 3x + 2 t→0 t
√ √ 1
4
x4 + 1 − x2 + 1 +1
6. lim 14. lim x2 4
x→0 x2 x→−4 x − 16
s
√
ic
p 1
7+ 3x−3 −1
lim x+t x
at
7. lim 15.
x→8 x−8 t→0 t
em
p √
9q 2 − 4 − 17 + 12q 4 8
8. lim h 16. lim + 2
q→−1 q 2 + 3q + 2 x→−2 x + 2 x + 2x
at
M
bx2 + 15x + b + 15
B. Find whether there exists a constant b so that lim exists. If it exists,
x→−2 x2 + x − 2
of
determine the value of b and find the limit.

e
ut
C. For each of the following functions below, use a calculator to evaluate f (x) when
tit
x = ±0.1, ±0.001, ±0.000001. Based on your results, what could the value of lim f (x) be?
x→0
s
In
sin x
1. f (x) =
UP
x
1 − cos x
2. f (x) =
x
tan x
3. f (x) =
x
1.2 One-Sided Limits

When we compute the limit of a function f as x approaches a, we observe the behavior of f as x
approaches a from both sides. However, there are instances when the behavior of f as x approaches
a from the right is not the same as its behavior as x approaches a from the left. This may happen
for piecewise-defined functions. Moreover, it is also possible that a function is not defined for some
open interval containing a, but defined only for values greater than a or less than a. In this case,
we can only observe the behavior of f as x approaches a from one side.
• interpret the one-sided limit of a function through graphs and tables of values;
• evaluate one-sided limits of functions; and
• determine the limit of piecewise functions using one-sided limits.
s
ic
at
Consider the following functions. h em
at
M
Illustration 1.2.1. Let 

3 − 5x2 , x<1
of
f (x) = .
4x − 3, x≥1
e
ut
tit
If x is less than and very close to 1, then f (x) = 3 − 5x2 . If we let x approach 1 through these
values, then f (x) would approach −2. On the other hand, if we let x approach 1 through values
s
In
greater than 1, then we use f (x) = 4x − 3 and f (x) approaches 1. Similar to Example 1.1.9,
UP
lim f (x) does not exist.

x→1
y = 3 − 5x2
y = 4x − 3
1
−1 0 1 2
−1
−2
Figure 1.2.1: Graph of y = f (x) in Illustration 1.2.1
√
Illustration 1.2.2. Let f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0, ∞). So we can only consider values of
x which are greater than 0 if we want to to get the “limit” of f as x goes to 0.
1.2. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 11
√
2 f (x) = x
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 1.2.2: Graph of y = f (x) in Illustration 1.2.2
These cases lead us to what are called one-sided limits.
Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (c, a). We say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a from the left is L, denoted
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a, but are
ic s
less than a.
at
em
Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (a, c). We say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right is L, denoted
h
at
M
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
of
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a, but are
e
ut
greater than a.
stit
Remark 1.2.3.
In
UP
1. The conclusions in Theorem 1.1.10 still hold when “x → a” is replaced by “x → a− ” or

“x → a+ ”.
2. We sometimes refer to lim f (x) as the two-sided limit to distinguish it from one-sided limits.
x→a
Example 1.2.4. Let H(x) be defined by


1, x≥0
H(x) = .
0, x<0
(Recall that this is the Heaviside step function.) We easily see that lim H(x) = lim 1 = 1 while
x→0+ x→0+
lim H(x) = lim 0 = 0.
x→0− x→0−
Example 1.2.5. Let 

3 − 5x2 , x<1
f (x) = .
4x − 3, x≥1
From Illustration 1.2.1, we have
lim f (x) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2,

x→1− x→1−
and
lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 1.
x→1+ x→1+
Suppose a function f satisfies lim f (x) = 0. We shall distinguish between ways by which f
x→a
approaches 0. For example, for f (x) = 2 − x, notice that lim (2 − x) = 0. As x approaches
x→2
2 from the left, f (x) approaches 0 but passes through positive values. On the other hand, if x
approaches 2 from the right, f (x) approaches 0 but passes through negative values:
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 −0.001 −0.01 −0.1
Meanwhile, consider g(x) = (2−x)2 . Similarly, lim (2−x)2 = 0, but this time, regardless of whether
s
x→2
ic
x approaches 2 from the left or right, g(x) passes through positive values as it approaches 0:
at
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001
h em 2.01 2.1
at
g(x) 0.01 0.0001 0.000001 0 0.000001 0.0001 0.01
M
We now state the following definition which will be helpful in our computations later.
of
e
ut
Suppose lim f (x) = 0. If f approaches 0 through positive values, we write

x→a
tit
f (x) → 0+ .
s
In
Similarly, if f approaches 0 through negative values, we write

UP
f (x) → 0− .
Remark 1.2.6. If f (x) → 0+ as x → a, and n is even, then

p
lim n f (x) = 0.
x→a
p
If f (x) → 0− as x → a, and n is even, then lim n
f (x) does not exist.
x→a
√
Example 1.2.7. Let f (x) = 2 − x. Note that f (x) → 0+ as x → 2− , so lim 2 − x = 0. On the
√ x→2−
other hand, f (x) → 0− as x → 2+ , so lim 2 − x does not exist.
x→2+
√
Example 1.2.8. Consider g(x) = 2x2 + x − 1.
p p hp √ i
• lim 2x2 + x − 1 = lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 (−3) · (0− ) = 0+
x→−1− x→−1−
p hp √ i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) does not exist (−3) · (0+ ) = 0−
x→−1+
p hq i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) does not exist (0− ) · ( 23 )
1−
x→ 2
p hq i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 (0+ ) · ( 32 )
1+
x→ 2
Example 1.2.9. Let

 2
x −x−2
, x<0


 x+1


√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4



x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

Find (a) lim f (x), (b) lim f (x), (c) lim f (x), and (d) lim f (x).
x→−1− x→0− x→0+ x→4+
ic s
at
Solution.
em
To evaluate (a), we need x to be less than −1 but very close to −1, so we use the expression
x2 − x − 2 h
. Thus,
at
x+1
M
(x − 2)(x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim (x − 2) = −3.
of
x→−1− x→−1− x+1 x→−1−

e
ut
For (b), we take x to be less than 0 but very close to zero. By the definition of the function, we
tit
x2 − x − 2
s
should take f (x) = for such values of x. Hence, lim f (x) = −2.
In
x+1 x→0−
√
UP
For (c), lim f (x) = lim 4 − x = 2.

x→0+ x→0+
Finally, for (d), lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 5x + 4) = 0.

x→4+ x→4+
Some limits can be calculated by finding the one-sided limits first. In fact, we have the following
result:
Theorem 1.2.10. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L = lim f (x).
x→a x→a− x→a+
√ √
Example 1.2.11. From Example 1.2.7, since lim 2 − x = 0 and lim 2 − x does not exist,
√ x→2− x→2+
lim 2 − x does not exist.
x→2
Example 1.2.12. If H(x) is the Heaviside step function, then lim H(x) does not exist (see Example
x→0
1.2.4).
Example 1.2.13. Let √

 4 − x, x≤4
f (x) =
x2 − 5x + 4, x>4
Evaluate lim f (x).
x→4
Solution.
Observe that f is defined differently when x < 4 and when x > 4, so we consider one-sided limits.
Since
√
lim f (x) = lim 4 − x = 0,
x→4− x→4−
and
lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 5x + 4) = 0,
x→4+ x→4+
we have lim f (x) = 0.

x→4
t+4
s
Example 1.2.14. Let g(t) = . Evaluate lim g(t).
ic
|t + 4| t→−4
at
em
Solution.
Recall that  h
at
t + 4, if t ≥ −4
|t + 4| = .
M
−(t + 4), if t < −4

of
Therefore,
e
t+4
ut
lim g(t) = lim = lim −1 = −1,

t→−4− t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
tit
and
s
t+4
In
lim g(t) = lim = lim 1 = 1.

t→−4+ t→−4+ t + 4 t→−4+
UP
Hence, lim g(t) does not exist.

t→4
Example 1.2.15. Evaluate: lim [[x]], where [[x]] is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
x→−2
Solution.
..

.





−3, −3 ≤ x < −2





Note that [[x]] = −2, −2 ≤ x < −1

−1, −1 ≤ x < 0





 ..



.
Thus, lim [[x]] = lim (−3) = −3, while lim [[x]] = lim (−2) = −2, so lim [[x]] does not
x→−2− x→−2− x→−2+ x→−2+ x→−2
exist.

Example 1.2.16. Evaluate: lim s + [[1 − s]]
s→2+
Solution.
..




 .

−2, −2 ≤ 1 − s < −1 ⇔ 2 < s ≤ 3

Note that [[1 − s]] =


−1, −1 ≤ 1 − s < 0 ⇔ 1 < s ≤ 2

 .
 .

.

Therefore, lim s + [[1 − s]] = lim (s − 2) = 0.
s→2+ s→2+
[[2x − 1]] − 2x
x→ 21
− 2x + 1
Solution.
..




 .

−1, −1 ≤ 2x − 1 < 0 ⇔ 0 ≤ x < 1

2
Note that [[2x − 1]] = 1


 0, 0 ≤ 2x − 1 < 1 ⇔ 2 ≤ x < 1
s

 .

ic
 ..
at
[[2x − 1]] − 2x −1 − 2x
= −1.
em
So, lim = lim
x→ 1− 2x + 1 x→ 1 − 2x + 1
2 2 h
at
x2 − 2x + 1
M
x→1 x − [[x]]
of
Solution.
e
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2
ut
• lim = lim =0
tit
x→1− x − [[x]] x→1− x − 0

s
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2
In
• lim = lim = lim (x − 1) = 0

x→1+ x − [[x]] x→1+ x − 1 x→1+
UP
x2 − 2x + 1
Therefore, lim = 0.
x→1 x − [[x]]
1.2.1 Exercises
p
1. lim 7x2 − 12x + 5 5. lim [[3x + 1]]
2
x→3− x→ 3
p
2. lim 4x2 − 12x + 9 |4x| − |x − 5|
3 6. lim
x→ 2 x→1 1−x
3. lim [[3x + 1]] 2t + 1
7. lim
2+ 1 |2t2 − 3t − 2|
x→ 3 t→− 2
4. lim [[3x + 1]] x [[x]] − 1
2− 8. lim
x→ 3 x→1− [[x]] − 1
B. Let  2
x −4
x < −1
s
,


ic
 2
x + 2x
g(x) = .
at
x+1
√ , x > −1


em
2x + 3 − 1
h
Evaluate: lim g(x), lim g(x), lim g(x)
at
x→−2 x→−1 x→0
M
C. Given 
of
kx − 3, x ≤ −1
h(x) = ,
e
x2 + k, x > −1
ut
tit
where k is a constant. Find k so that lim h(x) exists.

x→−1
s
In
D. Sketch a graph of a function f (x) satisfying all of the following:

UP
• dom f = [−4, 4] • f (4) = 0 • lim f (x) = 4

x→0+
• f (−4) = f (−2) = 3 • lim f (x) = 0
x→−4+
• lim f (x) = −1
• f (0) = 1 • lim f (x) = 1 x→2
x→−2
• f (2) = −1 • lim f (x) = 1 • lim f (x) = 0

x→0− x→4−
1 − 4x2
s
x2 − 9 7. lim
1. lim 1− |2x2 − 3x + 1| + |2x2 − x|
x→3− x+2 x→ 2
2. lim [[1 − 2x]] [[x]] − 2

x→5−
8. lim
x→2+ [[x]] − x

1 1 [[2 − y]]
3. lim − 9. lim
x→2− x [[x]] y→4 [[y + 2]] − y
+
4. lim [[2 + x]] x2 − [[x + 2]] x

x→2 10. lim
x→2 x − [[2x]]

1 1 [[x]] + 2
5. lim − 11. lim
x→−2+ [[−x]] |x| x→2 [[x]] − 2
−
|3x + 2| − |x − 2| x2 − 3x + 2
6. lim 12. lim
s
x→2− [[x]] − x
ic
x→0 x
at
B. Let
 2 h em
x + 4x + 3
, x ≤ −1
at


 x2 − x − 2


M
f (x) = [[x + 3]] , −1 < x < 1 .


of
√x − 1,



x≥1
e
ut
Evaluate: lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x)

tit
x→−1 x→0 x→1 x→2

s
In
C. Let
UP

 |2x − x2 |

 , x<0


 x
[[x + 3]] − 6

g(x) = , 0≤x<3.

 3 − [[x]]
x2 − 6x + 5


, x≥3


 3
x − 19x − 30
Evaluate: lim g(x), lim g(x), lim g(x)

x→0 x→3 x→5
D. Let 

a − 3x x < −2


f (x) = ax + 3b −2 ≤ x ≤ 1 ,



4x + b x>1

where a and b are constants. Find a and b so that lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist.
x→−2 x→1
E. Sketch a graph of a function f (x) satisfying all of the following:
• dom f = [−3, 2) ∪ (2, 5] • lim f (x) = −2 • lim f (x) = 4

x→−3+ x→2+
7
• f (−3) = f (−1) = 1 • lim f (x) = 3
2 • lim f (x) = − x→4
• f (4) = 3 x→−1 2
5
• f (5) = −1 • lim f (x) = 0 • lim f (x) = −
x→2− x→5− 2
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 19
1.3 Limits Involving Infinity
In this section, we consider functions that may increase indefinitely either positively or negatively.
We will also be interested in the behavior of a function as x increases or decreases without bound,
or as we shall say, as x approaches positive infinity or negative infinity.
• interpret infinite limits and limits at infinity of a function through graphs and
tables of values; and
• evaluate infinite limits and limits at infinity of functions (e.g. rational, radical).
ic s
1.3.1 Infinite Limits
at
em
Let us start with what are called infinite limits.
h
1
at
Illustration 1.3.1. Let f (x) = . Note that f is undefined at x = 0.
x2
M
of
x f (x) x f (x)
e
−1
ut
1 1 1
−0.5
tit
0.5 4 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
s
In
0.001 1000000 −0.001 1000000

UP
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
Observe that as the values of x get closer and closer to 0, the values of f (x) become larger and
larger, and that there is no bound to the growth of the values of f (x).
1 1
Figure 1.3.1: Graphs of y = and y = − 2 near x = 0
x2 x
Let f be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a.

We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is positive infinity, denoted
lim f (x) = +∞,

x→a
if the value of f (x) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to a
(but does not reach a).
Also, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is negative infinity, denoted
lim f (x) = −∞,

x→a
if the value of f (x) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to a
(but does not reach a).
Remark 1.3.2. The expressions above with “x → a” replaced by “x → a− ” or “x → a+ ” are

similarly defined.
ics
at
Example 1.3.3. In Illustration 1.3.1, we have
lim
1
x2
= +∞,
h em
at
x→0
M
and
1
lim − 2 = −∞.
of
x→0 x
e
ut
Remark 1.3.4. Note that ∞ is not a real number. Thus, if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, we do not
tit
x→a
mean that the limit exists. Though the limit does not exist, through the symbol we are able to
s
describe the behavior of f near a: that it increases or decreases indefinitely as x → a.

In
UP
3x
Consider f (x) = . Note that lim 3x = 3 while lim (x − 1) = 0. In this case, lim f (x) does
x−1 x→1 x→1 x→1
not exist, but observe that:
• as x → 1− , x − 1 → 0− . Thus, the numerator approaches 3 while the numerical value of the

3x
denominator becomes smaller and smaller. As a result, approaches negative infinity.
x−1
3x
• as x → 1+ , x − 1 → 0+ , so this time, approaches positive infinity.
x−1
In general, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 1.3.5. Let c be a nonzero real number. Suppose lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a
1. If c > 0,
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)
f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = −∞.
x→a g(x)
2. If c < 0,
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = −∞.
x→a g(x)
f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)
5x
Example 1.3.6. Consider: g(x) = .
4 − x2

5x −10
• lim = +∞
x→−2− (2 + x)(2 − x) (0− )(4)

5x −10
• lim = −∞
x→−2+ (2 + x)(2 − x) (0+ )(4)
s

5x 10
ic
• lim = +∞
x→2− (2 + x)(2 − x) (4)(0+ )
at
em

5x 10
• lim = −∞
(2 + x)(2 − x) (4)(0− )
x→2+
h
at
M
The next theorem involves some properties about infinite limits. In particular, it involves evaluating
limits of sum and/or product of two functions where one function approaches a limit while the other
of
function increases/decreases without bound as x approaches a.

e
ut
tit
Theorem 1.3.7.
s
In
1. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = ±∞.
UP
x→a x→a x→a
2. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim (f (x) − g(x)) = ∓∞.
x→a x→a x→a
3. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = +∞.
x→a x→a x→a
4. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, then lim (f (x) − g(x)) = +∞ and
x→a x→a x→a
lim (g(x) − f (x)) = −∞.
x→a
5. Let c ∈ R \ {0}. Suppose x→a

lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→a
(a) lim f (x)g(x) = ±∞, if c > 0.

x→a
(b) lim f (x)g(x) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a

2
Example 1.3.8. Determine lim x2 − .
x→1− x−1
Solution.
2
Using the above theorem, since lim x2 = 1 and lim = −∞, we have (see Figure 1.3.2)
x→1− x→1− x − 1

2 2
lim x − = +∞.
x→1− x−1

2
Example 1.3.9. Determine lim 2 − 5x + .
x→−2+ (2 + x)3
Solution.
2
Using the above theorem, we get lim 2 = 2, lim 5x = −10 and lim = +∞. Thus,
x→−2+ x→−2+ x→−2+ (2 + x)3

2
lim 2 − 5x + = +∞.
x→−2+ (2 + x)3
ic s
at
The presence of infinite limits motivates this next definition, which pertains to properties of the
em
graph of a function. A more detailed discussion of this definition will be given in a later chapter.
h
at
The graph of x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if at least one of the following
M
is true:
of
• lim f (x) = −∞ • lim f (x) = −∞

e
ut
x→a− x→a+
tit
• lim f (x) = +∞ • lim f (x) = +∞

x→a− x→a+
s
In
UP

2
Example 1.3.10. From the previous example, since lim x2 − = +∞, the line x = 1 is
x→1− x−1
2
a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = x2 − . (See Figure 1.3.2.)
x−1
Notice that in Theorem 1.3.7, nothing is said about lim [f (x) + g(x)], where lim f (x) = +∞ while
x→a x→a
lim g(x) = −∞. In this case, does the limit exist? If it does, is the limit simply equal to zero? The
x→a
answer is no. In fact, this is another indeterminate form: ∞ − ∞. Moreover, in Theorem 1.3.7,
limits of the form c · ∞ where c 6= 0 were dealt with. When c = 0, the limit is also indeterminate.
1. Suppose lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞. Then lim [f (x) − g(x)] is called an indetermi-
x→a x→a x→a
nate form of type ∞ − ∞.
2. Suppose lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then lim [f (x)g(x)] is called an indeterminate
x→a x→a x→a
form of type 0 · ∞.
x=1
2
Figure 1.3.2: Graph of y = x2 − with vertical asymptote x = 1
x−1

1 3
Example 1.3.11. Evaluate: lim + 2
x→−1− x + 1 2x + x − 1
ic s
at
Solution.

1 3
h em

1 3

at
lim + −
+
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) 0 (−3)(0− )
M
of
Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type ∞ − ∞. To compute, we combine the expressions into one:
e
ut

1 3 (2x − 1) + 3
tit
lim + = lim
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1)
s
In

2x + 2 0
= lim
x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1)
UP
0
2
= lim
x→−1 2x − 1
−
2
=−
3

1 t 8
Example 1.3.12. Evaluate: lim −
t→4 4 − t
+ t−1 t+2
Solution.

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − −
t→4+ 4 − t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type 0 · ∞. To compute, we rewrite the expression as a quotient:

1 t 8 1 t(t + 2) − 8(t − 1)
lim − = lim
t→4+ 4 − t t−1 t+2 t→4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
2

t − 6t + 8 0
= lim
t→4+ (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2) 0

(t − 2)(t − 4)
= lim
t→4+ (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)

−(t − 2)
= lim
t→4+ (t − 1)(t + 2)
1
=−
9
1.3.2 Limits at Infinity
We now discuss limits at infinity, that is, the behavior of a function as x increases or decreases
ic s
without bound. Let us consider the following illustration.
at
em
1
Illustration 1.3.13. Let f (x) = . Observe from the tables below that the values of f (x) get
h
x
at
closer and closer to zero as the values of x approach positive infinity, as seen in the left table.
M
Similarly, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to zero as the values of x approach negative
infinity, as seen in the right table.
of
e
ut
tit
x f (x) x f (x)
s
1 1 −1 −1
In
10 0.1 −100 −0.01

UP
1000 0.001 −10000 −0.0001

1000000 0.000001 −10000000 −0.0000001
1000000000 0.000000001 −1000000000 −0.000000001
1
f (x) =
x
1
Figure 1.3.3: Graph of y =
x
Let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (a, ∞). We say that the limit of f (x)
as x approaches positive infinity is L, denoted
lim f (x) = L
x→+∞
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x increase without bound.
Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (−∞, a). We say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches negative infinity is L, denoted
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x decrease without bound.
Remark 1.3.14. We have similar notions for the following symbols:
• lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞
ic s
x→+∞
at
• lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞
em
x→−∞
h 1 1
at
Example 1.3.15. In the previous illustration, lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→−∞ x
M
of
In general, we have the following results.

e
ut
tit
Theorem 1.3.16. Let n be a positive integer.

s
lim xn = +∞, if n is even.

In
1.
x→±∞
UP
2. lim xn = ±∞, if n is odd.

x→±∞
1
3. lim =0
x→±∞ xn
4. Let c ∈ R. Suppose x→+∞
lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→+∞
f (x)
lim = 0.
x→+∞ g(x)
Remark 1.3.17. In statement 4 of the previous theorem, “x → +∞” may be replaced by

“x → −∞”, “x → a”, “x → a+ ”, and “x → a− ”. What is important is that the limit of the
numerator exists, while the denominator increases or decreases without bound.
Example 1.3.18. Evaluate: lim (5x4 − x3 − x + 8)

x→+∞
Solution.
Note that since we are letting x increase without bound, we have x 6= 0. We may then write
1 1 8
5x4 − x3 − x + 8 = x4 · 5 − − 3 + 4 . By the previous theorem, lim x4 = +∞, while each
x x x x→+∞
1 1 8
of , 3 and 4 approach 0, as x → +∞. Statement 4 of Theorem 1.3.7 then implies that
x x x

1 1 8
lim x4 · 5 − − 3 + 4 = +∞. (+∞)(5 − 0 − 0 + 0)
x→+∞ x x x
Example 1.3.19. Evaluate: lim (3x5 − x4 + 2x − 4)

x→−∞
Solution.

1 2 4
lim (3x5 − x4 + 2x − 4) = lim x5 · 3 − + 4 − 5 = −∞ (−∞)(3 − 0 + 0 − 0)
x→−∞ x→−∞ x x x
Remark 1.3.20. In general, to find lim f (x) if f is a polynomial function, it suffices to consider
s
x→±∞
ic
the behavior of the leading term of f (x) as x → +∞ (or as x → −∞).
at
em
1
x→−∞ x3 −4 h
at
Solution.
M
1
Note that lim x3 − 4 = −∞. Thus, lim = 0.
x3 − 4
of
x→−∞ x→−∞
e

4
ut
2
Example 1.3.22. Evaluate: lim 3x + 2x −
x→+∞ x
s tit
Solution.
In
4
Here, since lim (3x2 + 2x) = +∞ and lim = 0, we have
UP
x→+∞ x→+∞ x

2 4
lim 3x + 2x − = +∞.
x→+∞ x
3x − 1
Example 1.3.23. Evaluate: lim .
x→+∞ 9x + 3
Solution.
∞
Note that lim (3x − 1) = +∞ and lim (9x + 3) = +∞. Thus, the limit has the form . Does
x→+∞ x→+∞ ∞
this mean that the limit does not exist? Consider the table of values below.
3x−1
x 9x+3
1 0.1666667
10 ≈ 0.311828
100000 ≈ 0.3333311
1000000000 ≈ 0.3333333
3x − 1
It seems that as x → +∞, the quotient approaches a particular value: 0.3333333. Let us
9x + 3
2
3x − 1 1 3
verify this. Using long division, we can write = − . Therefore,
9x + 3 3 3x + 1
!
2
3x − 1 1 3 1 1
lim = lim − = −0= .
x→+∞ 9x + 3 x→+∞ 3 3x + 1 3 3
So the limit exists, but it is not equal to 0.3333333 as we initially guessed—it is equal to 13 .
From the above example, we see that if both the numerator and denominator have infinite limits,
then the limit of the quotient may exist. In fact, this is another indeterminate form.
f (x)
Suppose lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞. Then lim is called an
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
∞
indeterminate form of type ∞.
Remark 1.3.24. The expression “x → a” may be replaced by “x → a− ”, “x → a+ ”, “x → −∞”

and “x → +∞”.
ic s
x3 − 2x2 + 3
at
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1
Solution.
x3 − 2x2 + 3
hem ∞
at
Note that lim is an indeterminate form of type . Since we are letting x
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1 ∞
M
approach +∞, we have x 6= 0. Thus, we may divide both numerator and denominator by the
highest power of x in the denominator which is x4 :
of
e
1 1 2 3
x3 − 2x2 + 3 x − x2 + x4 0
ut
x4
lim · 1 = lim 1 1 1 = 4 =0
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1 x→+∞ 4 − x2 + x3 + x4
tit
x4
√
s
x2 − 3
In

x→+∞ x + 2
UP
Solution.
∞

This is an indeterminate form of type . To evaluate this, we use the fact that
∞

√ x, if x ≥ 0
x2 = |x| = .
−x, if x < 0
√
Since we are letting x → +∞, we have x > 0 and so, x2 = x. Hence,
√ √ 1
x2 − 3 x 2 − 3 √ x2
lim = lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 2 x→+∞ x + 2 √
2 x
√ √1
x2 − 3 x2
= lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 2
x
q
1 − x32
= lim
x→+∞ 1 + 2
x
= 1.
p
Example 1.3.27. Evaluate: lim ( 9x2 − x + 3x)
x→−∞
Solution.
This is an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞. We solve it as follows:
√
p
2
p
2
( 9x2 − x − 3x)
lim ( 9x − x + 3x) = lim ( 9x − x + 3x) · √
x→−∞ x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x)

−x ∞
= lim √
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) ∞+∞
√1
−x x2
= lim √ ·
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) √1
x2
1 √
−x −x
= lim √ · since x2 = |x| = −x when x < 0
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) √1
x2
−x
−x
= lim q
x→−∞ 9x2 x 3x
− −
s
x2 x2 −x
ic
1
at
= lim q
x→−∞
9 − x1 + 3
=
1
em
h
at
6
M
The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if

of
e
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.

ut
x→+∞ x→−∞
s tit
In
(A more detailed discussion of the previous definition will be given in a later section.)
UP
Let us illustrate the above definition with the following examples.

3
Example 1.3.28. Consider lim = 0. Here, the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of
x→+∞ x2 −9
3
the graph of y = .
x2 −9
3x − 1 1 1
Example 1.3.29. From a previous example, lim = . The line y = 3 is a horizontal
x→−∞ 9x + 3 3
3x − 1
asymptote of the graph of y = .
9x + 3
p 1 1
Example 1.3.30. From a previous example, lim 9x2 − x + 3x = . The line y = 6 is a
√ x→−∞ 6
horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = 9x2 − x + 3x.
y
3 3x−1
y= x2 −9 y= 9x+3
1
x
y= 3
√
y= 9x2 − x + 3x
1
y= 6
Figure 1.3.4: The graphs of some functions with their respective horizontal asymptotes
1.3.3 Exercises
ic s
Evaluate the following limits.
at
1. lim
2
1 − 3x
h em
6. lim
[[x]] − 1
at
1−
x→ 3 x→2+ [[x]] − x
M
2x3 − 6x + 5

1 1
7. lim
of
2. lim √ − x→+∞ 4 + 7x − 6x3

t→0+ t t+3 t
e
4z 3 + 5
ut
8. lim
x−2 z→+∞ 1 − 2z + 3z 2
tit
3. lim √
x→2− 2 − 4x − x2 3 − x2
s
In
9. lim √

4 1 1
x→+∞ 4x2 + 1 + x2
UP
4. lim − −
x→−2− (x + 2)2 (2 − x) (x + 2)2 x
p
10. lim w + w2 + 2w
w→+∞

x x−2 p
5. lim + 2 11. lim w + w 2 + 2w
x→−2− x + 2 x +x−2 w→−∞
2x3 − 5x2

2 1 7s
1. lim 4. lim + +
x→1− x2 − 1 s→−1 s2 − 1 s2 + 3s + 2 s3 + 8

4 − x2 1 1
2. lim 5. lim 1− √
x→2+ 4 − 4x + x2 t→0+ t 2t + 1
2−y [[s]] − 1
3. lim 6. lim
y→4 y 2 − 8y + 16 s→−1 [[s]] + 1
√
x − [[x]]2
2
2x + x2 − 1
7. lim 12. lim
x→1+ x2 − 1 x→+∞ x+3
3 √
8. lim
x→−∞ x2 −3 1+ x6 + x2 + 1
13. lim
x→−∞ 2x3 + 3
9. lim (3x4 − 3x2 + x + 4)
x→−∞
p
3y 2 − 5y + 2 14. lim t2 − 3 + t
10. lim t→−∞
y→−∞ 6y 3 − 2y 2 − 1
y 2 + 3y − 8 p
11. lim 15. lim y 2 + 3y − y
y→∞ 2 − 5y − 3y 2 y→+∞
ic s
at
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
1.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THE FORMAL DEFINITION 31
1.4 Limit of a Function: The Formal Definition

In this section, we give the formal definition of the limit of a function. This involves a more rigorous
approach on showing the limit of a function. We will then establish limits of a function using the
formal definition.
• describe the limit of a function using the formal definition; and
• illustrate the formal definition of the limit of a function using graphs.
1.4.1 The Formal Definition of Limits

We start this section with the formal definition of the limit of a function. Recall that informally,
we define limit of a function f is the real number L as x approaches a, written lim f (x) = L, if
s
x→a
ic
the values of the function f get closer and closer to L as we allow the values of x to get closer and
at
closer to a. We will make this informal notion of ”closer and closer” mathematically precise.
Let us consider the next illustration. h em
at
M
Illustration 1.4.1. Consider the function f (x) = 2x − 1. Note that lim f (x) = 1.
x→1
of
• For which values of x do we have 0 < f (x) < 2?

e
ut
Answer: For all x in 21 , 32 , or for all x such that 1

< x < 32 .

2
tit
• For which values of x do we have 12 < f (x) < 23 ?

s
In
Answer: For all x in 43 , 54 , or for all x such that 3

< x < 54 .

4
UP
• For which values of x do we have 0.98 < f (x) < 1.02?

Answer: For all x in (0.99, 1.01), or for all x such that 0.99 < x < 1.01.
• For which values of x do we have 0.9998 < f (x) < 1.0002?

Answer: For all x in (0.9999, 1.0001), or for all x such that 0.9999 < x < 1.0001.
In general, for any positive number ε, suppose we want to find a range of values for x so that
1 − ε < f (x) < 1 + ε or |f (x) − 1| < ε.
Then we can choose x satisfying

ε ε ε
1− <x<1+ or 0 < |x − 1| < .
2 2 2
Moreover, if ε is very, very close to zero, then the expression
|f (x) − 1| < ε
2 f (x) = 2x − 1
1+ε
(

ε
1
ε
1−ε
)
|{z}|{z}
δ δ
( )
1 2
1−δ 1+δ
0
Figure 1.4.1: Given ε > 0, what is δ?
means that f (x) is very, very close to 1. This happens if we choose x such that
s
ic
ε
0 < |x − 1| < ,
at
2
em
that is, if x is chosen to be very, very close to 1. h
at
The illustration above summarizes to the following problem:
M
If ε is any positive number, what should δ be so that

of
|f (x) − 1| < ε whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ?

e
ut
tit
ε
The solution above implies that we may choose δ to be .
2
s
In
UP
Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a. The limit
of f (x) as x approaches a is L, written lim f (x) = L, if and only if for every ε > 0 (no matter how
x→a
small) there exists a δ > 0 such that
|f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.
This definition formalizes our intuitive notion of a limit: that lim f (x) = L if f (x) can be made as
x→a
close as possible to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a). Recall that:
|f (x) − L| < ε ⇔ −ε < f (x) − L < ε ⇔ L − ε < f (x) < L + ε

0 < |x − a| < δ ⇔ −δ < x − a < δ, x − a 6= 0 ⇔ a − δ < x < a + δ, x 6= a
That is, the absolute value inequalities represent open intervals “centered” at L and at a. The
formal definition then says this: for any open interval Iy centered at L, there is a corresponding
open interval Jx “centered” at a such that whenever x is in Jx (but x 6= a), f (x) is guaranteed to
be in Iy . Because this can be done for any open interval Iy , the interval Iy can be chosen to be as
short as we like.
1.4.2 Proving Limits using the Definition

In the next examples, we illustrate how the definition is used to prove that the limit of a function
is a particular number.
Example 1.4.2. Prove that lim (3x + 2) = 5.

x→1
Solution.
The solution is composed of two parts: the first part is to systematically guess what δ would be
sufficient, and the second part is to verify whether the guessed δ works.
I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a positive number. We want to find a number δ such that
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |(3x + 2) − 5| < ε.
Note that |(3x + 2) − 5| = |3x − 3| = 3|x − 1|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then 3|x − 1| < ε,
ic s
at
or
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ,
h em
then |x − 1| < ε/3.
at
ε
M
This suggests that we may take δ = .

3
of
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε/3.
e
ut
If 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then

tit
ε
|(3x + 2) − 5| = |3x − 3| = 3|x − 1| < 3δ = 3 = ε.
s
3
In
That is,
UP
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |(3x + 2) − 5| < ε.
Therefore, by the definition of a limit,
lim (3x + 2) = 5.
x→1
Example 1.4.3. Prove that lim (5x + 6) = −4.

x→−2
Solution.
I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a given positive number. We want to find a number δ such
that
if 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then |(5x + 6) − (−4)| < ε.

Note that |(5x + 6) − (−4)| = |5x + 10| = 5|x + 2|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
if 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then 5|x + 2| < ε
or
if 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then |x + 2| < ε/5.

ε
5
If 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then
ε
|(5x + 6) − (−4)| = |5x + 10| = 5|x + 2| < 5δ = 5 = ε.
5
That is,
if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |(5x + 6) − (−4)| < ε.
ic s
at
lim (5x + 6) = −4.

x→−2
h em
at
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Example 1.4.4. Prove that lim (4 − 3x) = 4.

x→0
e
ut
Solution.
tit
s
In
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if 0 < |x − 0| = |x| < δ, then |(4 − 3x) − 4| < ε.
Note that |(4 − 3x) − 4| = | − 3x| = 3|x|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
if 0 < |x| < δ, then 3|x| < ε
or
if 0 < |x| < δ, then |x| < ε/3.

ε
3
If 0 < |x − 0| < δ, then
ε
|(4 − 3x) − (4)| = 3|x| < 3δ = 3 = ε.
3
That is,
if 0 < |x − 0| < δ, then |(4 − 3x) − 4| < ε.
lim (4 − 3x) = 4.
x→0
Remark 1.4.5. The value of δ is not unique. Note that if a given δ works such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε
then we can take any smaller positive δ0 ≤ δ such that
0 < |x − a| < δ0 .
The statement then becomes
s
if 0 < |x − a| < δ0 ≤ δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.
ic
at
Example 1.4.6. Prove that lim (x2 − 1) = 3.
x→−2
h em
at
M
Solution.
of
e
ut
if 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then |(x2 − 1) − 3| < ε.

s tit
In
Note that |(x2 − 1) − 3| = |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
UP
if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |x − 2||x + 2| < ε.
Since we are just getting the limit of the function for values of x very close to −2, it is safe
to assume that
0 < |x + 2| < 1.
Thus,
−1 < x + 2 < 1 =⇒ −3 < x < −1 =⇒ −5 < x − 2 < −3 < 5 =⇒ |x − 2| < 5.
Summarizing, if |x + 2| < 1, one way to ensure that |(x2 − 1) − 3| < is to ensure that
|x + 2| < ε/5. Thus, if |x + 2| is less than both 1 and ε/5, then we arrive at the desired
conclusion. This suggests that we may take δ to be the smaller of the two numbers, written
δ = min{1, ε/5}1 .
1
By δ = min{1, ε/5}, we mean that if 1 ≤ ε/5, δ may be chosen to be 1, and when ε/5 < 1, δ may be taken to
be ε/5.
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = min{1, ε/5}.
If 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then
ε
|(x2 − 1) − 3| = |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2| < 5δ ≤ 5 = ε.
5
That is,
if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |(x2 − 1) − 3| < ε.
lim (x2 − 1) = 3.
x→−2
Remark 1.4.7. If lim f (x) = L, observe that in one way or another, the expression |x − a| can
x→a
be factored (but it may not be easy to do so!) from the expression |f (x) − L|. This means that if
ics
0 < |x − a| < δ, then
at
|f (x) − L| = |x − a||g(x)| < δ|g(x)|
h em
for some function g(x). In this case, if g(x) is a nonzero constant, say g(x) = c, then δ = ε/|c|. If
g(x) is an expression in x, we shall find an upper bound for |g(x)| by restricting values of x to a
at
certain interval about a.
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
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1.4.3 Exercises
A. Prove the following.
1. lim (5x − 3) = −3 4. lim (x2 + 2x − 3) = 0

x→0 x→1
2. lim (2x + 1) = −3 5. lim (2 − x2 ) = 1
x→−2 x→−1
3. lim (5 − 2x) = −1 6. lim (4 − 3x + x2 ) = 8

x→3 x→−1
B. Use the definition of the limit of a function to prove that lim f (x) = −6 if
x→− 34

2
 16x − 9 ,

x 6= − 34
f (x) = 4x + 3 .
2, x= − 34

ic s
at
h em
at
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e
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stit
In
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1.5 Continuity of Functions; The Intermediate Value Theorem

Notice that in the previous sections, to compute the limit of polynomial or rational functions as
x approaches a, we simply calculate the value of the function at a, if possible. We will see later
on that this property is a condition for possession of other “desirable” characteristics. Functions
satisfying that property are said to be continuous at x = a.
• interpret the continuity of a function at a point using graphs;
• distinguish the types of discontinuity graphically;
• find the possible points of discontinuity of a function;
• identify the type of discontinuity as either removable, jump essential, or infinite

essential;
s
• redefine functions with removable discontinuities;
ic
at
• describe the continuity of a function on an interval;
em
• evaluate limits and determine continuity of composite functions; and
h
at
• interpret the Intermediate Value Theorem using graphs and real life situations
M
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e
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1.5.1 Continuity
tit
Continuity is the precise mathematical translation of an unbroken curve. A function is continuous

s
In
if its graph has no gaps, breaks, or holes.

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Continuity at a Point
A function f is said to be continuous at x = a if the following conditions are all satisfied:
(i) f is defined at x = a
(ii) lim f (x) exists

x→a
(iii) f (a) = lim f (x)

x→a
Otherwise, f is said to be discontinuous at x = a.
Example 1.5.1. Let f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2. Let us examine the continuity of f at x = 1. First of all,
f (1) = 0. Moreover, lim f (x) = 0. Therefore, f is continuous at x = 1.
x→1
x2 − x − 2
Example 1.5.2. Let f (x) = . Since f is not defined at x = 2, f is discontinuous at
x−2
R
x = 2. However, it is continuous at every other a ∈ \ {2}.
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 39
Remark 1.5.3. In general, if f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is any element in the
domain of f , then f is continuous at x = a.
Example 1.5.4. Let g be defined by

 2
 x −x−2
, x 6= 2
g(x) = x−2 .
0, x=2

Note that g is defined at x = 2 with g(2) = 0. However,
x2 − x − 2
lim g(x) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3.
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2
Since g(2) is not equal to lim g(x), g is discontinuous at x = 2.

x→2
Example 1.5.5. Let h be defined by
ic s
 2
 x − x − 2 , x 6= 2
at
x−2
em
h(x) = .

3, x=2 h
at
For this function, we have h(2) = 3 = lim h(x). Therefore, h(x) is continuous at x = 2.
M
x→2
of
e
3x2 − 4x + 1
ut
4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) =
x−1
tit
3 3
s
In
2 2
1 1
UP
0 1 2 0 1 2 3
−1 −1
3
1
h(x) = 2
x
1
Heaviside function H
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1 1
−2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−3 −1
Figure 1.5.1: The figures above show graphs of various functions. The function whose graph appears
R
on the upper left is continuous at all a ∈ , while the other three graphs are those of functions
that are discontinuous at some a ∈ . R
1. If lim f (x) exists but either f (a) is undefined or f (a) 6= lim f (x), then we say that f has a
x→a x→a
removable discontinuity at x = a.
2. If lim f (x) does not exist, then we say that f has an essential discontinuity at x = a.
x→a
Moreover,
(a) if lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist but are not equal, then f is said to have a jump
x→a− x→a+
essential discontinuity at x = a.
(b) if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, or lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, then f is said to have an infinite
x→a− x→a+
essential discontinuity.
Example 1.5.6. Refer to Figure 1.5.1.
• For f (x) = 3x − 1, note that f (1) = 2 = lim (3x − 1), so f is continuous at x = 1.

x→1
ic s
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x2 − 4x + 1
at
• For g(x) = , g(1) is undefined but lim = 2, so g has a removable
x−1 x−1
em
x→1
discontinuity at x = 1. h
1
at
• Take h(x) = . Then h is undefined at x = 0, while lim h(x) = −∞ and lim h(x) = +∞.
M
x x→0− x→0+
Thus, h has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = 0.
of
• Finally, for the Heaviside function H, we have H(0) = 1, lim H(x) = 0, and lim H(x) = 1.
e
x→0− x→0+
ut
Therefore, H has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 0.

stit
Remark 1.5.7. The discontinuity in statement 1 of the above definition is called removable,
In
because the discontinuity can be “removed” by redefining the value of f at a so that f (a) = lim f (x),
x→a
UP
resulting in a function that is now continuous at x = a. On the other hand, it is not possible to do
this for essential discontinuities.
Example 1.5.8. The function g in Example 1.5.4 has a removable discontinuity at x = 2, since
g(2) = 0 while lim g(x) = 3. However, if we redefine g at x = 2 such that g(2) = 3, then the
x→2
resulting function would be continuous at x = 2.
Example 1.5.9. Determine if the function


4x − 3,
 x<1
f (x) = x−2


2
, x≥1
2x − 5x + 2
is continuous at x = 1 and at x = 2. If discontinuous, classify the type of discontinuity as removable,
jump essential, or infinite essential.
Solution.
• x = 1:
1−2
(i) f (1) = =1
2−5+2
(ii) lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 4(1) − 3 = 1
x→1− x→1−
x−2 1−2
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = =1
x→1+ x→1− 2x2 − 5x + 2 2−5+2
Thus, lim f (x) = 1 = f (1). Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
x→1
• x = 2:
x−2
Note that f (x) = for values of x close enough to 2.
2x2 − 5x + 2
(i) f (2) is undefined

x−2 x−2 1 1
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim =
x→2 2x2 − 5x + 2 x→2 (2x − 1)(x − 2) x→2 2x − 1 3
s
x→2
ic
at
Hence, f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2.
h em
Remark 1.5.10. In general, the discontinuities of a given function f may occur at points where
f is undefined or, for the case of piecewise functions, at the endpoints of intervals. Such points are
at
aptly called the possible points of discontinuity of f .
M
of
R. Then the following are

e
Theorem 1.5.11. Let f and g be continuous at x = a and let c ∈

ut
also continuous at x = a:
tit
1. f + g f
s
provided that g(a) 6= 0

In
4.
g
2. f − g
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3. f g 5. cf
Similar to limits, we define continuity from the left and continuity from the right.
1. A function f is said to be continuous from the left at x = a if
f (a) = lim f (x).

x→a−
2. A function f is said to be continuous from the right at x = a if
f (a) = lim f (x).

x→a+
√
Example 1.5.12. The function f defined by f (x) = 2 − x is continuous from the left at x = 2
but not from the right at x = 2 (since f is undefined for x > 2).
Example 1.5.13. Let g(x) = [[x]] be the greatest integer function. Then g is continuous from the
right at x = 1, but not continuous from the left at x = 1. In general, if n is any integer, then g is
continuous from the right at x = n, but not continuous from the left at x = n (recall the graph of
g(x) = [[x]]).
Continuity on an Interval
We can also consider continuity of functions on intervals. Being continuous on an interval means
that the graph of a function has no “gaps” or “holes” on that interval.
A function f is said to be continuous
1. everywhere if f is continuous at every real number.
2. on (a, b) if f is continuous at every point x in (a, b).
3. on [a, b) if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the right of a.
4. on (a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the left of b.
ic s
at
5. on [a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b] and on [a, b).
6. on (a, ∞) if f is continuous at all x > a. hem

at
7. on [a, ∞) if f is continuous on (a, ∞) and from the right of a.
M
8. on (−∞, b) if f is continuous at all x < b.

of
e
9. on (−∞, b] if f is continuous on (−∞, b) and from the left of b.

ut
s tit
In
Remark 1.5.14.
UP
1. Polynomial functions are continuous everywhere.
2. The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere.
3. Rational functions are continuous on their respective domains.

√
4. The square root function f (x) = x is continuous on [0, ∞).
5. The greatest integer function f (x) = [[x]] is continuous on [n, n + 1), where n is any integer.
The following theorem allows us to get the limit of a composition of functions provided that certain
conditions are satisfied.
Theorem 1.5.15. If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b). In other
x→a x→a
words, if f is continuous at lim g(x),

x→a

lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

x−2
Example 1.5.16. Evaluate: lim 2

x→2 x − 4
Solution.
Since the absolute value function is continuous everywhere, we can apply the previous theorem:

x−2
= lim x − 2 = − 1 = 1

lim 2
x→2 x − 4 x→2 x2 − 4 4 4
Example 1.5.17. Evaluate: lim 3x2

1
x→ 3
ic s
at
Solution.
1 1
Since lim 3x2 = and the greatest integer function is continuous at x = , we have
em
x→
1 3 3
3 h
at

1
M
lim 3x2 =

= 0.
1
x→ 3 3
of
e
ut
tit
Theorem 1.5.18. If g is continuous at x = a and f is continuous at g(a), then (f ◦ g)(x) =

s
f (g(x)) is continuous at x = a.
In
√
UP
Example 1.5.19. Determine the intervals at which h(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous.
Solution.
√
Note that if a > 0, the square root function f (x) = x is continuous at x = a. Moreover,
√
g(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous everywhere. By the previous theorem, h(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous
at all a satisfying a2 − 1 > 0, or for all a in (−∞, −1) or (1, ∞). It is left to the reader to verify
that h is continuous from the left at x = −1 and from the right at x = 1. Therefore, the intervals
at which h is continuous are (−∞, −1] and [1, ∞).
Example 1.5.20. Determine the values of x where the function
x−2


 , x ≤ −1
 2x + 6
f (x) =
2x2 + x − 6
, x > −1


|2x − 3|

is discontinuous. Classify each discontinuity as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential.

Solution.
The function f is undefined at x = −3 and at x = 32 , and its definition splits at x = −1. Thus, f
R
is continuous at each x ∈ , except possibly at x = −3, −1 and 32 . Moreover, note that
(
3
2x − 3, 2x − 3 ≥ 0 ⇔x≥ 2
|2x − 3| = 3
.
−(2x − 3), 2x − 3 < 0 ⇔x< 2
• x = −3:
(i) f (−3) is undefined

x−2 −5
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = +∞
x→−3− x→−3− 2(x + 3) 2(0− )

x−2 −5
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = −∞
x→−3+ x→−3+ 2(x + 3) 2(0+ )
Thus, f has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = −3.
ic s
• x = −1:
at
−1 − 2 3
em
(i) f (−1) = =−
2(−1) + 6 4 h
x−2 3
at
(ii) lim f (x) = lim =−
x→−1− x→−1− 2x + 6 4
M
2x2 + x − 6 2x2 + x − 6 2−1−6

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(iii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = = −1

x→−1+ x→−1+ |2x − 3| x→−1 + −(2x − 3) −(2(−1) − 3)
e
ut
Thus, f has a jump essential discontinuity at x = −1.

tit
• x = 23 :
s
In
3

(i) f is undefined
UP
2
2x2 + x − 6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim −(x + 2) = −
3−
x→ 2
3−
x→ 2
|2x − 3| x→
3 − −(2x − 3) x→
3 − 2
2 2
2x2+x−6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7

(iii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 2) =
x→ 2
3+ 3+
x→ 2
|2x − 3| x→
3 + 2x − 3 x→
3 − 2
2 2
Thus, f has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 32 .
Example 1.5.21. Determine the values of x where the function

 1 1

2
+ , x<0
 x −x x


g(x) = [[x − 1]] , 0≤x≤2

 √


x − 2, x>2
is discontinuous. Classify each discontinuity as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential.

Solution.
Note that between 0 and 2, x − 1 is an integer when x = 1. Thus, the definition of the function
R
splits at x = 0, 1 and 2. Moreover, g is defined at all x ∈ . Thus, g is continuous everywhere
except possibly at 0, 1 and 2.
• x = 0:
(i) g(0) = [[0 − 1]] = −1

1 1 1 + (x − 1) 1
(ii) lim g(x) = lim + = lim = lim = −1
x→0− x→0− x(x − 1) x x→0− x(x − 1) x→0− x − 1
(iii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim (−1) = −1
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+
Thus, g is continuous at x = 0.
• x = 1:
(i) g(1) = [[1 − 1]] = 0
s
(ii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim (−1) = −1
ic
x→1− x→1− x→1−
at
(iii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
em
x→1+ x→1+ x→0+
h
Thus, g has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 1.
at
M
• x = 2:
of
(i) g(2) = [[2 − 1]] = 1

e
(ii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0

ut
x→2− x→2− x→2−

√ √
tit
(iii) lim g(x) = lim x − 2 = 0 0+

s
x→2+ x→2+
In
Thus, f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2.

UP
1.5.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem

The next theorem gives an important property of continuous functions. It states that a continuous
function f on [a, b] takes on any value between the numbers f (a) and f (b).
Theorem 1.5.22 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)). Let f be continuous on a closed in-
terval [a, b] with f (a) 6= f (b). For every k between f (a) and f (b), there exists c in (a, b) such
that f (c) = k.
Geometrically, IVT states that if f is continuous on [a, b], then the graph of y = f (x) intersects
any horizontal line y = k between y = f (a) and y = f (b).
Remark 1.5.23.
1. The continuity of the function on [a, b] in IVT is required. In general, the theorem is not true
for functions that are discontinuous on [a, b].
f (b)
k (c, f (c))
a c b
f (a)
Figure 1.5.2: A graphical illustration for IVT
2. The number c in the conclusion of IVT may not be unique.

x−1
Example 1.5.24. Consider the function f (x) = .
x
ic s
1. Verify that the Intermediate Value Theorem holds for f in the interval [1, 3].
at
1
em
2. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to justify why there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = ,
3
and find the value of c.
h
at
M
Solution.
of
1. Since dom f is R \ {0} and f is continuous at every number in its domain, f is continuous on
e
ut
2
[1, 3]. Moreover, f (1) = 0 and f (3) = , so f (1) 6= f (3). Thus, IVT holds for f in [1, 3].
tit
3
s
2
In
2. IVT guarantees that for every k between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = k.
3
1 2 1
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Since is between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = . We solve for c:
3 3 3
1
f (c) =
3
c−1 1
=
c 3
3c − 3 = c
2c = 3
3
c =
2
3
Thus, the desired c in the interval (1, 3) is c = .
2
Remark 1.5.25. Note that in using IVT (or any theorem), one must first verify that the theorem
holds before stating the conclusion of the theorem. For instance, in IVT, we must first show that the
function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and that k is between f (a) and f (b) where f (a) 6= f (b)
before we can conclude that there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = k.
The Intermediate Value Theorem can also be used to locate roots of equations, as illustrated in the
next example.
Example 1.5.26. Show that the equation
3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
has a solution between 0 and 1.
Solution.
Let f (x) = 3x4 −4x2 +5x−1. We wish to find c ∈ (0, 1) such that c is a root of the equation f (x) = 0
(that is, f (c) = 0). We check if IVT applies for f in (0, 1) with k = 0. Note that f is a polynomial
function so f is continuous on [0, 1]. Moreover, we have f (0) = −1 and f (1) = 3 − 4 + 5 − 1 = 3.
Hence, k = 0 is between f (0) and f (1). Therefore, the assumptions of IVT are satisfied, and we can
conclude that there exists c in (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0, that is, the equation 3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
has at least one root c between 0 and 1.
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1.5.3 Exercises
A. Determine if f is continuous at all possible points of discontinuity. Classify each discontinuity

as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential. Redefine f so that it will be continuous at
every point of removable discontinuity.
1


 , if x < 3
1. f (x) = x
 2 , if 3 ≤ x

9−x



 |x + 3|, if x ≤ 0


2. f (x) = [[2x]] , if 0 < x < 1
x2 − 5x


, if x ≥ 1



x−5

3x + 3
s
 , if x < 1
ic

x3√+ 1


at
3. f (x) = 2 + 2 − x, if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
em


x2 − 6,

 if x > 2 h
at

 x + 2a, if x < −2

M
B. Find all values of a and b such that h(x) = 3ax + b, if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 is continuous every-
of

 3x − 2b, if x > 1
where.
e
ut
tit
C. Use IVT to prove the following.

s
In
cos x
1. Show that p(x) = has a solution between 1 and 2.
x
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2. The graph of f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + x − 3 intersects the x-axis at least once between 3 and 4.
A. Determine if f is continuous at all possible points of discontinuity. Classify each discontinuity

as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential. Redefine f so that it will be continuous at
every point of removable discontinuity.


 |x + 6|, if x ≤ −1
1. f (x) = x2− 6x + 9
 , if x > −1
x2 − 3x

x2 + 2x

, if x < 0


x+2


2. f (x) = |x − 1| + 1, if 0 ≤ x < 2



x2 − 2, if x ≥ 2

 2
x −x−2
, if x < 0


√x − 1

3. f (x) = 4 − x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4


 2
x − 5x + 4, if x > 4
 2
x −x−2
, if x < −1


x+2

4. f (x) = [[x]] + 1, if − 1 ≤ x < 1


|x + 2|, if x ≥ 1

 2
x − 3x + 2
, if x < 0


x−1


5. f (x) = [[x]] + [[−x]] , if 0 ≤ x < 2



x2 − 5, if x ≥ 2



 x, if x ≤ 0

 3, if 0 < x ≤ 1
B. Is the function g(x) = 2 continuous on [1, 4]? [0, 4)? (−∞, 0)?
 3 − x , if 1 < x ≤ 4
s


x − 3, if x > 4
ic

at
(
x + 2, if x ≤ m
em
C. Find all values of m such that g(x) = is continuous everywhere.
h x2 , if x > m
at
D. Use IVT to prove the following.
M
1. The equation x5 + 4x3 + 14 − 7x = 0 has at least one real solution.

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2. Show that f (x) = x4 − 7x2 + x + 4 has at least two real zeros.

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In
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1.6 Trigonometric Functions: Limits and Continuity;

The Squeeze Theorem
In the preceding sections, we considered the behavior of algebraic functions such as polynomial and
rational functions, and those that involve rational exponents and radicals. We now investigate the
limits and continuity of trigonometric functions.
• interpret the Squeeze Theorem graphically;
• evaluate limits using Squeeze Theorem;
• apply theorems on limits and continuity to trigonometric functions; and
• evaluate limits of trigonometric functions using prescribed theorems

and techniques.
ic s
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1.6.1 The Squeeze Theorem
h
We begin with an important theorem that is helpful in computing limits involving trigonometric
at
M
functions. In fact, this theorem is used in the proofs of other theorems in this section.
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Theorem 1.6.1 (Squeeze Theorem). Let f (x), g(x) and h(x) be defined on some open interval
e
ut
I containing a except possibly at x = a such that

tit
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x),

s
In
for all x ∈ I \ {a}. If lim f (x) and lim h(x) exist and are both equal to L ∈ R, then x→a
lim g(x) =
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x→a x→a
L.
Remark 1.6.2. With some modifications, “x → a” can be replaced by “x → a− ”, “x → a+ ”,

“x → +∞” and “x → −∞”.
The Squeeze Theorem, sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem, states that if g(x) is “squeezed”
between f (x) and h(x) near a, and if f and h have the same limit at a, then g must have the same
limit at a.

2 1
Example 1.6.3. Evaluate: lim x cos
x→0 x
Solution.
1
Note that we cannot distribute the limit over the product since lim cos does not exist. How-
x→0 x
ever, we do know that for all real numbers x 6= 0,

1
−1 ≤ cos ≤ 1.
x
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM51
y = h(x)
y = g(x)
y = f (x)
Figure 1.6.1: An illustration of Squeeze Theorem
Since x2 is nonnegative, we may multiply all sides of the inequality by x2 to obtain
ic s

2 2 1
−x ≤ x cos ≤ x2 .
at
x
Since hem
lim (−x2 ) = lim x2 = 0,
at
x→0 x→0
M
we conclude by Squeeze Theorem that

of

2 1
lim x cos = 0.
e
x
ut
x→0
s tit
sin x
In

x→+∞ x
UP
Solution.
Note that lim sin x does not exist, while lim x = +∞. We will show, however, that the limit
x→+∞ x→+∞
of the quotient exists. Observe that whenever x > 0:
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
1 sin x 1
− ≤ ≤
x x x

1 1 sin x
Now, lim − = 0 = lim . Thus, by Squeeze Theorem, lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
2 [[x]] + 1
x→−∞ x
Solution.
Note that lim [[x]] + 1 = −∞, while lim x = −∞. Observe that whenever x < 0:
x→−∞ x→−∞
x−1 ≤ [[x]] x≤
2x − 2 ≤ 2 [[x]] 2x≤
2x − 1 ≤ 2 [[x]] + 1 ≤
2x + 1
2x − 1 2 [[x]] + 1
2x + 1
≥ ≥
x x x
! !
2 − x1 1

2x − 1 2x + 1 2+ x
Since lim = lim = 2, and lim = lim = 2, we
x→−∞ x x→−∞ 1 x→−∞ x x→−∞ 1
2 [[x]] + 1
get lim = 2 by Squeeze Theorem.
x→+∞ x
s
We now present the following special trigonometric limits.
ic
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em
Theorem 1.6.6.
sin x
h
3. lim sin x = 0
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1. lim =1 x→0
x→0 x
M
1 − cos x
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2. lim =0 4. lim cos x = 1

x→0 x x→0
e
ut
sin(4x)
tit
x→0 x
s
In
Solution.
First of all, note that the argument of sine is 4x, while the denominator is simply x. To compute
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the limit, we multiply both the numerator and denominator by 4. We have
sin(4x) 4 4 sin(4x)
lim · = lim .
x→0 x 4 x→0 4x
sin(4x)
Note that x → 0 if and only if 4x → 0. Applying the theorem, we have lim = 1, and so,
x→0 4x
4 sin(4x)
lim = 4.
x→0 4x
Remark 1.6.8.
x
1. lim =1
x→0 sin x
x 1 1
This is because lim = lim = = 1.
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x 1
x
x
2. lim 6= 0
x→0 1 − cos x
x 1 1
Similar to the previous item, lim = lim = 6= 0.
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x 0
x
x2
x→0 sin(3x2 )
Solution.
x2 3x2

3 1 1 1
lim · = lim · = (1) =
x→0 sin(3x2 ) 3 x→0 3 sin(3x2 ) 3 3
sin(x2 − 1)
x→−1 x+1
Solution.
s
sin(x2 − 1) x − 1 sin(x2 − 1)
ic
lim · = lim · (x − 1) = 1(−2) = −2
x − 1 x→−1 x2 − 1
at
x→−1 x+1

tan x
x→0 x
h em
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Solution.
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tan x sin x 1
lim = lim · = 1(1) = 1
e
x→0 x x→0 x cos x

ut
tit
sin(3x)
s

In
x→0 sin(5x)
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Solution.

sin(3x) 3x 5 3 sin(3x) 5x 3 3
lim · · = lim · · = (1)(1) =
x→0 sin(5x) 3x 5 x→0 5 3x sin(5x) 5 5
tan(3x)
x→0+ 1 − cos2 (2x)
Solution.
tan(3x) tan(3x)
lim = lim
x→0+ 1 − cos2 (2x) x→0+ sin2 (2x)
sin(3x) 3 2 x
= lim 2 · · ·
x→0 cos(3x) sin (2x)
+ 3 2 x
3 sin(3x) 2x 1
= lim · · ·
x→0+ 2 3x sin(2x) cos(3x)
sin(2x)
3 1
= +∞ (1)(1)
2 (1)(0+ )
1 − cos x
x→0 x2
Solution.
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1
Note that lim = lim · , and whether one takes the limit as x → 0− or as
x→0 x2 x→0 x x
x → 0+ , the form is 0 · ∞. We therefore wish to rewrite the function such that the resulting limit
is not indeterminate. The trick is to multiply the numerator and denominator by 1 + cos x:
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x

lim 2
= lim ·
x→0 x x→0 x2 1 + cos x
1 − cos x 2 1
= lim 2
·
x→0 x 1 + cos x
sin2 x 1
= lim ·
x→0 x2 1 + cos x
2
sin x 1
= lim ·
x→0 x 1 + cos x

1
s
= (1)2
ic
2
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1
em
= .
2 h
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1.6.2 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

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The next theorem, which is a consequence of the Squeeze Theorem, deals with the continuity of
e
trigonometric functions.
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Theorem 1.6.15.
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1. For all a ∈ R, lim cos x = cos a and lim sin x = sin a.

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x→a x→a
2. The trigonometric functions are continuous on their respective domains.
Remark 1.6.16. By the previous theorem, we can conclude that if f is a trigonometric function
and a ∈ dom f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
This conclusion can also be seen by looking at the graphs of the trigonometric functions below.
Example 1.6.17. Evaluate the following limits.
1. limπ tan x
x→ 4
Solution.
π
limπ tan x = tan = 1.
x→ 4 4
f (x) = sin x f (x) = cos x
f (x) = tan x f (x) = cot x
f (x) = sec x f (x) = csc x
ic s
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h em
Figure 1.6.2: Graphs of trigonometric functions
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1 − cos x
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2. lim
x→π x
e
ut
Solution.
tit

s
lim 1 − lim cos x

In
1 − cos x 1 − cos π 2
lim = x→π x→π = = .
x→π x lim x π π
UP
x→π
3. lim sin x2 − 1

x→1
Solution.
Since the sine function is continuous everywhere and lim (x2 − 1) = 0, we have
x→1

lim sin x2 − 1 = sin lim (x2 − 1) = sin 0 = 0.

x→1 x→1

1
4. lim cos
x→+∞ x
Solution.
1
Since the cosine function is continuous everywhere and lim = 0, we have
x→+∞ x

1 1
lim cos = cos lim = cos 0 = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

1 − cos x
5. lim tan
x→0 x
Solution.
1 − cos x
Since lim = 0 and the tangent function is continuous at x = 0, we have
x→0 x

1 − cos x 1 − cos x
lim tan = tan lim = tan 0 = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x
6. lim cot x
x→π +
Solution.
If f (x) = cot x, then π ∈
/ dom f , so we cannot use the preceding remark to compute this limit.
cos x
However, we may use the identity cot x = . Since sin x → 0− as x → π from the right, we
sin x
have
cos x −1
lim cot x = lim = +∞.
+ x→π sin x
+ 0−
s
x→π
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1.6.3 Exercises
sin(x2 + x − 2) 3y − sin(4y)
1. lim 7. lim
x→1 x−1 y→0 y
sin 3x x2 − 3 sin x
2. lim 8. lim
x→0 sin 4x
x
x→0 x
3. lim tan3 (3x)
x→0+ tan x
9. lim
1 − cos 5x + tan 3x x→0 3x3
4. lim
x→0 − sin 2x 1
x tan 5x 10. lim x 1 − cos
5. lim
x→−∞ x
x→0 sin2 2x
sin(sin t)
6. lim 2x cos(2x) csc(4x) 11. lim
x→0 t→0 t
ic s
B. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.
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em
sin x + 3 cos x

1
1. lim x sin h 2. lim
x→0+ x2 x→+∞ x
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C. Test the following function for continuity at x = −3, −2, 0, and π:

of
x+2

 |x2 + 5x + 6| , if x < 0
e



ut
f (x) = x csc x
, if 0 < x ≤ π
tit


 2
x + π, if x > π
s

In
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1. lim x csc 3x 2 sin x − 1

x→0 8. limπ
6x − π
sin4 (2x) x→ 6
2. lim
x→0 4x4 cos x − cos 3
sin(4x − 8) 9. lim
3. lim 2 x→3 x−3
x→2 4x − 5x − 6
sin πx

sin(4x) 4 −1
10. lim
4. lim x→2 2x − 4
x→0 |x|
π−x
1 11. lim
5. lim sin x→π sin x
x→0+ x

1 1 − cos 2x + tan2 x
6. lim x sin 12. lim
x→+∞ x2 x→0 x sin 2x
t (2x − π) cos x
7. lim π 13. limπ
t→0 cos( − t)
2
x→ 2 1 − sin x
B. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.
2x3 + 1 + 5 cos x [[2x − 1]]

1. lim 2. lim
x→−∞ 3x3 x→+∞ x
C. Given:  2
x −x−2

 , if x ≤ 0
x2 − 1


f (x) = sin 4x
, if 0 < x ≤ 1
 2 2x



x + 3x − 1, if x > 1
Discuss the continuity of f at x = −1, 0, and 1. Classify each discontinuity as jump essential,
infinite essential, or removable.
D. Miscellaneous Problems.
1. If 2x ≤ f (x) ≤ 3x2 − 16 for all x ≤ 0, find lim f (x).

x→−2
s
2. Use the Squeeze Theorem to find lim g(x) given that
ic
x→5
at
|g(x) − 8| < 3(x − 5)2 ,
for all x ∈ R \ {5}.

hem
at
3. Prove that lim f (x) = 0 if and only if lim |f (x)| = 0.
M
x→0 x→0
4. Let f and g be functions such that |f (x)| ≤ 2 and lim |g(x)| = 0. Use the Squeeze
of
x→a
Theorem to verify that lim f (x)g(x) = 0.
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x→a
stit
In
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1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 59
1.7 New Classes of Functions: Limits and Continuity

In this section, we study new classes of transcendental functions. We recall inverse functions and in
particular, exponential and logarithmic functions. We also revisit the inverse trigonometric func-
tions. We review the properties and graphs of these functions.
After, we introduce new types of functions, the hyperbolic functions and inverse hyperbolic func-
tions, and examine their properties and graphs. Our goal is to investigate the limits and continuity
of all aforementioned functions.
• recall the basic concepts of inverse functions;
• recall the properties and graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions;
• define and identify the properties of the inverse circular functions, the hyperbolic
ic s
functions, and the inverse hyperbolic functions;
at
em
• familiarize themselves with the graphs of the inverse circular functions, the hyper-
bolic functions, and the inverse hyperbolic functions;
h
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• apply theorems on limits and continuity to exponential, logarithmic, inverse
M
circular, hyperbolic, and inverse hyperbolic function.

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1.7.1 Inverse Functions

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In
Let us revisit the definition of inverse functions and their properties. This will prepare us in our
study of the exponential and logarithmic functions in the next subsection,
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If the functions f and g satisfy
(f ◦ g)(x) = x for all x ∈ dom g, and

(g ◦ f )(x) = x for all x ∈ dom f ,
then we say f and g are inverse functions of each other. We write,
g = f −1 or g = f −1 .
Example 1.7.1. The functions f (x) = −2x + 4 and g(x) = − 12 x + 2 are inverse functions of each
other. Indeed,
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (− 12 x + 2) = −2(− 21 x + 2) + 4 = x, and

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(−2x + 4) = − 12 (−2x + 4) + 2 = x.
Hence, we can write f −1 (x) = 21 x + 2.

We note that not every function has an inverse. We define a class of functions that always possesses
an inverse.
A function f is a one-to-one function if for all x1 , x2 ∈ dom f with x1 6= x2 , f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
Remark 1.7.2. (Horizontal Line Test) A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.
We present the following important theorem that will guarantee the existence of an inverse.
Theorem 1.7.3. A function f has an inverse if and and only if it is one-to-one.
Example 1.7.4. The function g(x) = x2 is not one-to-one. Indeed, g(1) = g(−1) = 1, so it violates
the definition of one-to-one function. Further, the horizontal line y = 1 intersects the graph of g in
two points. Based on the theorem above, g has no inverse function.
Remark 1.7.5. Let f be a one-to-one function.
ic s
1. We have y = f (x) if and only if x = f −1 (y).
at
2. The domains and range of f and f −1 are related. Indeed,
dom f −1 = ran f and

h em
ran f −1 = dom f .
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M
3. The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line y = x.

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4. We have the following cancellation equations:

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tit
f −1 (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ dom f , f (f −1 (x)) = x for all x ∈ dom f −1 .

s
In
5. To find the inverse function f −1 , we write y = f (x) and then solve for x in terms of y to obtain
UP
x = f −1 (y). Finally, interchange x and y to get y = f −1 (x).

4x − 1
Example 1.7.6. Find the inverse of f (x) = .
2x + 3
Solution.
4x − 1
Following the remark above, we write y = . We then solve for x in terms of y. We get
2x + 3
3y + 1 3x + 1
f −1 (y) = x = . Hence, f −1 (x) = .
4 − 2y 4 − 2x
1.7.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we recall the exponential and logarithmic functions and review their properties.
These functions are important in studying different phenomena in the natural sciences, such as
population growth and decay, radioactive decay, acidity of chemicals and earthquakes.
Let a > 0 and a 6= 1. The exponential function with base a is given by f (x) = ax , where
x∈ . R
Exponential functions can be classified into two types: those with base greater than 1, and those
with base between 0 and 1. The fundamental distinction between the two classes is that if a > 1,
then p < q implies ap < aq ; whereas if 0 < a < 1, then p < q implies ap > aq . The graphs of these
functions are found in Figure 1.7.1. Note that exponential functions are continuous everywhere.
It is good to remember the graphs of these functions as they serve as visual aids in remembering
their properties, such as their behavior as x → +∞ or as x → −∞, and where the functions are
increasing or decreasing.
f (x) = ax
f (x) = ax 0<a<1
(0, 1) a>1
(0, 1)
Figure 1.7.1: Graphs of Exponential Functions
ic s
at
Remark 1.7.7. Let f (x) = ax with a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then we have the following:
1. dom f = R and ran f = (0, +∞). em

h
at
2. f is one-to-one and continuous on R.
M
R, x→+∞
lim ax = +∞ and lim ax = 0.
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3. If a > 1, then f is increasing on

x→−∞
e
4. If 0 < a < 1, then f is decreasing on R, lim ax = 0 and lim ax = +∞.

ut
x→+∞ x→−∞
tit
Because the exponential function with base a is one-to-one, it has an inverse function, called the
s
In
logarithmic function with base a.

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Let a > 0 and a 6= 1. The logarithmic function with base a, denoted by loga , is the inverse
function of the exponential function with base a; that is,
y = loga x if and only if x = ay .
Hence, the logarithm of x to the base a is the exponent to which a must be raised to obtain x.
Following the inverse relationship of exponentials and logarithms, we have loga (ax ) = x for all
R
x ∈ and aloga x = x for all x > 0.
As with exponential functions, logarithmic functions can be classified into those with base greater
than 1 and those with base between 0 and 1. The graphs of these functions are given in Figure 1.7.2.
Again, note the continuity of these functions on their domains.
Remark 1.7.8. Let f (x) = loga x with a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then we have the following:
1. dom f = (0, +∞) and ran f = R.

f (x) = loga x f (x) = loga x

a>1 0<a<1
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
Figure 1.7.2: Graphs of Logarithmic Functions
2. f is one-to-one and continuous on (0, +∞).
3. If a > 1, then f is increasing on (0, +∞), lim loga x = +∞ and lim loga x = −∞.
x→+∞ x→0+
4. If 0 < a < 1, then f is decreasing on (0, +∞), lim loga x = −∞ and lim loga x = +∞.
x→+∞ x→0+
ic s
Table 1.7.1 gives additional properties of exponentials and logarithms.
at
R R
em
a, b > 0, r, s ∈ a, b, m, n > 0, a, b 6= 1, c ∈
a0 = 1, a1 = a
h
loga 1 = 0
at
ar as = ar+s loga a = 1
M
ar
= ar−s loga mn = loga m + loga n
as
of
m
(ar )s = ars loga = loga m − loga n
e
n
ut
(ab)x = ax bx log c
a m = c loga m
tit
a x ax 1
= x loga = − loga m
s
b b m
In
−r 1 logb m 1
a = r loga m = =
a logb a logm a
UP
Table 1.7.1: Laws of Exponents and Logarithms
Example 1.7.9. Rewrite 22x · 5x as an exponential expression with a single base.
Solution.
By the laws of exponents, we have
22x · 5x = (22 )x · 5x = 4x · 5x = (4 · 5)x = 20x .

272x
Example 1.7.10. Rewrite as an exponential expression in base 3.
(9x+2 )2−x
Solution.
Using laws of exponents, we get
272x (33 )2x (3)6x 2 2
= = = 36x−(8−2x ) = 32x +6x−8 .
(9x+2 )2−x (32 )(2+x)(2−x) (3)2(4−x2 )
Example 1.7.11. Find the exact value of log2 6 − log2 15 + log2 20.
Solution.
Because of the laws of logarithms, we have
6 (6)(20)
log2 6 − log2 15 + log2 20 = log2 + log2 20 = log2 = log2 8 = 3.
15 15
Example 1.7.12. Solve for x: 32 log3 2 − 3x+2 = 2.
Solution.
Because of the properties of logarithms, inverse functions and laws of exponents, we have
2
32 log3 2 − 3x+2 = 3log3 2 − 32 · 3x = 4 − 9 · 3x .
Therefore, the equation becomes

2 2
s
4 − 9 · 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ 9 · 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ 3x = ⇐⇒ x = log3 .
ic
9 9
at
2x + 3x
em
x→+∞ 6x h
at
Solution.
M
We recall that lim ax = 0, whenever 0 < a < 1. Thus, we get

x→+∞
of
x x
2x + 3x 2x 3x

e
1 1
ut
lim = lim + = lim + = 0.

x→+∞ 6x x→+∞ 6x 6x x→+∞ 3 2
stit
In
In the next chapter, we will compute the derivative of logarithmic functions. In doing so, the
1
existence of lim (1 + h) h is crucial. This limit exists, but advanced concepts beyond the scope
UP
h→0
of this course are needed to establish this fact rigorously. Instead, we estimate its value to a few
1
decimal places by computing (1 + h) h for values of h very near 0. The limit shall be called Euler’s
number and denoted by e.
1 1
h (1 + h) h h (1 + h) h
0.5 2.25 -0.5 4
0.1 2.593742460 -0.1 2.867971991
0.01 2.704813829 -0.01 2.731999026
0.0001 2.718145927 -0.0001 2.718417728
0.00000001 2.718281815 -0.00000001 2.718281842
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0+ e− 0− e+
1
Euler’s number e is defined as e = lim (1 + h) h .
h→0
Remark 1.7.14. The number e is irrational, and to the first 15 decimal places,
e = 2.718281828459045 . . . .
1. The natural exponential function is given by f (x) = ex .
2. The natural logarithmic function is given by f (x) = ln x = loge x.
Remark 1.7.15. Let a, b > 0 and a, b 6= 1. Then we have the following:
1. ln ex = x for all x ∈ R. x
4. ax = eln a = ex ln a = (ex )ln a for all x ∈ R.
2. eln x = x for all x > 0.
logb x ln x
3. ln e = 1. 5. loga x = = for all x > 0.
logb a ln a
Items 4 and 5 in the previous remark show that any exponential or logarithmic function can
ic s
be expressed in terms of the natural exponential function or the natural logarithmic function,
at
respectively.
Example 1.7.16. Determine the domain of f (x) =

1
1 − ex
.
h em
at
M
Solution.
of
For the function to be defined, the denominator should not be zero. Now, the denominator is zero
exactly when ex = 1, that is, x = ln 1 = 0. Hence, dom f = \ {0}. R
e
ut
Example 1.7.17. Express 3x+2 in terms of the natural exponential function.

tit
s
In
Solution.
UP
Using the remark above, we have

x+2 )
3x+2 = eln (3 = (ex+2 )ln 3 .
Example 1.7.18. Express as a single logarithm: ln 5 + 2 ln 3.
Solution.
Applying the laws of logarithms, we have
ln 5 + 2 ln 3 = ln 5 + ln 32 = ln(5)(32 ) = ln 45.
Example 1.7.19. Solve for x: ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2) = 2.
Solution.
x+1
We have ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2) = ln . Thus,
x−2
2e2 + 1

x+1 x+1
ln =2 ⇐⇒ = e2 ⇐⇒ x + 1 = e2 x − 2e2 ⇐⇒ x= .
x−2 x−2 e2 − 1
e−x − 2
x→−∞ e−x + 2
Solution.
Recall that since e > 1 we have lim ex = 0. Thus, we have
x→−∞
e−x − 2 e−x − 2 ex 1 − 2ex 1−0

lim = lim · = lim = = 1.
x→−∞ e−x + 2 x→−∞ e−x + 2 ex x→−∞ 1 + 2ex 1+0
1.7.3 Inverse Circular Functions

We now apply techniques of basic calculus to another familiar class of functions: the inverses of the
circular functions. Recall that the circular functions are periodic; a fortiori they are not one-to-one.
In order to define the inverse of each such function, we restrict the domain of each to a set over
which the corresponding circular function is one-to-one.
1. The inverse sine function, denoted sin−1 , is defined as follows:
ic s
y = sin−1 x if and only if x = sin y, y ∈ − π2 , π2 .

at
em
2. The inverse cosine function, denoted cos−1 , is defined as follows:
h
at
y = cos−1 x if and only if x = cos y, y ∈ [0, π] .
M
of
3. The inverse tangent function, denoted tan−1 , is defined as follows:

e
ut
π π
y = tan−1 x if and only if x = tan y, y ∈ − , .
tit
2 2
s
In
4. The inverse cotangent function, denoted cot−1 , is defined as follows:

UP
y = cot−1 x if and only if x = cot y, y ∈ (0, π) .
5. The inverse secant function, denoted sec−1 , is defined as follows:

h π 3π
−1
y = sec x if and only if x = sec y, y ∈ 0, ∪ π, .
2 2
6. The inverse cosecant function, denoted csc−1 , is defined as follows:

πi πi
y = csc−1 x if and only if x = csc y, y ∈ −π, − ∪ 0, .
2 2
Example 1.7.21. Evaluate the following.
√ ! √ !
3 3
1. sin−1 3. tan−1 −
2 3
√ √
2. sec−1 − 2 4. csc−1 − 2
Solution. √ !
3 π
√ ! 3. tan−1 − =−
3 π 3 6
1. sin−1 =
2 3
√ 5π √ 3π
2. sec−1 − 2 = 4. csc−1 − 2 = −
4 4
Example 1.7.22.

9π
s
−1
1. Evaluate: sin sin .
ic
7
at
em
Solution.

−1 9π −1 2π 2π h
sin sin = sin sin − =− .
at
7 7 7
M

1
2. Evaluate: sin cos−1 .
of
4
e
Solution.
ut

1 1
tit
Let k = cos−1 . Then, cos k = where k ∈ ran cos−1 = [0, π] . We may now rewrite the
4 4
s
given as
In

−1 1
sin cos = sin k.
UP
4
Solving for sin k, we have that
sin2 k = 1 − cos2 k,
and so r √
p 1 15
sin k = 1− cos2 k = 1− =
16 4
since sin k ≥ 0 for k ∈ [0, π]. Thus,
√
−1 1 15
sin cos = .
4 4
" √ !#
−1 3
3. Evaluate: sec sin .
5
Solution.
√ ! √
−1 3 3 h π πi
Let k = sin . Then, sin k = where k ∈ ran sin−1 = − , . We may now
5 5 2 2
rewrite the given as
" √ !#
−1 3
sec sin = sec k.
5
√
3
Before solving for sec k, observe that sin k = ≥ 0 indicates that k ∈ [0, π]. Thus,
h π πi h πi 5
k∈ − , ∩ [0, π] = 0, .
2 2 2
Now, solving for sec k, we have that
sec2 k = 1 + tan2 k,
so that
r
p sin2 k
sec k = 1 + tan2 k = 1 + 2
v cos k
ic s
√
s u 2
sin2 k 3/5
at
u
= 1+ = t1 + √
1 − sin2 k
2
1 − 3/5
=√
5 h em
at
22
M
h πi
since sec k > 0 for k ∈ 0, . Thus,
2
of
" √ !#
e
3 5
sec sin−1
ut
=√
5 22
s tit
In
The graphs of the inverse circular functions defined above are shown in Figure 1.7.3. From these
UP
graphs, one can predict the behavior of each inverse circular function and deduce some limit state-
ments involving them.
Example 1.7.23.
1. From the graph of tan−1 x, we can infer the following statements involving limits at infinity:
π π
lim tan−1 x = and lim tan−1 x = − .
x→ +∞ 2 x→ −∞ 2
Similarly, we infer the following from the graphs of sec−1 x and csc−1 x:
π 3π
lim sec−1 x = , lim sec−1 x = ,
x→ +∞ 2 x→ −∞ 2
lim csc−1 x = 0 and, lim csc−1 x = −π.

x→ +∞ x→ −∞
3π
y= 2
π
(1, 2
)
π
y= 2
(−1, π) f (x) = sec−1 x

f (x) = tan−1 x y= π
2
f (x) = sin−1 x
y = − π2
(−1, − π2 ) (1, 0)
π
(1, 2
)
(−1, π)
f (x) = cos−1 x y=π f (x) = csc−1 x
(−1, − π2 )
f (x) = cot−1 x
y = −π
(1, 0)
s
Figure 1.7.3: Graphs of inverse circular functions
ic
at
em
1
2. Evaluate: lim π. h
x→ +∞
tan−1 x −
at
2
M
Solution.
π π
of
Note that as x → +∞, tan−1 x approaches from values less than . Thus,
2 2
e
ut

1 1
tit
lim −1 π = −∞
x→ +∞ tan x− 2 0−
s
In
3. Evaluate: lim tan−1 (ex ).

UP
x→ −∞
Solution.
Observe from the graph of ex that lim ex = 0. Now,
x→ −∞

−1 x −1 x
lim tan (e ) = tan lim e
x→ −∞ x→ −∞
= tan−1 (0) = 0.
Passing the limit to the inner function is permissible in this situation due to the continuity of
tan−1 x at x = 0.
1.7.4 Hyperbolic Functions

We now introduce another new class of functions, arising from the natural exponential function.
They are called hyperbolic functions and have properties very similar to the circular functions.
Each circular function has a hyperbolic analogue, and we will see in Theorems 1.7.25 that identities
involving these new functions will look very much like those involving their corresponding circular
analogues.
1. The hyperbolic sine function, denoted sinh, is defined by
ex − e−x
sinh x = ,
2
for any x ∈ R.
2. The hyperbolic cosine function, denoted cosh, is defined by
ex + e−x
cosh x = ,
2
for any x ∈ R.
3. The hyperbolic tangent function, denoted tanh, is defined by
ex − e−x
s
tanh x = ,
ic
ex + e−x
at
for any x ∈ R.
h em
4. The hyperbolic cotangent function, denoted coth, is defined by
at
M
ex + e−x
coth x = ,
ex − e−x
of
for any x 6= 0.
e
ut
tit
5. The hyperbolic secant function, denoted sech, is defined by

s
2
In
sech x = ,
ex + e−x
UP
for any x ∈ R.
6. The hyperbolic cosecant function, denoted csch, is defined by
2
csch x = ,
ex − e−x
for any x 6= 0.
Example 1.7.24.
e0 − e−0 1−1
1. sinh 0 = = =0
2 2
1
eln 2 + e− ln 2 eln 2 + eln 2 2+ 1
2 5
2. cosh(ln 2) = = = =
2 2 2 4
y=1
f (x) = sinh x f (x) = tanh x

f (x) = sech x
(0, 1)
y = −1
f (x) = coth x
f (x) = csch x
y=1
y = −1
(0, 1) f (x) = cosh x
ic s
Figure 1.7.4: Graphs of hyperbolic functions
at
3. tanh(2 ln 5) = tanh(ln 25) =
eln 25 − e− ln 25
=
h em
eln 25 − eln(1/25)
=
25 − 1
25
=
624
=
312
.
at
eln 25 +e − ln 25 e ln 25 +eln( 1/25)
25 + 1 626 313
25
M
of
Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions

e
ut
tit
Theorem 1.7.25.
s
1 1 1
In
1. sech x = , csch x = , coth x =

cosh x sinh x tanh x
UP
2. tanh x =
sinh x
, coth x =
cosh x 5. cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
cosh x sinh x
3. cosh x + sinh x = e x 6. 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x
4. cosh x − sinh x = e−x 7. 1 − coth2 x = − csch2 x
8. sinh(x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
9. cosh(x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
10. sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
11. cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 1 + 2 sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x − 1
Proof. We shall prove statements 3, 5 and 8 only.

ex + e−x ex − e−x ex + e−x + ex − e−x

cosh x + sinh x = + = = ex
2 2 2
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = (cosh x + sinh x)(cosh x − sinh x) = ex · e−x = 1
ex − e−x e + e−y e + e−x e − e−y

y x y
sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y = +
2 2 2 2
ex+y +e x−y −e −x+y −e −x−y +e x+y −e x−y + e−x+y − e−x−y
=
4
2e x+y − 2e −x−y e x+y −e −(x+y)
= = = sinh(x + y)
4 2
12
Example 1.7.26. If tanh x = , find the values of the other hyperbolic functions of x.
13
Solution.
13
s
We readily have coth x = . Now, since sech x > 0 for all x, using the identities above we obtain
ic
12
at
s
em
2
p
2 12 5
sech x = 1 − tanh x = 1 − = .
h13 13
at
13
M
This implies that cosh x = . Using another identity, we get

5
of
12 13 12
e
sinh x = tanh x cosh x = · = .

ut
13 5 5
tit
5
Finally, we get csch x = .
s
12
In
UP
Why they are called Hyperbolic Functions
In the same way that points with coordinates (cos t, sin t) are on the unit circle, the points with
coordinates (cosh t, sinh t) are on the unit hyperbola, which has equation x2 − y 2 = 1. In particular,
they are on the right “branch” of the hyperbola. Those on the other branch have coordinates
(− cosh t, sinh t). See Figure 1.7.5.
(cos t, sin t)
(cosh t, sinh t)
x2 − y 2 = 1
x2 + y 2 = 1
Figure 1.7.5: Circular functions versus Hyperbolic functions

Applications of Hyperbolic Functions
As mentioned earlier, hyperbolic functions have several applications, such as understanding the
behavior of hanging cables, electric current, and waves. A telephone or electrical wire suspended
between fixed ends at the same height forms a curve described by a function involving the hyperbolic
cosine function. We clarify that the graph of y = a cosh[b(x − c)] + d is not a parabola, but is
a catenary, from the Latin word catena for chain. In fact, it can be shown that a catenary
always outgrows a parabola having the same vertex and opening in the same direction. Hyperbolic
functions are also used in describing current flow in electrical wires. Similarly, the hyperbolic
tangent function is used in models describing the velocity of (idealized) ocean waves.
1.7.5 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

We recall that the inverse of a function can be defined only when the function is one-to-one. Among
the hyperbolic functions, only the hyperbolic cosine and secant functions are not one-to-one. We
restrict the domain of these functions to [0, +∞), on which the two functions become one-to-one.
ic s
Now, we may define an inverse function for each hyperbolic function. The graphs of the inverse
at
hyperbolic functions, obtained by reflecting about the line y = x the graphs of the corresponding
hyperbolic functions, are given in Figure 1.7.6.
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
f (x) = tanh−1 x
f (x) = sech−1 x
s
In
f (x) = sinh−1 x
UP
x = −1 x=1 (1, 0)
f (x) = csch−1 x
f (x) = cosh−1 x f (x) = coth−1 x
(1, 0) x = −1 x=1
Figure 1.7.6: Graphs of inverse hyperbolic functions
Since the hyperbolic functions are constructed using exponential functions, we expect that their
inverses can be written in terms of logarithms. In fact, the following hold.
Theorem 1.7.27.
√
R

1. sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 for all x ∈
√
2. cosh−1 x = ln x + x2 − 1 for all x ∈ [1, +∞)

−1 1+x 1
3. tanh for all x ∈ (−1, 1)
x = ln
1−x 2

−1 1 x+1
4. coth x = ln for all x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞)
2 x−1
√ !
−1 1 + 1 − x2
5. sech x = ln for all x ∈ (0, 1)
x
√ !
6. csch −1
x = ln
1
x
+
1 + x2
|x|
for all x ∈ R\{0}
ic s
√
at
Example 1.7.28. Prove that sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1).
Proof. Let y = sinh−1 x. Then sinh y = x, and h em

at
ey − e−y
M
x=
2
of
2xey = e2y − 1
e
0 = (ey )2 − 2x (ey ) − 1
ut
p
2x ± (−2x)2 − 4(1)(−1)
tit
y
e =
2
s
In
p
y 2
e =x± x +1
UP
p p
ey = x + x2 + 1, since ey > 0, whereas x − x2 + 1 < 0 .
√
Finally, taking the natural logarithm of both sides yields y = ln x + x2 + 1 .
Example 1.7.29. Find the numerical value of the following.
1. cosh−1 1 3. sinh−1 1

−1 5 −1 3
2. coth 4. sech
4 5
Solution.
√
1. cosh−1 (1) = ln 1 + 1 − 12 = ln 1 = 0
! !
5 9
−1 5 1 4 +1 1 4 1
2. coth = ln 5 = ln 1 = ln 9 = ln 3
4 2 4 −1 2 4
2
√ √
3. sinh−1 (1) = ln 1 + 1 + 12 = ln 1 + 2
 q 
3 2
! !
1 + 1− 4 9

3 5 1+
4. sech−1 = ln  3
 = ln 3
5
= ln 5
3 = ln 3
5 5 5 5
Example 1.7.30.
1. Observe from the graph of tanh−1 that the following hold:
lim tanh−1 x = +∞, and lim tanh−1 x = −∞.

x→ 1− x→ 1+
−1
2. Evaluate: lim ecoth x
.
x→ −∞
Solution.
Observe from the graph of ex that lim ex = 0. Furthermore, ex is continuous on R. Thus,
x→ −∞
s
we have:
ic
at
coth−1 x
lim coth−1 x
em
lim e = ex→ −∞
x→ −∞
= e0
h
at
= 1.
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.7.6 Exercises
lim ln(7x3 − x2 )

A. 1. lim 3e1/x + 2sin x 10.
x→+∞
x→0+
4 −x2 +1
2. lim ex 11. lim cot−1 (ln x)
x→−∞ x→0+
4x 2x −2x

3. lim e −e + 2e 12. lim cos−1 (x − 1)
x→+∞
x→+∞
e6x + 2e−2x − 8e −3x

4. lim
sec−1

x→−∞
−1
2ex − 1 13. lim sin
5. lim x→+∞ π
x→+∞ ex + 2
lim csc−1 ex + x2

5x 14.
x→−∞
6. lim x
x→+∞ 3 + 4x
4x + 2 x 15. lim sec−1 (1/x)
7. lim x x→0−
s
x→−∞ 8 − 2x
ic
2 tan−1 2x

4e4x − e−2x
at
8. lim 16. lim sec
x→+∞ 3
em
x→+∞ 6e4x − e2x + 3e−x
4e4x − e−2x h 1
9. lim 17. lim
x→−∞ 6e4x − e2x + 3e−x x→−∞ π + 2 tan−1 x
at
M
cosh x 7. lim coth(x3 − x + 2)

of
B. 1. lim x→−∞
x→+∞ ex
e
x
8. lim tanh csch−1 (sinh−1 x)

2. lim e sinh x
ut
x→−∞ x→0−
tit
3. lim sinh(2x) sech(4x) −1

x→+∞ 9. lim 2csch x
s
x→0−
In
3 csch(3x)
4. lim
x→−∞ 2 sech(2x) 10. lim ln(sech−1 x)
UP
x→0+
5. lim sec−1 (csch x)
x→0+ csch−1 x
−1
1
6. lim tan (cosh x) 11. lim
x→−∞ x→0 + 2
A. Find the exact value of the following.
1. log3 100 − log3 18 − log3 50 5. sech(ln 2)

2. 22 log2 3
+ ln(− ln ee )
− e−2 ln 2
6. sinh(3 ln 2 − ln 4)
csc−1 (−4)

3. tan
2 7. cosh(ln 5 + ln 6)

−1 1 −1 3
4. sin tan − − sec 8. tanh−1 0.5
4 2
B. Given below is a value of the hyperbolic function of a positive number x. Find the exact
value of the remaining five hyperbolic functions of x.
1. sinh x = 2 7
3. coth x =
25
s
15 4
ic
2. cosh x = 4. sech x =
at
8 5
C. Establish the following identities. h em

at
M
1. tanh(x + y) =
tanh x + tanh y 3. cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x − 3 cosh x
1 + tanh x tanh y
of
r
1 + tanh x x 1 + cosh x
e
2. e2x = 4. cosh =
ut
1 − tanh x 2 2
tit
D. Do as indicated.
s
In
1. Find the domain of

UP
√
a. f (x) = sin(e−x ) b. g(x) = 2 − 2x
h
f (x + h) − f (x) 5 −1
2. If f (x) = 5x ,
show that =5x .
h h
3. Find the exponential function f (x) = Cax whose graphs passes (1, 6) and (3, 24).
4. Show that the horizontal lines y = 1 and y = −1 are asymptotes of y = tanh x and
y = coth x.
5. Show that the graph of y = sech x is asymptotic to the x-axis.
6. If x = ln(sec s + tan s), show that sec s = cosh x.
Reviewer
I. Evaluate the following limits.
√
5 − x2 − 1 x−9 x
1. lim 2 5. lim 2
+
x→2 x − 3x + 2 x→−2− 2x + 3x − 2 x + 2
√
2x2 − 7 − 1 1 3
2. lim 6. lim 2
− 2
x→2 x2 − x − 2 x→−3+ x − 9 3x + 8x − 9
8x + 3 tan(x2 − x − 2)
3. lim √ 7. lim
x→−∞ 2x − 4x2 + 1 x→2 (x − 2) cosh(x − 2)
1 − 3x sin(y 2 − y)
4. lim √ 8. lim
x→−∞ 4x2 − 3 − 3x x→0+ y(21/y )
II. Determine if the following functions are continuous or discontinuous at the given values of
x. If discontinuous, classify the type of discontinuity as removable, jump essential, or infinite
s
essential.
ic
at
 2
x −1
 |x + 1| ,
 if x ≤ 0
em


1. f (x) = [[2x − 1]], if 0 < x ≤ 1 at x = −1, 0, and 1.
h

at


sin(ln x), if x > 1

M
√ 2
 x + 5, if x < 0
of

x



if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 at x = 0, 12 , and 1.
e
2. g(x) = [[2x − 2]],

ut
 2x2 − 5x + 3


tit

 , if x > 1
|1 − x|
s
In
 2
x + 2x
 |x + 2| ,


 if x ≤ −1
UP
3. h(x) = [[2x + 1]],


 if − 1 < x ≤ 0 at x = −2, −1, and 0.

ln(2 − cos x), if x > 0

III. Suppose that the graph of y = f (x) is given by the figure below.
1. Evaluate lim f (x).

4 x→2−
2. Identify the type of discontinuity

3
(removable, jump essential or infinite
essential) at x = 2.
2
3. Evaluate lim f (x).

1 x→+∞
4. TRUE or FALSE: The line y = 3 is

−1 1 2 3 4 a horizontal asymptote of the graph of
y = f (x).
−1
IV. Use Intermediate Value Theorem to show that each of the following functions has a root on
the given interval.
1. f (x) = x3 − 3x − 1 on [0, 2]
1
2. g(x) = x6 − 6x + on (−∞, 0)
x−6
x √
3. h(x) = 2 log3 + 3x on (0, 3)
3
V. Use Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.
1. lim sin x csch x

x→+∞
ex (sin x + cos x)
2. lim
x→−∞ x
sin x cos x
3. lim
x→−∞ x(4/5)x
VI. Evaluate the following limits.
ic s
at
ex

−1 5. lim 3tanh x
1. lim cos
em
x→+∞
x→0 2
6. lim cot π 1/x
2. lim tan−1 (log5 x)
h
x→0−
at
x→1
1
M
3. lim log 1 (x2 − 9) 7. lim cosh

x→−3− 2 x→0+ ln x
of
lim tan−1 cosh−1 x

4. lim ln(sinh x) 8.
e
x→0+ x→+∞
ut
stit
In
UP
Chapter 2
Derivatives and Differentiation
2.1 Slopes, the Derivative, and Basic Differentiation Rules

In this section, we extend the notion of a tangent line to a circle to other curves at a point. Recall
from Euclidean Geometry that a line tangent to a circle is a line that intersects the circle at exactly
s
one point. However, in a more general sense, a line tangent to a curve may intersect the curve at
ic
at
points other than the point of tangency.
h em
at
M
• find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of a function at a given point;
of
• define and interpret the derivative of a function at a given point;

e
ut
• compute the derivatives of algebraic functions using power rule, sum/difference

tit
rule, product rule, quotient rule; and

s
In
• differentiate functions involving trigonometric functions;

UP
2.1.1 The Tangent Line

`
y = f (x)
Given a function f (x), we want to define the equation of P
the tangent line ` at a point, say P (x0 , f (x0 )) on the graph
of y = f (x).
Figure 2.1.1
To do this, we need to find the slope of this tangent line. Consider another point Q(x1 , f (x1 )) on
←→
the graph of y = f (x). Form the secant line P Q.
79
80 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION
←→
Q Then P Q has slope
f (x1 )
y = f (x)
)
∆y f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
P m←→ = .
f (x0 ) | {z }
PQ x1 − x0
∆x
Letting ∆x = x1 − x0 , the above expression is
equivalent to
x0 x1
Figure 2.1.2 f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
m←→ =
PQ
.
∆x
`
y = f (x)
Now, imagine the point Q moving along the curve y = f (x)
P
toward P .
As Q approaches P , the secant line approaches an object in
ic s
the plane. This object coincides with the line `.
at
em
Figure 2.1.3
We define the slope m of the line ` to be the limit of the slope m←

h
→ of the secant line as Q gets
at
PQ
closer and closer to P and call ` the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We have
M
of
m = lim m←→.
PQ
Q→P
e
ut
Observe that as Q → P , x1 → x0 and so ∆x = x1 − x0 → 0. Hence,

tit
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )

s
m = lim .
In
∆x→0 ∆x
UP
If the function f is defined on an open interval containing x = x0 , then the tangent line to the
graph of f at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )) is the line
1. passing through P whose slope is given by
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )

m = lim ,
∆x→0 ∆x
provided that this limit exists.
2. with equation x = x0 if
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )

lim = +∞ or − ∞ and
∆x→0− ∆x
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
lim = +∞ or − ∞.
∆x→0+ ∆x
Otherwise, there is no tangent line to the graph of f at P .

2.1. SLOPES, THE DERIVATIVE, AND BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 81
Remark 2.1.1.
1. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at P gives us an idea of the “flatness” or
“steepness” of the graph of f at P and whether the graph of f rises or falls at P . See Figure
2.1.4.
2. The tangent line to the graph of a function may intersect the graph at points other than the
point of tangency as shown in Figure 2.1.5.
P
` TL
NL
0
Figure 2.1.5 Figure 2.1.6
0 Figure 2.1.4
The normal line to the graph of f at the point P is the line perpendicular to the tangent line at
s
P . (See Figure 2.1.6.)
ic
at
1
em
Example 2.1.2. Give equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the graph of f (x) =
x
at x = 1. h
at
M
Solution.
Let mT L denote the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = 1. We have
of
e
f (1 + ∆x) − f (1)
ut
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
tit
1
− 1
= lim 1+∆x
s
∆x
In
∆x→0
1 − (1 + ∆x)
= lim
UP
∆x→0 ∆x(1 + ∆x)

−∆x 0
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x(1 + ∆x) 0
−1
= lim
∆x→0 1 + ∆x
= −1
Thus, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x1 at (1, 1) is y − 1 = −(x − 1). Now,
since mT L = −1, the slope of the normal line is 1 and hence, the equation of the normal line to the
graph of f (x) = x1 at x = 1 is y − 1 = (x − 1), or simply y = x.
Example 2.1.3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) = x2 + 2 at x = 1 and at
x = 2.
Solution.
At x = 1 the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) is
g(1 + ∆x) − g(1)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[(1 + ∆x)2 + 2] − (12 + 2)

= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[1 + 2∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − 3
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
2∆x + (∆x)2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
∆x(2 + ∆x)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
= lim (2 + ∆x)
∆x→0
= 2.
On the other hand, at x = 2 the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) is
g(2 + ∆x) − g(2)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[(2 + ∆x)2 + 2] − (22 + 2)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
s
[4 + 4∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − 6
ic
= lim
at
∆x→0 ∆x
em
4∆x + (∆x)2
= lim
∆x
∆x→0
h
at
= lim (4 + ∆x)
M
∆x→0
= 4.
of
e
ut
In fact, we can compute for the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) for any value of x.
tit
We have
s
g(x + ∆x) − g(x)

In
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
UP
[(x + ∆x)2 + 2] − (x2 + 2)

= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[x2 + 2x∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − (x2 + 2)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
2x∆x + (∆x) 2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
= lim (2x + ∆x)
∆x→0
= 2x.
Using this formula, we see that the slope at x = 1 is 2 · 1 = 2 while the slope at x = 2 is 2 · 2 = 4,
which agree with the preceding calculations.
2.1.2 Definition of the Derivative

In the previous example, we obtained a function that gives the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of a function g(x) at any value of x. This function shall be called the derivative of g(x).
The derivative of a function f (x), denoted f 0 (x), is the function
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x
It is defined at all points x in the domain of f where the limit exists.
Remark 2.1.4.
1. Hence, from the definition, dom f 0 ⊆ dom f since there may be points x0 ∈ dom f at which
f 0 (x0 ) does not exist.
2. The definition also tells us that f 0 (x0 ) is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function
at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )).
3. To get the derivative of f at x = x0 , we use
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )

f 0 (x0 ) = lim .
ic s
∆x→0 ∆x
at
Alternatively, by setting ∆x = x − x0 , we have
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
h em
f (x) − f (x0 )
.
at
x→x0 x − x0
M
dy d
of
4. Other notations: y 0 if y = f (x), , [f (x)] , Dx [f (x)].

dx dx
e
ut
5. The process of computing the derivative is called differentiation.

tit
Example 2.1.5. If g(x) = x2 + 2, then, following the computations in the previous example, we
s
In
have g 0 (x) = 2x.

UP
√
Example 2.1.6. Find the derivative of f (x) = x.
Solution.
Using the definition of the derivative, we have
√ √ √ √ √ √
0 x + ∆x − x x + ∆x − x x + ∆x + x
f (x) = lim = lim ·√ √
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x x + ∆x + x
(x + ∆x) − x 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √
∆x→0 ∆x( x + ∆x + x) ∆x→0 x + ∆x + x 2 x
1
Thus, f 0 (x) = √ . Note that dom f = [0, +∞) while dom f 0 = (0, +∞).
2 x
2.1.3 Differentiability
This part discusses what it means for a function to be differentiable. We start with the following
definition.
1. A function f is said to be differentiable at x = x0 if the derivative f 0 (x0 ) exists.
2. A function f is differentiable on (a, b) if f is differentiable at every real number in (a, b).
3. A function f is differentiable everywhere if it is differentiable at every real number.
√ 1 √
Example 2.1.7. From the preceding example, Dx [ x ] = √ and so f (x) = x is differentiable
2 x
at any positive real number x. Also, f is not differentiable at x = 0.
Example 2.1.8. It will be shown later that if f (x) is a polynomial, a rational, or a trigonometric
function, then f (x) is differentiable on its domain.
2.1.4 Techniques of Differentiation

The previous section introduced a method of differentiation using Definition 2.1.2. The drawback
s
ic
of such a method is that the process involved is tedious, even for the differentiation of relatively
at
simple functions such as in Example 2.1.2. The theorems introduced in this chapter will greatly
of algebraic and some transcendental functions.

h em
simplify the process of finding the derivative of a function, by providing formulas for the derivatives
at
M
Differentiation Rules
of
e
The following theorem introduces basic rules in finding the derivative of a function.
ut
tit
Theorem 2.1.9. Let f and g be functions and c ∈ R.

s
In
1. If f (x) = c ∈ R, then f 0(x) = 0.

UP
2. (Power Rule) If f (x) = xn , where n ∈ Q, then f 0(x) = nxn−1.

3. If f (x) = c · g(x), then f 0 (x) = c · g 0 (x) if g 0 (x) exists.
4. (Sum Rule) If h(x) = f (x) ± g(x), then h0 (x) = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x), provided both f 0 (x) and
g 0 (x) exist.
5. (Product Rule) If h(x) = f (x)g(x), then h0 (x) = f 0 (x)g(x)+f (x)g 0 (x), provided f 0 (x)
and g 0 (x) both exist.
f (x) g(x)f 0 (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
6. (Quotient Rule) If h(x) = , where g(x) 6= 0, then h0 (x) = ,
g(x) [g(x)]2
provided f 0 (x) and g 0 (x) both exist.
Proof. We show the proof of the first two statements only.

c−c 0
1. Dx [c] = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0
2. We make use of the Binomial Theorem1 in the proof of statement 2.
(x + ∆x)n − xn
Dx [xn ] = lim
∆x→0
∆x
n(n−1) n−2
xn + nxn−1 ∆x + 2 x ∆x2 + . . . + nx∆xn−1 + ∆xn − xn
= lim
∆x→0
∆x
n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 n−2 n−1
= lim nx + x ∆x + . . . + nx∆x + ∆x
∆x→0 2
= nxn−1
Example 2.1.10.
1. Dx [x5 ] = 5x5−1 = 5x4
ic s
2. Dx [(2x)5 ] = Dx [32x5 ] = 32 · 5x4 = 160x4 (Note that the derivative is not 5(2x)4 which is 80x4 .)
at
em
d √ d d 4√ d
3. [2x4 − 45 x + 7] = [2x4 ] − x + [7] = 8x3 − 4
· 1
√ + 0 = 8x3 − 2
√ .
dx dx dx 5 dx h 5 2 x 5 x
at
4. If y = (x − 3)(2x2 − 3), then y = 2x3 − 6x2 − 3x + 9 and so y 0 = 6x2 − 12x − 3.
M
of
5. Alternatively, we may also use the Product Rule. Thus,

Dx [(x − 3)(2x2 − 3)] = (1)(2x2 − 3) + (x − 3)(4x) = 2x2 − 3 + 4x2 − 12x = 6x2 − 12x − 3.
e
ut
d √
tit
4
6. [(3x5 + 6x 3 − 2)(4x3 − 5 3 x)]
dx
s
1 √ 4 2
In
= (15x4 + 8x 3 )(4x3 − 5 3 x) + (3x5 + 6x 3 − 2)(12x2 − 5 · 31 x− 3 ).

UP
2x3 − x−3 + 4 (3x − 5)(6x2 + 3x−4 ) − (2x3 − x−3 + 4)(3)

7. If f (x) = , then f 0 (x) = .
3x − 5 (3x − 5)2
√ (2x3 − 4√x − 3x)(8x3 − √1 ) − (2x4 − √x + 2)(6x2 − √2 − 3)
2x4 − x + 2

d 2 x x
8. √ = √ .
dx 2x3 − 4 x − 3x (2x3 − 4 x − 3x)2
Remark 2.1.11.
1. Using items 1 to 4 of Theorem 2.1.9, one can show that the derivative of a polynomial function is
also a polynomial function. This means that a polynomial function is differentiable everywhere.
2. From the first item and the Quotient Rule, one can deduce that a rational function is differen-
tiable on its domain.
!
n n
1 n
xn−k y k
P
Binomial Theorem: If n is a positive integer, then (x + y) =
k=0 k
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
At this point, we know how to differentiate polynomial functions, rational functions, and functions
involving radicals. We now present formulas for the derivatives of trigonometric functions.
Theorem 2.1.12.
1. Dx [sin x] = cos x 4. Dx [cot x] = − csc2 x
2. Dx [cos x] = − sin x 5. Dx [sec x] = sec x tan x
3. Dx [tan x] = sec2 x 6. Dx [csc x] = − csc x cot x
Proof. We will prove statement 1 only. Statement 2 can be proved similarly, while items 3–6 can
be proved using items 1 and 2, and the product and quotient rules.
sin(x + ∆x) − sin x
Dx [sin x] = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
ic s
sin x cos(∆x) + cos x sin(∆x) − sin x
= lim
at
∆x→0 ∆x
em

sin(∆x) 1 − cos(∆x)
= lim cos x · − sin x ·
∆x ∆x
∆x→0
h
at
= (cos x)(1) − (sin x)(0)
M
= cos x
of
e
ut
Remark 2.1.13.
s tit
1. The formulas in the previous theorems consider trigonometric functions as real–valued functions.
In
Thus, whenever these formulas are applied to problems where trigonometric functions are viewed
UP
as functions on angles, the measure of an angle must be in radians.
2. Observe that the derivative of a trigonometric function is either another trigonometric function
or a product of trigonometric functions. That means that a trigonometric function is differen-
tiable where its derivative is defined. Moreover, observe that the domains of a trigonometric
function and its derivative are the same. Hence, a trigonometric function is differentiable on its
domain.
Example 2.1.14.
d
1. [3 sin x − 7 cos x] = 3 cos x + 7 sin x
dx
2. Dx [sec x csc x] = (sec x tan x)(csc x) + (sec x)(− csc x cot x)
cot x − x (1 + tan x)(− csc2 x − 1) − (cot x − x)(sec2 x)
3. If f (x) = , then f 0 (x) =
1 + tan x (1 + tan x)2
4. Dx [sin(2x)] = Dx [2 sin x cos x] = 2·(cos x·cos x+sin x·(− sin x)) = 2(cos2 x−sin2 x) = 2 cos(2x)
2.1.5 Exercises
dy
A. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx
1. y = 2x4 − 3x2 + x − 1 4 − x2
√ 6. y = √
1 8 3 x + tan x
2. y = 6 3 x − 2 + √
x x
√
3. y = x3 cos x cos x + π
7. y =
5 2x − x33
4. y = − sec x csc x
x

√ √
2 2 x x
5. y = x − 2 ( 3 x − cos x) 8. y = 5
x x + sin x
B. Miscellaneous Exercises.
1. Determine the equation of the normal line to the graph of g(x) = 2 sin x + tan x at the
ic s
point where x = π3 .
at
2. Find all the points on the graph of y = (x − 2)2 at which the tangent line is perpendicular
to the line with equation 2x − y + 2 = 0. h em
at
M
dy
of

dx
e
ut
√
1. y = 5 sin x − 2 cot x
tit
2x3 csc x + x − 2
5. y =
2. y = (2x2 + 5x − 2)(3x − 7) (sin x + 1)(x cos x − 1)
s
In
2x + 1 √
3. y = 6. y = (x2 − 2x + 2)(sin x − x)(2 + cos x)
UP
csc x
√

x sin x − x 5 1
x3 − x4 + 5x5 (sin x + csc x)

7. y = 2
x − 3
4. y = 5
x cot x − 5 x
7 3
B. Given f (5) = 5 , f 0 (5) = − , g(5) = , and g 0 (5) = −8 , determine
2 2
1. (f − g)0 (5)
f 0
3. (5)
g
g 0
2. (f · g)0 (5) 4. (5)
f
C. Miscellaneous Exercises.
1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 2x3 + 1 at x = −1.
2. Determine the values of a and b so that the line with equation 2x + y = b is tangent to the
graph of y = ax2 when x = 2.
2.2 The Chain Rule, and more on Differentiability

The previous section introduced formulas for differentiating a large scope of algebraic functions.
But there are many types of functions which do not neatly fall into one category. For instance, how
√
can the function f (x) = x2 − 1 be differentiated? The formulas provided in the previous section
do not cover function compositions.
This section provides techniques for differentiation of compositions of functions. We also tackle
the geometric implications of differentiability and non-differentiability, and discuss the notion of a
higher-order derivative.
By the end of this section, the student will be able to
• differentiate using the chain rule;
• differentiate implicitly defined functions of one variable;
• discuss the differentiability and continuity of a function; and
ics
• find higher order derivatives of a function.
at
h em
at
2.2.1 The Chain Rule
M
Recall that in the previous section, to differentiate sin 2x, an identity was used to write it in terms
of
of sin x and cos x. The following theorem allows us to differentiate a given function, a composite
e
function in particular, without having to write it as a product or quotient of basic functions.

ut
s tit
Theorem 2.2.1 (Chain Rule). If the function g is differentiable at x = x0 and the function f
In
is differentiable at g(x0 ), then (f ◦ g)(x) is differentiable at x = x0 and

UP
(f ◦ g)0 (x0 ) = f 0 (g(x0 )) · g 0 (x0 ).
Remark 2.2.2. The chain rule can also be stated in the following manner:
dy dy du
If y = f (u) and u = g(x) , then = · or Dx [f (u)] = f 0 (u)Dx [u] .
dx du dx
Example 2.2.3.
1. Find Dx [(2x)5 ].
Solution.
Note that (2x)5 = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = x5 and g(x) = 2x. We have f 0 (x) = 5x4 and
g 0 (x) = 2. Using chain the rule,
Dx [(2x)5 ] = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = 5[g(x)]4 · 2 = 10(2x)4 .

√
2. Find h0 (x) if h(x) = x2 − 1.
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 89
Solution.
√ √ 1
Note that x2 − 1 = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 − 1. We have that f 0 (x) = √
2 x
and g 0 (x) = 2x. Using the chain rule,
1 2x
h0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = √ · 2x = √ .
2 x2 − 1 2 x2 − 1
3. Find Dx [sin(2x)].
Solution.
We have sin(2x) = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = sin x and g(x) = 2x. So, f 0 (x) = cos x and g 0 (x) = 2
and by the chain rule,
Dx [sin(2x)] = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = (cos[g(x)]) · (2) = 2 cos(2x).
4. Find h0 (x) if h(x) = 2 cos(x2 ).
ic s
Solution.
at
em
Note that h(x) = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = 2 cos x and g(x) = x2 . Now, f 0 (x) = 2(− sin x) =
−2 sin x and g 0 (x) = 2x. Using chain the rule,
h
at
M
h0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = (−2 sin g(x)) · (2x) = −4x sin(x2 ).

of
dy √
5. Find if y = x3 − tan x.
e
dx
ut
tit
Solution.
√
s
u and u = x3 − tan x. Thus,

In
We let y =
UP
dy dy du 1 3x2 − sec2 x
= · = √ · (3x2 − sec2 x) = √ .
dx du dx 2 u 2 x3 − tan x
Remark 2.2.4.
1. The chain rule can also be extended to a finite composition of functions. To illustrate,
(f1 ◦ f2 ◦ f3 ◦ f4 )0 (x) = f10 ((f2 ◦ f3 ◦ f4 )(x)) · f20 ((f3 ◦ f4 )(x)) · f30 (f4 (x)) · f40 (x)
2. When computing derivatives using chain rule, we don’t actually write out the functions f and
g as in the previous examples, but we bear them in mind. It may help to keep in mind:
“The derivative of f (g(x)) is the derivative of the outside function evaluated at the inside func-
tion times the derivative of the inside function.“
Example 2.2.5.
1. Dx [(3x2 − x − 6)27 ] = 27(3x2 − x − 6)26 · Dx [3x2 − x − 6] = 27(3x2 − x − 6)26 · (6x − 1)

2. If y = (2x − 1)100 (2 − x)200 then

dy
= 100(2x − 1)99 · (2) · (2 − x)200 + (2x − 1)100 · 200(2 − x)199 · (−1)
dx
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 [200(2 − x) − 200(2x − 1)]
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 [400 − 200x − 400x + 200)]
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 (600 − 600x)
= 600(1 − x)(2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199
√ 5 3 5

− · 2 + 2)3 · (5x 2 ) − (2x 2 + 2)4 · √1 · 2 + csc x cot x
" 5
#
(2x +
2 2)4 ( 2x csc x) 4(2x 2 2x
3. Dx √ = √
2x − csc x ( 2x − csc x)2
d d
4. [sec(cos x)] = sec(cos x) tan(cos x) · [cos x] = sec(cos x) tan(cos x) · (− sin x)
dx dx
3 3 3 3 1
5. Dx [cos2 (cot 4x 2 )] = 2 cos(cot 4x 2 ) · (− sin(cot 4x 2 )) · (− csc2 4x 2 ) · (6x 2 )
s
2.2.2 Derivatives from the Left and from the Right
ic
at
In testing for continuity of piecewise-defined functions at the endpoints, it is necessary to check
em
one-sided limits. Similarly, testing differentiability may involve one-sided derivatives defined below.
Let the function f (x) be defined at x = x0 .
h
at
1. The derivative from the left of f (x) at x = x0 , denoted by f−0 (x0 ), is given by
M
of
f (x) − f (x0 )
f−0 (x0 ) = lim .
e
x→x− x − x0
ut
0
tit
2. The derivative from the right of f (x) at x = x0 , denoted by f+0 (x0 ), is given by
s
In
f (x) − f (x0 )
f+0 (x0 ) = lim .
UP
x→x+
0
x − x0
Remark 2.2.6.
1. In Definition 2.2.2, it is necessary that the function f is defined at x0 . Otherwise, the limit
expressions do not make sense.
2. The derivative from the left [right] is also referred to as the left-hand derivative [right-hand
derivative], or simply left derivative [right derivative].
3. The function f is differentiable at x = x0 if and only if f−0 (x0 ) and f+0 (x0 ) exist and
f−0 (x0 ) = f+0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ).
Example 2.2.7. Determine if f (x) = |x| is differentiable at x = 0.
Solution.
We compute the derivatives from the left and from the right at x = 0.
f (x) − f (0) f (x) − f (0)

f−0 (0) = lim f+0 (0) = lim
x→0− x x→0+ x
(−x) − 0 x−0
= lim = lim
x→0− x x→0+ x
= −1 = 1
Since f−0 (0) 6= f+0 (0), the function f (x) is not differentiable at x = 0.
(
1 2
Example 2.2.8. Determine if f (x) = 2 x +√24 , x < 4
is differentiable at x = 4.
16 x , x ≥ 4
Solution.
We compute the derivatives from the left and from the right at x = 4.
f (x) − f (4) f (x) − f (4)

f−0 (4) = lim f+0 (4) = lim
x→4− x−4 x→4+ √x − 4
( 12 x2 + 24) − 32 16 x − 32
s
= lim = lim
ic
x→4− x−4 x→4+ x√− 4
at
1 2
2 x − 8 16( x − 2)
= lim = lim
em
x→4− x−4 x→4+ x−4
1 (x + 4)(x − 4) h x−4
= lim = lim 16 √
at
x→4− 2 x−4 x→4+ (x − 4) x + 2
1 16
M
= lim (x + 4) = lim √
x→4− 2 x→4+ x+2
of
= 4 = 4
e
Since f−0 (4) = f+0 (4) = 4, the function f (x) is differentiable at x = 4. Moreover, f 0 (4) = 4.
ut
tit
2.2.3 Differentiability and Continuity

s
In
In applications that we will tackle later, functions that are used to model quantities and relationships
UP
are assumed to be continuous and/or differentiable on certain intervals. The following presents a
link between continuity and differentiability.
Theorem 2.2.9. If f is differentiable at x = x0 , then f is continuous at x = x0 .
Remark 2.2.10.
1. If f is discontinuous at x = x0 , then f is not differentiable at x = x0 .
2. If f is continuous at x = x0 , it does not mean that f is differentiable at x = x0 .
3. If f is not differentiable at x = x0 , it does not mean that f is not continuous at x = x0 .
Example 2.2.11. The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 but is not differentiable at x = 0.
We present a theorem that is especially useful in determining whether a piecewise-defined function

f is differentiable at x = x0 .
Theorem 2.2.12.
1. If f is continuous at x = x0 from the left and lim f 0 (x) exists, then

x→x−
0
f−0 (x0 ) = lim f 0 (x).

x→x−
0
2. If f is continuous at x = x0 from the right and lim f 0 (x) exists, then

x→x+
0
f+0 (x0 ) = lim f 0 (x).

x→x+
0
Example 2.2.13. Determine if the following function is differentiable at x = −1:

(
x2 , x < −1
f (x) =
s
−1 − 2x , x ≥ −1
ic
at
em
Solution.
First, we check the continuity of f (x) at x = −1. Note that f (−1) = 1 and
h lim f (x) =
x→−1−
at
lim f (x) = 1, and thus, f (x) is continuous at x = −1. Next, we determine the derivative from
M
x→−1+
the left and derivative from the right at x = −1. We obtain
of
(
e
2x , x < −1
ut
f 0 (x) =
−2 , x > −1
s tit
and thus, f−0 (−1) = lim f 0 (x) = 2(−1) = −2, while f+0 (−1) = lim f 0 (x) = −2. Finally, since
In
x→−1− x→−1+
f−0 (−1) = f+0 (−1), f (x) is differentiable at x = −1.
UP
Example 2.2.14. Determine if the following function is differentiable at x = 1:

(
x2 + x + 2 , x ≤ 1
g(x) =
3x , x > 1
Solution.
It can be shown that g is discontinuous at x = 1. However, note that
(
2x + 1 , x < 1
g 0 (x) = ,
3 , x>1
and thus, lim g 0 (x) = 3 and lim g 0 (x) = 3. Although lim g 0 (x) = lim g 0 (x), we cannot
x→1− x→1+ x→1− x→1+
conclude that the function is differentiable at x = 1. (Why?) In fact, g is not differentiable at
x = 1. (Why?)
2.2.4 Graphical Consequences of Differentiability and Non-differentiability

Geometrically, if f is differentiable at x = x0 , then the graph of f has a non-vertical tangent line
at x = x0 . The following remark gives the most commonly encountered circumstances for which f
fails to be differentiable at a value x = x0 .
Remark 2.2.15. A function f is not differentiable at x = x0 if one of the following is true:
1. f is discontinuous at x = x0 (see Figure 2.2.1)
2. the graph of f has a vertical tangent line at x = x0 (see Figure 2.2.2)
3. the graph of f has no well–defined tangent line at x = x0 , i.e., the graph of f has a corner, edge
or cusp at x = x0 (see Figure 2.2.3).
s
ic
at
x0 x0 x0
em
Figure 2.2.1 Figure 2.2.2 Figure 2.2.3
h
at
2.2.5 Higher Order Derivatives
M
If the derivative f 0 of a function f is itself differentiable, then the derivative of f 0 is called the
of
second derivative of f and is denoted f 00 . We can continue to obtain the third derivative, f 000 ,
e
ut
the fourth derivative, f (4) , and even higher derivatives of f as long as we have differentiability.
tit
The n-th derivative of the function f , denoted by f (n) , is the derivative of the (n − 1)-th
s
derivative of f , that is,

In
f (n−1) (x + ∆x) − f (n−1) (x)

UP
f (n) (x) = lim

∆x→0 ∆x
Remarks.
1. The n in f (n) is called the order of the derivative.
2. The derivative of a function f is sometimes called the first derivative of f .
3. The function f is sometimes written as f (0) (x).

dn y dn
4. Other notations: Dx n [f (x)] , , [f (x)] , y (n)
dxn dxn
Example 2.2.16.
1. Find f (n) (x) for all n ∈ N where f (x) = x6 − x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 − 4.

Solution.
We differentiate repeatedly and obtain
f 0 (x) = 6x5 − 4x3 − 9x2 + 4x,

f 00 (x) = 30x4 − 12x2 − 18x + 4,
f 000 (x) = 120x3 − 24x − 18,
f (4) (x) = 360x2 − 24,
f (5) (x) = 720x,
f (6) (x) = 720,
f (n) (x) = 0 for all n ≥ 7.
√
2. Find f (4) (x) if f (x) = 2x − 3.
Solution.
We differentiate repeatedly and obtain
1 1 1
f 0 (x) = (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = (2x − 3)− 2
s
2
ic
1 3 3
f 00 (x) = − (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = − (2x − 2)− 2
at
2
3
em
5 5
000
f (x) = (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = 3 (2x − 2)− 2
2 h
15 7 7
f (4) (x) = − (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = −15 (2x − 2)− 2
at
2
M
2.2.6 Implicit Differentiation

of
e
Equations in two variables are used to define a function explicitly or implicitly. The equation
ut
y = x2 − 1 defines the function f (x) = x2 − 1 explicitly. On the other hand, the equation y 2 = x + 1
tit
defines two functions of x implicitly, namely:

s
In
√ √
f1 (x) = x + 1 and f2 (x) = − x + 1.
UP
Suppose y = f (x) is a function defined implicitly by the equation x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0, how do

dy
we find its derivative ?
dx
Solution.
x3 − 6
From x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0, we can define y explicitly in terms of x as y = . Thus,
2x + 3
dy (2x + 3)(3x2 ) − (x3 − 6)(2) 4x3 + 9x2 + 12
= = .
dx (2x + 3)2 (2x + 3)2
However, suppose a function is defined implictly by a function for which y cannot be isolated easily,
dy
such as x4 y 3 − 7xy = 7 or tan(x2 − 2xy) = y. How do we find ?
dx
dy
To obtain without solving for y explicitly in terms of x, we use the method called implicit
dx
dy
differentiation. To find using implicit differentiation, we
dx
1. think of the variable y as a differentiable function of the variable x,
2. differentiate both sides of the equation, using the chain rule where necessary, and
dy
3. solve for .
dx
dy
Example 2.2.17. Find using implicit differentiation.
dx
1. x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0
Solution.
Dx [x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6] = Dx [0]
dy dy
3x2 − 2 1 · y + x · −3· =0
dx dx
dy dy
3x2 − 2y − 2x · −3· =0
dx dx
dy dy
3x2 − 2y = 2x · +3·
dx dx
dy
(2x + 3) = 3x2 − 2y
dx
ic s
dy 3x2 − 2y
at
=
dx 2x + 3
em
x3 −6
3x2 − 2 · 2x+3 2x + 3
= ·
h
2x + 3 2x + 3
at
3x · (2x + 3) − 2(x3 − 6)
2
M
=
(2x + 3)2
of
4x3 + 9x2 + 12
=
e
(2x + 3)2
ut
tit
2. x4 y 3 − 7xy = 7
s
In
Solution.
UP
Dx [x4 y 3 − 7xy] = Dx [7]

dy dy
4x3 y 3 + 3x4 y 2 · −7 y+x· =0
dx dx
dy −4x3 y 3 + 7y
=
dx 3x4 y 2 − 7x
3. tan(x2 − 2xy) = y
Solution.
Dx [tan(x2 − 2xy)] = Dx [y]

h dy i dy
sec2 (x2 − 2xy) · 2x − 2 y + x · =
dx dx
dy 2x sec2 (x2 − 2xy) − 2y sec2 (x2 − 2xy)
=
dx 1 + 2x sec2 (x2 − 2xy)
d2 y
Example 2.2.18. Determine if xy 2 = y − 2.
dx2
Solution.
dy
We use implicit differentiation to get .
dx
Dx [xy 2 ] = Dx [y − 2]
dy dy
y 2 + x · 2y =
dx dx
dy y2
=
dx 1 − 2xy
Thus,
dy dy
d2 y (1 − 2xy)(2y dx ) − (y 2 )[−2(y + x dx )]
2
= 2
dx (1 − 2xy)
h i h i
y2 y2
(1 − 2xy) 2y · 1−2xy − (y 2 ) −2 y + x · 1−2xy
= .
s
(1 − 2xy)2
ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
2.2.7 Exercises
A. The Chain Rule.

dy
1. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx
a. y = cos 3x d. y = cot4 (5x) 1

2 √ sin x −
b. y = 6x 3h(x2 − x)5 i
f. y = √+ 1 x2
4 5 cos x
c. y = csc 2x3 + 1
4
e. y = sec cot 3x − 2π
tan 2x
B. Differentiability.
1. Determine if ( 2
3x 3 − 1 , x ≤ 1
f (x) = 3
x −x+2 , x>1
ic s
2. Determine if
at
(
x2 − 4 , x < 3
em
g(x) = √
x−2 , x≥3
h
at
M
3. Determine if
(
of
(x − 1)2 , x ≤ 1
h(x) = √
x−1 , x>1
e
ut
s tit
C. Implicit Differentiation.
In
dy
UP
1. Use implicit differentiation to find . There is need to simplify.

dx
√
a. cos(x2 + y 2 ) = x − y 2 2
b. x3 y 2 = x 3 + y 3 + 1
ds √
2. Find if (3s + t)4 = 3 s − cos t.
dt
D. Higher Order Derivatives.
√
N
1. Find f (n) (x) for all n ∈ if f (x) = 6x5 − 5x4 − 4x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 1.
2. Evaluate Dx2 x 4 − x2
E. Do as indicated.
1. If g(5) = 3, g 0 (5) = 4, f (3) = 5 and f 0 (3) = 6, find (f ◦ g)0 (5) and (g ◦ f )0 (3).
2. Determine the point/s on the graph of xy = (1 − x − y)2 where the tangent line/s is/are
parallel to the x−axis.
3. Determine Dx103 (cos 2x).
4. Find y 00 at the point with coordinate (2, 1) if 2x2 y − 4y 3 = 4.
A. The Chain Rule.

dy
1. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx
√ √
e. y = cos3 [cot (csc x)]
r
a. y = 9 − x2 1 + cot x
3
c. y =
x cos x (1 − x2 )5 cos x

1
b. y = tan 3
d. y = sin 2x cos2 3x f. y = √
x 3x3 − tan x
2. Given the following table of values:

x f (x) f 0 (x) g(x) g 0 (x)
2 4 1 3 -2
3 -1 -3 4 -5
4 5 -4 4 1
Evaluate:
ic s
at
a. (f ◦ g)0 (2) b. (g ◦ f )0 (2) c. (g ◦ g)0 (2) d. (f ◦ g ◦ f )0 (2)
B. Differentiability. h em
at
1. Find the values of m and n so that
M
(
x2 , x < 1
of
f (x) =
mx + n , x ≥ 1
e
ut
tit
2. Find all the values of a and b such that

s
In
(
ax + b , x < 2
g(x) =
UP
2x2 − 1 , x ≥ 2
C. Implicit Differentiation.
dy
1. Use implicit differentiation to find . There is need to simplify.
dx
a. 2x sin y = (x + 2y)6 3 3
c. cot4 (xy) = 4x 2 − sin(x 5 + y 3 )
5
√ x4
b. sec(2x − y) − 3 = sin2 y −
4
2. Give the equation of the normal line to the graph of y 3 − xy 2 + cos(xy) = 2 at (0, 1).
D. Higher Order Derivatives.
1. Evaluate Dx3 sin 2x − x3 + cos x2

d2 y
2. Determine if (x + y)3 = xy 2 − 2y.
dx2
E. Do as indicated.
1. If f (t) = at2 + bt + c , f (1) = 5, f 0 (1) = 3 and f 00 (1) = −4 , find f (3).

2. Determine the values of m and n for the curve x2 y + my 2 = n if the point (1, 1) is on its
graph and the tangent line at this point has equation 4x + 3y − 7 = 0.
d2 y 4
3. If x2 + 9y 2 = 36, show that 2
= − 3.
dx 9y
4. Find equations for the two tangent lines through the origin that are tangent to the curve
x2 − 4x + y 2 + 3 = 0.
5. Let
(
x2 , x ≤ 0
f (x) = .
x3 , x > 0
Show that f 0 (0) exists but f 00 (0) does not.
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
2.3 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we compute for the derivatives of functions that involve logarithmic and exponential
functions.
• perform differentiation involving logarithmic functions;
• find the derivative using logarithmic differentiation;
• differentiate functions of the form f (x)g(x) ; and
• perform differentiation involving exponential functions.
s
2.3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
ic
at
Our goal is to find the derivatives of logarithmic functions. We begin with the natural logarithmic
em
function and will find later that its derivative appears simplest among all logarithmic functions.
h
Let x > 0. Then
at
ln(x + ∆x) − ln x
M
Dx (ln x) = lim
∆x
∆x→0
of

1 x + ∆x
= lim ln
∆x→0 ∆x x
e
ut

1 x ∆x
= lim ln 1 +
tit
∆x→0 x ∆x x
s
" x #
In
1 ∆x ∆x
= lim ln 1 +
x ∆x→0 x
UP
" x #
1 ∆x ∆x
= ln lim 1 + , by continuity of ln .
x ∆x→0 x
∆x
Let h = . Then h → 0 if and only if ∆x → 0. Thus,
x

1 1 1 1
Dx (ln x) = ln lim (1 + h) = ln e = .
h
x h→0 x x
Interestingly, the derivative of the ln function, one that cannot be expressed using a finite number
of operations (including extraction of nth roots) on polynomials, is a simple algebraic expression.
In contrast, the derivatives of circular functions are products of their fellow circular functions.
Now, since any logarithmic function can be expressed as the ln function times a constant, one easily
obtains its derivative. Indeed,

ln x 1 1 1 1
Dx (loga x) = Dx = Dx (ln x) = · = .
ln a ln a ln a x x ln a
2.3. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 101
Now, let f (x) = ln |x| on R \ {0}. Since x 6= 0, |x| > 0, so ln |x| is defined. Moreover, using the
chain rule,
√ 1 1 2x 1
Dx (ln |x|) = Dx (ln x2 ) = √ · √ · 2x = 2 = .
2
x 2 x 2 2x x
We summarize the preceding computations into the following theorem.
Theorem 2.3.1.
1
1. Dx (ln x) = for all x > 0.
x
1
2. Dx (loga x) = for all x > 0.
x ln a
1
3. Dx (ln |x|) = for all x 6= 0.
x
s
dy
ic
Example 2.3.2. Find .
at
dx
em
1. y = log2 x
h
at
Solution.
M
dy 1
=
dx x ln 2
of
e
2. y = ln(3x2 + 2)
ut
tit
Solution.
s
dy 1 6x
In
= 2 · 6x = 2
dx 3x + 2 3x + 2
UP
3. y = ln |7 − cos(2x)|
Solution.
dy 1 2 sin(2x)
= · sin(2x) · 2 =
dx 7 − cos(2x) 7 − cos(2x)
4. y = ln [sin (log5 x)]
Solution.
dy 1 1
= · cos (log5 x) ·
dx sin (log5 x) x ln 5
5. y = x2 log x
Solution.
dy 1 x
= 2x · log x + x2 · = 2x log x +
dx x ln 10 ln 10
2.3.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

Consider the function given by the equation
√
(x2 − 1)3 ( 3 1 + x + x3 )(sec4 x)
y= √ .
( csc x)( x45 )
dy
Suppose you are asked to find . One could imagine the excessive computations that would
dx
be brought about by repeated application of the product, quotient, power and chain rules. We
shall therefore introduce a process called logarithmic differentiation, a technique helpful in
differentiating an expression involving many products and quotients. In using this technique given
an equation in x and y:
1. Take the absolute value of both sides of the equation and apply properties of the absolute
value.
2. Take the natural logarithm of both sides and apply properties of logarithms to obtain a sum.
ic s
at
dy
3. Take the derivative of both sides implicitly with respect to x and solve for .
em
dx
h
Example 2.3.3.
at
√
M
3
dy x+1
1. Find if y = √ .
of
dx csc (x) 1 − x2
5
e
ut
Solution.
tit
We begin by taking the absolute value of both sides of the equation. Simplifying the result, we
s
get
In
√
UP
3

x+1
|y| =
√
5 2
csc (x) 1 − x
1
|x + 1| 3
= 1
| csc x|5 |1 − x2 | 2
Next, we take the natural logarithm of both sides of the function. Using the properties of
logarithms, we rewrite the equation as a sum.
1
!
|x + 1| 3
ln |y| = ln 1
| csc x|5 |1 − x2 | 2
1 1
= ln |x + 1| 3 − ln | csc x|5 − ln |1 − x2 | 2
1 1
= ln |x + 1| − 5 ln | csc x| − ln |1 − x2 |
3 2
Finally, we take the derivatives of both sides of the equation implicitly with respect to x and
dy
solve for ,
dx

1 1 2
Dx (ln |y|) = Dx ln |x + 1| − 5 ln | csc x| − ln |1 − x |
3 2
1 dy 1 1 5 1 1
· = · ·1− · (− csc x cot x) − · · (−2x)
y dx 3 x+1 csc x 2 1 − x2

dy 1 x
=y + 5 cot x +
dx 3(x + 1) 1 − x2
√3

x+1 1 x
= √ + 5 cot x +
csc5 (x) 1 − x2 3(x + 1) 1 − x2
√3
dy x2 tan4 x
2. Find if y = .
dx (2x2 + 1)3 log x
Solution.
ic s
at
Once again, we begin by taking the absolute value of both sides of the equation. Thus,
em
2
|x| 3 | tan x|4
h
|y| = .
at
|2x2 + 1|3 | log x|
M
Then, we take the natural logarithm of both sides and rewrite the equation as a sum using the
of
properties of logarithms to obtain

e
ut
tit
2
ln |x| + 4 ln | tan x| − 3 ln |2x2 + 1| − ln | log x|.
s
ln |y| =
In
3
UP
dy
Finally, we take the derivative of both sides implicitly with respect to x and solve for ,
dx
1 dy 2 1 1 1 1 1
· sec2 x − 3 · 2

= · +4· · (4x) − ·
y dx 3 x tan x 2x + 1 log x x ln 10
√3 2 4 2

dy x tan x 2 4 sec x 12x 1
= + − 2 − .
dx (2x2 + 1)3 log x 3x tan x 2x + 1 (log x)(x ln 10)
2.3.3 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Next, we determine the derivatives of exponential functions, which we give in the following theorem.
Theorem 2.3.4.
1. Dx (ax ) = ax ln a (a > 0 and a 6= 1)
2. Dx (ex ) = ex
Proof. Consider the exponential function of base a,
y = ax .
This is equivalent to the logarithmic equation
x = loga y,
and taking the derivative of both sides of the equation implicitly with respect to x, we obtain
Dx (x) = Dx (loga y)
1 dy
1= · .
y ln a dx
dy
Solving for , we obtain
dx
dy
= y ln a = ax ln a.
dx
ic s
dy
at
This proves the first statement of Theorem 2.3.4. Observe that if a = e, then = ex ln e = ex ,
dx
em
which proves the second statement of Theorem 2.3.4.
h
at
Thus, we obtain a function whose derivative is itself. (Is this the only function with this property?)
M
dy
of
dx
e
1. y = 4x
ut
tit
Solution.
s
dy
In
= 4x ln 4
dx
UP
3
2. y = ex
Solution.
dy 3
= ex · 3x2
dx
3. y = 24x csc(ex )
Solution.
dy
= 24x ln 2 · 4 csc(ex ) + 24x [− csc (ex ) cot (ex ) · ex ]

dx
As a consequence also, if r ∈ R and x > 0, then

1
Dx (xr ) = Dx er ln x = er ln x · r · = xr · rx−1 = rxr−1 .
x
Hence, the power rule holds even for irrational exponents. We state this as a theorem:
Theorem 2.3.6. (Power Rule) If f (x) = xr where r ∈ R, then f 0(x) = rxr−1.

√ √ √
For example, Dx (xπ ) = πxπ−1 and Dx ((cos x) 2) = 2(cos x) 2−1 (− sin x).
2.3.4 Derivative of f (x)g(x) , where f (x) > 0

To differentiate expressions of the form f (x)g(x) , we either use logarithmic differentiation or rewrite
f (x)g(x) as eg(x) ln f (x) .
dy
dx
1. y = xx , x > 0
Solution.
Using logarithmic differentiation, we have
ln y = ln (xx ) (no need to take absolute values since x > 0)
ic s
ln y = x ln x
at
1 dy 1
em
= 1 · ln x + x ·
y dx x h
dy
at
= y(ln x + 1)
dx
M
dy
= xx (ln x + 1)
of
dx
Alternatively, we have
e
ut
y = ex ln x
tit

dy x ln x 1
s
=e 1 · ln x + x ·
In
dx x
dy
UP
= xx (ln x + 1)
dx
2. y = (sin x)cos x , sin x > 0
Solution.
ln y = cos x ln(sin x)

1 dy 1
= (− sin x) · ln(sin x) + cos x · · cos x
y dx sin x
cos2 x

dy cos x
= (sin x) − sin x ln(sin x) +
dx sin x
2.3.5 Exercises
dy
A. Find . Use logarithmic differentiation whenever appropriate.
dx
1. y = log5 (2x5 − 1) sec x 6. y = x2 · 35x−3

2. y = cos(ln |4 − x|)
√ 7. ln(x2 + y 2 ) = ex+y − ex−y
3. y = x5 (x2 − 1)4 sin x
xy )
(1 + x − x2 )3 8. ln 2 = (x2 − 1)π + 5(e
4. y = √ √
sec 4x(x − log x)6 9. y = (log4 x)e
x
x2 cot4 x
5. y = √ 2
3
5x − 2(log4 x)10 10. y = (tan 3x)1−x
B. Find the equation of the normal line to the graph of f (x) = 2x log2 x at the point where
x = 1.
ic s
at
dy
em
A. Find . Use logarithmic differentiation whenever appropriate.
dx h
at
csc(log3 x) 8. y = 2x + 3x − 5x
M
1. y = √
x − ln(5x)
4 − 14x

of
9. y = log8
2. sin x2 − y 2 = tan log 1 x 1 − x2

e
4
ut
3. y = logx2 +4 3 10. y = e4x−1 + ln x2 + e

√
tit
esin 2x + ln(1 + x)
4. y = 1 + x − log12 x
2log5 x 11. y =
s
log2 2 − x + log5 (2x + 1)

In
5. y = (x + 2x )sin 5x
2
12. ln |x − cos y| = y 2 + x − 2
UP
6. y x = xy
7. ln(x − y) = (tan x)y 13. x tan y − sin [(x − 1) ln y] = x
2.4. DERIVATIVES OF OTHER NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS 107
2.4 Derivatives of Other New Classes of Functions

We revisit the new classes of transcendental functions we defined in the last chapter. Our aim is
to differentiate expressions involving these functions.
• perform differentiation involving inverse trigonometric functions;
• differentiate expressions involving hyperbolic functions; and
• find derivatives of functions involving inverse hyperbolic functions.
2.4.1 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions

We now do calculus on these functions. We begin with their derivatives, which we enumerate in
s
the following theorem.
ic
at
em
Theorem 2.4.1.
h
at
1 1
1. Dx sin−1 x = √ 4. Dx cot−1 x = −

M
1 − x2 1 + x2
of
1 1
5. Dx sec−1 x = √

2. Dx cos−1 x = − √

1 − x2 x x2 − 1
e
ut
1 1
tit
6. Dx csc−1 x = − √

3. Dx tan−1 x =

1 + x2 x x2 − 1
s
In
Proof. We show the proof of statement 1 only. The rest can be proved similarly.
y = sin−1 x
UP
x = sin y
Dx (x) = Dx (sin y)
dy
1 = cos y ·
dx
dy 1
=
dx cos y
p √ dy
Note that cos y = ± 1 − sin2 y = ± 1 − x2 . Since y ∈ − π2 , π2 , cos y ≥ 0. Therefore,

=
dx
1
√ .
1 − x2
dy
dx
1. y = sin−1 (3x)
Solution.
dy 1 3
=p · (3) = √
dx 1 − (3x)2 1 − 9x2
2. y = cot−1 (ln x)
Solution.

dy 1 1
= − 2
·
dx 1 + (ln x) x
y
1 2
= log2 (x − y) − csc−1 (3x2 )

3.
5
Solution.
We perform implicit differentiation.
y
1 1 dy 1 dy
ln = · 1−
5 5 dx (x − y) ln 2 dx

1
s
−1 2

− 2 csc 3x · − √ · 6x
ic
3x2 9x4 − 1
at

1 6x
em
−1 2

− 2 csc 3x · − √
dy (x − y) ln 2 3x2 9x4 − 1
= y h
dx 1 1 1
at
ln +
5 5 (x − y) ln 2
M
of
2.4.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

e
ut
tit
Theorem 2.4.3.
s
In
1. Dx (sinh x) = cosh x 4. Dx (coth x) = − csch2 x

UP
2. Dx (cosh x) = sinh x 5. Dx (sech x) = − sech x tanh x
3. Dx (tanh x) = sech2 x 6. Dx (csch x) = − csch x coth x
Proof. Again, we shall prove the first statement only.
ex − e−x dy ex − (e−x ) · (−1) ex + e−x

If y = sinh x = , then = = = cosh x.
2 dx 2 2
dy
dx
1. y = csch x5 − 2

Solution.
dy
= − csch x5 − 2 coth x5 − 2 · (5x4 )

dx
2.4. DERIVATIVES OF OTHER NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS 109
√
2. y = tanh3

x+3
Solution.
dy √ √ 1
= 3 tanh2 x + 3 · sech2

x+3 · √
dx 2 x+3
3. y = (cosh x)sinh x , cosh x > 0
Solution.
y = esinh x ln(cosh x)

dy sinh x ln(cosh x) 1
=e cosh x · ln(cosh x) + sinh x · · sinh x
dx cosh x
2.4.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

We will find that the derivative of each inverse hyperbolic function resembles that of the corre-
sponding inverse circular function. The proofs of the statements in the next theorem are left as
exercises.
ic s
at
Theorem 2.4.5.
1. Dx (sinh−1 x) = √
1 hem
4. Dx (coth−1 x) =
1
, |x| > 1
at
x2 +1 1 − x2
M
1 1
2. Dx (cosh−1 x) = √ 5. Dx (sech−1 x) = − √
of
x2 − 1 x 1 − x2
e
1 1
ut
3. Dx (tanh−1 x) = , |x| < 1 6. Dx (csch−1 x) = − √

1 − x2 |x| x2 + 1
tit
dy
s

In
dx
UP
1. y = sinh−1 (1 − x)
Solution.
dy 1 −1
=p · (−1) = p
dx (1 − x)2 + 1 (1 − x)2 + 1
x
−1 4 −1 1
2. y = coth (x ) − sech
4
Solution.
x
dy 1 1 1 1
· 4x3 +

= 8
q · ln
dx 1−x 1 x
1 2x
4 4
4 1− 4
3. y = log10 cosh−1 (2x)

Solution.
dy 1 1
= −1 ·√ ·2
dx cosh (2x) ln 10 4x2 − 1
2.4.4 Exercises
dy
A. Find .
dx
√
1. y = 5cos
−1 x sec−1 (2x ) − e
4. y =
√ [log (3x)] tan−1 x
2. y = cos−1 6
cos x4 + ecot x − 4π 2 5. sin−1 (xy) = cos−1 (x − y)
tan−1 √x
3. y = sec ln csc−1 x 6. y = sin−1 x2

dy
B. Find .
dx
3
1. y = cosh(ln x) 4. y = 10csch(x ) sec−1 (cosh 4x)
√
2. y = tanh3 3 2x
5. cosh(x − y) = log3 x − tanh(x2 + y 2 )
log5 (sech(ex ))
s
√
ic
3. y = 6. sec−1 ( x) = tanh(x2 y) + y sinh 2
sinh (x − tan−1 x)
at
em
dy
C. Find . h
dx
at
M
1. y = cosh−1 x7 sin−1 (ex sinh 3x) + coth−1 (x2 )

4. y = √
of
2. y = tanh−1 (5x2 ) csch−1 (ln x) sech−1 x

√
5. sinh−1 (x + y) = cosh−1 (x − y) + x
e
√
ut
tanh−1 x 3x2 +1
3. y = 6. cosh x = tanh−1 y
tit
1 + sec x2
s
In
UP
dy
dx
6. y = sinh−1 (ln x) + sin−1 (ln x)

−1 x+1
1. y = sin √
2 log5 x √
2. y = tan (sech x) + sech tan−1 x
−1 7. y = +sech(4x−2 −sec−1 ( x))

−1
coth (2x)
3. y = csch(cos−1 (x2 ))
2
x −1
8. sec−1 (2y cos x) = xy
2
4. y = tanh log7
x+1 9. 3y = y tanh(x) + 2
e tanh x
5. y = 2 10. 4y = y 2 − cos−1 (x) + 1
x − sech x
2.5. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 111
2.5 The Mean Value Theorem

In this section, we discuss one of the most important theorems in calculus, namely, the Mean
Value Theorem. It is used to prove several other theorems including many of the ones that will be
discussed in this course.
• interpret Rolle’s Theorem and Mean Value Theorem using graphs
• solve problems by applying Rolle’s Theorem and Mean Value Theorem
2.5.1 Rolle’s Theorem

The following theorem is a specific case of the Mean Value Theorem and it was first proved by the
French mathematician Michel Rolle in 1691.
ic s
at
Theorem 2.5.1 (Rolle’s Theorem). Let f be a function such that
(i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] h em

at
(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b) and
M
(iii) f (a) = 0 = f (b).

of
Then there exists a number c in the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
e
ut
tit
s
y y y
In
c
UP
a b
x
a
x
a bx b1 b2
Figure 2.5.1 Figure 2.5.2 Figure 2.5.3
Remarks.
1. Note that condition (iii) of Rolle’s Theorem implies that the line passing through the points
(a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is horizontal. On the other hand, the conclusion implies that there is
a horizontal tangent line to the graph of f and the point of tangency has x-coordinate lying
between a and b. Refer to Figure 2.5.1.
2. Continuity on [a, b] is important because there are functions that satisfy only conditions (ii) and
(iii) but do not satisfy the conclusion. Refer to Figure 2.5.2 and consider the function on the
interval [a, b1 ]. It may also be the case that the conclusion is satisfied even if one of premises is
not satisfied. Refer to Figure 2.5.2 and consider the function on the interval [a, b2 ].
3. Notice that f need not be differentiable at the endpoints a and b. Refer to Figure 2.5.1.
4. The number c ∈ (a, b) in the conclusion need not be unique. Refer to Figure 2.5.3.
2.5.2 The Mean Value Theorem
Theorem 2.5.2 (The Mean Value Theorem). Let f be a function such that
(i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).

f (b) − f (a)
Then there is a number c on the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = .
b−a
Remark 2.5.3. The Mean Value Theorem is the generalization of Rolle’s Theorem where the line
`, passing through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is not necessarily horizontal. The conclusion says that
there is a tangent line to the graph of f that is parallel to ` and whose point of tangency has
ic s
x-coordinate between a and b. Refer to Figure 2.5.4 and 2.5.5.
at
em
y
y h
at
`
M
x
a c b
of
c2 b
e
x
a c1
ut
tit

s
In
Example 2.5.4.
UP
1. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem is applicable to the given functions on the indicated intervals:
a. f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + 5x − 2 on [1, 2]
Solution.
Note that f (x) is continuous on [1, 2] and differentiable on (1, 2) because it is a polynomial.
Moreover, f (1) = 0 = f (2). Hence Rolle’s Theorem can be applied. We therefore conclude
that there exists a c such that 1 < c < 2 and f 0 (c) = 0. In fact, we can solve for c. Since
f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 8x + 5 = (3x − 5)(x − 1),
then the number c = 53 is in the interval (1, 2) and satisfies f 0 (c) = 0.

(
x2 , x ≤ 21
b. f (x) = on [0, 1]
x − 1 , x > 12
Solution.
Notice that the only possible point of discontinuity of f (x) is at x = 21 . Checking conditions
for continuity at x = 21 , we have

1 1 1 1
(i) f = (ii) lim f (x) = lim (x − 1) = − (iii) lim f (x) = lim x2 =
2 4 x→ 1+
x→ 1+ 2 x→ 1−
x→ 1− 4
2 2 2 2
1
Hence, f is not continuous at x = 2 and Rolle’s Theorem cannot be applied.
2. Apply Rolle’s Theorem to f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + x to show that 6x2 + 1 = 6x has at least one real
root between 0 and 1.
Solution.
Note that f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 6x + 1. Since f is a polynomial and f (0) = 0 = f (1), then f satisfies
the assumptions of Rolle’s Theorem on [0, 1]. Hence there is a c ∈ (0, 1) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
This c is a root of the equation 6x2 + 1 = 6x.
x+2 1
3. Let f (x) = . Show that there is a c ∈ (1, 2) such that if f 0 (c) = − .
x+1 6
ic s
at
Solution.
em
Since −1 ∈
/ [1, 2] and f is a rational function, f is continuous on [1, 2] and differentiable on (1, 2).
h f (2) − f (1) 4 3 1
By the Mean Value Theorem, there is a c ∈ (1, 2) such that f 0 (c) = = − =− .
at
2−1 3 2 6
M
4. Suppose that f (x) is continuous on [6, 15] and differentiable on the interval (6, 15) and f 0 (x) ≤ 10
of
for all x. If f (6) = −2, what is the largest possible value for f (15)?
e
ut
Solution.
tit
Note that f satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem. Hence there is a c ∈ (6, 15)
s
such that
In
f (15) − f (6) f (15) + 2

f 0 (c) = = ≤ 10.
UP
15 − 6 9
Therefore, f (15) ≤ 88.
2.5.3 Exercises
A. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals, and if
so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.
1. f (x) = x2 − x − 2 on [−1, 2] x2 − x − 12
4. f (x) = on [−3, 4]
2. f (x) = x3/4 − 2x1/4 on [0, 4] x−3
3. f (x) = 3 cos2 x on [ π2 , 3π
2 ] 5. f (x) = 1 − |x| on [−1, 1]
B. Determine if the Mean Value Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals,
and if so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.
1. f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1 on [0, 1] 3. f (x) = 3(x − 4)2/3 on [−4, 5]

√
4. f (x) = 1 + cos x on [− π2 , π2 ]
ic s
4
2. f (x) = on [ 25 , 4]
at
9 − 2x 5. f (x) = (1 + sin x)2 on [−π, 0]
C. Do as indicated.
h em
at
1. Using the function f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 4x, show that the Rolle’s Theorem confirms there
M
exist x ∈ [−2, 0] such that x is a root of the equation x3 − x + 1 = 0.

of
2. Prove that the equation x3 + 2x + 5 = 0 cannot have more than one real root.
e
ut
3. Let g be a function such that g 0 (x) ≥ −6 for all x ∈ [0, 2]. If g(0) = 0, determine the least
tit
possible value of g(2).

s
In
4. Show that sin b − sin a ≤ b − a whenever b ≥ a. In particular, show that sin x < x for all
x > 0.
UP
5. Let f (x) be differentiable at everywhere and suppose that f (1) = 1, f 0 (x) < 0 on (−∞, 1),
and f 0 (x) = 1 on (1, ∞).
a. Show that f (x) ≥ 1 for all x.
b. Must f 0 (1) = 0? Explain your answer.
6. Suppose two runners in a 100m dash finish a tie. Show that there is at least one instant
during the race where they had the same velocity.
A. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals, and if
so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.
1. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 on [1, 3] 4. f (x) = |x − 2| − 1 on [1, 3]

(
2. f (x) = sin πx − x2 + 2x on [0, 2] x2 − 4 if x < 1
5. f (x) = on [−2, 58 ]
3. f (x) = sin3 x cos x on [0, 2π] 5x − 8 if 1 ≤ x
B. Determine if the Mean Value Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals,
and if so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.
−2 3. f (x) = ex + e4−x on [0, 4]

1. f (x) = on [−2, −1]
3x + 7
4. f (x) = ln 3x on [1, e]
2. f (x) = (2x − 11)−2 on [4, 6] 5. f (x) = csc−1 (x − 1) on [1, 3]
C. Do as indicated.
1. Suppose f (x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere. Suppose also that f (x) has at
least two distinct zeros. Show that f 0 (x) has at least one zero.
2. Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that the graph of f (x) = x5 − 3x3 − x + 5 has a
tangent line on (0, 2) which is parallel to 3x − y = 2.
18
3. Let f (x) = cos(2x) − 5 sin(5x). Show that there exists c ∈ (0, π6 ) such that f 0 (c) = − .
π
s
√ √ y−x
ic
4. Use the Mean Value Theorem to prove that if 0 < x < y, then y − x < √ . In
2 x
at
particular, show that the geometric mean of x and y is less than their arithmetic mean,
em
√
i.e. xy < 12 (x + y). h
at
5. Suppose f is continuous on an interval I. Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that if
f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I, then f is constant in I.
M
π
6. Use the previous item to prove the identity sin−1 x + cos−1 x = on [−1, 1].
of
2
e
ut
stit
In
UP
2.6 Relative Extrema of a Function

In this chapter, we wish to analyze a function’s behavior, which is best described using its graph.
We aim to sketch the graph of a function without the help of graphing software. To this end, we
will first develop tools to determine the turning points of the graph of a function.
• interpret the notion of increasing functions, decreasing functions, and relative ex-
trema of a function graphically
• determine if a function is increasing or decreasing on an interval using the first

derivative
• find the relative extrema using the First Derivative Test
ic s
2.6.1 Relative Extrema
at
em
We define below the instances when a function attains a relative extremum at a given point.
h
1. A function f is said to have a relative maximum at x = c if there is an open interval I,
at
containing c, such that f (x) is defined for all x ∈ I and f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ I.
M
of
2. A function f is said to have a relative minimum at x = c if there is an open interval I,

containing c, such that f (x) is defined for all x ∈ I and f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x ∈ I.
e
ut
tit
3. We say f has a relative extremum at x = c if f has either a relative maximum at x = c or a

s
relative minimum at x = c.
In
4. If f has a relative extremum at x = c, then it is equivalent to saying that (c, f (c)) is a relative
UP
extremum point of f , or f (c) is a relative extremum value of f .
Example 2.6.1. Let f be a function whose graph is illustrated in Figure 2.6.1.
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 c6
Figure 2.6.1
• f has a relative maximum at x = c3 and at x = c5 .

2.6. RELATIVE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION 117
• f has a relative minimum at x = c4 .
• f has neither a relative maximum at x = c1 nor a relative minimum at x = c6 because there is

no open interval for which the point (c1 , f (c1 )) is the highest, or (c6 , f (c6 )) is the lowest.
• f has no relative minimum at x = c2 because f (c2 ) is not defined.
2.6.2 Critical Numbers

To make it easier to locate the relative extrema of a function, we narrow down our search to a few
candidates.
A number c ∈ domf is said to be a critical number of f if either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (x) is undefined at
x = c.
Example 2.6.2. Find all the critical numbers of the following functions.
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
9
ic s
Solution.
at
R. Differentiating f , we get f 0(x) = x3
2 1 1
em
Note that dom f = − 3 = (x2 − 9) = (x − 3)(x + 3).
3 3
The derivative is always defined and f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 3 or x = −3. Therefore the critical
h
at
numbers are 3 and −3.
M
2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3
of
e
Solution.
ut
The domain of f is R and its derivative is f 0(x) = 4x3 + 6x2 = 2x2(2x + 3). Hence, the critical
tit
3
numbers of f are 0 and − .
s
In
2
x2
UP
3. f (x) =
9 − x2
Solution.
Note that dom f = R \ {±3}. 18x
The derivative of f is f 0 (x) =
(9 − x2 )2
. Note that f 0 (x) is
not defined at x = ±3 but ±3 are not critical numbers of f because ±3 ∈ / domf . Meanwhile,
0
f (x) = 0 when x = 0. Thus, the only critical number of f is 0.
4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3
Solution.
First, dom f = R. Differentiating f , we get f 0(x) = − 34 x1/3 + 43 x−2/3 = −4(x − 1)
3x2/3
. Note that
f 0 (x) = 0 if and only if x = 1 and that f 0 (x) is undefined at x = 0. Moreover, 0 ∈ domf . Thus,
the critical numbers of f are 0 and 1.
The following theorem tells us that finding the critical numbers of a function takes us one step
closer to finding its relative extremum points.
Theorem 2.6.3. If f has a relative extremum at x = c, then c is a critical number of f .
Illustration 2.6.4.
1. The graph of f (x) = x2 given in Figure 2.6.2 has a relative maximum point at its vertex
(0, 0). Note that f 0 (x) = 2x. Indeed f 0 (0) = 0.
2. Take f (x) = |x − 1|. From its graph shown in Figure 2.6.3, it is clear that f has a relative
minimum at x = 1. Since the graph has a corner at x = 1, we know that f 0 (1) is undefined.
y = −x2
y = |x − 1|
s
ic
at
em
Remark 2.6.5. The preceding theorem says that relative extrema can only be attained at critical
numbers of f , that is, if a is not a critical number, then the point (a, f (a)) is not a relative extremum
h
at
point of f . However, these critical numbers are only candidates for relative extrema. If c is a critical
M
number, f may or may not have a relative extremum at x = c. This will be illustrated in the next
sections.
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e
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2.6.3 Increasing/Decreasing Functions

tit
Our next goal is to determine when the graph of a function rises or falls. We will see then that this
s
In
is closely related to finding the relative extremum points of a function.

Let f be a function defined on an interval I.
UP
1. f is said to be (strictly) increasing on I if f (a) < f (b) for all a, b ∈ I such that a < b.
2. f is said to be (strictly) decreasing on I if f (a) > f (b) for all a, b ∈ I such that a < b.
Example 2.6.6. Let f be a function whose graph is illustrated in Figure 2.6.1. Then
• f is decreasing on [c1 , c2 ), [c3 , c4 ] and [c5 , c6 ]. But note that it is incorrect to say f is decreasing
on [c1 , c2 ) ∪ [c3 , c4 ] ∪ [c5 , c6 ].
• f is increasing on (c2 , c3 ] and [c4 , c5 ].
The following theorem gives us an analytical (as opposed to graphical) method of showing that the
function is increasing or decreasing. It should be noted that the Mean Value Theorem is a key in
proving this theorem.
Theorem 2.6.7. Let f be a function that is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and dif-
ferentiable on the open interval (a, b).
1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].
3. If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is constant on [a, b].
Example 2.6.8.
A. The derivative of f (x) = x2 is f 0 (x) = 2x. Note that f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, 0) and f 0 (x) > 0
for all x ∈ (0, ∞). Indeed, as seen in Figure 2.6.4, the graph of f is decreasing on the interval
(−∞, 0] and is increasing on the interval [0, ∞).
B. If f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (x) = 3x2 which is never negative. Observe the graph of f (x) = x3 in
Figure 2.6.5. Indeed it is always increasing.
ic s
at
y = x2 y = x3
h em
at
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Figure 2.6.4
e
Figure 2.6.5
ut
tit
2.6.4 The First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

s
In
Note that if we want to reach the peak of a hill, we first have to climb up a slope and when we
UP
finally reach the top, we would go downhill. Analogously, when a continuous function y = f (x)
attains a relative extremum, say a relative maximum, the behavior of the graph of f transitions
from increasing to decreasing as it proceeds from the left of the point to its right.
Theorem 2.6.9 (First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema). Let f be a function continuous
on the open interval (a, b) which contains the number c. Suppose that f is also differentiable
on the interval (a, b), except possibly at c.
1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b), then f has a relative maximum
at x = c.
2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b), then f has a relative minimum
at x = c.
3. If f 0 (x) does not change signs from (a, c) to (c, b), then there is no relative extremum at
x = c.
We will use Theorem 2.6.9 to verify whether a function has relative extrema at its critical numbers.
We enumerate below some suggested steps in finding the relative extrema of a given function.
Locating relative extremum values of a function
• Determine the critical numbers of f .
• Determine the sign of f 0 on the left and right of each critical number. (Note that in creating
the table of signs of f 0 , one should consider all values of x that make f 0 either zero or undefined,
regardless of whether they are critical numbers or not.)
• Conclude accordingly using the First Derivative Test.
Example 2.6.10. Determine the intervals where the given function is increasing or decreasing and
find all of its relative extrema.
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
9
ic s
Solution.
at
x2 − 9
From Example 2.6.2.1, we know f 0 (x) = and the critical numbers of f are ±3.
em
3
h
−3 3
at
f 0 (x) + − +
M
of
Then f is increasing on (−∞, −3] and on [3, ∞), while it is decreasing on [−3, 3]. By the first
derivative test, (−3, 6) is a relative maximum point of the graph of f and (3, −6) is a relative
e
ut
minimum point of the graph of f .

tit
2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3
s
In
Solution.
UP
From Example 2.6.2.2, f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 = 2x2 (2x + 3) and the critical numbers of f are 0 and
− 23 .
− 32 0
f 0 (x) − + +
Hence f is decreasing on (−∞, − 23 ] and increasing on [− 32 , ∞). Therefore, f has a relative
minimum at x = − 23 . It is good to observe that 0 is a critical number of f yet f does not have
a relative extremum at 0.
x2
3. f (x) =
9 − x2
Solution.
18x
From Example 2.6.2.3, f 0 (x) = and the only critical number of f is 0.
(9 − x2 )2
−3 0 3
999
999
f 0 (x) − − + +
The graph of f is decreasing on (−∞, −3) and on (−3, 0]. It is increasing on [0, 3) and on (3, ∞).
Therefore, f has a relative minimum at x = 0.
4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3
Solution.
−4(x − 1)
From Example 2.6.2.4, f 0 (x) = and the critical numbers of f are 0 and 1.
3x2/3
0 1
f 0 (x) + + −
Then the graph of f is increasing on (−∞, 1] and decreasing on [1, ∞). We conclude that f has
a relative maximum at x = 1.
x2 + 4x + 3
5. f (x) =
2(x − 1)2
Solution.
ic s
−(3x + 5)
Differentiating and simplifying, we get f 0 (x) = . Note that the only critical number
at
(x − 1)3
em
5
of f is − . We form the following table:
3 h
at
− 53 1
M
999
f 0 (x) − + −
of
e
We conclude that f is increasing on [− 35 , 1); decreasing on the intervals (−∞, − 53 ] and (1, ∞);
ut
and has a relative minimum at x = − 35 . Notice that even if there was a change of sign at x = 1,
tit
we don’t say that f has a relative maximum at x = 1 since f is undefined when x = 1. In the
s
In
first place, 1 is not a critical number of f .

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2.6.5 Exercises
A. Determine the intervals on which the graph of the following functions is increasing or decreas-
ing. Use the first derivative test to find its relative extremum points.
√
1. f (x) = 1 − 4x − x2 6. f (x) = x+2 3
2. f (x) = x2 (x − 1)3 √
7. f (x) = 2x 3 − x
3. f (x) = x2/3 (x − 1)2 x
8. f (x) = 2 − sin x
x2
4. f (x) = 2 e2x + 16e−x
x +2 9. f (x) =
√ 2
1+ x
5. f (x) = √ 10. f (x) = ln(x2 + 1)
1− x
s
B. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the
ic
intervals where f is increasing, decreasing and the x-coordinates of the relative extrema of f .
at
1. 2.
h em
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3 2
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(0, 2) 1
e
2
ut
(−2, 0) (2, 0)
tit
1 −2 −1 1 2 3
s
−1
In
UP
−2 −1(−1, 0) 1 2 −2
−1 −3
C. Do as indicated.
R.

1
1. Suppose f (x) in increasing on (0, 1]. Show that f 2
is decreasing on
x +1
2. The population P of a new species of frogs in a conservation facility is modelled by
2500t2
P (t) = 50 + ,
25 + t2
where t is the number of years after the introduction of the new species.
a. How many frogs will populate the area in the long run?
b. Describe the behavior of the population. Is this a good model? Why or why not?
A. Determine the intervals on which the graph of the following functions is increasing or decreas-
ing. Use the first derivative test to find its relative extremum points.
1. f (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 18x

(
x2 − x − 2, if x < 2
6. f (x) =
2. f (x) = x3 − 9x2 + 24x − 16 (x − 2)3 , if x ≥ 2
3. f (x) = x3
− 12x2
+ 21x
2 7. f (x) = sin2 x − 2 cos x
x +4 √
4. f (x) =
x 8. f (x) = 2x − 2 cos x
x
5. f (x) = 9. f (x) = ln cosh x
(3x + 1)2
B. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the
intervals where f is increasing, decreasiing and the x-coordinates of the relative extrema of
f.
ic s
at
1 2
2 em
h 2 (1, 32 )
at
(0, 1)
M
1 (− 21 , 34 ) 1
of
(−3, 0) (−1, 0) (2, 0)

e
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
ut
(0, −1) −4 −3 −2 −1 (0, 0)1 2

−1
tit
−1
(−2, −1)
s
In
−2
(2, −2) −2
UP
C. Do as indicated.

1
1. Show that if f is decreasing on (0, +∞), the g(x) = f is increasing on (0, +∞).
x3
2. Use a first derivative to show that sin x < x for all x > 0.
3. Find a polynomial with critical numbers 0 and 3 with relative maximum at x = 0 and no
relative extremum at x = 3.
4. Find the value of c such that f (x) = x + ln(x2 + 1) + c tan−1 x has a relative maximum at
x = −5 and a relative minimum at x = 3.
2.7 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test

The shape of the graph of a function provides many useful insights on the physical quantity that
it represents. Thus, we study the concavity of a graph.
• interpret the notion of concavity, and points of inflection of a function graphically
• determine if a function is concave up or concave down on an interval using the

second derivative
• find the relative extrema using the Second Derivative Test
2.7.1 Concavity
ic s
We define below the concept of concavity at a point, and on an interval.
at
em
1. The graph of a function f is said to be concave up at the point P (c, f (c)) if f 0 (c) exists and
h
there is an open interval I containing c such that for all x ∈ I \ {c}, the point (x, f (x)) is
at
above the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We say that the graph of f is concave up on
M
an interval I if it is concave up at (c, f (c)) for all c ∈ I.

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2. The graph of a function f is said to be concave down at the point P (c, f (c)) if f 0 (c) exists
e
ut
and there is an open interval I containing c such that for all x ∈ I \ {c}, the point (x, f (x))
tit
is below the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We say that the graph of f is concave down
s
on an interval I if it is concave down at (c, f (c)) for all c ∈ I.

In
UP
Example 2.7.1. Let f be a function whose graph is given below.
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 c6 c7
Figure 2.7.1
• The graph of f is concave up at the point P .
• The graph of f is concave up on (c1 , c2 ) ∪ (c2 , c3 ) ∪ (c3 , c5 ) and concave down on (c5 , c7 ).
2.7. CONCAVITY AND THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST 125
• The graph of f is neither concave up nor concave down at the point (c5 , f (c5 )).
• Concavity of the graph of f at x = c1 and x = c3 cannot be determined because f 0 (c1 ) and

f 0 (c3 ) are not defined.
• Concavity of the graph of f at x = c2 and x = c7 cannot be determined because f is not defined

at these values of x.
We wish to find another characterization of concavity aside from its graphical definition. Observe
the behavior of the tangent lines to the concave up curve in Figure 2.7.2a. As a point goes from
left to right, the slope increases. Meanwhile, the slope of the tangent line decreases as a point goes
from left to right along the concave down curve in Figure 2.7.2b. We shall state this as a theorem.
ic s
at
em
Figure 2.7.2a Figure 2.7.2b
h
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Recall that f 00 (x) = Dx (f 0 (x)). Hence if f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f 0 (x) is increasing on
(a, b) and the graph of f is concave up on (a, b). If f 00 (x) < 0, then f 0 (x) is decreasing on (a, b) and
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the graph of f is concave down on (a, b).

e
ut
tit
Theorem 2.7.2 (Test for Concavity). Let f be a function such that f 00 exists on (a, b).
s
In
1. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then the graph of f is concave up on (a, b).
UP
2. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then the graph of f is concave down on (a, b).
2.7.2 Point of Inflection
Example 2.7.3. If f (x) = x3 , then f 00 (x) = 6x. Note that f 00 (x) > 0 when x > 0 and f 00 (x) < 0
when x < 0. Hence, the graph of f is concave up on (0, ∞) and concave down on (−∞, 0) (refer to
Figure 2.7.3a). Observe that that the graph of f changed concavity at x = 0. In this case, we call
the point (0, f (0)) = (0, 0) a point of inflection.
g(x) = x2/3
f (x) = x3 √
3
f (x) = x
f (x) = x4
Figure 2.7.3a Figure 2.7.3b Figure 2.7.3c Figure 2.7.3d

The graph of f (x) has a point of inflection at P (c, f (c)) if f is continuous at x = c and the graph
of f changes concavity at P , i.e. there is an open interval (a, b) containing c such that
1. f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b) or;
2. f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b).
Theorem 2.7.4. If P (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph of the function f , then
f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) does not exist.
Example 2.7.5.
1. The graph of f (x) = x3 has a point of inflection when x = 0. Indeed, f 00 (0) = 0.
√
2. The graph of f (x) = 3 x (refer to Figure 2.7.3b) has a point of inflection at x = 0. Note that
2
f 00 (x) = − 5/3 . Indeed, f 00 (0) is undefined.
s
9x
ic
Remark 2.7.6. The converse of the preceding theorem is not true. That is, if f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c)
at
dne, the graph of f may or may not have a point of inflection at x = c. Take for example the
hem
graphs of f (x) = x4 and g(x) = x2/3 illustrated in Figures 2.7.3c and 2.7.3d. The graph of both
functions have no points of inflection but f 00 (x) = 0 and g 00 (x) does not exist when x = 0. From
at
now on, we will refer to the values of x in the domain of f that satisfy either f 00 (x) = 0 or f 00 (x)
M
does not exist, as possible points of inflection.

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Example 2.7.7. Determine all points of inflection of the graph of the following functions and
e
ut
discuss their concavity.

tit
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
s
9
In
Solution.
UP
2x
Note that f 00 (x) = = 0 when x = 0.
3
0
f 00 (x) − +
Then the graph of f has a point of inflection at (0, 0) and the graph of f is concave down on
(−∞, 0) and concave up on (0, ∞).
2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3
Solution.
Observe that f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x = 12x(x + 1) = 0 when x = 0 or x = −1.
−1 0
f 00 (x) + − +
Then (−1, −1) and (0, 0) are points of inflection of the graph f . The graph of f is concave up
on (−∞, −1) and (0, ∞). The graph of f is concave down on (−1, 0).
x2
3. f (x) =
9 − x2
Solution.
(9 − x2 )2 18 − 18x(2)(9 − x2 )(−2x) 54(3 + x2 )
Note that f 00 (x) = = which is never zero and is
(9 − x2 )4 (9 − x2 )3
undefined when x = ±3.
−3 3
999
999
00
f (x) − + −
Note that the graph of f cannot have points of inflection at x = ±3 because ±3 ∈
/ dom f . Also,
the graph of f is concave up on (−∞, −3) and (3, ∞), while f is concave down on (−3, 3).
4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3
Solution.
−4(x + 2)
Verify that f 00 (x) = = 0 when x = −2 and f 00 (x) is undefined when x = 0.
9x5/3
−2 0
ic s
f 00 (x) − + −
at
√
em
Then (−2, 2 3 2) and (0, 0) are points of inflection of the graph of f . The graph of f is concave
down on (−∞, −2) and (0, ∞) and concave up on (−2, 0).
h
at
M
2.7.3 The Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

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The following is another test for relative extrema that uses the second derivative of a function.
e
Compare this test with the first derivative test for relative extrema.
ut
tit
Theorem 2.7.8 (Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema). Let f be a function such that
s
f 0 and f 00 exist for all values of x on some open interval containing x = c and f 0 (c) = 0.
In
UP
1. If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum value at x = c.
2. If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum value at x = c.
3. If f 00 (x) = 0, we have no conclusion (f may or may not have a relative extrema at x = c).
Remark 2.7.9. Note that the second derivative test is only applicable to the first type of critical
numbers: those that make the first derivative zero (x-coordinates of so-called stationary points).
Example 2.7.10. Given the following functions, determine if the second derivative test is appli-
cable to their critical numbers. If yes, what can you conclude using the second derivative test?
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x with C.N. : −3, 3
9
Solution.
x2 − 9 2x
Recall that f 0 (x) = and f 00 (x) = . The second derivative test is applicable to both
3 00 3
−3 and 3. Observe that f (−3) = −2 < 0 and thus, f has a relative maximum at x = −3.
Similarly, f 00 (3) = 2 > 0 and thus, f has a relative minimum at x = 3.
2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3 with C.N. : 0, − 32
Solution.
Recall that f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 and f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x. The second derivative test is applicable
to both 0 and − 23 . Note that f 00 (0) = 0 and this gives us an inconclusive case. On the other
hand, f 00 − 32 = 9 > 0 and so f has a relative minimum at x = − 32 .

x2
3. f (x) = with C.N. : 0
9 − x2
Solution.
18x 2
We have seen that f 0 (x) = and f 00 (x) = 54(3 + x ) . The second derivative test is
(9 − x2 )2 (9 − x2 )3
54(3)
applicable to 0. Since f 00 (0) = 93 > 0, f has a relative minimum at x = 0.
4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3 with C.N. : 0, 1
Solution.
ic s
−4(x − 1) 00 (x) = −4(x + 2) . The second derivative test is applicable to 1 but
f 0 (x) = and f
at
3x2/3 9x5/3
em
not to 0. Because f 00 (1) = − 43 , then f has a relative maximum at x = 1.
b
h
5. f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a 6= 0. C.N. : − 2a .
at
M
Solution.
of
Note that f 0 (x) = 2ax+b and f 00 (x) = 2a. The second derivative test is applicable to − 2a
b
. From
e
00 b b
f (− 2a ) = 2a, we conclude that if a > 0, f has a relative minimum at x = − 2a . Meanwhile,
ut
b
a < 0, then f has a relative maximum at x = − 2a .
s tit
In
UP
2.7.4 Exercises
A. Identify the possible points of inflection of the graph of each function. Determine which of
these are indeed points of inflection using a table of signs. Determine the intervals on which
the graph of the function is concave up or concave down.
1. f (x) = (x + 2)3 x
5. f (x) = √
x2 + 1
2. f (x) = x2/3 √ 1
x 6. f (x) = x + √
3. f (x) = 2 x
x +2 7. f (x) = sin x cos x
x2 − 3 sin x
4. f (x) = 8. f (x) =
x2 + 1 2 − cos x
B. Determine which critical numbers satisfy the hypotheses of the second derivative test and
s
apply the test to these numbers.
ic
at
em
1. f (x) = (x2 − 1)4 4. f (x) = 2x + cot x
2. f (x) = x1/3 (x + 4) 5. f (x) = cos2 x − 2 sin x
h
at
√
3. f (x) = x4/3 − 6x1/3 6. f (x) = 3x + 2 sin x
M
of
C. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the
e
intervals where f is concave up, concave down and the x-coordinates of the points of inflection
ut
of f .
stit
In
1 2
UP
2 (0, 0) (3, 0)
(0, 1) −2 −1 1 2 3
1 −1
(−1, 0) −2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3
(0, −1)
−1 −4
(−2, −4)
−5
−2
(2, −2) −6
A. Identify the possible points of inflection of the graph of each function. Determine which of
these are indeed points of inflection using a table of signs. Determine the intervals on which
the graph of the function is concave up or concave down.
√
1. f (x) = −x4 + 10x3 − 36x2 − 90x + 200 5. f (x) = x2 + 2x + x
2. f (x) = x2 (2x2 − 4x + 3) 1 − 2x2 e2x
6. f (x) =
3. f (x) = (x + 2)5
+ + x4 8x3
+ 24x2 e2x
7. f (x) = ln(x3 − 1)
(
9 − x , if x ≤ 3
4. f (x) =
x2 − 3 , if x > 3 8. f (x) = 2x2 + ln x
B. Determine which critical numbers satisfy the hypotheses of the second derivative test and
apply the test to these numbers.
√ √
16000 3
4. f (x) = 2 3 x − x2
1. f (x) = x2 +
x
5. f (x) = cos(π sin x)
200
2. f (x) = (x − 4) −2 2
x 6. f (x) = e−x
√
3. f (x) = x − 2 x + 1 + 1 7. f (x) = x − ln sech x
ic s
C. Suppose that water is flowing at a constant rate into the container below. If f (t) is the water
at
level (height) in the container after time t, how would you describe the graph of y = f (t)?
1. 2.
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
D. Do as indicated.
UP
1. If f is a function concave down everywhere, show that e−f (x) is concave up everywhere.
2. Suppose n is a positive integer such that n ≥ 2. Let g(x) = xn+1 − (n + 1)xn .
a. Prove that g has a relative minimum at x = n.
b. Explain why the Second Derivative Test cannot be used to show that g has a relative
maximum at x = 0 when n is even.
c. Show that g has a point of inflection at x = n − 1 and at x = 0 when n is odd.
2.8. GRAPH SKETCHING 131
2.8 Graph Sketching

We have laid out the tools we need to analyze the behavior of a function. We are now ready to
sketch the graph of functions using its derivatives.
• find the vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes of a function
• using derivatives, graph polynomial functions (of degree at most 5) and rational
functions
Here are some guidelines we can follow.
Guidelines for Graphing a Function f Analytically:
s
1. Find the domain and intercepts of f .
ic
at
2. Determine vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes of f .
em
3. Compute f 0 (x) and f 00 (x), and determine the critical numbers.
h
at
4. Divide the real number line using the numbers that make f 0 zero or undefined and the
M
numbers that make f 00 zero or undefined. Determine the sign of f 0 (x) and f 00 (x) on each
of
interval. It would be easier if you make a table(s) of signs.

e
ut
5. Determine intervals on which the function is increasing,decreasing, concave up, concave down.
tit
Determine the coordinates of the relative extremum points and points of inflection.
s
In
6. Plot important points (intercepts, holes, extrema, points of inflection) and asymptotes first.
UP
7. Use the table of signs of f 0 and f 00 to graph the rest of the function.
2.8.1 Graphing Polynomial Funtions

x3
Example 2.8.1. Sketch the graph of f (x) = − 3x.
9
Solution.
domf : R √
interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
x-intercept: x = 0, ±3 3 (−∞, −3) + - inc., cd
−3 6 0 - rel. max.
y-intercept: y = 0
(−3, 0) - - dec, cd
x2 − 9
f 0 (x) = CN: −3, 3 0 0 - 0 POI
3 (0, 3) - + dec, cu
2x
f 00 (x) = PPOI : 0 3 −6 0 + rel. min.
3
(3, ∞) + + inc, cu
(−3, 6)
√ √
(−3 3, 0) (3 3, 0)
(0, 0)
(3, −6)
Example 2.8.2. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 using derivatives.
Solution.
ic s
R
at
domf : f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 CN: 0, − 23
em
x-intercept: x = 0, −2 f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x PPOI: 0, −1
y-intercept: y = 0
h
at
M
interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
of
(−∞, − 32 ) - + dec., cu
−27
− 32
e
0 + rel. min.
ut
16
(− 32 , −1) + + inc, cu
tit
−1 −1 + 0 POI
s
In
(−1, 0) + - inc, cd
0 0 0 0 POI
UP
(0, ∞) + + inc, cu
(0, 0)
(−1, −1)
( −3
2
, −27
16
)
2.8.2 Review of Asymptotes
In graphing functions accurately, it is also important to take note of its asymptotes. In this course,
we will discuss linear asymptotes of a function. The formal definition of an asymptote involves
limits.
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f (x) if at least one of the following is true:
(a) lim f (x) = ∞ (b) lim f (x) = −∞ (c) lim f (x) = ∞ (d) lim f (x) = −∞
x→a− x→a− x→a+ x→a+
x=a x=a x=a x=a
ic s
at
Remark 2.8.3. To look for the vertical asymptotes of the graph of a function, we have to think
P (x)
h em
of a real number a such that the limit of f as x approaches a is infinite. For a rational polynomial
, x = a is a vertical asymptote if (x − a) is a factor of Q but not of P (or the multiplicity of
at
Q(x)
M
x − a as a factor of Q is greater than the multiplicity of x − a as a factor of P ).

of
Example 2.8.4.
e
ut
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
tit
1. f (x) = 2
= has a vertical asymptote at x = 3 but has none at x = 2.
x − 5x + 6 (x − 3)(x − 2)
s
In
To verify this using limits,

UP
(x − 2)(x + 2) (x + 2)
lim = lim = −4
x→2 (x − 3)(x − 2) x→2 (x − 3)

(x − 2)(x + 2) 1·5
lim = −∞
x→3 (x − 3)(x − 2)
− (0− ) · 1

(x − 2)(x + 2) 1·5
lim =∞
x→3+ (x − 3)(x − 2) (0+ ) · 1
4 − x2 (2 − x)(2 + x)
2. f (x) = 2
= has a vertical asymptote at x = 2.
x − 4x + 4 (x − 2)2

(2 − x)(2 + x) −(x + 2) −4
lim = lim = ±∞
x→2∓ (x − 2)2 x→2∓ (x − 2) 0∓
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if at least one of the following is true:
y=b
(a) lim f (x) = b
x→∞
y=b
y=b
(b) lim f (x) = b
x→−∞
y=b
Remark 2.8.5. To find all horizontal asymptotes of a polynomial or rational function, we only
need to evaluate the limit of the function as x → ∞ and as x → −∞. If the limit is finite, then there
s
is a horizontal asymptote. Notice that in a rational function, whenever the degree of the numerator
ic
at
is less than or equal to the degree of the denominator, then there is a horizontal asymptote.
Example 2.8.6.
h em
at
M
of
x+3
1. f (x) = has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
x2 − 1
e
ut
tit
1 1 3
x+3 +
s
x2 x x2
lim · = lim =0
In
x→∞ x2 − 1 1 1
x2
x→∞ 1− x2
UP
1 1 3
x+3 x2 x + x2
lim · 1 = lim 1 =0
x→−∞ x2 − 1 x→∞ 1−
x2 x2
2x + 1 2 2
2. f (x) = has a horizontal asymptote at y = and y = − .
|5x − 2| 5 5
2x + 1 2x + 1 2
lim = lim =
x→∞ |5x − 2| x→∞ 5x − 2 5
2x + 1 2x + 1 2
lim = lim =−
x→−∞ |5x − 2| x→−∞ −5x + 2 5
The graph of f has the line y = mx + b, m 6= 0, as an oblique asymptote if at least one of the
following is true:
(a) lim f (x) − (mx + b) = 0

x→∞
y = mx + b y = mx + b y = mx + b y = mx + b
(b) lim f (x) − (mx + b) = 0.

x→−∞
ic s
y = mx + b
at
y = mx + b y = mx + b y = mx + b
h em
at
P (x)
M
Remark 2.8.7. If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions with deg(P ) = deg(Q) + 1, then
Q(x)
has an oblique asymptote.
of
e
x2 + 3
ut
Example 2.8.8. The rational function f (x) = has an oblique asymptote because the de-
x−1
tit
gree of the numerator is 2, which is one degree greater than that of the denominator. To find the
s
equation of the oblique asymptote, we use long division.

In
UP
x+1
x2

x−1 +3
− x2 +x
x+3
−x+1
4
Thus
4
f (x) = (x + 1) + .
x−1
From here it can be shown that y = x + 1 is an oblique asymptote since
4
lim f (x) − (x + 1) = lim = 0.
x→±∞ x→±∞ x + 1
2.8.3 Graphing Rational Functions

x2
Example 2.8.9. Sketch the graph of f (x) = using derivatives.
9 − x2
R
Solution.
domf : \ {±3} interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
x-int: x = 0 y-int: y = 0 (−∞, −3) - - dec., cd
−3 und und und V.A.
Vertical Asymptotes: x = −3and x = 3 (−3, 0) - + dec, cu
9
lim f (x) = −∞ − 0 0 0 + rel. min.
x→−3 − 0
(0, 3) + + inc, cu
9
lim f (x) = ∞ +
3 und und und V.A.
x→−3+ 0 (3, ∞) + - inc, cd
9
lim f (x) = ∞
x→3− 0+
x2

9 f (x) =
lim f (x) = −∞ 9 − x2
x→3 + 0−
Horizontal Asymptotes: y = −1 x = −3 x=3
x2 1 (0, 0)
s
lim = lim 9 = −1
ic
x→±∞ 9 − x2 x→±∞ 2 − 1 y = −1
x
at
Oblique Asymptotes: none
em
18x
f 0 (x) = CN: 0
(9 − x2 )2 h
54(3 + x2 )
at
f 00 (x) = PPOI: none
(9 − x2 )3
M
4x
of
Example 2.8.10. Sketch the graph of f (x) = using derivatives.

x2 +1
e
ut
Solution.
domf : R
tit
x-int: x = 0 interval f f0 f 00 conclusion

s
√
In
(−∞, − 3) - - dec., cd
y-int: y = 0 √ √
− 3 − 3 - 0 POI
√
UP
Vertical Asymptote.: none (− 3, −1) - + dec, cu

Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0 −1 −2 0 + rel. min.
4
x 0 (−1, 0) + + inc, cu
lim = =0
1
x→±∞ 1 + x12 0 0 + 0 POI
Oblique Asymptote: none (0, 1) + - inc, cd
4 − 4x2 1
√
2 0 - rel. max.
f 0 (x) = 2 CN: −1, 1 (1, 3) - - dec, cd
(x + 1)2 √ √
8x(x2 − 3) √ 3 3 - 0 POI
√
f 00 (x) = 2 3
PPOI: 0, ± 3 ( 3, ∞) - + dec, cu
(x + 1)
(1, 2) √ √
( 3, 3)
(0, 0)
y=0
4x
√ √ f (x) =
(− 3, − 3) x2 + 1
(−1, −2)
x−1
Example 2.8.11. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 4 + x + using derivatives.
x2 − 1
Solution.
R
domf : \ {−1, 1} √ x = −1
x-intercept: x = −5±2 5
1 x2 + 5x + 5
f (x) = 4 + x + = , x 6= 1 x−1
x+1 x+1 f (x) = 4 + x +
y-intercept: y = 5 x2 − 1
11 (1, 11
)
V.A.: x = −1 hole: 1, 2
2
H.A.: none y =x+4
(0, 5)
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→∞ x→−∞
O.A.: y = x + 4
x2 + 2x
f 0 (x) = CN: 0, −2
(x + 1)2 (−2,1)
2 √
s
f 00 (x) = PPOI: none ( −5− 5
ic
2
, 0)
(x + 1)3 √
at
( −5+
2
5
, 0)
em
0 00
interval f f f conclusion
(−∞, −2) + - inc, cd
h
at
−2 1 0 - rel. max.
M
(−2, −1) - - dec, cd

−1 und und und V.A.
of
(−1, 0) - + dec, cu
e
0 5 0 + rel. min.
ut
(0, ∞) + + inc, cu
s tit
2.8.4 The Graph of f from the Graph of f 0

In
We know that we can gain insight on the shape of a function f if we know the behavior of its
UP
derivative. From the graph of the derivative of f , what can we deduce about the graph of f ?
Example 2.8.12. Given the graph of f 0 below and assuming that f is continuous everywhere,
sketch a possible graph of f .
−1 1 2
−1
Solution.
(a) First, we need to determine the critical numbers of f . Remember that these are the numbers
that make f 0 zero or undefined. From the graph of f 0 , we see that the critical numbers are −1,
0 and 2.
(b) Next, we need to determine where the graph of f has points of inflection. These are the points
where the graph of f 0 changes from increasing to decreasing, or vice versa. The possible points
of inflection of the graph of f are attained at values of x where the graph of f 0 has a horizontal
tangent line or a vertical tangent line or has no tangent line. Thus, the x-coordinates of the
possible points of inflection of f are 0 and 1.
(c) Recall that the graph of f is increasing on [a, b] if f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). This means that
the graph of f 0 is above the x-axis on the interval (a, b). Similarly, the graph of f is decreasing
on [a, b] if the graph of f 0 is below the x-axis on the interval (a, b).
(d) Meanwhile, the graph of f is concave up on an interval (a, b) if the graph of f 0 is increasing on
(a, b). It is concave down on (a, b) if the graph of f 0 is decreasing on (a, b).
f0 f 00
s
interval conclusions on the graph of f
ic
(−∞, −1) + − increasing, concave down
at
−1 0 − relative maximum
(−1, 0) − −
em
decreasing, concave down
h
at
0 und und relative minimum, POI
M
(0, 1) + + increasing, concave up

1 + 0 POI
of
(1, 2) + − increasing, concave down

e
ut
2 0 − relative maximum
tit
(2, ∞) − − decreasing, concave down

s
In
From this table, we can construct a possible graph of f .

UP
−1 0 1 2
2.8.5 Exercises
A. Explain why the following functions do not have a linear asymptote and sketch their graphs.
1. y = x3 − 3x2 + 1 3. y = x1/3 (x + 4)
2. y = −x4 + 8x3 − 18x2 + 10 4. y = sin x cos x
B. Find all vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes of the following functions using limits.
√
x2 + 1 x+1−1
1. f (x) = 4. f (x) =
x+1 x
sin x 2
x − 4x + 4
2. f (x) = 5. f (x) = 2
x x +x−6
s
x2 − 1 4
ic
3. f (x) = 2 6. f (x) = x + 1 +
at
5x + 1 x−4
C. Sketch the graph of the following functions analytically. em

h
at
M
x x2 + 1
1. f (x) =
of
(2x + 1)2 4. f (x) =

x+1
e
12x2 x3 − 1
ut
2. f (x) = 5. f (x) = 2
(x − 2)2 x −1
tit
2x3 (x + 1)3
s
3. f (x) = 6. f (x) =
In
x2 − 4 x2
UP
D. Sketch a possible graph of the function f given the graph of f 0 . Assume that f is continuous
everywhere.
1. 2.
(−1, 2) 2 3
(0, 2.6)
2
1
(−2, 1) (0, 1)
√ 1
(−2, 0) (3 − 2, 0)
(−1, −0.6) (3, 0)
−3 −2 −1(0, 0) 1 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
−1
−1
−2 (1, −2) −2
A. Explain why the following functions do not have a linear asymptote and sketch their graphs.
1. y = 3x4 − 4x3 3. y = x4/3 − x1/3

2. y = x4 − 8x2 + 16 4. y = cosh x
B. Find all vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes of the following functions using limits.
2x + 3 1
1. f (x) = 3. f (x) =
x+4 |x − 3|
1
4. f (x) = ln(1 + )
x−9 x2
2. f (x) = √ 5. f (x) = coth x
x−3
s
C. Sketch the graph of the following functions analytically.
ic
at
em
1. f (x) = 4x3 + 12x2 (x + 1)3
5. f (x) =
h x2
(x − 1)2
at
2. f (x) = (x − 2)(3x + 2)
x2 6. f (x) =
M
x+1
4(2x + 3)(x + 3) (2x − 1)2
of
3. f (x) = 7. f (x) =
(x + 2)2 (x − 2)2
e
ut
x2 + 3x + 2 x3
4. f (x) = 8. f (x) =
tit
3x + 2 x2 − 4
s
In
D. Sketch a possible graph of the function f given the table of signs of f 0 and f 00 . Assume that
UP
f is continuous everywhere
1. 2.
x f 0 (x) f 00 (x) x f 0 (x) f 00 (x)

− − + −
x = −1 und und x=0 0 0
− + + +
x=0 0 + x=1 und und
+ + − +
x=1 + 0 x=4 0 +
+ − + +
Reviewer
dy
I. Find . No need to simplify your final answers.
dx
(2x −1)21 sec2 (3x+4)
1. y = s (use logarithmic differentiation)
1 3
5−
x2
−1 x cosh(πx)
2. y = cot (7 )
3. y = f 0 (x), where f (x) = tan−1 (5x2 + 3)
√
4. log3 (x5 + y 3 ) = e + sin(x2 − y)
1 6
5. 2y − π 3 = cosh(xy 2 ) + log2 (x3 + 7)
II. Do as indicated.
1. Find the point-slope form of the equation of the normal line to the graph of y = cot(πx)
at x = 21 .
s
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of
ic
at
1
π + x3 sinh(y 4 ) = 3x +
em
y
h
at

1
at the point 0, .
M
π
3. Determine if the function
of
3 + x,

e
x≤3
ut
f (x) = 4 − √
x
tit
x + 2x + 3, x>3
s
In
UP
4. Find all possible values for a and b such that the function
(
tan(πx), x < 3
p(x) =
ax2 − b, x ≥ 3
5. Verify that the Mean Value Theorem is applicable to the following functions on the given
interval. Find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem on
the given interval.
2x
1. f (x) = on [0, 1]
x+1
2. g(x) = 3sin x on [0, π]
3. h(x) = x − ex on [0, 2]
(x − 1)(x − 4) x2 − 5x + 4 9(x − 2) 18(4 − x)

III. Let f (x) = = , with f 0 (x) = and f 00 (x) = .
(x + 2)2 x2 − 4x + 4 (x + 2)3 (x + 2)4
1. Determine the horizontal and the vertical asymptotes to the graph of f by computing
all necessary limits.
2. Determine the x-intercepts, critical numbers and the x-coordinates of the possible points
of inflection of the graph of f .
3. Construct a table of signs for f 0 , and f 00 . Using this table, identify all intervals in which
f is increasing, decreasing, concave upward, or concave downward. Identify the relative
extremum point/s and point/s of inflection.
4. Sketch the graph of f . Label all intercepts, relative extremum points, points of inflection,
and linear asymptotes of f .
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
Chapter 3
Applications of Differentiation
3.1 Absolute Extrema of a Function on an Interval
ic s
at
• determine the absolute extrema of a function on an interval
em
• solve optimization problems using techniques for finding absolute extrema
h
at
M
Suppose a businessman wishes to know how many toy robots he needs to produce to maximize his
of
profit. If he produces too many toys, some of these may not be bought because of limited demand.
e
ut
Using market research, he finds out that if he produces x toy robots, his profit will be given by the
tit
function f (x). In deciding how many he will produce, he also has to consider some constraints, like
s
his budget or his factory’s production speed. Hence, he only considers values of x on a given set,
In
say, an interval I. How will the businessman determine what value of x on the interval I will give
UP
the highest value of f (x)?
A function f is said to have an absolute maximum value on an interval I at x0 if f (x0 ) ≥ f (x)

for any x ∈ I. Similarly, f is said to have an absolute minimum value on an interval I at x0 if
f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for any x ∈ I. If f has either an absolute maximum or absolute minimum value on I
at x0 , then we say f has an absolute extremum on I at x0 .
Remarks.
1. Unlike with relative extrema, the interval I need not be an open interval.
2. Note that the absolute maximum (or minimum) value of a function on an interval is unique, if
it exists. However, the graph of f may have more than one absolute maximum (or minimum)
point (same y-values but different x-values).
143
144 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
f (x) = cot x (−2, 4)

f (x) = x2
π
2
− π2 (0, 3) f (x) = 2x + 3
(1, 1)
(−1, 1)
−2 0 1
−1 0
Example 3.1.1.
• f (x) = cot x has no absolute extrema on the interval [− π2 , π2 ].
• f (x) = x2 has an absolute minimum on the interval (−2, 1) at x = 0 but has no absolute
ic s
maximum on (−2, 1).
at
em
• f (x) = 2x+3 has an absolute minimum on the interval [−1, ∞) at x = −1 but has no absolute
maximum on [−1, ∞). h
at
M
• f (x) = 2x + 3 has an absolute minimum on the interval [−1, 0] at x = −1 and an absolute

of
maximum on [−1, 0] at x = 0.
e
ut
3.1.1 Absolute Extrema on Closed and Bounded Intervals

s tit
In
Ultimately, we want to find the absolute extrema of a function on a given interval. It would also be
helpful if we can easily determine the existence of an absolute minimum or an absolute maximum
UP
of a function, so that we are at least guaranteed that our efforts in finding them are not wasted.
Theorem 3.1.2 (Extreme Value Theorem). If f is continuous on [a, b], then f has both an
absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on [a, b].
Remark 3.1.3. If you replace [a, b] by one of the following intervals (a, b), [a, b), (a, b], (a, ∞),
(−∞, b), [a, ∞), (−∞, b], then the conclusion of the Extreme Value Theorem does not follow.
The Extreme Value Theorem assures us that a continuous function on [a, b] will attain both an
absolute maximum and minimum on [a, b]. Hence, an absolute extremum may be attained at either
an interior point, that is x ∈ (a, b), or at an endpoint, that is x = a or x = b.
Theorem 3.1.4. If f has an absolute extremum on the open interval (a, b) at x = c, then c is
a critical number of f on (a, b), that is, either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) is undefined.
3.1. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 145
Finding absolute extrema of f on [a, b]:
• find critical numbers of f between a and b, say c1 , . . . , cm
• evaluate f at each critical number and at the endpoints a and b
• compare f (c1 ), . . . , f (cm ), f (a) and f (b)
• the number that gives the highest (lowest) value of f gives the absolute maximum
(minimum).
Note: Always check if the function is continuous on I. One way to do this is to check if the interval
in consideration is a subset of dom f .
Example 3.1.5. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum values of f (x) on the
given closed interval. Specify the values of x at which these absolute extrema are attained.
1. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1 on I = [− 21 , 4]
ic s
Solution.
at
R. Thus, f is continuous on any interval;
em
We note that f is a polynomial, which is continuous on
in particular, it is continuous on I.
h
at
M
Now, we solve for the critical numbers of f :

of
f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2) C.N.s on I: 0, 2

e
ut

1 1
tit
f − = f (0) = 1 f (2) = −3 f (4) = 17

2 8
s
In
Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = 2 and an absolute maximum at x = 4.

UP
1
2. f (x) = on I = [−2, 1]
1 + x2
Solution.
Since the denominator of f is nonzero, then dom f = R. Thus, f is defined and continuous on
[−2, 1]. Solving for the CNs of f , we get:
−2x
f 0 (x) = C.N.s on I: 0
(x2 + 1)2
1 1
f (−2) = f (0) = 1 f (1) =
5 2
Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = −2 and an absolute maximum at x = 0.
3. f (x) = x2/3 on I = [−8, 1]
Solution.
Since taking cube roots is possible for any real number, f is defined, and thus continuous, on
I. We solve for the CNs of f :
2
f 0 (x) = C.N.s on I: 0
3x1/3
f (−8) = 4 f (0) = 0 f (1) = 1
Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = 0 and an absolute maximum at x = −8.
4. f (x) = x − tan x on I = [− π4 , π4 ]
Solution.
The function f1 (x) = x is continuous everywhere. From the graph of f2 (x) = tan x, it should
make sense to say that f2 is continuous on I. Thus, f (x) = f1 (x) − f2 (x) is continuous on I.
We solve for the CNs of f :
f 0 (x) = 1 − sec2 x C.N.s on I: 0
ic s
π π π π
f − =− +1 f (0) = 0 f = −1
at
4 4 4 4
em
π
Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = 4 and an absolute maximum at x = − π4 .
h
(
at
x2 − 4 , x < 3
5. f (x) = on I = [0, 5]
M
8−x , x≥3
of
Solution.
R. We now check for continuity at x = 3.
e
ut
Each component function is defined and continuous on

tit
Since
s
In
lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 4) = 5

x→3− x→3−
UP
lim f (x) = lim (8 − x) = 5

x→3+ x→3+
we have lim f (x) = 5 = f (3). Hence f is continuous at x = 3 and so on I. Solving for the CNs
x→3
of f , we get:
(
2x , x < 3
f 0 (x) = C.N.s on I: 0, 3
−1 , x > 3
f (0) = −4 f (3) = 5 f (5) = 3
Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = 0 and an absolute maximum at x = 3.
3.1.2 Absolute Extrema On Open Intervals

Even if a function is continuous, we are not always guaranteed that it attains an absolute extremum
on an interval like (a, b), (a, b], (a, b] or infinite intervals. In those cases, the following theorem will
be useful.
Theorem 3.1.6. Suppose the function f is continuous on an interval I containing x0 and x0

is the only number in I for which f has a relative extremum.
(a) If f has a relative maximum at x0 , then f has an absolute maximum on I at x0 .
(b) If f has a relative minimum at x0 , then f has an absolute minimum on I at x0 .
Example 3.1.7. Find the value(s) of x where the given function attains its absolute extrema, if
any, on the given interval.
1
1. f (x) = on I = (−2, 1)
1 + x2
Solution.
From item 2 of Example 3.1.5, f is continuous on (−2, 1).
−2x
f 0 (x) = C.N.: 0
(x2+ 1)2
ic s
at
−4x2 + 2
f 00 (x) = and f 00 (0) = 2 > 0
em
(x2 + 1)3
h
By the second derivative test, f has a relative minimum at x = 0. Since the point (0, 1) is the
at
M
only relative extremum of f on I, then f has an absolute minimum at x = 0.
R
of
2. f (x) = x4 − 4x on
e
ut
Solution.
R.
tit
Since f is a polynomial, then f is continuous on

s
In
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 4 C.N.: 1

UP
f 00 (x) = 12x2 and f 00 (1) = 12 > 0

By the second derivative test, f has a relative minimum at x = 1. It is the only relative
R
extremum of f in . Hence, f has an absolute minimum at x = 1.
16
3. f (x) = x + on (1, ∞)
x
Solution.
Since dom f = R \ {0}, then f is continuous on (1, +∞).
16 x2 − 16
f 0 (x) = 1 − = C.N. on (1, ∞): 4
x2 x2
32 1
f 00 (x) = 3
and f 00 (4) = > 0
x 2
By the second derivative test, f has a relative minimum at x = 4. Since it is the only relative
extremum of f on (1, ∞), then f has an absolute minimum at x = 4.
Consider a function f continuous on an open interval I with more than one relative extremum on
I. We can also determine the absolute extrema of f by observing the limit of f as x approaches
the endpoints/tails of the interval.
Example 3.1.8. Find the value(s) of x where f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4 attains its absolute extrema on
I = (−3, ∞).
Solution.
Note that f is continuous on the open interval (−3, ∞).
√ √
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 10x = 2x(2x2 − 5) and C.N. : 0, − 10
2 ,
10
2
s
f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 10
ic
at
√ √
f 00 (0) = −10 and f 00 − 210 = 20 = f 00 210
h em
at
By the√ second derivative
√ test, f has a relative maximum at x = 0 and relative minimum at
M
10 10
x = − 2 and x = 2 . Now,
of
√ √
e
f − 210 = − 94 = f 210
ut
f (0) = 4,
tit
lim f (x) = 40 and lim f (x) = +∞.

s
x→−3+ x→+∞
In
UP
Make a rough sketch of the graph of f on (−3, ∞).

Clearly, f has no absolute maximum. Note that the interval (−3, ∞) is open. Thus, if f has
an absolute minimum on (−3, ∞), then it must be a relative minimum. From the behavior of
the function towards the left√ endpoint and towards ∞, we can conclude that f has an absolute
minimum attained at x = ± 210 .
3.1.3 Optimization: Application of Absolute Extrema on Word Problems
Many real-life situations require us to find a value that best suits our needs. If we are given
several options for the value of a variable x, how do we choose the “best value”? Such a problem is
classified as an optimization problem. We wish to apply our previous discussion on finding absolute
extremum values of a function to solve some optimization problems.
Suggestions on Solving Optimization Problems
1. If possible, draw a diagram of the problem corresponding to a general situation.
2. Assign variables to all quantities involved.
3. Identify the objective function.
(a) Identify the quantity, say q, to be maximized or minimized.

(b) Formulate an equation involving q and other quantities. Express q in terms of a single
variable, say x. If necessary, use the information given and relationships between
quantities to eliminate some variables.
(c) The objective function to be maximized/minimized: q = f (x)
4. Determine the domain or constraint of q from the physical restrictions of the problem.
5. Use appropriate theorems involving absolute extrema to solve the problem. Make sure to
give the exact answer to the question (indicate units).
ic s
at
Example 3.1.9. h em
at
M
1. Find the number in the interval [−2, 2] so that the difference of the number from its square is
of
maximized.
e
ut
Solution.
s tit
Let x be the desired number. We want to maximize

In
UP
f (x) = x2 − x
where x ∈ [−2, 2]. Note that f is continuous on [−2, 2] and thus, we can apply the Extreme
Value Theorem. We first find the critical numbers of f in the interval (−2, 2).
f 0 (x) = 2x − 1
Hence we have one critical number in (−2, 2), that is x = 21 . Then we compare the function
value at the critical number and the endpoints.

1 1
f (−2) = 6 f (2) = 2 f =−
2 4
From this, we conclude that f attains an absolute maximum on I at x = −2. Hence, the number
we are looking for is −2.
s s
s s
9 in
2. A rectangular box is to be made from a piece of
cardboard 24 inches long and 9 inches wide by s s
cutting out identical squares from the four corners s s
and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the
largest rectangular box that can be formed. 24 in
Solution.
If s is the length of the side of the squares to be cut out, then the volume of the open-topped
box we can construct is
V (s) = (24 − 2s)(9 − 2s)s = 2(108s − 33s2 + 2s3 ).
s
We wish to maximize V (s) but note that s is a positive real number which has to be less than
ic
half the width of the cardboard. That is, s ∈ (0, 4.5). Now
at
em
V 0 (s) = 216 − 132s + 12s2 = 12(18 − 11s + s2 ) = 12(s − 2)(s − 9)
h
at
and hence the only critical number of V in (0, 4.5) is 2. Using the second derivative test, we
see that V 00 (s) = −132 + 24s and V 00 (2) < 0. Therefore V has a relative maximum at s = 2.
M
Since it is the only relative extremum of V on the open interval (0, 4.5), then V also attains
of
its absolute maximum at s = 2. We conclude that the volume of the largest box that can be
e
formed is V (2) = 200 in3 .

ut
tit
3. A 1000 square yard rectangular lot along a highway is to be fenced off such that one side of the
s
In
fence is on the highway. The fencing on the highway costs Php 80 per yard and the fencing on
the other sides costs Php 20 per yard. Determine the dimensions of the lot that will minimize
UP
the total cost of the fencing. (Assume that materials can be bought in any fractional parts.)
Solution.
Let s1 be the length of the side of the lot facing the highway and s2 be the length of the other
side. Since the area of the lot is 1000 yd2 , then we can write s2 = 1000s1 . If C is the cost of
fencing the lot, then
40, 000
C(s1 ) = 100s1 + 40s2 = 100s1 + .
s1
We want to minimize this function. But first, we need to ask: what are the feasible values for
s1 ? Clearly, s1 is a positive real number. Aside from this, we do not have any other constraint
for s1 . Thus, the domain is (0, ∞). Note that
40, 000
C 0 (s1 ) = 100 −
s21
and so C has a critical number at s1 = 20. Since C 00 (20) = 2(40,000)

203
> 0, then C has a relative
minimum at s1 = 20. Using similar arguments as the previous examples, we conclude that the
side facing the highway must be 20 yards and the other side must be 50 yards to minimize the
cost of fencing the lot.
4. Determine the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume that can be inscribed
in a right circular cone of radius 6 inches and height 9 inches.
r
6 in
9 in
ic s
at
Solution.
em
Let h and r respectively denote the height and radius of the cylinder. The volume of the cylinder
h
at
is πr2 h. Looking at the middle cross-section of the cylinder and cone, we can see similar triangles
M
and so
6 9
=
of
6−r h
e
We can now write our objective function

ut
tit
3
V (r) = 9πr2 − πr3
s
2
In
to be maximized. Clearly, r ∈ (0, 6). Now, V 0 (r) = 18πr − 29 πr2 = 9πr(2 − 2r ) and hence, the
UP
only critical number is 4. Applying the second derivative test, we get V 00 (r) = 18π − 9πr and
V 00 (4) = −18π < 0. Since V has only one relative extremum on the interval (0, 6) and it is a
relative maximum, then it is also an absolute maximum. Therefore, the inscribed right circular
cylinder will have the greatest volume if its dimensions are r = 4 inches and h = 3 inches.
5. Angelo, who is in a rowboat 2 miles from a straight shoreline, notices smoke billowing from his
house, which is on the shoreline and 6 miles from the point on the shoreline nearest Angelo. If
he can row at 6 miles per hour and run at 10 miles per hour, how should he proceed in order to
get to his house in the least amount of time?
Starting Point
2 mi
Angelo’s house c P
shoreline
6 mi
Solution.
Let c be the distance between the house and the point P on the shore from which Angelo will
start to run. Using the Pythagorean theorem, we see that the distance
p he will travel by boat is
4 + (6 − c)2
4 + (6 − c)2 . Note that speed= distance
p
time . Thus he will sail for hours and walk
c
6
for 10 hours. We wish to minimize
p
4 + (6 − c)2 c
T (c) = +
6 10
We can assume that c ∈ [0, 6]. Solving for the critical numbers of f on (0, 6),
p
5c − 30 + 3 4 + (6 − c)2
T 0 (c) = p ,
30 4 + (6 − c)2
we get c = 92 . Comparing function values at the endpoints and the critical number,
√
2 10 9 13 14
s
T (0) = T = T (6) = ,
ic
6 2 15 15
at
we see that the absolute minimum of T is attained at c = 92 . Angelo must row up to the point
em
P on the shore 92 miles from his house and 32 miles from the point on the shore nearest him.
h
at
Then he must run straight to his house.
M
of
e
ut
6. A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by r

tit
a semicircle. If the perimeter of a Norman window is to h

s
In
be 20ft., what should the radius of the semicircle and the

height of the rectangle be so that the window will admit the
UP
most light?
Solution.
Let r denote the radius of the semicircle and h denote the height of the rectangular as seen in
the illustration. Since the perimeter is 20 ft., we get the equation 20 = 2h + 2r + rπ. From this,
we can solve for h in terms of r and vice versa. We have
1 20 − 2h
h = 10 − (2 + π)r and r= .
2 2+π
From these two equations, notice that since h and r are positive real numbers, then h cannot
exceed 10 and
20
r< .
2+π
Thus, we want to maximize the surface area
1 πr2
A(r) = 2rh + πr2 = − − 2r2 + 20r,
2 2
20
where r ∈ (0, 2+π ). Since A0 (r) = −πr − 4r + 20, then the only critical number is r = π+4
20
. If
we can show that A attains a relative maximum at this critical number, then we can conclude
that A also attains its absolute maximum at this critical number. Indeed,

00 00 20
A (r) = −π − 4 = A <0
π+4
and so by the second derivative test we obtain the desired conclusion. Therefore, the window
20 20
admits most light when r = π+4 feet and h = π+4 feet.
7. Find all points on the parabola with equation x = 2y 2 that are closest to the point (10, 0).
x = 2y 2 (x, y)
(10, 0)
ic s
Solution.
at
Since the point/s we are looking for is/are on the graph of x = 2y 2 , then we let (2y 2 , y) be the
em
coordinates of the desired point/s. We wish to minimize
h
at
p p p
d := (x − 10)2 + y 2 = (2y 2 − 10)2 + y 2 = 4y 4 − 39y 2 + 100
M
R
of
where y ∈ . Note however that a value of y minimizing d also minimizes d2 because d is a

positive value. For simplicity, we minimize
e
ut
tit
D(y) := 4y 4 − 39y 2 + 100

s
In
q
instead. Note that D0 (y) = 16y 3 − 78y and so the critical numbers of D are 0, ± 39
8 . From the
UP
following observations,
r ! r !
39 39
D00 (y) = 48y 2 − 78 and D00 (0) = −78 < 0 and D00 = 156 = D00 −
8 8
q
we see that D has a relative maximum at y = 0 and relative minimum at y = ± 39
8 . Moreover,
lim D(y) = +∞ and lim D(y) = +∞.

y→−∞ y→+∞
Thus D has no absolute

q maximum value but has an absolute minimum attained at two q values

of y, namely, y = ± 39
8 . Therefore, the points in the graph nearest (10, 0) are 39
4 , 39
8 and
q
39 39
4 ,− 8 .
3.1.4 Exercises
A. Find the absolute extrema of the function on the given interval, if there are any, and determine
the values of x at which the absolute extrema occur.
√
1. f (x) = x 4 − x2 on [−1, 2]
(
4x − 2, x<1
2. f (x) = on [ 12 , 72 ]
(x − 2)(x − 3), x ≥ 1
3. f (x) = 2 sec x − tan x on 0, π4

4. f (x) = 4x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 3 on (0, ∞)

1
5. f (x) = x + on (−∞, 0)
x
√
6. f (x) = 4 − x2 on (−2, 2)
4
7. f (x) = on [2, 5)
s
(x − 3)2
ic
8. f (x) = [[x]] − x2 on (−1, 1)
at
√ √
em
9. f (x) = x2 + cos(x2 ) on (− π, π)
h
at
B. Answer the following optimization problems systematically.
M
1. Find two numbers such that their difference is 50 and their product is as small as possible.
of
2. A closed box with a square base is to have a volume of 2000 in3 . The material for the top
e
ut
and bottom of the box cost 30 pesos per square inch amd the material for the sides cost
tit
15 pesos per square inch. Find the dimensions of the box so that the total cost of material
is least.
s
In
3. Find the area of the largest rectangle having two vertices on the x-axis and two vertices
UP
above the x-axis and on the parabola with equation y = 9 − x2 .

4. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 − 3x2 + 5x that has the least slope.
5. Find the radius and height of the right circular cylinder of largest volume that can be
inscribed in a right circular cone with radius 6 inches and height 10 inches.
6. A closed cylindrical can is to hold 1 liter of liquid. Assuming there is no waste or overlap,
how should we choose the height and radius to minimize the amount of material needed to
manufacture the can?
7. Find a point on the curve y = x2 that is closest to the point (18, 0).
8. The product of two positive numbers x and y is equal to 9. Find the largest possible value
of xy .
A. Find the absolute extrema of the function on the given interval, if there are any, and determine
the values of x at which the absolute extrema occur.
x sin x
1. f (x) = on [−1, 4] 6. f (x) = √ on [0, 2π]
x2
+2 cos x + 2
2. f (x) = 4x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 3 on (−1, ∞) 7. f (x) = sin(cos x) on [0, 2π]
1
3. f (x) = on [−2, 3] 8. f (x) = x ln x on (0, +∞)
x
√
4. f (x) = |x − 4| + 1 on (0, 6) 9. f (x) = ln(1 + 3x2 ) + 2 tan−1 ( 3x) on
5. f (x) = 2 cos x on [ −2π π
3 , 3) (−∞, +∞)
B. Answer the following optimization problems systematically.
1. Express the number 11 as a sum of two nonnegative numbers whose product is as large as
possible.
ic s
2. A garden is to be laid out in a rectangular area and protected by a chicken wire fence.
at
What is the largest possible area of the garden if only 100 running feet of chicken wire is
em
available for the fence? h
3. An open box is to be made from a 16-inch by 30-inch piece of cardboard by cutting out
at
squares of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides. What size should the
M
squares be to obtain a box with the largest volume?

of
4. An offshore oil well located at a point W that is 5 km from the closest point A on a straight
e
ut
shoreline. Oil is to be piped from W to a shore point B that is 8 km from A by piping it

tit
on a straight line underwater from W to some shore point P between A and B and then
s
on to B via pipe along the shoreline. If the cost of laying pipe is around P10,000,000/km
In
underwater and P5,000,000/km over land, where should the point P be located to minimize
UP
the cost of laying the pipe?

5. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a semicircle of radius 5.
6. Paper Packaging and Artwork Philippines, a paper manufacturing company, makes open-
topped rectangular boxes as follows. First, they cut out a large rectangular sheet of card-
board. Then, from the corners of that rectangular sheet, they cut out small squares, and
fold up the sides of the resulting shape, as shown below. The company wishes to make a
rectangular box of volume 2000 cm3 with a square base. What dimensions will minimize
the amount of cardboard used in the production of the box, i.e., the area of the sheet from
which the box is cut?
7. If P (a, a2 ) is a point on the parabola y = x2 except for the origin, let Q be the point where
the normal line intersects the parabola again. Find the value of a for which P Q is shortest.
8. If a projectile is fired with an initial velocity v at an angle of elevation θ above the horizontal,
then its trajectory, neglecting air resistance, is the parabola
5 π
y = x tan θ − x2 , 0≤θ≤ .
v 2 cos2 θ 2
Suppose the projectile is fired from the base of a plane that is inclined at an angle of π4 from
the horizontal. Determine θ so that the range of the projectile (i.e., its net displacement
from its point of origin before it lands on the plane) is maximized.
9. The bottom of a projector screen 1 m high is 0.8 m above eye level. How far should one
stand from the screen in order to get the best view? (A viewer gets the best view when
the angle subtended by the screen whose vertex is at the viewer’s eyes is maximized.)
10. A rectangular sheet of paper 12 cm × 6 cm is folded so that one corner meets the longer
of the opposite edges. Find the shortest possible length of the crease.
ic s
at
h em
at
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e
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s tit
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3.2. RATES OF CHANGE, RECTILINEAR MOTION, AND RELATED RATES 157
3.2 Rates of Change, Rectilinear Motion, and Related Rates
• use derivatives to compute the instantaneous rates of change of certain quantities

with respect to one or more other quantities
• use the techniques of differentiations in problems of rectilinear motion
3.2.1 Rates of Change
Rates of change occur in many real-world applications and phenomena.
• A microbiologist might be interested in the rate at which the number of bacteria in a culture
s
changes over time.
ic
at
em
• An engineer might be interested in the rate at which the length of a metal rod changes with
temperature.
h
at
M
• An economist might be interested in the rate at which production cost changes with the quantity
of
of a product that is manufactured.

e
ut
tit
• A medical researcher might be interested in the rate at which the radius of an artery changes
s
with the concentration of alcohol in the bloodstream.

In
UP
Suppose f is a function and y = f (x).
1. The average rate of change of y with respect to x on [x0 , x] is
∆f f (x) − f (x0 )
= .
∆x x − x0
2. The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x0 is
∆f f (x) − f (x0 )
lim = lim = f 0 (x0 ).
∆x→0 ∆x x→x 0 x − x0
Remark 3.2.1.
f (x)
1. Graphically, the average rate of change of y with )
y = f (x)
respect to x on [x0 , x] is the slope of the secant ∆f
line passing through P (x0 , f (x0 )) and Q(x, f (x)). P
f (x0 )
| {z } R
∆x
x0 x = x0 + dx
Figure 3.3.1
2. The derivative of f at x = x0 , f 0 (x0 ) can be interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change of

y with respect at x at x = x0 . That is, f 0 (x0 ) is the rate of change of y per unit change in x at
the instant when x = x0 .
3. Let y be a function of x.
ic s
dy
at
(a) If > 0 on an interval I, then y increases as x increases, and y decreases as x decreases.
dx
em
dy
(b) If < 0 on an interval I, then y decreases as x increases, and y increases as x decreases.
h
dx
at
dy
M
(c) If = 0 on an interval I, then y does not change with respect to x.

dx
of
Example 3.2.2. A right circular cylinder has a fixed height of 6 units. Find the instantaneous
e
rate of change of its volume with respect to the radius of its base.
ut
tit
Solution.
s
In
Let r and h be the radius and height, respectively, of the cylinder. Then the volume of the cylinder
is given by V = πr2 h = 6πr2 . Thus, the rate of change of the volume with respect to the radius is
UP
dV
= 12πr. This means that a unit change in the radius of the sphere produces a change of 12πr
dr
cubic units in the volume.
Example 3.2.3. A bactericide was introduced to a nutrient broth in which bacteria were growing.
The bacterium population continued to grow for some time but then stopped growing and began
to decline. The size of the population at time t (hours) was
P = 106 + 104 t − 103 t2 .
Determine the growth rates at t = 0, t = 5 and t = 10 hours.
Solution.
The growth rate or the rate of change of the bacterium population P with respect to time t is given
by P 0 (t). We have
P 0 (t) = 104 − 2(103 )t = 2(103 )(5 − t).

The growth rates are P 0 (0) = 104 , P 0 (5) = 104 − 2(103 )(5) = 0 and P 0 (10) = 104 − 2(103 )(10) =
−104 .
Also, notice that P 0 (t) > 0 on [0, 5), P 0 (5) = 0, and P 0 (t) < 0 on (5, +∞). This shows that
the bacterium population was increasing until t = 5 hours, then it stopped growing and began to
decline.
Example 3.2.4. A ladder 24 ft. long rests against a vertical wall. Let θ be the angle between the
top of the ladder and the wall and let x be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall.
If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall, how fast does x change with respect to θ
π
when θ = ?
3
Solution.
From the figure, the equation that relates x and

θ is
θ
s
24 ft.
ic
at
x
sin θ =
em
24
x
x = 24 sin θ. h
at
dx π
Thus, the rate of change of x with respect to θ is = 24 cos θ. At θ = , we have
M
dθ 3
of
dx π
π = 24 cos = 12 ft/radian.
dθ θ= 3 3
e
ut
s tit
3.2.2 Rectilinear Motion

In
UP
Suppose a particle is moving along a horizontal line, which we shall refer to as the s-axis. Suppose
the position of the particle at time t is given by the function s(t), called the position function of
s(t) − s(t0 ) ∆s
the particle. The average velocity of the particle on [t0 , t] is vave = = .
t − t0 ∆t
Let s(t) be the position function of a particle moving along s-axis.
1. The instantaneous velocity of the particle at time t is
∆s ds
v(t) = lim = = s0 (t).
∆t→0 ∆t dt
2. The instantaneous speed of the particle at time t is |v(t)|.
3. The instantaneous acceleration of the particle at time t is
dv d2 s
a(t) = = v 0 (t) or a(t) = = s00 (t).
dt dt2
Remark 3.2.5. Let s(t) be the position function of a particle moving along the s-axis. Note that
∆t is always positive. The signs of v(t) and a(t) give us information about the motion of the
particle.
1. a. If v(t) > 0, then the particle is moving in the positive direction of s (usually to the right
or upward) at time t.
b. If v(t) < 0, then the particle is moving in the negative direction of s (usually to the left or
downward) at time t.
c. If v(t) = 0, either the particle is not moving or is changing direction at time t.
2. a. If a(t) > 0, then the velocity of the particle is increasing at time t. In addition,
i. if v(t) > 0, then the speed of the particle is increasing at time t (speeding up).
ii. if v(t) < 0, then the speed of the particle is decreasing at time t (slowing down).
b. If a(t) < 0, then the velocity of the particle is decreasing at time t. In addition,
i. if v(t) > 0, then the speed of the particle is decreasing at time t.
ic s
ii. if v(t) < 0, then the speed of the particle is increasing at time t.
at
c. If a(t) = 0, then the velocity of the particle is constant.
em
(This does not mean that the particle is NOT moving!) h
at
Example 3.2.6. A particle moves along a horizontal coordinate line in such a way that its position
M
at time t is specified by s(t) = t3 − 12t2 + 36t − 30 where s is measured in feet and t in seconds.
of
1. Find the instantaneous velocity and the instantaneous acceleration in terms of t.

e
ut
2. Describe the position and motion of the particle in a table that includes the intervals of time
tit
when the particle is moving to the left or to the right, when the velocity is increasing or
s
decreasing, when the speed is increasing or decreasing, and the particle’s position with respect
In
to the origin during these intervals of time.

UP
3. Show the motion of the particle schematically.
4. Determine the total distance traveled by the particle during the first 7 seconds.
Solution.
ds dv
1. We have s(t) = t3 − 12t2 + 36t − 30 so v(t) = = 3t2 − 24t + 36 and a(t) = = 6t − 24.
dt dt
2. First, we find t ≥ 0 such that v(t) = 0 and a(t) = 0.
v(t) = 0
3t2 − 24t + 36 = 0 a(t) = 0
2
t − 8t + 12 = 0 6t − 24 = 0
(t − 6)(t − 2) = 0 t = 4
t = 6, t = 2
Thus we have the following table.

s(t) v(t) a(t) Conclusions
t=0 −30 36 −24 left of origin, towards right, decreasing velocity, slowing down
0<t<2 + − towards right, decreasing velocity, slowing down
t=2 2 0 −12 right of origin, changing direction, decreasing velocity
2<t<4 − − towards left, decreasing velocity, speeding up
t=4 −14 −12 0 left of origin, towards left, constant velocity
4<t<6 − + towards left, increasing velocity, slowing down
t=6 −30 0 12 left of origin, changing direction, increasing velocity
t>6 + + towards right, increasing velocity, speeding up
3. Schematically, the particle moved in the following way:
t=6
t=2
t=0
−30 2
ic s
at
4. Note that the particle changed directions at t = 2 and t = 6. Thus the total distance traveled
em
is |s(2) − s(0)| + |s(6) − s(2)| + |s(7) − s(6)| = 32 + 32 + 7 = 71 feet.
h
Example 3.2.7. A ball is thrown upwards from the top of a high building. The height of the ball
at
from the ground at any time t (in seconds) is given by the equation s(t) = −16t2 + 128t + 320,
M
where distance is measured in feet.

of
1. At what height will the ball start its motion?

e
ut
2. Find the velocity and acceleration of the ball at any time t.

s tit
3. Find the maximum height reached by the ball.

In
UP
4. Find the time when the ball crosses the top of the building again.
5. Find the velocity of the ball upon impact.
Solution.
1. The ball starts its motion at t = 0, giving us the initial height
h = s(0) = −16(0)2 + 128(0) = 320 = 320 feet
2. We have s(t) = −16t2 + 128t + 320, so that v(t) = −32t + 128 and a(t) = −32.
3. At the instant when the ball reaches its maximum height, the ball is actually at rest; that is,
its velocity equals zero. So we equate v(t) with 0 and solve for t:
v(t) = −32t + 128 = 0

32t = 128
t=4
Thus, the ball reaches its maximum height at t = 4 seconds. This gives a maximum height
of s(4) = −16(42 ) + 128(4) + 320 = 576 feet.
4. The ball will cross the top of the building again when s(t) = 320:
s(t) = −16t2 + 128t + 320 = 320

16t2 − 128t = 0
t = 0, 8
But the time t = 0 corresponds to the time when the ball is thrown upward. Hence, it crosses
the top of the building again after 8 seconds.
5. First, we get the value of t when s(t) = 0:
s(t) = −16t2 + 128t + 320 = 0

−16(t − 10)(t + 2) = 0
t = −2, 10
ic s
at
But since we only consider positive values of time, we conclude that the ball hits the ground
em
at t = 10 seconds. Hence, its velocity upon impact is
h
at
v(10) = −32(10) + 128 = −192 ft/s
M
3.2.3 Related Rates

of
e
Consider a still pond. If you drop a stone on the pond, the water is disturbed, thus creating ripples.
ut
The ripples are composed of circles increasing in size as time passes. The areas and the radii of the
tit
circles both increase and are related to each other. Thus, if we know how fast one increases, say,
s
In
how fast the radius increases, we can determine how fast the areas of the circles are changing.
UP
dx
Let x be a quantity that is a function of time t, meaning the quantity changes over time. Then
dt
is the rate of change of x with respect to t.
A problem on related rates is a problem involving rates of change of several variables where one
variable is dependent on another. In particular, if y is dependent on x, then the rate of change of y
dy
with respect to t is dependent on the rate of change of x with respect to t, that is, is dependent
dt
dx
on .
dt
Suggestions in solving problems involving related rates:
1. Let t denote the elapsed time. If possible, draw a diagram of the problem that is valid for any
time t > 0.
2. Select variables to represent the quantities that change with respect to time. Label those
quantities whose values do not depend on t with their given constant values.
3. Write down any numerical facts known about the variables. Interpret each rate of change as
the derivative of a variable with respect to time. Remember that if a quantity decreases over
time, then its rate of change is negative.
4. Identify what is being asked.
5. Write an equation relating the variables that is valid at all time t > 0.
6. Differentiate the equation in (5) implicitly with respect to t.
7. Substitute in the equation obtained in (6) all values that are valid at the particular time of
interest. Solve for what is being asked.
8. Write a conclusion that answers the question of the problem. Do not forget to include the
correct units of measurement.
Example 3.2.8. A ladder 10 meters long is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is
being pulled horizontally towards the wall at 2 m/s, how fast is the top of the ladder moving when
the bottom is 6 meters from the wall?
ic s
at
Solution.
Let x be the distance of the bottom of the ladder from the wall, and y wall
em
be the distance of the top of the ladder from the ground. Then we have
h
dx
= −2 m/s, negative since x decreases as time goes on. We want to find
at
dt ladder
y
M
dy
when x = 6 m. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we obtain
dt
of
x2 + y 2 = 100. x
e
ut
Differentiating both sides with respect to time t,

tit
Dt [x2 + y 2 ] = Dt [100]
s
In
dx dy
2x + 2y = 0
UP
dt dt
dy x dx
= − .
dt y dt
Now, if x = 6 then y 2 = 100 − 62 or y = 8. Hence,
dy −6 3
= · (−2) = m/s.
dt x=6,y=8 8 2

Example 3.2.9. Water is pouring into an inverted cone at the rate of 8 cubic feet per minute. If
the height of the cone is 12 feet and the radius of its base is 6 feet, how fast is the water level rising
when the water is 4 feet deep?
Solution.
Let V be the volume of the water inside the cone at any time t. Let h, r be the height and radius,
dV
respectively, of the cone formed by the volume of water at any time t. We have = 8 ft3 /min
dt
dh
and we wish to find when h = 4 ft.
dt
Now, using similar triangles, we obtain

6
r 6
=
h 12
h r 12
or r = at any time t. Thus,
2
h
2
1 1 h 1
V = πr2 h = π h = πh3 .
3 3 2 12
Differentiating both sides with respect to t,

1
Dt [V ] = Dt πh3
12
dV 1 2 dh
= πh
dt 4 dt
dh 4 dV
s
ic
= .
dt πh2 dt
at
em
Thus,
h
at
dh 4 2
= · 8 = ft/min.
M
dt h=4 π(4)
2 π
of
Example 3.2.10. An automobile traveling at a rate of 20 ft/s is approaching an intersection.

e
When the automobile is 100 ft. from the intersection, a truck traveling at the rate of 40 ft/s
ut
crosses the intersection. The automobile and the truck are on roads that are at right angles to each
tit
other. How fast are the truck and the automobile separating 2 seconds after the truck leaves the
s
In
intersection?
UP
Solution.
Let x denote the distance of the automobile from x automobile

the intersection, y denote the distance of the
truck from the intersection and z denote the y
z
distance between the truck and the automobile.
dx dy truck
Then we have = −20 ft/s, = 40 ft/s.
dt dt
After 2 seconds, note that x = 60 ft and y = 80
dz
ft. So we want to find when x = 60 ft and
dt
y = 80 ft.
Observe that at any time t, we have
x2 + y 2 = z 2 .
Differentiating both sides with respect to t,
Dt x2 + y 2 = Dt z 2

dx dy dz
2x + 2y = 2z
dt dt dt
dz 1 dx dy
= x +y .
dt z dt dt
Now, if x = 60, y = 80, then 602 + 802 = z 2 or z = 100. Hence,
dz 1
= 60(−20) + 80 · 40 = 20 ft/s.
dt x=60,y=80,z=100 100

ic s
at
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
3.2.4 Exercises
A. 1. An object moves on a horizontal coordinate line. Its directed distance s from the origin
at the end of t seconds is s(t) = (t3 − 6t2 + 9t) feet.
a. when is the object moving to the left?
b. what is its acceleration when its velocity is equal to zero?
c. when is the acceleration positive?
d. when is its speed increasing?
2. Suppose that a ball was thrown upward from the top of a building. If the equation of the
ball is s = −16t2 + 64t + 160 where s is the directed distance from the ground in feet and
t is in seconds,
a. when did the ball reach its maximum height?
b. what was the ball’s maximum height?
s
c. when did the ball hit the ground?
ic
at
d. with what speed did the ball hit the ground?
em
e. what was the acceleration of the ball after 2 seconds?
f. what is the height of the building?
h
at
M
3. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the top of a building. If the equation of the
motion of the stone is s = −5t2 + 30t + 200, where s is the directed distance from the
of
ground in meters and t is in seconds,

e
ut
a. find the acceleration of the stone when the velocity is 10 meters per second.
tit
b. after how many seconds will the stone reach its maximum height?
s
In
c. what is the height of the building?

d. what is the maximum height the stone will reach?
UP
e. what is the velocity of the stone upon impact?
B. 1. Find how fast the volume of a sphere increases as the radius increases.
2. If water is being drained from a swimming pool and V liters is the volume of the water
at the time t minutes after the draining starts, where V = 250(1600 − 80t + t2 ), how fast
is the water flowing out of the water pool 5 minutes after the draining starts?
3. Find the slope of the tangent line at each point of the graph of y = x4 + x3 − 3x2 where
the rate of change of the slope is equal to zero.
4. An airplane is flying on a horizontal path at a height of 3800 ft. At what rate is the angle
of elevation θ of the airplane from P changing with respect to the distance between the
airplane and a fixed point P on the ground if θ = 30◦ ?
5. If two resistors with resistance R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, the total resistance
1 1 1
R in ohms is given by = + . If R1 and R2 are increasing at 0.4 ohms/s and 0.25
R R1 R2
ohms/s, respectively, how fast is R changing when R1 = 600 ohms and R2 = 400 ohms?
A. 1. A particle is moving along a horizontal line. Its directed distance s from the origin at the
end of t seconds is s = t3 − 9t2 + 24t − 16 feet.
1. when is the particle moving to the left?
2. what is the acceleration when its velocity is equal to zero?
3. when is the acceleration positive?
4. when is the particle slowing down?
5. what is the total distance travelled by the particle after 4 seconds?
2. An apple is thrown vertically upward from the top of a tree. If the directed distance of
the apple from the ground after t seconds is s = −5t2 + 6t + 8 meters,
a. when did the apple hit the ground?
b. with what speed did the apple hit the ground?
c. what was the apple’s maximum height?
d. if a person stands directly below the path of the apple to catch it and he can extend
ic s
his arm to get a reach of 2 meters from the ground, at what time will he be able to
at
catch the apple?
feet.
h em
3. An object’s position along a horizontal axis after t seconds is given by s = −t3 +4t2 −4t+5
at
M
a. When will the object change direction?

b. When is the object speeding up?
of
c. What is the total distance travelled by the object afer 3 seconds?

e
ut
d. Suppose another object is on the same horizontal axis with position functon r (t) =
tit
−t3 + 5t2 − 3t + 6. Will the two objects collide?

s
In
5
B. 1. Starting from the same point, Reden starts walking eastward at ft/s while Neil starts
2
UP
running towards the south at 6 ft/s. How fast is the distance between Reden and Neil
increasing after 2 s?
2. A woman standing on a cliff is watching a motor boat through a telescope as the boat
approaches the shoreline directly below her. If the telescope is 250 feet above the water
level and if the boat is approaching the cliff at 20 ft/s, at what rate is the acute angle made
by the telescope with the vertical changing when the boat is 250 feet from the shore?
3. A right circular cylindrical balloon is being inflated in such a way that the radius and
height are both increasing at the rate of 1 in/s and 3 in/s, respectively. What is the rate of
change of its total surface area when its radius and height are 20 in and 50 in, respectively?
4. A right circular cone with radius 3 cm and height 6 cm is submerged point first into a tall
cylinder of radius 5 cm that is partially filled with water. How fast is the water level rising
when the cylinder is completely submerged?
5. A baseball diamond has the shape of a square with sides 90 ft long. A player 60 ft from
the second base is running towards the third plate at a speed of 28 ft/min. At what rate
is the player’s distance from the home plate changing?
6. At 12:10:00 p.m., a bug starts crawling away from the center of a clock, which is 2 meters
above the ground. It moves along the minute hand at a constant rate of 0.1 cm/s. Find
the initial rate at which its height above the ground changes. (For this problem, assume
that all hands of the clock have negligible thickness and move at a constant rate.)
7. Shan, who is 5 feet tall, is approaching a post that holds a lamp 15 feet above the ground.
If he is walking at a speed of 4 ft/s, how fast is the end of his shadow moving when he is
17 feet away from the base of the lamp post?
8. Water is being poured at the rate of 2π ft3 /min. into an inverted conical tank that is 12
ft deep and having radius of 6 ft at the top. If the water level is rising at the rate of 61
ft/min and there is a leak at the bottom of the tank, how fast is the water leaking when
the water is 6 ft deep?
9. Newton is traveling eastward at 20 km/hr while Leibniz is traveling northward at 10 km/hr
At 1:00 PM, Leibniz is located 50 km south of Newton. At what rate is the distance between
Newton and Leibniz changing at 3:00 PM?
10. The apparent brightness of a star is equal to the rate at which it emits energy (in watts)
s
divided by the square of its distance from Earth (in meters). Currently, the sun is 1.5 × 108
ic
at
−16
m away, while it emits energy at a rate of 3.15 × 1019−10 t W t seconds from now. If
em
the Earth is moving away from the sun at a constant rate of 0.05 m/s, at what rate is the
apparent brightness of the sun changing?
h
at
11. A particle moves along the curve y = 2x−2 , with its x-coordinate increasing at a constant
M
rate of 1 unit/s. At what rate is its distance from the origin changing when it is at (3, 4)?
of
12. A point moves along the upper half of the curve y 2 − y = x3 − x, with its x-coordinate
e
increasing at a constant rate of 1 unit/s. At what rate is the slope of the tangent line to
ut
the point changing when it is at (2, 3)?

s tit
In
UP
3.3. LOCAL LINEAR APPROXIMATION, DIFFERENTIALS, AND MARGINALS 169
3.3 Local Linear Approximation, Differentials, and Marginals

• use differentials to approximate the net change of quantities
• approximate quantities using local linear differentiation more other quantities
• estimate the change in cost, profit, revenue for an additional unit produced using
marginals
3.3.1 Differentials
Recall:
Q
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim R
x→x0 x − x0
f (x)
s
∆y dy
ic
= lim . P
∆y
∆x→0 ∆x
at
f (x0 ) | {z }S
em
dx=∆x
∆y
If ∆x is small enough, then is approximately
0
∆x h x0 x = x0 + dx
equal to f (x0 ). Thus, ∆y may be approximated y = f (x)
at
by f 0 (x0 )∆x.
M
Figure 2.3.1
Let the function y = f (x) be differentiable at x.

of
e
1. The differential dx of the independent variable x denotes an arbitrary increment of x.

ut
tit
2. The differential dy of the dependent variable y associated with x is given by dy =

s
f 0 (x)dx.
In
UP
dy
Observe that if dx 6= 0, then dy = f 0 (x)dx implies that = f 0 (x). This serves as motivation for
dx
the following remark.
dy
Remark 3.3.1. Symbolically, we may interpret as either the derivative of y = f (x) with respect
dx
to x or the quotient of the differential of y by the differential of x. Another interpretation of this
quantity may be derived from the figure above:
• The value of dy closely resembles that of the actual change in function value, which we called
∆y.
• The value of dx corresponds with the increment of x, ∆x.
dy
• Thus, we can think of as an approximation of the slope of the secant line through the
dx
points P (x0 , f (x0 )) and Q(x, f (x)).
The following theorems follow immediately from the differentiation rules discussed previously.
Theorem 3.3.2. Let u and v be differentiable functions of x and c a constant.
1. d(c) = 0 4. d(uv) = udv + vdu

vdu − udv
2. d(xn ) = nxn−1 dx 5. d( uv ) =
v2
3. d(cu) = cdu 6. d(un ) = nun−1 du
Example 3.3.3.
1. Let y = x5 − x3 + 2x. Then dy = (5x4 − 3x2 + 2) dx .
√ 1
2. If y = x3 + 3x2 , then dy = √ · (3x2 + 6x) dx .
2 x + 3x2
3
dy
3. Find if xy 2 = y + x. Using implicit differentiation,
dx
ic s
x(2ydy) + y 2 dx = dy + dx
at
em
and therefore
1 − y2 h
dy = dx.
at
2xy − 1
M
3.3.2 Local Linear Approximation and Approximating ∆y

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e
ut
tit
s
In
In the previous discussion, we have shown

UP
that if ∆x is very small, we have y = f (x)

`
∆y ≈ f 0 (x0 )∆x.
f (x)
f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 )
Equivalently, we have
f (x) ≈ f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ).
Now, the equation of the tangent line to the x0 x

graph of y = f (x) at the point (x0 , f (x0 ))
is given by Figure 2.3.2
y − f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 )

⇐⇒ y = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ).
Remark 3.3.4.
1. The function L(x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ) is called the local linear approximation of f (x)
at x0 . It follows that f (x) ≈ L(x) at points close to (x0 , f (x0 )). Moreover, from the discussion
above, the tangent line to the graph of f at x0 approximates the graph of f when x is near x0 .
2. Note that there are many ways to approximate any function using a linear function. However,
the local linear approximation turns out to be the ”best” linear approximation of f near x0 .
3. If dx = ∆x = x − x0 , then x = x0 + dx. Since f (x) ≈ f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ), we have
f (x0 + dx) ≈ f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )dx
4. If dx ≈ 0 , then dy = f 0 (x)dx = f 0 (x)∆x ≈ ∆y. Hence, for sufficiently small values of dx,
dy ≈ ∆y.
5. Because dy is easier to compute than ∆y , dy is used to approximate ∆y when dx is
ic s
sufficiently small (depending on the required accuracy of the increment).
at
em
Example 3.3.5.
h
√ √
at
3 3
1. Find the local linear approximation of f (x) = x at x0 = 8 and use this to approximate 8.03.
M
of
Solution.
e
1
ut
We have f 0 (x) = √
3
, thus at x0 = 8,
3 x2
stit
L(x) = f (8) + f 0 (8)(x − 8)

In
1
UP
L(x) = 2 + (x − 8).
12
√ 1
Therefore, 8.03 = f (8.03) ≈ L(8.03) = 2 + (8.03 − 8) = 2.0025.
12
2. Approximate the following:
√
3
(a) 27.027
Solution.
√ 1
Let f (x) = 3
x. Then f 0 (x) = √ 3
. Thus,
3 x2
√3
27.027 = f (27 + 0.027)
≈ f (27) + f 0 (27) · (0.027)
1
= 3+ · (0.027)
3·9
= 3.01.
√
(b) 15.96
Solution.
√ 1
Let f (x) = x. Then f 0 (x) = √ . Thus,
2 x
√
15.96 = f (16 − 0.04)
≈ f (16) + f 0 (16) · (−0.04)
1
= 4+ · (−0.04)
2·4
= 4 − 0.005
= 3.995.
1
3. A ball 10 inches in diameter is to be covered by a rubber material which is 16 inch thick. Use
differentials to estimate the volume of the rubber material that will be used.
Solution.
4
s
The volume of the ball with radius r is given by V (r) = πr3 . So dV = 4πr2 dr . The volume
ic
3
at
of the rubber material is
em

1
V 5+ − V (5) = ∆V h
16
at
≈ dV
M
1
= 4πr2 dr, where r = 5, dr =
of
16
2 1
e
= 4π (5) ·
ut
16
tit
25π 3
= in .
4
s
In
4. A metal rod 15 cm long and 8 cm in diameter is to be insulated, except for the ends, with a
UP
material 0.001 cm thick. Use differentials to estimate the volume of the insulation.
Solution.
Note that since the ends are not to be insulated, the height h of the rod remains the same.
Thus, the volume of the rod with radius r at the ends is given by V = πr2 h = 15πr2 . We have
dV = 30πrdr. The volume of the insulation is
V (4 + 0.001) − V (4) = ∆V
≈ dV
= 30πrdr, where r = 4, dr = 0.001
= 30π (4) · (0.001)
= 0.12π cm3 .
5. Suppose that the side of a square is measured with a ruler to be 8 inches with a measurement
1
error of at most ± 64 of an inch. Estimate the error in the computed area of the square.
Solution.
The area of a square with side x is A(x) = x2 . Thus, dA = 2xdx. The measurement error of
1 1
at most ± 64 implies that |dx| = 64 . We can approximate the error in the computed area ∆A
using dA. We have
1 1

|∆A| ≈ |dA| = 2x|dx| = 2(8) 64 = 4
Therefore, the propagated error in the computed area is at most ± 14 of a square inch.
3.3.3 Marginals
Rates of change are also used in the field of economics. Economists refer to marginal profit, marginal
revenue, and marginal cost as the rates of change of the profit, revenue and cost, respectively, with
respect to the number of units produced or sold.
1. Cost function C(x) - cost of producing x units of a product
s
2. Revenue function R(x) - revenue in the sale of x units of a product
ic
at
3. Profit function P (x) - profit earned in the sale of x units of a product
em
4. Price demand funciton p(x) - price of product x if there are x demands
h
at
M
Remark 3.3.6.
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1. The revenue and price demand functions are related by the equation
ut
tit
R(x) = x · p(x)
s
In
2. The profit, revenue and cost functions are related by the equation
UP
P (x) = R(x) − C(x)

= x · p(x) − C(x)
3. C(x) ≥ 0 and C(0) is the overhead or fixed cost
4. R(x) ≥ 0 and R(0) = 0
5. P (x) may be positive, negative or zero
Differentiating each of these quantities with respect to the number of units x gives a term in
economics called Marginal. That is
dP dR dC
= marginal profit, = marginal revenue, = marginal cost.
dx dx dx
Note that the marginal function value at a number n is the rate of change of the function when
x = n. This value is an approximation of F (n + 1) − F (n), where F = C, R, or P .
Example 3.3.7. A manufacturer determines that the profit derived from selling x units of a certain
item is given by
P (x) = 0.0002x3 + 10x.
1. Find the marginal profit for a production level of 50 units.
Solution.
dP
The marginal profit is = 0.0006x2 + 10. When x = 50, we have
dx
dP
= 0.0006(50)2 + 10 = 11.50 per unit.
dx
2. Compare this to the actual profit obtained by increasing the production level from 50 units to
51 units.
Solution.
P (51) = 0.0002(51)3 + 10(51) = 536.53
ic s
P (50) = 0.0002(50)3 + 10(50) = 525
at
em
The actual gain in profit is given by
h
P (51) − P (50) = 536.53 − 525 = 11.53.
at
M
Notice that the actual gain in profit can be approximated by the marginal profit.
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Example 3.3.8. A company manufactures fuel tanks for automobiles. The total weekly cost (in
ut
dollars) of producing x tanks is given by

s tit
C(x) = 10, 000 + 90x − 0.05x2 .

In
UP
1. Find the marginal cost function.
Solution.
dC
= 90 − 0.1x
dx
2. Find C 0 (500) and the actual additional cost of producing the 501st tank.
Solution.
C 0 (500) = 90 − 0.1(500) = 40 dollars.

To compute the actual additional cost of producing the 501st tank, we need
C(501) = 10, 000 + 90(501) − 0.05(501)2 = 42, 539.95 dollars
C(500) = 10, 000 + 90(500) − 0.05(500)2 = 42, 500 dollars
Hence, the actual additional cost is given by
C(501) − C(500) = 42, 539.95 − 42.500 = 39.95 dollars
Example 3.3.9. A fastfood restaurant has determined that the monthly price-demand function
for their hamburgers is given by
60, 000 − x
p(x) = ,
20, 000
where x is the number of hamburgers sold. Find the increase in revenue per hamburger for monthly
sales of 20,000 hamburgers.
Solution.
The revenue function R(x) is equal to the product x · p(x) where p(x) is the price-demand function.
x2

60, 000 − x
R(x) = x · = 3x −
20, 000 20, 000
So
dR x
=3−
dx 10, 000
dR
If x = 20, 000, = 1. Hence the marginal revenue for the sale of 20,000 hamburgers is 1.
dx
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3.3.4 Exercises
A. Find the local linear approximation of f at x0 .

√
1. f (x) = x2 2x + 3; x0 = −1
2. f (x) = ln(2 − sec x); x0 = 0
B. Approximate the following using local linear approximation.
1. (2.001)5
√
2. 2.99 3.99
3. e0.01 + 0.01 ln 1.02
C. Solve the following completely.
s
1. Use differentials to approximate the increase in the surface area of a soap bubble when its
ic
radius increases from 3 inches to 3.025 inches.
at
em
2. A metal box in the form of a cube is to have an interior volume of 1000 cm3 . The six sides
are to be made of metal 12 cm thick. If the cost of the metal to be used is 0.20 pesos per
h
at
cubic centimeter, use differentials to find the approximate cost of the metal to be used in the
M
manufacture of the box.

of
3. A cylindrical roller is exactly 12 inches long and its diameter is measured as 6 ± 0.05 inches.
e
Approximate its volume with an estimate for the error.

ut
1
tit
D. 1. Suppose that R(x) = 300x − x2 dollars is the total revenue from the sales of x tables. Find:
2
s
In
a. the marginal revenue function

UP
b. the marginal revenue when x = 40

c. the actual additional revenue from the sale of the 41st table
2. The research department of a certain company found out that the price-deman equation and
cost functions of a particular product are given by
p(x) = 10 − 0.001x and C(x) = 7, 000 + 2x,
respectively, where x is the number of units produced and sold.

a. Determine the marginal profit
b. Use the marginal profit to approximate the profit gained in producing and selling 1001
units.
3. The profit and revenue functions, measured in PhP, for selling x items are given by P (x) =
2x2 + 46x − 200 and R(x) = x3 + x2 + 6x, respectively. Find the minimum cost.
4. The cost of producing x necklaces is given by C(x) = x2 − 20x + 100. If each necklace is
sold for P 80, how many necklaces should you sell to get maximum profit?
A. Find the local linear approximation of f at x0 .
1. f (x) = sech(π − x) + e1+cos x ; x0 = π

√
2. f (x) = tan−1 ( x); x0 = 1
B. Approximate the following using local linear approximation.

1
1. √
6
64.12
2. sec 0.2 tan 0.2
3. sin(tan−1 0.04)
C. Solve the following completely.
1. A ball of malt, with diameter 1.5 cm, is coated by a layer of chocolate 0.02 cm thick to
form a candy. Use differentials to approximate the amount of chocolate (in mL) each candy
s
contains.
ic
at
2. A burn on a person’s skin is in the shape of a circle. Estimate the decrease in the area of
em
the burn when the radius decreases from 1 cm to 0.8 cm.
3. The pH of an aqueous solution is given by
h
at
M
pH = − log10 (aH+ ),
of
where aH+ is the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. A solution with initial
e
pH = 3 decreases in volume from 1 L to 0.99 L, but the amount of hydrogen ions in the
ut
solution remains unchanged. Estimate the net change in its pH.

tit
4. The population of a bacterium in a nutrient broth is given by P = 10000e0.001t t hours after

s
In
it was introduced. Estimate the net change in the population within the first six minutes.
UP
D. 1. The total cost of producing x food processors is
C(x) = 2, 000 + 50x − 0.5x2
a Find the actual additional cost of producing the 21st food processor.
b Use the marginal cost to approximate the cost of producing the 21st food processor.
2. The price-demand equation and the cost function for the production of a certain product
are given by
x = 6, 000 − 30p and C(x) = 72, 000 + 60x,
respectively, where x is the number of units that can be sold monthly at a price p (Pesos)
per piece.
a. Determine the marginal cost.
b. Determine the revenue function and the break-even point(s), i.e. the production level
when the revenue is equal to the cost.
c. Determine R0 (1500).
d. Find the marginal profit at x = 1500.

3. A company is known for producing high quality calculators. The price-demand function for
selling x calculators is given by p(x) = 4x2 − 60x, while the profit in selling x is determined
by P (x) = 3x3 − 54x2 + 15x − 150. Determine the number of calculators that must be sold
in order to minimize cost.
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3.4. INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 179
3.4 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

We began this course with the concept of the limit: the behavior of a function as the indepen-
dent variable approaches a certain value, or as it increases or decreases without bound. The new
techniques of differentiation we have learned so far will aid us in evaluating a wider range of lim-
its, including new types of indeterminate forms which we could not previously evaluate with the
techniques learned in Chapter 1.
By the end of this section, the student will be able to:
• evaluate limits with indeterminate form 0/0, ∞/∞ using L’Hôpital’s Rule; and
• evaluate limits with indeterminate forms 0 · ∞, ∞ − ∞, 00 , 1∞ , ∞0 .
0 ∞
3.4.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type and
s
0 ∞
ic
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With the aid of derivatives, certain limits can be evaluated more conveniently. We first recall
em
some terminology defined in the early part of this course. We also recall here some techniques in
evaluating limits we have previously encountered. h
at
f (x)
The lim is an indeterminate form of type
M
x→a g(x)
of
0
1. if lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0.
0 x→a x→a
e
ut
∞
2. if lim f (x) and lim g(x) are both +∞ or −∞.
tit
∞ x→a x→a
s
In
Of course, ”x → a” may be replaced by ”x → a+ ”, ”x → a− ”, ”x → +∞” or ”x → −∞”.

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x2 − 3x

0
1. lim 2
x→0 2x + x 0
Solution.
x2 − 3x x(x − 3) x−3
lim = lim = lim = −3
x→0 2x2 + x x→0 x(2x + 1) x→0 2x + 1

sin 5x 0
2. lim
x→0 sin 3x 0
Solution.

sin 5x sin 5x 3x 5 5 5
lim = lim =1·1· =
x→0 sin 3x x→0 5x sin 3x 3 3 3
x2 + 3x − 10

0
3. lim 2
x→2− x − 4x + 4 0
Solution.
x2 + 3x − 10 (x + 5)(x − 2)
lim = lim
x→2− x2 − 4x + 4 x→2− (x − 2)2

x+5 7
= lim
x→2− x − 2 0−
= −∞

3x − 1 +∞
4. lim
x→+∞ 7 − 6x −∞
Solution.
1
3x − 1 3x − 1 3 − x1 1
s
x
· =−
ic
lim = lim 1 = lim 7
x→+∞ 7 − 6x x→+∞ 7 − 6x 2
x −6
x→+∞
at
x
3.4.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule

em
h
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The following theorem tells us how derivatives can be used to evaluate limits that are indeterminate
0 ∞
M
of type or . It is usually referred to as L’Hôpital’s Rule, after the French mathematician

0 ∞
of
Guillaume François Marquis de L’Hôpital.

e
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Theorem 3.4.2. Let f and g be functions differentiable on an open interval I containing a

tit
f (x) 0
except possibly at a and g 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ I \ {a}. If lim is indeterminate of type
s
x→a g(x) 0
In
∞
or , then
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∞
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 ,
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
f 0 (x) f 0 (x)
provided lim 0
exists or lim 0 = ±∞.
x→a g (x) x→a g (x)
Remark 3.4.3. L’Hôpital’s Rule, with suitable modifications, is valid if “x → a” is replaced by

“x → a+ ”, “x → a− ”, “x → +∞” or “x → −∞”.

x2 − 3x

0
1. lim 2
x→0 2x + x 0
Solution.
Dx x2 − 3x

x2 − 3x 2x − 3
lim 2 = lim 2
= lim = −3
x→0 2x + x x→0 Dx 2x + x x→0 4x + 1

sin 5x 0
2. lim
x→0 sin 3x 0
Solution.
sin 5x 5 cos 5x 5
lim = lim =
x→0 sin 3x x→0 3 cos 3x 3
x2 + 3x − 10

0
3. lim 2
x→2− x − 4x + 4 0
Solution.
x2 + 3x − 10

2x + 3 7
lim 2 = lim
s
x→2− x − 4x + 4 x→2 2x − 4
− 0−
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= −∞
at
4. lim
3x − 1

+∞
hem
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x→+∞ 7 − 6x −∞
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Solution.
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3x − 1 3 1
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lim = lim =−
x→+∞ 7 − 6x x→+∞ −6 2
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x3 − 3x + 2

0
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5. lim
x→1 1 − x + ln x 0
Solution.
x3 − 3x + 2 3x2 − 3

0
lim = lim
x→1 1 − x + ln x x→1 −1 + 1 0
x
6x
= lim 1
x→1 − 2
x
= −6

csc x −∞
6. lim
x→0− 1 − cot x +∞
Solution.
csc x − csc x cot x

lim = lim
x→0− 1 − cot x x→0− csc2 x

− cot x +∞
= lim
x→0− csc x −∞
csc2 x
= lim
x→0− − csc x cot x

csc x −∞
= lim
x→0− − cot x +∞
− cot x
= lim
x→0− csc x
Observe that the expression in the last line above is exactly the same as the expression in the
second line. Hence, continued application of L’Hôpital’s Rule here will just lead us to an infinite
string of equations and will not help us evaluate the limit. This example should make you realize
ic s
that L’Hôpital’s Rule is not always helpful. Sometimes, we must fall back to old-fashioned tricks.
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For instance, we evaluate this limit by simply manipulating the given expression to obtain
h
a simpler expression:
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1
csc x sin x
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lim = lim cos x

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x→ 0− 1 − cot x x→ 0− 1 −
sin x
tit
1
= lim
s
In
x→ 0− sin x − cos x
= −1
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It is imperative to remember the behavior of each function introduced in this course; doing so
will help us in computing new limits. Recalling the graphs of our new functions will be helpful in
remembering their behavior. For instance, using the graph of f (x) = loga x, where 0 < a < 1, one
sees that lim loga x = +∞. Thus, if f (x) approaches 0 through positive values as x approaches
x→0+
k, then
lim loga [f (x)] = lim loga y = +∞.
x→k y→0+
x + sin x
x→+∞ x
Solution.
Note that since x + sin x ≥ x − 1 for any x ∈ R and x→+∞
lim x − 1 = +∞, then lim x + sin x = +∞
x→+∞
∞
as well. Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type .
∞
Dx (x + sin x) 1 + cos x 1 + cos x

However, = and lim does not exist since cos x does not ap-
Dx (x) 1 x→+∞ 1
proach any particular value as x → +∞. Neither does 1 + cos x grow without bound. Thus,
L’Hôpital’s Rule does not apply.
We therefore need to employ other techniques. In particular, notice that for any x > 0, the following
hold:
x − 1 ≤ x + sin x ≤ x + 1
x−1 x + sin x x+1
⇔ ≤ ≤
x x x
x−1 x+1 x + sin x
Also, lim = 1 = lim , so by the Squeeze Theorem, lim = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
3.4.3 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞

We revisit the indeterminate forms of type 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞. We recall their definitions below.
1. The limit lim f (x)g(x) is an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞ if either
s
x→a
ic
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lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = +∞ or − ∞, or
em
x→a x→a
lim f (x) = +∞ or − ∞ and lim g(x) = 0.

h
x→a x→a
at
M
2. The limit lim (f (x) + g(x)) is an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞ if either

x→a
of
lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, or

e
x→a x→a
ut
lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = +∞.

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x→a x→a
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0 ∞
Remark 3.4.6. L’Hôpital’s Rule works only for indeterminate forms of type and . Any
0 ∞
other indeterminate form must be expressed equivalently in one of these two forms if we wish to
apply L’Hôpital’s Rule. For the new indeterminate forms described above, these conversions can
be performed as described below.
1. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = +∞ or −∞, write lim f (x)g(x) as:
x→a x→a x→a
f (x) 0
(a) lim , which is indeterminate of type , or
x→a 1 0
g(x)
g(x) ∞
(b) lim , which is indeterminate of type
x→a 1 ∞
f (x)
and apply L’Hôpital’s Rule.
2. If lim f (x) + g(x) is indeterminate of type ∞ − ∞, rewrite f (x) + g(x) as a single expression to
x→a
0 ∞
obtain an indeterminate form of type or and apply L’Hôpital’s Rule.
0 ∞
1. lim sin−1 (2x) csc x (0 · +∞)

x→0+
Solution.
sin−1 (2x)

0
lim sin−1 (2x) csc x = lim
x→0+ x→0+ sin x 0
1
√ · (2)
1 − 4x2
= lim
x→0+ cos x
2
=
1
= 2
2. lim tan θ ln (sin θ) (+∞ · 0)

θ→ π2 −
s
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Solution.
ln(sin θ)
hem
0
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lim tan θ ln (sin θ) = lim
π− π− cot θ 0
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θ→ 2 θ→ 2
1

cos θ
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= lim sin θ 2
π−
θ→ 2 − csc θ
e
ut
= lim − sin θ cos θ

θ→ π2 −
tit
= −1(0)
s
In
= 0
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x 1 1 1
3. lim − +
− +
x→1+ x − 1 ln x 0 0
Solution.

x 1 x ln x − (x − 1) 0
lim − = lim
x→1+ x − 1 ln x x→1+ (x − 1) ln x 0
x · x1 + ln x − 1
= lim
x→1+ (x − 1) · 1 + ln x
x

ln x 0
= lim
x→1+ 1 − 1 + ln x 0
x
1
x
= lim
x→1+ 12 + 1
x x
1
=
2
3.4.4 Indeterminate Forms of Type 1∞ , 00 and ∞0

We now define new indeterminate forms of exponential type.
Let f be a nonconstant function. The lim f (x)g(x) is an indeterminate form of type
x→a
1. 1∞ if lim f (x) = 1 and lim g(x) = +∞ or −∞.

x→a x→a
2. 00 if lim f (x) = 0, through positive values, and lim g(x) = 0.

x→a x→a
3. ∞0 if lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = 0.

x→a x→a
Remark 3.4.8. If lim f (x)g(x) is indeterminate of type 1∞ , 00 or ∞0 , we write

x→a
lim f (x)g(x) = lim eg(x) ln[f (x)]

x→a x→a
and evaluate lim g(x) ln[f (x)] first. Then, if
s
x→a
ic
R, then x→a
at
1. lim g(x) ln[f (x)] = L ∈ lim f (x)g(x) = eL .
x→a
2. lim g(x) ln[f (x)] = +∞, then lim f (x)g(x) = +∞.

x→a x→a
h em
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3. lim g(x) ln[f (x)] = −∞, then lim f (x)g(x) = 0.

x→a x→a
of

e
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1. lim xsin x 00

tit
x→0+
s
Solution.
In
First, write xsin x = esin x ln x . Evaluate first lim sin x ln x.

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x→0+

ln x −∞
lim sin x ln x (0 · (−∞)) = lim
x→0+ x→0+ csc x +∞
1
x
= lim
− csc x cot x
x→0+
− sin2 x

0
= lim
x→0+ x cos x 0
−2 sin x cos x
= lim
x→0+ x(− sin x) + cos x
= 0
Hence, lim xsin x = e0 = 1.

x→0+
3 2x

2. lim 1− (1∞ )
x→+∞ x
Solution.
2x 3
1 − x3 = e2x ln(1− x )

3
ln 1 −
3 x 0
lim 2x ln 1 − (+∞ · 0) = lim
x→+∞ x x→+∞ 1 0
2x
1 3
·
3 x2
1−
= lim x
x→+∞ 1
− 2
2x
−6
= lim
x→+∞ 3
1−
x
= −6
ic s
3 2x

at
Hence, lim 1− = e−6 .
x→+∞ x
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3.4.5 Exercises
3−x
p
1. lim x 12. lim x− x2 − x + 2
x→3 2 − 8 x→+∞
ln x 13. lim (tan x)cos x
2. lim 1 x→ π2 −
x→0+ e x
sec x 1
3. lim 14. lim x + e2x x
π − 1 + tan x
x→ 2 x→0
x
4. lim √ 1
x→−∞ x2 + 1 15. lim x + e2x x
x→+∞
ln (3 + ex ) √
5. lim 16. lim
x
cosh 3x
x→+∞ 7x x→+∞
sin x − x
6. lim
x−1

x3
s
x→0 17. lim x ln
ic
1 − x + ln x x→+∞ x+1
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7. lim
x→1 1 + cos πx sin x + tan x
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1 18. lim
8. lim x2 e x x→0−ex + e−x − 2
x→0+ h cos x
19. lim x − π2
at
9. lim tan( x) ln x
x→0+ x→ π2 +
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10. lim tan−1 (x) ln x 20. lim logx (x + 10)

x→0+
of
x→+∞
1
11. lim csc x − lim ln(e3x + 1) − 3x
e
21.
ut
x→0− x x→+∞
tit
B. Do as indicated.
s
In
1. If an electrostatic field E acts on a gaseous polar dielectric, the net dipole moment P per
UP
1
unit volume is P (E) = coth E − . Evaluate lim P (E).
E E→0+
x
x+m
2. For what values of m is lim = e?
x→+∞ x − m
2x3 + x2 + 1 11. lim (ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 1))

1. lim x→+∞
x→−∞ x2 − x
2x 12. lim cot(3x) ln [1 + tan(5x)]
e −4 x→0+
2. lim
x→ln 2 x − ln 2
cos x 13. lim ex csch x
x→0
3. limπ
x→ 2 x − π 3

2 14. lim x(ln 2)/(1+ln x)
x→∞
tanh x
4. lim
1 3x

x→0+ sech x − 1
15. lim 1+
1 − ex
2 x→+∞ x
5. lim
x→0 log3 (1 − x) 16. lim [1 + tan(11x)]cot(2x)
x→0+
2x3 + ln 5x
6. lim
2x − 3
2x+1
x→+∞ 7 + ex 17. lim
s
sinh−1 x4 2x + 5

x→+∞
ic
7. lim
at
1 x3
x→+∞ 3x − 1 x3

em
8. lim x (ln(−x)) 18. lim
x→0−
x→+∞
h x3 + 4
8 x

2 lim (2x + 5)csch(2x+4)
at
9. lim 1− − 19.
x→−2+
x→−∞ 5x 5x2
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√
9

1 4 16 − 8x
10. lim 2 − 20. lim tanh
of
x→3+ x − 9 ln (2x − 5) x→2− x−2

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tit
s
In
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Reviewer
I. A particle is moving along a horizontal line with its position function given by
s(t) = t3 − 6t2 + 9t − 4 = (t − 1)2 (t − 4),
where s is in meters and t ≥ 0 is in seconds. Assume that the positive direction is to the
right of the origin.
1. Determine the interval(s) when the particle is to the right of the origin.
2. Find the functions v(t) and a(t) of the particle at any time t ≥ 0.
3. Determine the time interval(s) when the particle is moving to the left.
4. Find all time interval(s) when the particle is speeding up.
II. Evaluate the following limits.

4 cot−1 (x + 3) − π
1. lim
x→−2 x2 + 3x + 2
s

ic
4 2
2. lim −
at
x→ π2 + 2x − π cos2 x
em
csc x cos x
3. lim −
x x sin x
x→0+
h
at
1−x
4. lim (x − 1)
M
x→1+
x
x
of
5. lim
x→+∞ x + 2
e
ut
III. Find the local linear approximation of f (x) = e−x cosh(2x) at x = 0 and use it to estimate
tit
the value of e−0.01 cosh(0.02).

s
3x − 5
In
IV. Given g(x) = . Determine the x-values at which the absolute extrema of f occur on
e3x
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[0, 3]. (Note e ≈ 2.718)
V. A new product, Happy Shalala, is now available. Preliminary market studies show that its
x x2
ideal price-demand and cost functions are p(x) = 100 + and C(x) = 3, 000 + 50x +
100 50
respectively, where x is the number of Happy Shalala sold and p is the price in pesos.
1. Find the marginal revenue for a sale of 150 Happy Shalala.

2. Find the profit function for the sale of x Happy Shalala.
3. When the profit is maximum, how many Happy Shalala are sold?
VI. Solve the following problems completely.
1. A hemispherical bowl with a radius of 10 cm is to be coated with red paint 0.05 cm

thick. Use differentials to estimate the amount of paint needed for the bowl.
2. The surface area of a closed cylinder is 54π square meters. Determine the base radius of
this cylinder if it is to have the largest volume. (A right circular cylinder with height h
and base radius r has volume πr2 h, top area πr2 , bottom area πr2 , and side area 2πrh.)
3. Find the volume of the largest box with a square base that can be constructed from 24
square inches of a flat, re-shapable sheet of metal.
4. Find the largest possible volume of a cylindrical can if it is to be made such that the
sum of its radius and height is 21 cm.
5. Vin’s car is traveling westward at a rate of 60 mi/hr while Al’s car is traveling due north
at a rate of 50 mi/hr. Both are headed for the intersection of the two roads. Determine
the rate at which the two cars are approaching each other when Vin is 0.4 mi and Al is
0.3 mi away from the intersection.
6. Vin is climbing up a 20-ft ladder leaning on a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder
is moving away from the wall at a rate of 3 ft/s, determine how fast the top of the ladder
is falling at the instant when the foot of the ladder is 3 ft away from the wall.
7. Having their friendship ended, Vin left Al by running southwards at a rate of 2 ft/s and
at the same time, Al decided to walk eastwards at a rate of 32 ft/s. Determine how fast
the distance between Vin and Al changing after four seconds.
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Chapter 4
Integration and Its Applications
4.1 Antidifferentiation and Indefinite Integrals

In Chapters 1 and 2, we developed tools for differentiation, and saw various applications of the
derivative as a rate of change. Now we introduce antidifferentiation, the process which reverses
s
differentiation. Given a function f , can we find a function F whose derivative is f ? We will see
ic
at
that this process is related to the computation of the area of a region in the plane.
em
h
at
• recognize antidifferentiation as the inverse process of differentiation
M
of
• integrate algebraic functions and functions involving the six circular functions
e
ut
• integrate functions using substitution rule

tit
• find a particular antiderivative given an initial condition

s
In
• solve problems involving rates of change given initial conditions (e.g. rectilinear
UP
motion)
4.1.1 Antiderivatives or Indefinite Integrals

A function F is an antiderivative of the function f on an interval I if F 0 (x) = f (x) for every value
of x in I.
Example 4.1.1.
1. An antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F (x) = 4x3 + x2 .
2. An antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G(x) = sin x.
3. Another antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F1 (x) = 4x3 + x2 − 1.
4. Another antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G1 (x) = sin x + π.
191
192 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Remark 4.1.2. If an antiderivative of f exists, then it is not unique.
Theorem 4.1.3. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then every antiderivative of

f on I is given by F (x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.
Remark 4.1.4. By the theorem above, we can conclude that if F1 and F2 are antiderivatives of f ,
then F2 (x) = F1 (x) + C. That is, F2 and F1 differ only by a constant.
Terms and Notations:
• Antidifferentiation is the process of finding antiderivatives.

Z
• If F is an antiderivative of f , we write f (x) dx = F (x) + C.
Z
• The symbol , called the integral sign, denotes the operation of antidifferentiation.
ic s
at
• The function f is called the integrand.
tive of f is called a particular antiderivative of f .

h em
• The expression F (x)+C is called the general antiderivative of f . Meanwhile, each antideriva-
at
M
of
Example 4.1.5.
e
Z
ut
12x2 + 2x dx = 4x3 + x2 + C

1.
s tit
Z
In
2. cos x dx = sin x + C
UP
Theorem 4.1.6 (Theorems on Antidifferentiation).

Z
1. dx = x + C
2. If a is a constant, then Z Z
af (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
3. If f and g are defined on the same interval, then

Z Z Z

f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx.
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 193
4. If n is any real number and n 6= −1, then
xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C.
n+1
Example 4.1.7. Find the following antiderivatives.

x6
Z
1. x5 dx = +C
6
Z Z
2. 2 dx = 2 dx = 2(x + C1 ) = 2x + 2C1 = 2x + C
3x−4
Z Z Z
3 −5 3
3. dx = 3x dx = 3 x−5 dx = +C =− 4 +C
x5 −4 4x
4u7/4 16u7/4
Z
4u /4 du =
3
4. +C = +C
7/4 7
ic s
12x3 2x2
Z Z Z
2 2
+ C2 = 4x3 + x2 + C

at
5. 12x + 2x dx = 12x dx + 2x dx = + C1 +
3 2
√
em
2t3 6t5/2
Z Z Z Z h
2t2 − 3t /2 dt = 2t2 dt − 3t /2 dt =
3 3
6. t 2t − 3 t dt = − +C
at
3 5
M
x−1
Z 2 Z
x +1 −2
1
7. dx = 1 + x dx = x + +C =x− +C
of
x 2 −1 x
e
ut
tit
Theorem 4.1.8 (Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions).

s
In
UP
Z Z
1. sin x dx = − cos x + C 4. csc2 x dx = − cot x + C
Z Z
2. cos x dx = sin x + C 5. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
Z Z
3. sec2 x dx = tan x + C 6. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C

Z
1. (sin x + cos x) dx
= − cos x + sin x + C
Z
cos x
2. dx
sin2 x
Z Z
1 cos x
= · dx = csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C
sin x sin x
Z
3. tan2 x dx
Z
sec2 x − 1 dx = tan x − x + C

=
Z
dx
4.
1 + sin x
1 − sin x 1 − sin x
Z Z
1
= · dx = dx
1 + sin x 1 − sin x cos2 x
Z
sec2 x − sec x tan x dx = tan x − sec x + C

=
4.1.2 Particular Antiderivatives

Now suppose that given a function f (x), we wish to find a particular antiderivative F (x) of f (x)
that satisfies a given condition. Such a condition is called an initial or boundary condition.
ic s
Example 4.1.10.
at
1. Given that F 0 (x) = 2x and F (2) = 6, find F (x).
Solution.
h em
at
Since F 0 (x) = 2x, we have
M
Z
2x dx = x2 + C.
of
F (x) =
e
The initial condition F (2) = 6 implies that F (2) = 22 + C = 6. we get C = 2. Therefore,

ut
tit
the particular antiderivative that we wish to find is

s
In
F (x) = x2 + 2.
UP
√
2. The slope of the tangent line at any point (x, y) on a curve is given by 3 x. Find an equation
of the curve if the point (9, 4) is on the curve.
Solution.
Let y = F (x) be an equation of the curve. The slope of the tangent line mT L at a point
√
(x, y) on the graph of the curve is given by F 0 (x) = 3 x. We have
Z
F (x) = 3x /2 dx = 2x /2 + C.
1 3
The initial condition that (9, 4) is on the curve implies that F (9) = 2 · 93/2 + C = 4. We obtain
C = −50. Thus, an equation of the curve is
y = 2x /2 − 50.
3
4.1.3 Integration by Substitution
Suppose F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), and g is a differentiable function of x whose range is

contained in the domain of F . Recall the chain rule:
Dx [F (g(x))] = F 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x).
Hence, F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) is an antiderivative of g 0 (x). If we take u = g(x), then du = g 0 (x) dx.
The following theorem thus allows us to take the antiderivatives of more complex functions:
Theorem 4.1.11 (Substitution Rule). If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range

is an interval I and f is continuous on I, then
Z Z
0
f (g(x)) · g (x) dx = f (u) du.
Example 4.1.12.
s
Z
ic
(1 − 4x) /2 dx
1
1.
at
em
−4
If we let u = 1 − 4x, then du = −4 dx. We multiply the integrand by . Thus,
h −4
at
1 2u3/2

−4
Z Z Z Z
1/2 1/2 1/2 du 1
u /2 du = − ·
1
(1 − 4x) dx = (1 − 4x) · dx = u − =− + C.
M
−4 4 4 4 3
of
We put the final answer in terms of x by substituting u = 1 − 4x. Therefore,

e
ut
(1 − 4x)3/2
Z
1/2
(1 − 4x) dx = − + C.
tit
6
s
In
Z
2. x2 (x3 − 1)10 dx
UP
du
Let u = x3 − 1. Then du = 3x2 dx, or= x2 dx. By substitution,
3
11
u11 x3 − 1
Z Z Z
2 3 10 10 du 1 10
x (x − 1) dx = u · = u du = +C = + C.
3 3 33 33
Z
x
3. dx
(x2 + 1)3
du
Let u = x2 + 1. Then du = 2x dx, or = x dx. By substitution,
2
1 u−2
Z Z
x 1 −3 1
3 dx = u du = · +C =− + C.
(x2 + 1) 2 2 −2 4(x + 1)2
2
Z
4. cos4 x sin x dx
Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx, or −du = sin x dx. By substitution,

u5 cos5 x
Z Z
cos4 x sin x dx = − u4 du = − + C = − + C.
5 5
Z
x sec3 x2 tan x2 dx

5.
du
Let u = sec x2 . Then du = sec x2 tan x2 · 2x dx, or = sec x2 tan x2 · x dx. By

2
substitution,
Z Z
x sec x tan x dx = sec2 x2 sec x2 tan x2 · x dx
3 2 2

1 u3
Z
1
= u2 du = · +C
2 2 3
3 2

sec x
= + C.
6
tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s

Z
6. ds
s2 cos 1s
1 1 ds
Let u = . Then du = − 2 ds or −du = 2 . By substitution,
s s s
1 1 1
tan s + tan s sin s
Z Z
tan u + tan u sin u
s
ds = − du
ic
2 1 cos u
s cos s
at
Z
sec u tan u + tan2 u du

em
=−
Z h
sec u tan u + sec2 u − 1 du

=−
at
M
= − (sec u + tan u − u) + C
= − sec 1s − tan 1s + 1s + C.
of
e
√
Z
ut
7. t t − 1 dt
tit
Let u = t − 1. Then u = dt. Also, t = u + 1. By substitution,

s
In
√ 2u5/2 2u3/2
Z Z Z
t t − 1 dt = (u + 1) u /2 du = u /2 + u /2 du =
1 3 1
+ +C
UP
5 3
2 (t − 1) /2 2 (t − 1) /2
5 3
= + + C.
5 3
t3
Z
8. √ dt
t2 + 3
du
Let u = t2 + 3. Then du = 2t dt, or = t dt. Also, t2 = u − 3. By substitution,
2
t3 t2 · t
Z Z Z
−1 du
√ dt = √ dt = u /2 (u − 3)
2
t +3 2
t +3 2 !
1 2u3/2
Z
1 1/2 −1/2

1/2
= u − 3u du = − 6u +C
2 2 3
3/2
t2 + 3 1/2
= − 3 t2 + 3 + C.
3
√
Z q
9. 4 + x dx
√ 1 dx
Let u = 4 + x. Then du = √ dx or 2 du = √ . By substitution,
2 x x
√
√ √
Z q Z q
x
4 + x dx = 4 + x · √ dx
x
√ √ √
Z q
dx
= 4+ x· x· √ ( x = u − 4)
x
Z
= u /2 · (u − 4) · 2 du
1
Z
2u /2 − 8u /2 du
3 1
=
2 · 2u5/2 2 · 8u3/2
= − +C
5 3
√ 5/2 √ 3/2
4 (4 + x) 16 (4 + x)
= − + C.
5 3
ic s
4.1.4 Rectilinear Motion Revisited
at
em
Suppose that a particle is traveling along a straight line and s (t), v (t) and a (t) are equations of
motion, velocity and acceleration, respectively, of the particle. Recall that
h
at
v(t) = s0 (t) and a(t) = v 0 (t).
M
of
Therefore, s(t) is a particular antiderivative of v(t) while v(t) is a particular antiderivative of a(t).
e
ut
Example 4.1.13.
stit
1. A heavy projectile is fired straight up from a platform 3 meters above the ground with an
In
initial velocity of 160 m/s. Find an equation of motion of the particle. (Use −10 m/s2 for
UP
acceleration due to gravity.)
Solution.
Let the acceleration and velocity of the particle at time t be given by a (t) and v (t).
Since a(t) = −10 at any time t and v (t) is a particular antiderivative of a (t), we have
Z
v(t) = −10 dt = −10t + C.
The initial velocity is 160 m/s, so v(0) = 160. Thus, 160 = −10 · 0 + C, or C = 160, and we
obtain
v(t) = −10t + 160.
Let s (t) be the position of the particle from the ground at time t. Now s (t) is a particular
antiderivative of v (t), so
Z
s (t) = (−10t + 160) dt = −5t2 + 160t + C.
The initial condition s(0) = 3 yields C = 3. Finally,
s(t) = −5t2 + 160t + 3.
2. The acceleration of a particle moving along a line at t seconds is given by a (t) = t2 + 2t.
Find an equation of motion of the particle if the particle is one unit to the right of the origin
when t = 0, and 3 units to the left of the origin when t = 2.
Solution.
Since v(t) is an antiderivative of a(t), we have
t3
Z
t2 + 2t dt = + t2 + C1 .

v(t) =
3
Because there is no initial condition involving velocity, we antidifferentiate the previous ex-
pression to obtain a general expression for s(t) first:
ic s
Z 3
t4 t3

t
at
s(t) = + t2 + C1 dt = + + C1 t + C2 .
em
3 12 3
h
The initial condition s(0) = 1 yields C2 = 1. Meanwhile, the other initial condition s(2) = −3
at
4 8
implies that + + 2C1 + 1 = −3, or C1 = −4. Therefore, an equation of motion of the
M
3 3
particle is
of
t4 t3
s(t) = + − 4t + 1.
e
12 3
ut
stit
1
In
4.1.5 Antiderivatives of f (x) = and of the other Circular Functions

x
UP
1
Recall: Du (ln |u|) = for all u 6= 0. As an immediate consequence, we have the following theorem:
u
Z
1
Theorem 4.1.14. du = ln |u| + C
u
3x2 + 5
Z
Example 4.1.15. 1. dx
4x
Z Z Z
3x 5 3 5 1 3 5
= + dx = x dx + · dx = x2 + ln |x| + C
4 4x 4 4 x 8 4
At this point, among the six circular functions, we know the antiderivatives of only the sine and
the cosine functions. We will see that the antiderivatives of the other circular functions involve the
natural logarithmic function.
Theorem 4.1.16.
Z
1. tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
Z
2. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
Z
3. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
Z
4. csc x dx = ln | csc x − cot x| + C
Proof. We shall prove items 1 and 3 only. Statements 2 and 4 can be proved similarly.
Z Z
sin x
First, note that tan x dx = dx. Let u = cos x. Then du = (− sin x) dx. Hence,
cos x
s
Z Z
1
ic
tan x dx = − du = − ln |u| + C = − ln | cos x| + C = ln | sec x| + C.
at
u
em
That proves the statement for the tangent function. h
at
Now, for the secant function, note that
M
sec2 x + sec x tan x

Z Z Z
sec x(sec x + tan x)
of
sec x dx = dx = dx.
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
e
ut
Let u = sec x + tan x. Then du = (sec x tan x + sec2 x) dx. Therefore,

s tit
Z Z
du
In
sec x dx = = ln |u| + C = ln | sec x + tan x| + C.

u
UP

Z
x3 csc x4 dx

1.
Solution.
Let u = x4 . Then du = 4x3 dx. Therefore,
Z Z
3 4 1 1 1
csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| + C = ln csc x3 − cot x3 + C.

x csc x dx =
4 4 4
sin( x2 ) + 4
Z
2. dx
cos( x2 )
Solution.
Let u = x2 . Then du = 1
2 dx. Hence,
sin( x2 ) + 4
Z Z
sin u + 4
dx = 2 du
cos( x2 ) cos u
Z
=2 (tan u + 4 sec u) du
= 2 (ln | sec u| + 4 ln |sec u + tan u|) + C

= 2 ln | sec( x )| + 4 ln sec( x ) + tan( x ) + C.

2 2 2
4.1.6 Antiderivatives of Exponential Functions

The following theorem is a direct consequence of the derivatives of exponential functions.
Theorem 4.1.18 (Antiderivatives of Exponential Functions).

ax
Z
1. ax dx = + C (a > 0 and a 6= 1)
ln a
Z
s
2. ex dx = ex + C
ic
at
em
Z h
7x dx
at
1.
M
Solution.
of
Direct application of the theorem above gives us,

e
ut
7x
Z
7x dx = + C.
tit
ln 7
s
In
Z
2. 22x · 5x dx
UP
Solution.
Applying laws of exponents to express the integrand into an equivalent exponential function in
a single base, we have
20x
Z Z Z
2 · 5 dx = 4 · 5 dx = 20x dx =
2x x x x
+ C.
ln 20
4.1.7 Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions

The next theorem presents the antiderivatives yielding the inverse circular functions.
Theorem 4.1.20 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions).

Z
dx
1. √ = sin−1 x + C
1−x 2
Z
dx
2. = tan−1 x + C
1 + x2
Z
dx
3. √ = sec−1 x + C
x x2 − 1
One can generalize Theorem 4.1.20 to the case when the constant 1 in the integrand is replaced by
some other positive number, as shown in the next theorem.
Theorem 4.1.21. Let a > 0.

Z
du u
1. √ = sin−1 +C
a2 − u2 a
Z
du 1 −1 u

2. = tan +C
a2 + u2 a a
Z
du 1 u
3. √ = sec−1 +C
u u2 − a2 a a
ic s
at
Proof. We will prove the first statement only and leave the proofs of the rest as exercises.
Let a > 0. Then, h em
at
Z Z Z
du du du
M
√ = √ q = q , since a > 0.
a − u2
2
a2 1 − u2
a 1− u 2

of
a2 a
e
u 1
ut
Let v = . Then dv = du and hence

a a
tit
Z Z
du dv u
s
√ = √ = sin−1 v + C = sin−1 + C.
In
a2 − u2 1 − v2 a
UP
x4
Z
1. dx
x2 + 1
Solution.
x4 x3
Z Z
1
dx = x 2
− 1 + dx = − x + tan−1 x + C.
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 3
Z
1
2. √ dx
4 − x2
Solution.
Z
1 x
√ dx = sin−1 +C
4 − x2 2
Z
dx
3.
9x2+ 25
Solution.
Let u = 3x. Then du = 3dx and hence
Z Z
dx 1 du 1 1 −1 u
1 −1 3x
= = · tan +C = tan + C.
9x2 + 25 3 u2 + 25 3 5 5 15 5
Z
dx
4. p
x ln x (ln x)2 − 8
Solution.
1
Let u = ln x. Then du = dx and hence
x
Z Z
dx du 1 −1 u 1 −1 ln x
p = √ = √ sec √ + C = √ sec √ + C.
x ln x (ln x)2 − 8 u u2 − 8 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ic s
Z
1
5. √ x dx
at
4 −4
Solution. hem
R
at
Note that 4x = (2x )2 for any x ∈ . Let u = 2x . Then du = 2x ln 2 dx and hence
M
2x ln 2
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1 u
√ x √ sec−1
of
dx = q dx = du = +C
4 −4 x x 2 ln 2 u u2−4 2 ln 2 2
2 ln 2 (2 ) − 4
e
ut
x
1 −1 2 1
sec−1 2x−1 + C.

= sec +C =
tit
2 ln 2 2 2 ln 2
s
In
Z
dx
6. √
UP
7 + 6x − x2
Solution.
First, note that
Z Z Z Z
dx dx dx dx
√ = p = p = p .
7 + 6x − x2 7 − (x2 − 6x) 7 − (x2 − 6x + 9 − 9) 16 − (x − 3)2
Let u = x − 3. Then du = dx and hence

x−3
Z Z
dx du u
√ = √ = sin−1 + C = sin−1 + C.
7 + 6x − x2 16 − u2 4 4
Z
8x + 1
7. 2
dx
4x + 12x + 10
Solution.
Let u = 4x2 + 12x + 10. Then du = (8x + 12) dx and hence
Z Z Z
8x + 1 8x + 12 11
2
dx = 2
dx − 2
dx
4x + 12x + 10 4x + 12x + 10 4x + 12x + 10
Z Z
du dx
= − 11 2
u 4x + 12x + 9 − 9 + 10
Z
dx
= ln |u| − 11 .
(2x + 3)2 + 1
Let v = 2x + 3. Then dv = 2dx and hence

Z Z
8x + 1 11 1
2
dx = ln |u| − 2
dv
4x + 12x + 10 2 v +1
11
= ln |u| − tan−1 v + C
2
11
= ln |4x2 + 12x + 10| − tan−1 (2x + 3) + C.
2
4.1.8 Antiderivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
ic s
at
The succeeding theorem gives the antiderivatives of hyperbolic functions. Some of these antideriva-
em
tive formulas are direct consequence of the derivatives of hyperbolic functions.
h
at
Theorem 4.1.23 (Antiderivatives of Hyperbolic Functions).
M
of
Z Z
e
1. cosh x dx = sinh x + C 6. csch x coth x du = − csch x + C

ut
tit
Z Z
7. tanh x dx = ln(cosh x) + C
s
2. sinh x dx = cosh x + C
In
Z
UP
Z 8. coth x dx = ln | sinh x| + C
3. sech2 x dx = tanh x + C
Z
Z 9. sech x dx = 2 tan−1 (ex ) + C
4. csch2 x dx = − coth x + C
= tan−1 (sinh x) + C
Z Z
5. sech x tanh x dx = − sech x + C 10. csch x dx = ln |csch x − coth x| + C
Example 4.1.24.
Z
1. 2x cosh (2x ) dx
Solution.
Let u = 2x . Then du = 2x ln 2 dx and
Z Z
1 1 1
2x cosh (2x ) dx = cosh u du = sinh (u) + C = sinh (2x ) + C.
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
Z
sech(ln x) tanh(ln x)
2. dx
x
Solution.
1
Let u = ln x. Then du = dx and
x
Z Z
sech(ln x) tanh(ln x)
dx = sech u tanh u du = − sech (u) + C = − sech (ln x) + C.
x
csch x − tanh3 x
Z
3. dx
tanh x
Solution.
csch x − tanh3 x
Z Z
dx = (csch x coth x − tanh2 x) dx
tanh x
Z
= (csch x coth x + sech2 x − 1) dx
= − csch x + tanh x − x + C.
ic s
4.1.9 *Antiderivatives Yielding Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
at
em
We now give without proof the antiderivatives yielding the inverse hyperbolic functions.
h
at
Theorem 4.1.25 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions). Let
M
a > 0.
of
Z
1 u p
1. √ du = sinh−1 + C = ln(u + u2 + a2 ) + C
e
u2 + a2 a
ut
tit
Z
1 u p
2. √ du = cosh−1 + C = ln(u + u2 − a2 ) + C, u > a
s
u2 − a2 a
In

1 −1 u

UP


 a tanh + C , if |u| < a
a
Z 
1 1 a + u
3. du = = ln
+C
a2 − u2 2a a − u
 1 coth−1 u + C , if |u| > a



a a
1
It is recommended that the concise formula for the integral of be used rather than the
a2 − u2
complicated piecewise function.
2t4 + 3t2 + 4
Z
Example 4.1.26. 1. dt
t2 − 1
Solution.
2t4 + 3t2 + 4
Z Z
2 9
dt = 2t + 5 + 2 dt .
t2 − 1 t −1
Z
2 9
= 2t + 5 − dt
1 − t2
2t3

9 1 + t
= + 5t − ln +C
3 2 1 − t
Z
1
2. √ dx
9x2 + 1
Solution.
Let u = 3x. Then du = 3dx and
Z Z
1 1 1 1 1
√ = √ du = sinh−1 u + C = sinh−1 (3x) + C
2
9x + 1 3 2
u +1 3 3
x2
Z
3. dx
x6 − 25
Solution.
Let u = x3 . Then du = 3x2 dx and
x2
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
6
= 2
du = − du
x − 25 3 u − 25 3 25 − u2
5 + x3

1 1 5 + u 1
=− · ln + C = − ln +C
3 10 5 − u 30 5 − x3
ic s
2x − 1
Z
at
4. √ dx
2
x + 4x − 5
Solution. h em
at
Let u = x2 + 4x − 5. Then du = (2x + 4)dx and
M
2x − 1 2x + 4 − 4 − 1
Z Z
√ dx = √ dx
of
x2 + 4x − 5 x 2 + 4x − 5
e
Z Z
2x + 4 5
ut
= √ dx − √ dx
x 2 + 4x − 5 x 2 + 4x − 5
tit
Z Z
1 5
√ du − √
s
= dx
In
u 2
x + 4x + 4 − 4 − 5
√
Z
5 dx
UP
=2 u− p .
(x + 2)2 − 9
Let v = x + 2. Then dv = dx and

2x − 1
Z Z
p 5
√ dx = 2 x2 + 4x − 5 − √ dv
x2 + 4x − 5 v2 − 9
p v
= 2 x2 + 4x − 5 − 5 cosh−1 +C
3
−1 x + 2
p
2
= 2 x + 4x − 5 − 5 cosh + C,
3
where v > 3, i.e. x > 1.
4.1.10 Summary of Antidifferentiation Rules
 n+1 Z
u 1 1 u

 + C, n 6= −1 16. √ du = sec−1 + C, a > 0
R n 
n+1 2
u u −a2 a a
1. u du = R
17. sinh u du = cosh u + C


ln |u| + C, n = −1

R
au 18. cosh u du = sinh u + C
au du =
R
2. + C, a > 0, a 6= 1
ln a 19.
R
sech2 u du = tanh u + C
eu du eu
R
3. = +C
csch2 u du = − coth u + C
R
R 20.
4. sin u du = − cos u + C R
R 21. sech u tanh u du = − sech u + C
5. cos u du = sin u + C R
22. csch u coth u du = − csch u + C
sec2 u du = tan u + C
R
6. R
23. tanh u du = ln cosh u + C
csc2 u du = − cot u + C
R
7.
s
R
ic
R 24. coth u du = ln | sinh u| + C
8. sec u tan u du = sec u + C
at
Z
em
R 25. sech u du = 2 tan−1 eu + C
9. csc u cot u du = − csc u + C h
= tan−1 (sinh u) + C
at
R
10. tan u du = ln | sec u| + C
M
R
11.
R
cot u du = ln | sin u| + C 26. csch u du = ln | csch u − coth u| + C
of
Z
1 u
du = sinh−1 + C, a > 0
R
12. sec u du = ln | sec u + tan u| + C 27. √
e
u2+a2 a
ut
R
13. csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| + C
tit
Z
1 u
28. √ du = cosh−1 + C, a ∈ (0, u)
u22 a
s
−a
Z
1 u
du = sin−1 + C, a > 0
In
14. √
a2 −u2 a Z
1 1

u + a
UP
29. du = ln + C,
a2 − u2 2a u − a
Z
1 1 u
15. du = tan−1 + C, a 6= 0 u 6= a, a 6= 0
a2 + u2 a a
4.1.11 Exercises
A. Find the following antiderivatives.
Z Z
6
2 cot2 θ − 3 tan2 θ dθ
3/4 4

1. x − 5x − 4 dx 6.
x
Z
1
Z
2. (4s + 3)(s − 5) ds 7. dx
1 − cos x
4z 2 − 6z + 3 106x + 1
Z Z
3. √ dz 8. dx
z 103x
3 − 2x
Z Z
4. (5 cos x − 4 sin x) dx 9. dx
3x
Z x
3 −7
Z
4 csc x cot x + 2 sec2 x dx

5. 10. dx
e2x
ic s
B. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.
at
em
Z p Z
3
1. 16n2 − 8n + 1 dn h 7. coth2 x csch2 x dx
at
Z p4
2. z 8 z 3 + 3 dz sec2 x
Z
M
√ 8. dx
1 + 16 tan2 x
sec2 (3 t)
of
Z
3. √ dt Z
1
t
e
9. √ dt
ut
1 (t + 3) t2 + 6t − 7
Z 4 cos
tit
x2 Z
x
4. dx 10. √ dx
s
1
In
3
x sin 3 8x − x2
x2
ex
Z
UP
Z
2 ln x + 1 11. √ dx
5. dx e2x − 4
x(ln2 x + ln x)
2 + ln2 x
Z
x
Z
6. dx 12. √ dx
x − x ln x x4 + 4x2 + 5
C. Solve the following problems completely.
1. The point (3, 2) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, the tangent line has
slope equal to 2x − 3. Find an equation of the curve.
d2 y
2. The points (1, 3) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, 2 = 2−4x.
dx
Find an equation of the curve.
D. Solve the following problems completely. (When appropriate, assume acceleration due to
gravity is −10 m/s2 or −32 ft/s2 .)
1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from a platform 8 feet above the ground. After 2
seconds, the ball is 2 feet below the platform. Find the initial velocity of the ball.
2. If the brakes on a car can give the car a constant negative acceleration of 8 m/s2 , what
is the maximum speed it can go to be able to stop within 25 meters after the brake is
applied?
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
A. Verify that F is an antiderivative for f .

x x2 + 1
1. F (x) = − ; f (x) =
4(4x2 + 5x − 4) (4x2 + 5x − 4)2
2. F (x) = x ln x − x; f (x) = ln x
3. F (x) = x sin x + cos x; f (x) = x cos x
3x4 + 2x3 − 2x + 1

3 2 2 −1 2x + 1
4. F (x) = ln |x − x + 1| + √ tan √ ; f (x) =
3 3 x5 + x + 1
B. Find the following antiderivatives.
Z Z
2 2
2 cosh t sech t + csch2 t dt

1. x (x − 1) dx 6.

√ √
Z
1
2. y 3
y+ √ dy
Z
4 y
cosh x
7. p dx
s
Z √
1 2 8 − cosh2 x
ic

3
3. 2 t+ √ dt
at
3
t
Z
sec θ
em
Z 8. dθ
4. 3 csc2 t − 5 sec t tan t dt
sec θ − tan θ
h
at
1 − t2
Z Z
5. (tan x + cot x)2 dx 9. dt
M
1 + t2
of
C. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.

e
ut
tit
Z
tan2 x 1 + sin2 x
Z
1. (2y − 1)6 dy 11. dx
s
cos2 x
In
√ √
Z
2x2 (4 + 3x3 )4 dx cot 3 x csc2 3 x
Z
2.
UP
12. √3 √ 2 dx
x2 (4 + cot2 3 x)
s3
Z
3. √ ds Z q
√
Z 3s2 + 1 13. 4 − 4 − x dx
t
4. dt
csch cot−1 x

t + 2t2 + 1
4
Z
Z 14. dx
1 + x2
5. 4x[3x + cos(2x2 + 1)] dx Z
sech x 2 + coth2 x dx

Z
cos x 15.
6. dx
(1 + sin x)5 Z
x
Z 16. 5x ecsch(5 ) csch(5x ) coth(5x ) dx
7. csc3 (2x + 1) cot (2x + 1) dx Z
17. sinh x tanh x dx
Z
8. sin θ cos θ cos (cos 2θ) dθ
tanh2 (ey )
Z Z
9. sec2 θ − cos2 θ tan θ dθ
18. dy
cosh y − sinh y
Z
tan(ln x) sec(ln x)
Z
sin y − tan2 y sec2 y dy

10. 19. dx
πx − x sec(ln x)
Z Z
dx dx
20. √ 26.
4x2 + 8x + 13 52−x− 5x
cosh−1 (log5 x)
Z Z
dx
21. √ 27. q dx
16 − e−2x x (log5 x)2 − 1
Z
2x + 10 Z
sin 2x + 2 sin x
22. dx 28. dx
x2 + 2x − 3
Z sin2 x + 1
1 Z x
3 +1
23. √ dx 29. dx
e2x − 4 9x + 1
Z Z
1 1
24. √ dx 30. √ dx
25 + 16x2 2x
e +4
Z
Z
x sech r
25. √ dx 31. p dr
4
x −1 15 coth2 r + 1
D. Solve the following problems completely.
1. The point (3, 2) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, the tangent line has
ic s
slope equal to 2x − 3. Find an equation of the curve.
at
d2 y
em
2. The points (1, 3) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, 2 = 2−4x.
dx
Find an equation of the curve. h
at
3. An equation of the tangent to a curve at the point (1, 3) is y = x + 2. If at any point (x, y)
M
d2 y
on the curve, = 6x, find an equation of the curve.
of
dx2
e
E. Solve the following problems completely. (When appropriate, assume acceleration due to
ut
gravity is −10 m/s2 or −32 ft/s2 .)

stit
1. A sandbag is released from a balloon rising vertically with a velocity of 16 ft/s at the
In
instant when the balloon is 64 feet from the ground. How many seconds after its release
UP
will the bag hit the ground?

2. If a particle starts from rest, what constant acceleration is required to move the particle
50 meters in 5 seconds along a straight line?
3. Two stones are thrown vertically upward at the same time, one with an initial velocity of
32 ft/s from a height of 128 feet, the other with an initial velocity of 64 ft/s from a height
of 80 ft. If the stones travel along parallel paths, when will the second stone overtake the
first?
4.2. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 211
4.2 The Definite Integral

We have probably known of some formulas regarding the area of specific shapes, or polygons for a
better term.√ For instance, the area of an equilateral triangle of side length s is give by the function
2
s 3
A(s) = . A square of side length s has area A(s) = s2 , and so on. In general, the area of any
4
polygon is the sum of the areas of the triangles into which it can be decomposed. It can be seen
that this computation is independent of the way in whiich we divide the polygon into the needed
triangles.
Now, we deconstruct this notion of area for us to be able to find the area of a region bounded by a
curve and some vertical lines.
• generalize the notion of area of a polygonal region to the area of any plane region;
• derive an expression that gives such a formula, given any function f (x);
ic s
at
• use the properties of summation to obtain an exact number that gives the desired area.
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
4.2.1 Area of a Plane Region: The Rectangle Method

We first introduce the sigma notation which will be often used when approximating areas of a plane
region by a sum of areas of rectangles.
Definition 4.2.1. (Sigma Notation) Let n be a positive integer, and F be a function such that
{1, 2, . . . , n} is in the domain of F . We define:
n
X
F (i) := F (1) + F (2) + . . . + F (n)
i=1
We read the left hand side as “the summation of F (i), with i from 1 to n.
Remark 4.2.2.
1. The variable i is called a dummy variable. It can be changed arbitrarily, especially when two
or more summations are involved in a single calculation.
2. In general, the summation need not start from 1. As long as we have k ∈ , , where k < n, we Z
can define the summation of F (i), with i from k to n:
n
X
F (i) := F (k) + F (k + 1) + . . . + F (n)
i=k
However, for convenience of calculations, we start from i = 1.
Theorem 4.2.3. (Properties of Summation) Let n be a positive integer, c be a real number,

and F and G be functions defined on the set {1, 2, . . . , n}.
n
s
X
1. c = cn
ic
at
i=1
em
n
X n
X
2. cF (i) = c F (i) h
at
i=1 i=1
M
n
X n n
X X
3. F (i) ± G(i) = F (i) ± G(i)
of
i=1 i=1 i=1

e
n
ut
X n(n + 1)
4. i=
tit
2
i=1
s
In
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
5. i2 =
UP
6
i=1
Example 4.2.4.
30 30 30 30 30
X X X X X 30(31)
1. (6i − 1) = 6i + 1=6 i+ 1=6· + 1 · 20 = 2750
2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
10 10 10 10 10
X
2
X
2
X
2
X X 10(11)(21) 10(11)
2. (i − 1) = (i − 2i + 1) = i −2 i+ 1= −2· + 10 = 285
6 2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n n n n
X X X X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1) n(2n2 − 3n + 1)
3. (i − 1)2 = i2 − 2 i+ 1= + +n=
6 2 6
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
The Area of a Plane Region
Suppose we wish to find the area of the region R in the first quadrant bounded by the curve
f (x) = x2 , the x-axis and the vertical line x = 2.
We calculate the area AR of the region R in the following manner:
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
1. First, we divide the interval [0, 2] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. Note that
UP
2−0 2
∆x = = .
n n
2. Let ci be the right endpoint of the ith subinterval, i = 1, 2, .., n.
3. Next, we cover the region with n circumscribed rectangles of width ∆x and height f (ci ).
4. Let Ai be the area of the ith rectangle. We get
Ai = f (ci ) · ∆x.
5. The area of the region can be approximated by taking the sum of the areas of the n circum-
scribed rectangles. Thus,
Xn
AR ≈ Ai
i=1
or
n
X
AR ≈ f (ci ) · ∆x
i=1
2
But ∆x = and f (ci ) = c2i . So,
n
n
X 2
AR ≈ c2i ·
n
i=1
2i
Moreover ci = i · ∆x = . So,
n
n 2
X 2i 2
AR ≈ ·
n n
i=1
6. We simplify the right hand side using summation formulas and obtain
n n
X X 8i2
AR ≈ Ai =
n3
i=1 i=1
n
8X2
= i
s
n3
ic
i=1
at
8 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= ·
em
n3 6
4(n + 1)(2n + 1) h
=
at
3n2
M
of
7. Note that if we increase the number of rectangles, we get a better approximation of the area.
In fact, we define the area of the region to be
e
ut
tit
n
X
AR := lim Ai .
s
n→∞
In
i=1
UP
We obtain
n
X 4(n + 1)(2n + 1) 8
AR := lim Ai = lim = .
n→∞ n→∞ 3n2 3
i=1
In the previous illustration, we calculated the area AR of a plane region R bounded above by a
continuous function y = f (x) and below by the interval [a, b] by covering R with n circumscribed
rectangles of equal width ∆x. We then let n → ∞ to calculate the area
n
X
AR := lim f (ci ) · ∆x
n→∞
i=1
where ci is the right endpoint of ith subinterval and ∆x is the width of the ith rectangle, i =
1, 2, ..., n.
The following alternative method can be used to calculate AR .

Instead of taking the right endpoint ci of the ith subinterval, we can take any number x∗i in the
ith subinterval and let the height of the ith rectangle be h = f (x∗i ). The area of the region is now
s
given by
ic
n
at
X
AR = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆x.
em
n→∞
i=1
h
at
4.2.2 The Definite Integral
M
To find the area of some plane regions R bounded above by y = f (x) and below by the interval
of
[a, b], it is sometimes more convenient to use rectangles of different widths.

e
ut
s tit
In
UP
Given an interval [a, b], we define a partition of the interval to be a sequence of numbers
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn−1 < xn = b
the divides interval into n subintervals where the length of the ith interval is given by ∆xi =
xi − xi−1 , where i = 1, ..., n. When the subintervals are of equal length we say that the partition is
a regular partition.
For a regular partition, the length of each subinterval tends to 0 as n → ∞. However, if the
partition is not regular, this is not always true. Instead, we define max∆xi to be the length of the
longest subinterval in the partition. This length is called the mesh size of the partition. The area
of the region is now given by
Xn
AR = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆xi .
max∆xi →0
i=1
Definition 4.2.5. Let f be defined on [a, b]. The definite integral of f from a to b is
Z b X n
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆xi
a max∆xi →0
i=1
if the limit exists and does not depend on the choice of partitions or on the choice of numbers x∗i
in the subintervals. If the limit exists, the function is said to be integrable on [a, b].
Terminologies and Notations:
s
• The process of calculating the integral is called integration.
ic
at
Z b
• In the notation for the definite integral f (x) dx:
em
a h
Z
at
– The integral sign resembles the letter S because an integral is the limit of a sum.
M
– The function f (x) is called the integrand.

of
– The numbers a and b are called the limits of integration: a is the lower limit of integra-
e
ut
tion, while b is the upper limit of integration.

tit
– We use the same symbol as the antiderivative because the definite integral is closely
s
linked to the antiderivative, as shall be seen in the following section.

In
n
UP
f (x∗i )·∆xk is called a Riemann Sum, after the mathematician Bernhard Riemann
P
• The sum
i=1
who formulated much of the concepts in integral calculus.
Remark 4.2.6. We note the following:

1. The definite integral is a number which does not depend on the variable used. The value of the
definite integral does not change if x is replaced by any other variable. For example,
Z b Z b
f (x) dx = f (t) dt.
a a
Z b
2. Geometrically, the definite integral f (x) dx gives the net-signed area between the graph of
a
the curve y = f (x) and the interval [a, b]. In particular, if the graph of y = f (x) lies above
Z b
the x-axis in the interval [a, b], f (x) dx gives the area of the region bounded by the curve
a
y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b.
3. If the function f is continuous, a regular partition can be used to compute the definite integral:
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆x
a n→∞
i=1
4. The function f must be defined on the interval [a, b] to define the definite integral of f from [a, b].
Z 1
1 1
For instance 2
dx is not a definite integral, since the 0 is not in the domain of f (x) = 2 .
0 x x
This type of integral is called an improper integral, which is not in the scope of this course.
Example 4.2.7. Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z 2
1. x2 dx
0
Solution.
s
We have seen that the area of the region bounded by the curve f (x) = x2 , the x-axis and the
ic
Z 2
8 8
at
vertical line x = 0 and x = 2 is square units. Therefore, x2 dx = .
3 3
em
0
Z 6 h
2. 2x dx
at
−2
M
of
Solution.
e
The value of the given definite integral is the net-signed area between the curve y = 2x and the
ut
x-axis over the interval [−2, 6].

stit
In
UP
Z 6
1 1
We have that 2x dx = · 6 · 12 − · 2 · 4 = 32.
−2 2 2
Theorem 4.2.8. If a function is continuous on [a, b], then it is integrable on [a, b].
Example 4.2.9.
1. Polynomial functions are integrable on any closed interval.
2. The function f (x) = |x| is integrable on the interval [−1, 2], although it is not differentiable on
(−1, 2).
3. The sine and cosine functions are integrable on any closed interval.
Theorem 4.2.10 (Properties of the Definite Integral). Let f and g be integrable on [a, b].
Z b Z a
1. f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b
Z a
2. f (x) dx = 0
a
Z b
3. c dx = c(b − a)
a
s
Z b Z b
ic
4. c f (x)dx = c f (x) dx
at
a a
em
Z b Z b Z b
5. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx h
at
a a a
M
6. If f is integrable on a closed interval I containing the three numbers a, b and c,

of
Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
e
a a c
ut
tit
regardless of the order of a, b and c.

s
In
UP
4.2.3 Exercises
A. Let R be the region bounded by y = 4 − x2 and the x-axis in the interval [0, 2].
1. Use circumscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
2. Use inscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
B. Find the value of the following definite integrals.

Z 8
1. 10 − 3x dx
−2
Z 1
2. x2 cos x dx
1
Z 4√
3. 16 − x2 dx
−4
√
Z 2
s

4. 3− 4 − t2 dt
ic
0
at
em
C. Do as indicated.
Z 6 Z 6 h Z 6
1. If f (x) dx = 3 and g(x) dx = 8, find [3f (x) − 2g(x)] dx.
at
−1 −1 −1
M
Z ln 2 Z ln 2
15
cosh2 (x) dx = 16 sinh2 (x) + 16 dx.

2. Given that + ln 2, find
of
ln 0.5 16 ln 0.5
e
Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
ut
3. Find the value of [f (x) − 5]2 dx, given f (x) dx = −17 and [f (x)]2 dx = 32.
−1 −1 −1
tit
Z 2 Z 5 Z 5 Z 2
s
4. If f (x) dx = f (x) dx and f (x) dx = 21, and f (x) dx = 7, find

In
−5 −2 −5 −2
Z −2 Z 5
UP
f (x) dx + f (x) dx.

−5 2
Z 2 Z 1 Z 1
5. If g(x) dx = 4 and 3g(x) dx = 6, evaluate g(x) dx.
−1 −1 2
A. Using the theorems on summation, prove the following:

n
X n2 (n + 1)2
i3 =
4
i=1
B. Let R be the region bounded by y = x3 and the x-axis in the interval [0, 2].
1. Use circumscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
2. Use inscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
C. Find the value of the following definite integrals.
Z 12 Z 7
1. 4 dx 4. −|12 − 3x| dx
−3 2
Z 6 Z 3
s
2. 15 + 4x dx 5. cosh−1 x dx
ic
−4 3
at
6 Z −10
5 csc−1 w
Z Z
em
3. |2x − 5| dx 6. dw dx
0 4 h −10 csc w
at
D. Do as indicated.
M
√
of
1. Find the area enclosed by the x-axis and the semicircle y = 16 − x2 , on the following
intervals: (a) [0, 4], (b) [2, 4], (c) [0, 2], (d) [−2, 4].
e
ut

2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graph of f (x) = 2 − |x − 5|, the two
tit
coordinate axes, and the line x = 10.

s
In
Z 6 Z 6 Z 6
3. If f (x) dx = 12, g(x) dx = −2 and h(x) dx = −7, find the value of
UP
−3 −3 −3
Z −3
f (x) 3h(x)
+ 3g(x) − dx
6 4 7
4. Let k be any real number, and a, b be real numbers such that a 6= b. Given that
Z b Z b Z b
2
g(x) dx = k and 2
[g(x)] dx = k + 2k − 1, find the value of [3g(x) − 2]2 dx.
a a a
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 221
4.3 The Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus

Now that we have the necessary background about antiderivatives and definite integrals, we are
ready to state the two statements that link differential and integral calculus.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to do the following:
• state the First and Second Fundamental Theorems of the Calculus,
• provide a proof using the concepts we had discussed so far, and
• apply these theorems to solve complicated integrals more conveniently.
4.3.1 First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus
ic s
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]. Then the value of the definite integral
at
Z b
em
f (x) dx depends only on the function f and the values of a and b, and is independent of our
a h
choice of the variable in the function. That is,
at
M
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
2 8 2 8 2 8 8
x dx = y dy = r dr = u2 du =
of
0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3
e
ut
Z x
tit
We consider a function defined by F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and
a
s
In
x is any number in [a, b].

UP
Example 4.3.1.
Z x
1. Let F (x) = t2 dt. Evaluate F at x = 0 and x = 2.
0
Z 0
a. F (0) = t2 dt = 0
0
Z 2
8
b. F (2) = t2 dt =
0 3
Z x
2. Let F (x) = 2t dt.
0
Notice that F (x) gives the areaZ of the triangle under the curve y = 2t in the interval [0, x].
x
Therefore, we get that F (x) = 2t dt = 12 · x · 2x = x2 . In this case, F 0 (x) = 2x. Note that
0
F 0 (x) = f (x). Refer to the figure.
As was illustrated inZthe previous example, the next theorem states that in general, for a function
x
of the form F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and x is any number in
a
[a, b], F 0 (x) = f (x).
ic s
at
Theorem 4.3.2 (The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Let f be a function
continuous
hem
on [a, b] and let x be any number in [a, b]. If F is the function defined by F (x) =
at
Z x
M
f (t) dt, then

a
of
F 0 (x) = f (x)
e
ut
tit
Example 4.3.3. Find the derivative of the following functions.

s
Z x
In
1. F (x) = t2 dt
UP
Solution.
Let f (t) = t2 . Applying the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we obtain F 0 (x) = x2 .
Z x
cos t2 + 1 dt

2. F (x) =
−π
Solution.
In this case, let f (t) = cos t2 + 1 . Thus, F 0 (x) = cos(x2 + 1).

Z 3
3. F (x) = sin 2t dt
x
Solution.
To apply the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we first need to switch the upper and
lower
Z limits of integration. Using the first property of the definite integral, we have F (x) =
x
− sin 2t dt. Now let f (t) = sin 2t. Finally, we get that F 0 (x) = − sin 2x.
3
Z g(x)
Remark 4.3.4. Suppose F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a function continuous on [a, b] and let
Z xa
g (x) ∈ [a, b]. If we let H(x) = f (t) dt, then F (x) = H(g(x)). Using the chain rule, we get
a
F 0 (x) = H 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x). By the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, H 0 (x) = f (x). So we
have
F 0 (x) = f (g(x)) · g 0 (x)
Example 4.3.5. Find the derivative of the following functions.

Z x2
1. F (x) = t2 dt
−1
F 0 (x) = (x ) · 2x = 2x5
2 2
Z cos x
dt
2. F (x) =
s
1 t
ic
1
at
F 0 (x) = · (− sin x) = − tan x
cos x
em
Z 0
t h
3. F (x) = dt
at
t 2+1
2x+1
M
Z 2x+1
t
F (x) = − 2+1
dt
of
0 t
2x + 1 2x + 1 2x + 1
e
F 0 (x) = − ·2=− 2 ·2=− 2

ut
(2x + 1)2 + 1 4x + 4x + 2 2x + 2x + 1
tit
Z x
sin2 t dt
s
4. F (x) =
In
−x−1
Z 0 Z x
UP
2
F (x) = sin t dt + sin2 t dt
−x−1 0
Z −x−1 Z x
2
=− sin t dt + sin2 t dt
0 0
F 0 (x) = − sin2 (−x − 1) (−1) + sin2 x = − sin2 (x + 1) + sin2 x
Z tanh(x)
2 t−1
5. F (x) = sinh dt
x3 3
Z 1 Z tanh(x)
2 t−1 2 t−1
= sinh dt + sinh dt
x3 3 1 3
Z x3 Z tanh(x)
2 t−1 2 t−1
=− sinh dt + sinh dt
1 3 1 3
3
0 2 x −1 2 2 tanh(x) − 1
F (x) = sinh · 3x + sinh · sech2 (x)
3 3
We reserve the proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus in Section 4.5, since it
involves the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
4.3.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The next result provides a link between computing antiderivatives of a function f and finding the
definite integral of f on the interval [a, b].
Theorem 4.3.6 (The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Let f be a

function continuous on [a, b]. If F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then
Z b ix=b
f (x) dx = F (x) = F (b) − F (a)
a x=a
Example 4.3.7. Evaluate the following definite integrals.

Z 2 3 x=2
2 x 8 8
1. x dx = +C = + C − (0 + C) =
0 3 x=0 3 3
x=6
Z 6
2. 2x dx = x2 = 36 − 4 = 32
ic s
−2 x=−2
at
Z 3
dx
em
3.
−1 (x + 2)3 h
at
M
Solution.
of
We use integration by substitution to get the desired antiderivative. Let u = x + 2. Then

e
ut
du = dx. We get that

tit
u−2
Z Z
dx −3 1 1
= u du = +C =− 2 +C =− +C
s
3 −2 2 (x + 2)2
In
(x + 2) 2u
UP
We now have
Z 3 x=3
dx 1 1 1 24 12
= − =− + = =
−1 (x + 2)3 2(x + 2) 2
x=−1 50 2 50 25
Remark 4.3.8. By the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the Substitution Rule,
Z b x=b
0

f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (g(x)) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a))
a x=a
If we let u = g(x), we have that

Z b
u=g(b)
0

f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (u)
a u=g(a)
Therefore,
Z b Z g(b)
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du
a g(a)
Example 4.3.9. Evaluate the following definite integrals using the previous remark.
Z 3
dx
1. 3
−1 (x + 2)
Solution.
Again, we let u = x + 2. Then du = dx. We use the previous remark and put the limits of
integration in terms of the new variable u. If x = −1, then u = 1. If x = 3, then u = 5. We
now have
u−2 u=5
Z 3 Z 5
dx −3 1 1 12
3 = u du = =− + =
−1 (x + 2) 1 −2 u=1
50 2 25
√
Z 11 1
2. 2x(x2 − 3) 3 dx
2
Solution.
√
s
Let u = x2 − 3. Then du = 2x dx. Moreover, if x = 2, then u = 1. If x = 11, then
ic
√ 2
u= 11 − 3 = 8. Thus,
at
em
√ 4 4 4
11 8
3u 3 u=8 3(8) 3
Z Z
2
1 1 3(1) 3 45
2x(x + −3) 3 dx = u3 du = = − =
h
4 u=1 4 4 4
at

2 1
M
Z π2
√
sin t
3. √ dt
of
π2 t
4
e
ut
Solution.
tit
√ dt dt 2 π
Let u = t. Then du = √ , or 2du = √ . In addition, if x = π4 , then u = . Meanwhile, if
s
In
2 t t 2
2
x = π , then u = π. Thus,
UP
Z π2 √ Z π u=π
sin t
√ dt = 2 sin u du = 2(− cos u) =2−0=2
π 2
t π π
4 2 u= 2
Z 2
4. |x| dx
−1
Solution. (
x, if x ≥ 0
Recall that |x| = . We use the 6th property of the definite integral and obtain
−x, if x < 0
Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
|x| dx = (−x) dx + x dx
−1 −1 0
x2 x=0
2 x=2

x
= − +
2 x=−1 2
x=0
1 5
= 0− − + (2 − 0) =
2 2
Remark 4.3.10.
1. The Fundamental Theorems of CalculusZ establish a close connection between antiderivatives

and definite integrals. For this reason, f (x) dx is also referred to as an indefinite integral,
and the process of antidifferentiation as integration. However, note that in Advanced Calculus,
the indefinite integral is defined independently of the antiderivative and does not always
coincide with the antiderivative of a function.
2. To use the Second Fundamental

Z 2 Theorem of Calculus, the function f must be continuous on
1 1 ix=2 1 1
[a, b]. For instance, 2
dx 6
= − = . In fact, the definite integral of f (x) = 2 on
−1 x x x=−1 2 x
[−1, 2] cannot even be defined since the interval is not contained in the domain of f .
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
4.3.3 Exercises
A. Find the derivative of the following functions.
2 7
t3
Z Z
t2 + 1 dt

1. F (x) = 3
dt 3. F (x) =
1−3x 1 + t csc x
Z 1
x√
Z cos x
2. F (x) = 1 + m3 dm 4. F (x) = y 2 dy
1 sin x
B. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the following functions at the given value
of x:
√
x 3 x2 −5x+6
3r3 + sech r
Z
t
Z
1. h(x) = dt ; x = −8 3. f (x) = dr ; x = 3
s
2
t + 8t + 1
−8 3r3 − sech r
ic
9−x2
at
3x2 −10 cos(x2 )
2we−w
Z Z
z sinh(z)
2. g(x) = dz ; x = −2 4. g(x) = dw ; x = 0
em
2 cos2 z − 4 2x+1 tan−1 w
h
at
C. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
M
of
Z π Z π
2 2 p
1. sin x dx 9. sin 2y 1 − sin ydy
e
ut
0 0
Z 4 Z ln 3
tit
2. (1 + 3t − t2 ) dt 10. tanh x sech3 x dx

s
0 ln 2
In
64 √ Z 4
1+ 3y 1
Z
3. √ dy 11. √ √ 3 dw
UP
3 y
1 1 w ( w + 2)
π
cos2 θ 2
1 2
Z Z
1+
4 1
4. dθ 12. 1+ dm
0 cos2 θ 1 m2 m
Z π x x √
Z 3−1
5. sin2 cos dx 4
π 2 2 13. √ dr
3 −1 3 − 2r − r2
Z π
tan u Z 4
1
6. du 14. √ dt
2π sec u − tan u
3 1 (t + 2) t2 + 4t − 5
Z π Z 2
2
7. cos x cos(π sin x) dx 15. |x + 1| dx
0 −2
Z 2 Z 4
|s2 − 5s + 6| ds
p
8. y y − 1 dy 16.
1 0
A. Find the derivative of the following functions.
Z x √
3 x
t2 − 1
Z
1. F (x) = t2 sin t dt 3. F (x) = dt
√ 3
0 sec x 1 + t
Z 2x " Z 3s2 !#
Z 2x3 d √
1 4. F (x) = t3 + 1dt ds
2. F (x) = ds ds
x 1 + s2 5 1
B. Find an equation of the tangent line and normal line to the graph of the following functions at
the given value of x:
1−4x
√
x2 5 s2 + 1
Z Z
1. h(x) = sec(t − 1) dt ; x = −2 4. h(x) = ds ; x = 1
2−x −3 tan−1 (s)
s
2
0 πx sinh−1 v
ic
Z Z
1+u π
2. f (x) = du ; x = 1 5. g(x) = dv ; x =
at
x5 −1 1 + u + u2 csc(x) sinh v 2
em
cos(x2 )
0 2we−w
Z Z
4 ln(cosh u) + 1 π
3. f (x) = du ; x = 6. g(x) = h dw ; x = 0
2
u +1 2 tan−1 w
at
cos x 2x+1
M
C. Evaluate the following definite integrals.

of
e
ut
Z 3 Z 4
3 2
1. x − 4x + 5x − 8 dx 10. |s2 − 4s + 3| ds
tit
−2 0
π Z π
s

Z 1
In
4

2. tan3 (y)(1 + tan2 y) dy 11. sin x − 2 dx

π 0
UP
6
Z 6 2 Z ln 4 √
5x 12. sinh x cosh x dx
3. x sin dx ln 0.5
1 6 Z ln 3
Z π
tanh x sech3 x dx

6 2 3x 3x 13.
4. sec tan dx ln 2
−
π 4 4 (
3 π
x≤0
Z
√ x ;
3 14. f (x) dx if f (x) =
tan−1 x
Z
3 −π sin x ; x>0
5. dx
0 1 + x2 Z ln 5
csch cot−1 x 15. e−x tanh(e−x ) dx
Z 1

6. dx ln 0.2
0 1 + x2 Z e4
e 2 1
16. dx
Z
coth (ln x + x)(x + 1) p
7. dx e2 x ln2 x − 1
1 x
0 Z 1 −1
2
2 sech (x)
Z
8. |3x + 1 |dx 17. √ dx
−1 0 x 1 − x2
Z 3 Z 1
1
9. (|3x − 6| − 1) dx 18. √ dx
0 0 1 + e4x
ln 5 3 3 2
2log3 (x +2x )
Z
sinh x
Z
19. dx 20. √ dx
1 e − e−x
x
1 x · 4log3 x+2
ic s
at
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
4.4 Generalization of the Area of a Plane Region
Now that we know the most important properties of the definite integral, we are able to perform
some geometric calculations. One such computation generalizes the concept of a plane region
we discussed earlier.
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to do the following:
• express the area bounded by arbitrary curves as a definite integral;

• use the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus to compute such areas; and
• use the concept of vertical and horizontal strips to perform convenient calculations for
area.
Let f be a continuous function. Recall the following:
ic s
at
Z b n
f (x∗i ) ∆x.
P
1. f (x)dx = lim
em
a n→∞i=1
h Z b
at
2. If the graph of y = f (x) lies entirely above the x-axis in the interval [a, b], f (x) dx gives
M
a
the area of the region bounded by the curves y = f (x), the x-axis and the vertical lines
of
x = a and x = b. This is illustrated in the figure below.

e
ut
stit
In
UP
We generalize the problem to finding the area of a plane region bounded by several curves such
as the one shown below.
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 231
ic s
at
em
Some Preliminaries:
h
at
M
1. The coordinates of an arbitrary point on a curve y = f (x) in terms of x are given by the
of
ordered pair (x, f (x)).

e
ut
tit
Example 4.4.1.
s
In
a. y = x2
UP
b. y = x3
The height h of a curve at x with reference to the x-axis is given by:

a. h = f (x), if the curve is above the x-axis.
b. h = −f (x), if the curve is below the x-axis.
Example 4.4.2.
ic s
a. y = x2
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
b. y = x3
UP
The height (or distance) between two curves at x is given by
h = (y-coordinate of the upper curve) − (y-coordinateof the lower curve)
Example 4.4.3.
a. y = x2 and y = x + 1
h = (x + 1) − x2 = −x2 + x + 1
b. y = x2 and y = −1
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
h = x2 − (−1) = x2 + 1
s tit
In
UP
Area between Two Curves: Vertical Approach
Let y = f (x) and y = g (x) be the equations of two curves that are continuous on [a, b] such
that g (x) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. To find the area between the curves y = f (x) and y = g (x)
in the interval [a, b], we modify the method used for finding the area of a region bounded above
by a curve and below by the x-axis in a given closed interval:
ic s
1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. We assign the width
at
of the ith rectangle to be ∆x. Note that
∆x =
b−a
h em
at
n
M
2. Let i = 1, 2, ..., n. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval. We assign the height
of
hi of the ith rectangle to be the distance between the two curves at x∗i :
e
ut
hi = f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i )
s tit
In
3. The area of the ith rectangle is now given by

UP
Ai = hi ∆x = f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x

4. We approximate the area AR of the region R by getting the sum of the areas of the n
rectangle:
n
X n
X
f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x

AR ≈ Ai =
i=1 i=1
5. We let n → ∞ and define this to be the area of the region:

n
X n
X
f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x

AR = lim Ai = lim
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1
6. By the definition of the definite integral, we get

Z b
AR = (f (x) − g(x)) dx
a
Formula for the Area of a Plane Region

If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b] and f (x) ≥ g (x) for all x ∈ [a, b],
then the area of the region R bounded above by y = f (x) , below by y = g (x) and the
vertical lines x = a and x = b is
Z b
AR = (f (x) − g(x)) dx
a
Suggestion: We can think of the formula for the area of a plane region in this way:
Z b
AR = h dx
a
where:
ic s
at
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region along the x-axis
em
• h is the height of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I
h
• dx is the width of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I
at
M
Example 4.4.4.
of
e
1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x3 , the x-axis and x = −2.
ut
s tit
In
UP
The interval covered by the region along the x-axis is

I = [−2, 0]
Meanwhile, the height of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I is given by
h = 0 − x3 = −x3
Therefore, the area of given plane region is given by
Z 0
AR = −x3 dx
−2
We evaluate the definite integral and obtain
0
x4 x=0
Z
3
AR = −x dx = − = 0 − (−4) = 4 square units
−2 4 x=−2
2. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x2 + 2, y = −1, x = −1 and x = 2.
s
ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
We have the following:
I = [−1, 2] ; h = (x2 + 2) − (−1) = x2 + 3
Therefore, the area of the desired region is given by
2
x=2
x3
Z
(x2 + 3) dx =

AR = + 3x
−1 3
x=−1
8 1
= AR = + 6 − − − 3 = 12 square units
3 3
3. Find the area of the region bounded by y = 2 − x2 and y = −x.

We solve for the x-coordinates of the points of intersection to get I.
ic s
2 − x2 = −x
at
x2 − x − 2 = 0
em
(x + 1) (x − 2) = 0
h
at
x = −1 or x = 2
M
Thus, I = [−1, 2]. Meanwhile,

of
e
h = 2 − x2 − (−x) = −x2 + x + 2

ut
tit
The area of the plane region is

s
In
2
x=2
x3 x2
Z
UP
2

AR = (−x + x + 2) dx = − + + 2x
−1 3 2 x=−1

8 1 1 9
= − +2+4 − + −2 square units
3 3 2 2
Notice that the formula for the area of a plane region assumes that the upper curve y = f (x)
is always above the lower curve y = g (x) in [a, b]. That is, the formula for the height h of a
rectangle at an arbitrary x is the same throughout the region. In the case that this is not so,
we have to divide the region into an appropriate number of subregions to apply the formula.
Example 4.4.5.
1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = cos x, y = sin x and the lines x = 0 and x = 2π.
ic s
We divide the interval into three subregions R1 , R2 and R3 . To determine the appropriate
at
x-interval covered by each of these three subregions, we solve for the x-coordinates of the
em
points of intersection of y = cos x and y = sin x in the interval [0, 2π]:
h
at
sin x = cos x
M
1 1
· sin x = · cos x
of
cos x cos x
tan x = 1
e
π 5π
ut
x= or x =
4 4
s tit
In
We now have the following:

UP
For R1 : For R2 : For R3 :

I = [0, π4 ] I = [ π4 , 5π
4 ] I = [ 5π
4 , 2π]
h = cos x − sin x h = sin x − cos x h = cos x − sin x
The required area is given by:
AR = AR1 + AR2 + AR3

Z π Z π Z 2π
4 4
= cos x − sin x dx + cos x − sin x dx + cos x − sin x dx
5π
0 0 4
√
= 4 2 square units
2. Find the area of the region shown below. The boundaries are y = x2 , y = 2x and 7x+4y = 15.
We divide the interval into two subregions R1 and R2 and solve for the points of intersection:
ic s
Intersection of y = x2 and 7x + 4y = 15:
at
15 − 7x
em
x2 =
h 4
4x2 + 7x − 15 = 0
at
M
(4x − 5)(x + 3) = 0
5
of
x= or x = −3
4
e
ut
Intersection of y = 2x and 7x + 4y = 15:

tit
7x + 4 (2x) = 15
s
In
x = 1
UP
Intersection of y = x2 and y = 2x:
x2 − 2x = 0
x (x − 2) = 0
x=0 or x=2
We now have
For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−3, 1] I = [1, 2]
15 − 7x
h= − x2 h = 2x − x2
4
Finally,
AR = AR 1 + AR 2
Z 1 Z 2
15 − 7x 2 40
2x − x2 dx =

= −x dx + square units
−3 4 1 3
An Alternative Method Using Horizontal Rectangles
In the method we employed to find the area of a plane region, the plane region is covered using
rectangles oriented vertically. Now consider the case of the plane region below. If rectangles
oriented vertically are used to find the area of the plane region, the region would have to be
divided into two subregions because the formula for the height of the rectangle is not consistent
throughout the region. In one subregion, the upper curve is the line, while the lower curve is
the lower branch of the parabola. In the other subregion, the upper curve is the upper branch
of the parabola, while the lower curve is the lower branch of the parabola.
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
Notice, however, that if we use rectangles oriented horizontally, the expression for the length of
tit
the rectangle is the same throughout the given region. This is in contrast to the approach using
s
vertical rectangles, where the expression for the height of the rectangle is the same throughout
In
the region.
UP
The length of a rectangle oriented horizontally is given by

l =(x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)
Throughout the region, the curve on the right is always the parabola, while the curve of the left
is always the line.
The following gives an alternative method for finding the area of a plane region using horizontal
rectangles, which would be more convenient to use in finding the area of some regions such as
the one shown above.
Formula for the Area of a Plane Region

If u and v are continuous functions in y on the interval [c, d] and v (y) ≥ u (y) for all
y ∈ [c, d], then the area of the region R bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on the right
by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d is
Z d
AR = (v(y) − u(y)) dy
c
ic s
at
em
Suggestion: Again, we can think of the formula for the area of a plane region in this way:
h
at
Z d
M
AR = l dy
c
of
where:
e
ut
• [c, d] is the interval I covered by the region along the y-axis;

tit
• l is the length of the rectangle at an arbitrary point y in the interval I;

s
In
• dy is the width of the rectangle at an arbitrary point y in the interval I.

UP
Some Preliminaries.
1. The coordinates of a point on the curve x = u (y) in terms of y are given by (u(y), y)
Example.
2. The length of the rectangle at an arbitrary y is given by
l =(x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)
Example. In the previous example,
h = (3 − y 2 ) − (y + 1) = −y 2 − y + 2
Example 4.4.6.
1. Find the area of the region bounded by x = 3 − y 2 and the line y = x − 1. (Refer to the
figure in the previous example.)
To find the y-interval covered by the region above, we solve for the y-coordinates of the
points of intersection:
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3 − y2 = y+1
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y2 + y − 2 = 0 h
(y + 2)(y − 1) = 0
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y = −2 or y = 1
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Therefore, I = [−2, 1]. We have already seen that the length of a horizontal rectangle at an
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arbitrary y is given by
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l = −y 2 − y + 2
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We get that the area of the region is given by the definite integral
Z 1
− y 2 − y + 2 dy

AR =
−2
Evaluating this integral, we obtain
y=1
y3 y2 9
AR = − − + 2y = square units
3 2 y=−2 2
y2
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x = 4 − y 2 and x = 2 − .
2
We solve for the y-coordinates of the points of intersection:
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4 − y2
4 − y2 =
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2
y2 − 4 = 0
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y = −2 or y = 2
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4 − y2 4 − y2

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y2

Therefore, we have I = [−2, 2] and l = 4 − − = . The required area is
2 2
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2
y2 y 3 y=2
Z
16
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AR = 2− dy = 2y − = square units
−2 2 6 y=−2 3
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3. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x2 = 4y and the parabola y 2 = −4x.
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The curve on the right is the upper branch of the parabola y 2 = −4x. We isolate x and
y2
get x = − . On the other hand, the curve on the left is the left branch of the parabola
4 √
x2 = 4y. We solve for x and obtain x = ±2 y. Since the curve of interest is the left branch
√
of the parabola, the equation of the curve is x = −2 y.
We solve for the y-coordinates of the points of intersection and obtain

√
y2 = −4 (−2 y)
y 4 − 64y = 0
y = 0 or y = 4
y2 √
Thus, we get I = [0, 4] and h = − + 2 y. Finally,
4
3
4
y2 y3 4y 2 y=4 16

√
Z
AR = − + 2 y dy = − + = square units
4 12 3 y=0 3
s
0
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4.4.1 Exercises
A. Find the area of the following regions.
1. Triangle whose vertices are the points (−1, 4), (2, −2), and (5, 1)
2. Trapezoid whose vertices are the points A(−1, −1), B(2, 2), C(6, 2) and D(7, −1)
3. Region bounded by the upper branch of the parabola x = y 2 , the tangent line to the parabola
at (1, 1) and the x-axis
4. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 3 and y = x + 7.
5. Region bounded by y = 6x − x2 and 2y = 5x + 6.
6. R is bounded above by the graph of y = |2x|, and below by the parabola y = x2 − 8.
7. Region shown below. Boundaries are y = 5 − x2 , y = 2x + 2, y = −x − 1
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8. Region bounded below by the curves y = 3−x and y = 3x , and the line y = 9
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9. Region bounded by the curve y = tanh2 (x), the x-axis, and the line x = ln 14
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10. Region bounded by the curve y = 2x , the coordinate axes, and the lines x = 4 and y = 8
A. Find the area of the following regions.

1. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 1 and y = 7 − x
2. Triangle whose vertices are the points (−1, 4), (2, −2), and (5, 1)
3. Triangle with vertices at A(−2, 2), B(5, 8), and C(1, −4).
4. Triangle with vertices at A(0, 0), B(4, −8), and C(−2, −4).
5. Quadrilateral with vertices A(−5, −3), B(1, 6), C(6, 6), and D(12, −3).
6. Region bounded by the line y = −9 and the curve y = 16 − x2 .
7. Region bounded below by the x-axis, and above by the parabola x = y 2 and the tangent
line to the parabola at (2, 4).
8. R is bounded below by the graph of y = 3 sin x, above by the graph of y = −2 cos2 x,
and between x = 0 and x = 2π
9. Region shown below. Boundaries are x = y 2 − 2y, x = 4 − y 2 and x + 2y = 4
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10. Set up the integral that gives the area of the region shown below. The parabola and the
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circle intersect at the point (2, 0).

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11. Set up the definite integral(s) equal to the area of the region with the given boundaries.
a. y = tan x, y = cot x, y = x2 − x, x = 1
b. y = ln x, y = −x2 − x + 2, 20x − 4y = 5, 4x = 1
√
c. y = x, y = 0, y = 6 − x
√
d. y = 2x2 , y = − x, 4x + 3y = 10
√
e. y = x, y = −3 x + 1, y=
−x + 1, y = 0
x x
f. y = 2 cos , y = ln , 4x = π
2 π
√
g. xy = 2, y = 2 x, x − 3y = 1, y = 0
B. Do as indicated.
1. The parabola y = 10 − x2 , and the lines y = −2x + 2 and y = 3x + 6, serve as boundaries
of three finite regions in the Cartesian plane. Find the area of each region.
1
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of y = √ , the x-axis, and the
√ x 4x2 − 1
3
lines x = and x = 1.
3
x2 y 2
3. Derive the formula for the area of an ellipse with equation 2 + 2 = 1.
a b x
4. Derive the formula for the area of the region R bounded by the catenary y = a cosh ,
a
the coordinate axes, and the line x = a, where a > 0.
1
5. Let R be the region under the graph of y = 2 over [1, 4].
x
A. Find a such that the line with equation x = a divides R into two regions having equal
area.
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B. Find b such that the line with equation y = b divides R into two regions having equal
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area.
C. Do as indicated. h em
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1. TRUE OR FALSE: Any region, whose boundaries can be expressed in terms of functions
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and vertical lines, can be divided into two regions of equal area.
2. For the statement above to be always true, what condition(s) must be satisfied?
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3. Prove the following statement: If a region is bounded above by y = f (x), below by y =

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g(x), and the lines x = a and x = b, then there is a unique line dividing the region into
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two regions of equal area.

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4. Construct a similar statement for regions bounded on the left by x = u(y), on the right
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by x = v(y), and the lines y = c and y = d.

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5. Consider the region R bounded above by the graph of f (x) = 4x − 4x3 and below by the
x-axis. What value of m will make the graph of g(x) = m divide R into two regions of
equal area?
4.5 Arc Length of Plane Curves

We proceed with another geometric computation which turns out to make use of derivatives and
integrals. We only need a fact from Euclidean geometry, which states that the distance between
p
two points on the Cartesian plane, P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ), is d(P Q) = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 .
• characterize a smooth function;
• derive an expression for the length of any smooth function; and
• use a particular orientation of the curve to be able to construct a convenient

expression for its length.
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First, we define a smooth curve. A curve with equation y = f (x) is said to be smooth on [a, b] if
the interval [a, b].

h em
f 0 is continuous on [a, b]. Suppose we want to find the length of the arc of a smooth curve over a
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We use the previous method of dividing the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length. Let
i = 1, 2, ..., n.
1. Let (xi , yi ) and (xi+1 , yi+1 ) be the endpoints of the arc over the ith subinterval.
2. The distance between the endpoints of the ith subarc is given by

p
di = (xi+1 − xi )2 + (yi+1 − yi )2 , for i = 1, 2, . . . , n
4.5. ARC LENGTH OF PLANE CURVES 249
3. Let ∆xi = xi+1 − xi and ∆yi = yi+1 − yi . So we have

p
di = (∆xi )2 + (∆yi )2
s
(∆xi )2 + (∆yi )2
= · (∆xi )2
(∆xi )2
s
∆yi 2

= 1+ · ∆xi
∆xi
4. We approximate the length L of the arc by getting the sum of the distances between the
endpoints of all subarcs:
s
n n
∆yi 2
X X
L≈ di = 1+ · ∆xi
∆xi
i=1 i=1
5. We define the length of the arc to be the limit of the sum as n → ∞:
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s
n n
∆yi 2

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X X
L = lim di = 1+ · ∆xi
∆xi
em
n→∞
i=1 i=1
h
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6. Therefore, length of the arc is given by the definite integral
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s 2
Z b
dy
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L= 1+ dx
a dx
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Formula for the Length of an Arc

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If y = f (x) is a smooth curve on the interval [a, b], then the arc length L of this curve
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from x = a to x = b is
s 2
Z b Z bq
dy 2
L= 1+ dx = 1 + f 0 (x) dx
a dx a
If x = u(y) is a smooth curve on the interval [c, d], then the arc length L of this curve
from y = c to y = d is
s 2
Z d Z dq
dx 2
L= 1+ dy = 1 + u0 (y) dy
c dy c
Example 4.5.1.
1 2 3/2
1. Find the length of arc of the curve y = x +2 from x = 1 to x = 2.
3
First, we compute
dy 1p 2 p
= x + 2 · 2x = x x2 + 2
dx 2
Therefore,
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s 2
2 p 2p
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Z Z
L= 2
1+ x x +2 dx = x4 + 2x2 + 1 dx
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1 1
2
x=2
x3
Z
10
2
h
= (x + 1) dx = + x = units
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1 3 x=1 3
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2. Set up the definite integral required to find the arc length of the curve x = (y − 1)2 − 4 from
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the point (−3, 2) to (0, −1).

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Here, it is more convenient to use the horizontal orientation of the curve. We have that
dx
= 2(y − 1)
dy
The definite integral that gives the length of arc is

Z 2 p
L= 1 + 4(y − 1)2 dy
−1
3. Set up the definite integral required to find the perimeter of the region enclosed by the curves
1 2

3 1 3
y=x + ,x=− y− and y = .
2 2 2
1
If L1 is the length of the segment from −1, 32 and 1, 32 , L2 is the length of the arc of y = x3 +

2
s
2
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1
from 0, 12 to 1, 32 , and L3 is the length of the arc of x = − y − from −1, 23 to 0, 12 ,

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2
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then the perimeter P of the enclosed region is given by
h
P = L1 + L2 + L3
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Obviously,
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L1 = 1 − (−1) = 2
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We set up the integral to find L2 in terms of x and get that

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Z 1p
L2 = 1 + 9x4 dx
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We set up the integral to find L3 in terms of y and get that

Z 3
s
1 2

2
L3 = 1+4 y− dy
1 2
2
Therefore,
3
s
1p
1 2
Z Z
2
P =2+ 1+ 9x4 dx + 1+4 y− dy
0
1 2
2
Remark 4.5.2. Note in the previous example that our expression for the perimeter involves x and
y. This is sometimes the case, especially for the perimeter of regions with varying boundaries. The
thing to take away here is that each integral must contain only one variable of integration; that is,
x and y cannot appear in a single integrand.
4.5.1 Exercises
A. Find the arc length of the following curves in the specified interval:
2
(x − 5) /2 from the point where x = 6 to the point where x = 8.
3
1. y =
3
2. 2x − 4y + 6 = 0 between y = 0 and y = 2
π
3. y = ln(cos x) from x = 0 to x =
4
√
4. 9y 2 = 4x3 from the origin to the point (3, 2 3).
5. 8y = x4 + 2x−2 from the point where x = 1 and x = 2.
x
6. y = a cosh , from the point where x = 0 to the point where x = a
a
7. y = sinh−1 x from the point where x = 0 to the point where x = 4
B. Do as indicated.
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1. Set up a definite integral that gives the length of the arcsine function throughout its domain.
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√
2. Set up a definite integral that gives the arc length of y = 3 x − 1 from x = 0 to x = 1. (Note
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that this integral has to be set up in terms of y. Why not x?)
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A. Find the perimeter of each region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Items 1-7, and Exercises 4.4.2,
Part A, 1-5.
B. Set up the (sum of) definite integral(s) equal to the perimeter of each region in Exercises 4.4.1,
Part A, Items 8-10, and Exercises 4.4.2, Part A, 6-11.
C. Set up the (sum of) definite integral(s) equal to the perimeter of each of the regions described
in Exercises 4.4.2, Part B, Items 1-4.
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4.6 Volumes of Solids

Another application of the definite integral comes in when we consider the volume of solids formed
using special procedures. We consider first right cylinders, the normal type of cylinders we see in
everyday life. Then we consider solids formed by rotating a plane region about a particular line.
• understand the different procedures used in computing the volume of a given solid;
• generate expressions for the volume of any solid using cross-sectional area; and
• solve for the volume of solids generated by revolving a plane region about an indicated
axis, using the methods of disks, washers, and cylindrical shells.
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4.6.1 Volumes of Solids of Revolution1
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Solids of Revolution
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A solid of revolution is a solid obtained when a plane region is revolved about a line called the
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axis of revolution. For simplicity, we will only consider axes of revolution which are vertical
(parallel to the y-axis) or horizontal (parallel to the x-axis).
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Example 4.6.1.
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1. The solid of revolution generated when the region bounded by x = y 2 and y = x2 is revolved
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about the x-axis:

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2. The solid of revolution generated when the region bounded by y = sin x and the x-axis in the
interval [0, π] is revolved about the y-axis:
1
Some of figures in this section are taken from [5].
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 255
Remark 4.6.2. Two methods allow us to find the volume of a solid of revolution:
1. Disk or Washer Method. Use rectangles that are perpendicular to the axis of revolution.
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2. Cylindrical Shell Method. Use rectangles that are parallel to the axis of revolution.
h em
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In both methods, we will need to determine the distance d from an arbitrary point x on a curve
to the axis of revolution. To this end, we need the following observations:
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1. If the axis of revolution is a vertical line, the horizontal distance from the axis of revolution to
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an arbitrary point on the curve is given by

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d = (x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)

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2. If the axis of revolution is a horizontal line, the vertical distance from the axis of revolution to
an arbitrary point on the curve is given by
d = (y-coordinate of the upper curve) − (y-coordinate of the lower curve)
Example. Find the distance from an arbitrary point x on the given curve to the given axis of
revolution.
1. y = x2 , x ≥ 0
a. Axis of revolution: x = 5
√
In terms of x: d = 5 − x In terms of y: d = 5 − y
b. Axis of revolution: x = −2
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√
In terms of x: d = x + 2 In terms of y: d = y+2
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2. x = 4 − y 2
a. Axis of revolution: y = 3
√
In terms of y: d = 3 − y In terms of x: d = 3 − 4−x
b. Axis of revolution: y = −1
√ √
In terms of y: d = y − (−1) = y + 1 In terms of x: d = 4 − x − (−1) = 4 − x + 1
The Disk or Washer Method
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A disk and a washer with the formulas for their respective volumes are shown below.
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Disk: V = πr2 h Washer: V = πh(r22 − r12 )

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r = radius; h = height
s
r2 = outer radius; r1 = inner radius

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In the disk or washer method, the rectangles are oriented so that they are perpendicular to the axis
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of revolution.
When a segment of the axis of revolution is a boundary of the region, as is the case when the
region below is revolved about the y-axis, disks are obtained.
If the axis of revolution does not intersect the region, or intersects the region at only one point, we
get washers. This is illustrated in the following example.
Let us consider the simple case when we only obtain disks. Refer to the region below, bounded
s
above by the curve y = f (x), in the interval [a, b]. To get the volume of the solid generated when
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the region is revolved about the x-axis, we do the following:
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1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.
2. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval. Let ri = f (x∗i ) be the height of the ith
rectangle.
3. When we revolve the ith rectangle about the axis of revolution, we get the ith disk whose radius
is given by ri and whose height is given by ∆x.
4. The volume of the ith disk is then given by
Vi = πri2 ∆x = π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x

5. The volume of the solid of revolution can be approximated by adding the volumes of the disks
obtained when the rectangles are revolved about the axis of revolution. The expression becomes
n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x
i=1 i=1
6. We define the volume of the solid to be the limit of the sum above as n → ∞:
n
X
V = lim π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x
n→∞
i=1
7. By the definition of the definite integral, we have
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b
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Z
V = π [f (x)]2 dx
a
h
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The formula below generalizes what is obtained above.

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Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Disks or Washers

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Vertical Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded above by y = f (x), below by

s
y = g (x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b such that f and g are continuous
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functions on [a, b]. If the line y = y0 does not intersect the interior of R, then the volume
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of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line y = y0 is given by:
1. If only disks are obtained (that is, a boundary of R lies on the axis of revolution),
then
Z b
V = π [r(x)]2 dx
a
where r (x) is the radius of a disk at an arbitrary x in [a, b].
2. If washers are obtained (that is, a boundary of R does not lie on the axis of revolution),
then
Z b
V = π [r2 (x)]2 − [r1 (x)]2 dx
a
where r2 (x) and r1 (x) are the outer radius and inner radius, respectively, of a washer
at an arbitrary x in [a, b].
Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Disks or Washers

Horizontal Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on
the right by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d such that u and v are
continuous functions on [c, d]. If the line x = x0 does not intersect the interior of R, then
the volume of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line x = x0
is given by:
1. If only disks are obtained, then

Z d
V = π [r(y)]2 dy
c
where r (y) is the radius of a disk at an arbitrary y in [c, d].
2. If washers are obtained, then

Z d
V = π [r2 (y)]2 − [r1 (y)]2 dy
s
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c
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where r2 (y) and r1 (y) are the outer radius and inner radius, respectively, of a washer
at an arbitrary y in [c, d]. h em
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Suggestion:
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A. We can think of the volume of a solid of revolution in this way:

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1. If only disks are obtained:

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Z b
s
V = πr2 dw
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a
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where:
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region
• r is given by the distance of the farther tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• dw is the width (shorter side) of an arbitrary rectangle
2. If washers are obtained:
Z d
π r22 − r12 dw

V =
c
where:
• r1 is given by the distance of the nearer tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• r2 is given by the distance of the farther tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• dw is the width (shorter side) of an arbitrary rectangle
B. If vertical rectangles are used, dw = dx, so set up the integral in terms of x. If horizontal
rectangles are used, dw = dy, so set up the integral in terms of y.
Example 4.6.3. Let R be the region bounded by y = x2 , x = 0 and x = 2.

1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the x-axis.
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h em
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Since the rectangles must be perpendicular to the axis of revolution, we use vertical rectangles
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and set up the integral in terms of x. In this case, a boundary of the region lies on the axis of
of
revolution so only disks are obtained.

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The x-interval covered by the region is [0, 2] and the distance from the farther tip of an ar-
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bitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution is r = x2 − 0 = x2 . Therefore, the volume is given

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by
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πx5 2 32π
Z 2
4
V = πx dx = = cubic units
0 5 0 5
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line x = 2.
We use horizontal rectangles and set up the integral in terms of y. Again only washers are
obtained, so we have:
√
I = [0, 4] ; r =2− y
The volume is given by
3


4 2
√
Z
8y 2 y 8π
V = π(4 − 4 y + y) dy = π 4y − + = cubic units
0 3 2 3
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line y = 4.
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We use vertical rectangles and set up the integral in terms of x. This time we obtain washers.
We get the following:
I = [0, 2] ; r1 = 4 − x2 ; r2 = 4 − 0 = 4
The volume is given by
2 2
8x3 x5
Z
2 4 = 224π cubic units

V = π 8x − x dx = π −
0 3 5
0 15
cubic units
4. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y-axis.
We use horizontal rectangles and set up the integral in terms of y. We use the formula for
washers and get
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√ √
I = [0, 4] ; r1 = y−0= y ; r2 = 2 − 0 = 2
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Therefore, the volume required is
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h
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4
y 2 4
Z
V = π (4 − y) dy = π 4y − = 8π cubic units
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0 2 0
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The Cylindrical Shell Method

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A cylindrical shell and the formula for its volume are shown below.
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Cylindrical Shell: V = 2πrh ∆r

r1 +r2
r= 2 ; r2 = outer radius; r1 = inner radius; ∆r = r2 − r1
Suppose we want to get the volume of the solid generated when the region below is revolved about
the y-axis. In the cylindrical shell method, we orient the rectangles so that they are parallel to the
axis of revolution.
When we revolve the rectangles about the axis of revolution, we obtain cylindrical shells.
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h em
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We obtain the formula for the volume of a solid of revolution using cylindrical shells in the following
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manner:
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1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.
2. Let x∗i be the midpoint of the ith subinterval.
3. The height of the ith rectangle is given by hi = f (x∗i ).
4. For the ith cylindrical shell, r = x∗i , h = f (x∗i ), ∆r = ∆x.
5. Thus, the volume of the ith cylindrical shell is
Vi = 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x

6. The volume of the solid is approximated by adding the volumes of the n cylindrical shells:
n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x
i=1 i=1
7. The volume of the solid is defined to be the limit of the above as n → ∞:

n
X
V = lim 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x
n→∞
i=1
8. By the definition of the definite integral,

Z b
V = 2πxf (x) dx
a
The formulas below generalize that which was derived above.
s
Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Cylindrical Shells
ic
at
Vertical Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded above by y = f (x) , below by
em
y = g (x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b such that f and g are continuous
functions on [a, b]. If the line x = x0 does not intersect the interior of R, then the volume
h
at
of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line x = x0 is given by
M
Z b
V = 2πr(x)h(x) dx
of
a
e
ut
where r (x) and h (x) are the radius and height, respectively, of a cylindrical shell at an
tit
arbitrary x in [a, b].

s
In
Horizontal Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on

the right by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d such that u and v are
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continuous functions on [c, d]. If the line y = y0 does not intersect the interior of R, then
the volume of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line y = y0
is given by
Z d
V = 2πr(y)h(y) dy
c
where r (y) and h (y) are the radius and height, respectively, of a cylindrical shell at an
arbitrary y in [c, d].
Suggestion:
A. We can think of the formula for the volume using cylindrical shells in this way:
Z b
V = 2πrh dw
a
where:
• r is the distance of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution
• h is the height of an arbitrary rectangle
• dw is the width of an arbitrary rectangle
B. If vertical rectangles are used, dw = dx, so set up the integral in terms of x. If horizontal
rectangles are used, dw = dy, so set up the integral in terms of y.
Example 4.6.4. Let R be the region bounded by y = x2 , x = 0 and x = 2.
s
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y-axis.
ic
at
hem
at
M
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e
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s tit
In
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Since the rectangles must be parallel to the axis of revolution, we use vertical rectangles and
set up the integral in terms of x. The x-interval covered by the region is I = [0, 2]. Meanwhile
the distance of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution is r = x − 0 = x and the height
of an arbitrary rectangle is h = x2 . Therefore, we get that
2
πx4 2
Z
3
V = 2πx dx = = 8π cubic units
0 2 0
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line x = 2.
We use vertical rectangles and set up the integral in terms of x. We get the following:
I = [0, 2] ; r =2−x ; h = x2
ic s
The volume is therefore
at
2
em
Z 2 3 4
2x x 8π
V = 2π(2x2 − x3 ) dx = 2π − = cubic units

0 3 4
h
3
at
0
M
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the x-axis.
of
e
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s tit
In
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In this case, the axis of revolution is horizontal, so use horizontal rectangles and set up the
integral in terms of y. We have the following:
√
I = [0, 4] ; r = y − 0 = y ; h = 2 − y
The required volume is given by

 5

Z 4 4
3 2y 2
 = 32π cubic units
dy = 2π y 2 −

V = 2π 2y − y2
0 5
0 5
4. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line y = 4.
We use horizontal rectangles and set-up the integral in terms of y We get the following
√
ic s
I = [0, 4] ; r = 4 − y ; h = 2 − y
at
The volume of the resulting solid of revolution is
em
 3 5

Z 4 4
1 3 h
2 8y 2 2y 2 
V = 2π 8 − 2y − 4y 2 + y 2 dx = 2π 8y − y − +
at

3 3

0
0
M
224π
= cubic units
of
15
e
ut
Remarks.
tit
1. If the formula for the height of the rectangle is not the same throughout the region, divide the
s
In
region into the appropriate number of subregions.

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2. If you are free to choose the method, the best method is that for which the formula for the
height of the rectangle changes least throughout the region.
Example 4.6.5. Let R be the region bounded by x = 3y 2 and x = 4 − y 2 .
For this particular region, it is better to use horizontal rectangles, so we set up all required integrals
in terms of y.
1. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line y = 1.
Since we are using horizontal rectangles and the axis of revolution is also horizontal, we use
the Cylindrical Shell Method.
We find the y-coordinates of the points of intersection to determine the y-interval covered by
the region.
3y 2 = 4 − y 2
4y 2 = 4
y = ±1
ic s
at
We have the following:
h em
h = (4 − y 2 ) − (3y 2 ) = 4 − 4y 2
at
I = [−1, 1] ; r =1−y ;
M
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The required volume is given by the integral

e
ut
Z 1
2π(1 − y)(4 − 4y 2 ) dy
tit
−1
s
In
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line x = −1.
This time the axis of revolution is vertical so we use the Washer Method. We obtain the
following:
I = [−1, 1] ; r = (4 − y 2 ) − (−1) = 5 − y 2 ; h = (3y 2 ) − (−1) = 3y 2 + 1
The required volume is given by the integral
Z 1 h 2 2 i
V = π −y 2 + 5 − 3y 2 + 1 dy
−1
Example 4.6.6. Let R be the region bounded by y = −3x + 8, y = 3x + 2 and y = x2 − 2.

ic s
at
In this case, it is better to use vertical rectangles so we set-up the integral in terms of x. We divide
em
the region R into two subregions R1 and R2 . h
at
M
line x = 2.
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Vertical rectangles are parallel to the axis of revolution so we use Cylindrical Shell Method.
e
ut
First we find the x-coordinates of the points of intersection to determine the x-interval covered
tit
by the region.
s
Points of intersection of y = 3x + 2 and y = x2 − 2:

In
UP
3x + 2 = x2 − 2
x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
x = 4 or x = −1
Points of intersection of y = 3x + 2 and y = −3x + 8:
3x + 2 = −3x + 8
x = 1
Points of intersection y = −3x + 8 and y = x2 − 2:
x2 − 2 = −3x + 8
x2 + 3x − 10 = 0
(x + 5)(x − 2) = 0
x = −5 or x = 2
For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−1, 1] I = [1, 2]
r =2−x r =2−x
h = (3x + 2) − (x2 − 2) h = (−3x + 8) − (x2 − 2)
= −x2 + 3x + 4 = −x2 − 3x + 10
The volume of the resulting solid when R1 is revolved about the axis of revolution is the following:
Z 1
V1 = 2π(2 − x)(−x2 + 3x + 4) dx
−1
The volume of the resulting solid when R2 is revolved about the axis of revolution is:
Z 2
V2 = 2π(2 − x)(−x2 − 3x + 10) dx
1
The required volume is given by:
ic s
V = V1 + V2
at
Z 1 2
em
Z
= 2π(2 − x)(−x2 + 3x + 4) dx + 2π(2 − x)(−x2 − 3x + 10) dx
−1 1
h
at
M
line y = −3.
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e
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This time we use the Washer Method.

tit
For R1 : For R2 :
s
In
I = [−1, 1] I = [1, 2]
r2 = (3x + 2) − (−3) = 3x + 5 r2 = (−3x + 8) − (−3) = −3x + 11
UP
r1 = (x2 − 2) − (−3) = x2 + 1 r1 = (x2 − 2) − (−3) = x2 + 1
The volume of the solid obtained when R1 is revolved about the axis of revolution is:
Z 1 h i 2
V1 = π (3x + 5)2 − x2 + 1 dx
−1
The volume of the solid obtained when R2 is revolved about the axis of revolution is
Z 2 h i2
V2 = π (−3x + 11)2 − x2 + 1 dx
1
The required volume is given by:
V = V1 + V2
Z 1 h Z 2
2 i 2 h i2
= 2
π (3x + 5) − x + 1 dx + π (−3x + 11)2 − x2 + 1 dx
−1 1
4.6.2 Volume of Solids by Slicing2

We recall that the volume of a cylinder is given by
Volume of a cylinder = Area of a cross-section × Height
ic s
Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to the x-axis at x = a and x = b
at
such that the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular the x-axis at an arbitrary x in
em
[a, b] is given by a continuous function A (x).
h
at
M
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e
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s tit
In
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We obtain the volume of the solid by ”slicing” the solid into vertical cylinders:
2
Some figures in this section are taken from [5].
1. Divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.
2. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval.
3. The volume of the ith cylinder is given by
Vi = A(x∗i )∆x
4. The volume of the solid is approximated by

n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = A(x∗i )∆x
i=1 i=1
5. The volume of the solid is defined to be

n
X
V = lim A(x∗i )∆x
n→∞
i=1
ic s
at
6. The volume of the solid is given by
em
Z b
V = A(x) dx
h
at
a
M
Similarly, we can also find the volume of a solid by slicing the solid into horizontal cylinders.
of
Formula for the Volume of a Solid by Slicing

e
ut
Vertical Cylinders: Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to

tit
the x-axis at x = a and x = b. If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular

s
the x-axis at an arbitrary x in [a, b] is given by a continuous function A (x), then the
In
volume of the solid is

UP
Z b
V = A(x) dx
a
Horizontal Cylinders: Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to

the y-axis at y = c and y = d. If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular
the y-axis at an arbitrary y in [c, d] is given by a continuous function A (y), then the
volume of the solid is
Z d
V = A(y) dy
c
Example 4.6.7.
1. Find the volume of the solid shown below.

Note: Cross-sections are circles.
s
The given solid is bounded on the left by the plane x = 0 and on the right by the plane x = 1.
ic
at
Note that the cross-sectional area of S in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis at any x ∈ [0, 1]
em
is a circle. If r(x) is the radius of the cross-section at x, then
√ √ √ h
2 x− x x
at
r(x) = =
2 2
M
Thus,
of
πx
A(x) = π [r(x)]2 =
e
ut
4
tit
The volume is therefore given by

s
In
1 x=1
πx2
Z
πx π
V = dx = = cubic units.
UP
0 4 8 x=0 8
2. Derive the formula for the volume of a right circular cone of radius r and height h.
The solid is bounded on the left by the plane x = 0 and on the right by the plane x = h. Again,
an arbitrary cross-sectional area in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis is a circle. Let r(x) be
the radius of the cross-section at x. Using similar triangles, we get
r (x) r
=
x h
rx
r (x) =
h
The area of a cross-section is given by
πr2 x2
A(x) = π [r(x)]2 =
h2
We get the desired formula for the volume of a cone
h
πr2 x2 πr2 x3 x=h πr2 h
Z
V = dx = =
0 h2 3h2 x=0 3
ic s
at
hem
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4.6.3 Exercises
A. Find the volume of the following solids by slicing:
1. The figure shown below by slicing. Cross-sections are circles.
ic s
2. The solid whose base is the triangular region with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1). Cross-
at
em
sections perpendicular to the y-axis are squares.
h
B. Find the volume of the solid generated when the indicated plane region is revolved about the
at
given axis of revolution.
M
π π
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1. Region bounded by y = cos x, x = , x = and y = 0; about the x-axis.

4 2
e
2. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 1, y = 7 − x
ut
tit
a. about y = −1 b. about x = −2
s
In
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3. Region bounded by x = y 2 , x = 0, y = 2;
a. about the x-axis b. about x = −1
4. Region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Item 15,
a. about the x-axis b. about x = 1
5. Region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Item 16,
a. about y = −1 b. about x = 4
C. Let R be the region bounded by y = (x − 2)2 , y = x3 and x = −1.
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = −2 using the Washer
Method.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about y = 10 using the Cylin-
drical Shell Method.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = 1.
ic s
at
hem
at
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e
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s tit
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A. Find the volume of the following solids by slicing:
1. The volume of a sphere of radius 3 using vertical cylinders.

2. The volume of a pyramid with a square base using horizontal cylinders.
3. The solid whose base of is an elliptical region with boundary curve 9x2 + 4y 2 = 36. Cross-
sections perpendicular to the x-axis are isosceles right triangles with hypotenuse in the base.
B. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the given plane region about the indicated
axis:
1. Region bounded by the curve y = 9 − x2 and the two coordinate axes
a. x = 0 b. x = −4 c. y = −4
2. Region bounded by the curve y = 4x − x2 , the y-axis, and the lines y = 6 and x = 2,
ic s
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a. x = 3 b. y = −1 c. x = −4
h em
3. Region bounded by the curve y = cos x, and the two coordinate axes
at
M
a. y = 1 b. x = π c. x = −π
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e
4. Region bounded by the curve x = y 3 , and the lines x = 8 and y = 1

ut
tit
a. y = 0 b. x = −3 c. x = −1
s
In
5. Region bounded by the curve 1 − x = (y − 2)2 , and the lines x = 3, y = 0 and y = 2

UP
a. y = 3 b. x = 5 c. x = −5
6. Region bounded by the curve y = 4 − |x| and the x-axis
a. y = 0 b. y = 5 c. x = 10
7. Region bounded by the curve x − 1 = (y − 2)2 , y-axis, and y = 10
a. x = 0 b. x = −5 c. y = 0
1
C. Let R be the region bounded by y = , x = 4 and y = 1.
x
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = −1 using the Washer
Method.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about y = −3 using the Cylindrical
Shell Method.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = 6.
D. Let R be the region in the first quadrant bounded by x2 + y 2 = 3, y 2 = −x + 3 and y = 0.
1. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about x = 4:
a. using the method of washers
b. using the method of cylindrical shells
2. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about y = −5:
a. using the method of washers
b. using the method of cylindrical shells
ic s
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h em
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4.7 Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

Our main goal for this section is to develop more useful properties of the definite integral. In
particular, we want to direct our discussion in such a way that our complicated computations from
the previous section can be simplified.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to do the following:
• compare integrals of distinct functions,
• put upper and lower estimates on the definite integral of a function,
• provide a statement parallel to the Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives, and
• define a concept similar to that of the average of a collection of numbers.
In particular, we need the third goal - that is, to state the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
- to be able to provide a proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus. The
ic s
proof will be given in this section.
at
em
We begin with the following result, which compares the definite integrals of two regions in the same
closed interval [a, b]:
h
at
M
Theorem 4.7.1. If the functions f and g are integrable on [a, b], and if f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x
of
in [a, b], then

e
Z b Z b
ut
f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx.

a a
s tit
The geometric interpretation of the previous theorem is illustrated in the following figure. If the
In
graph of y = f (x) lies above the graph of y = g (x) in the interval [a, b], then the net-signed area
UP
between the the curve y = f (x) and [a, b] must be greater than the net-signed area between the
the curve y = g (x) and [a, b].
4.7. MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS 281
Theorem 4.7.2. Suppose f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. If m and M are the
absolute minimum function value and absolute maximum function value, respectively, of f in
[a, b], then
Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).
a
The previous theorem is illustrated in the following figure. By the Extreme Value Theorem, we
know that if f is continuous on [a, b], then f achieves an absolute maximum value M and absolute
minimum value m on [a, b]. Therefore, the area between y = f (x) and the interval [a, b] is greater
than the area of the rectangle with width (b − a) and height m, but less than the area of the
rectangle with the same width, but with height M .
ic s
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Theorem 4.7.3 (Mean Value Theorem for Integrals). If the function f is continuous
on the closed interval [a, b], then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that
Z b
f (x) dx = f (c) (b − a).
a
Geometrically, this means that if a function f is nonnegative and continuous on a closed interval
[a, b], we can find a number c in [a, b] such that area of a rectangle with base equal to the length
of the interval [a, b] and height equal to the height of the curve at c is the same the the area under
the curve y = f (x) from a to b.
Example 4.7.4. Since f (x) = x2 is continuous on [0, 2], there exists c ∈ [−2, 0] satisfying the
conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem. That is,
ic s
Z 2
at
x2 dx = c2 (2 − 0)
em
0
√ √h
8 2 3 2 3
2c2
at
We get that = so c = ± . But c ∈ [0, 2], so c = .
3 3 3
M
In the previous example, there is only one value of c in the interval satisfying the conclusion of the
of
Mean Value Theorem. In general, however, the value of c is not unique.

e
The value of f (c) in the Mean Value Theorem is called the average value of f in the interval [a, b].
ut
It is a generalization of the arithmetic mean of a discrete and finite set of numbers. We thus have
tit
the following definition.

s
In
Definition 4.7.5. If the function f is integrable on [a, b], the average value of f on [a, b] is
UP
Rb
f (x) dx
fave = a .
b−a
Example 4.7.6. The average value of f (x) = x on [a, b], where a < b, is
Z b
x dx b2 a2
−
a
= 2 2 = b+a
b−a b−a 2
We recover the usual average of a and b. This should motivate the following statement.
Remark 4.7.7. The average value of a function f on [a, b] works in a similar way with taking the
usual average of a (finite) set of numbers.
Example 4.7.8. The average value of f (x) = x2 on [0, 2] is
Z 2
x2 dx 8
0 4
= 3 = .
2−0 2 3
Example 4.7.9. A can of beans is being sold at P20 per piece. The cost of producing each can
follows the function C(x) = −x2 + 10x + 375. Find the average profit from selling 30 cans of beans.
Solution.
From the given information, we have p(x) = 20; furthermore, from the relation R(x) = xp(x), we
get R(x) = 20x. Thus,
P (x) = R(x) − C(x)

= 20x − (−x2 + 10x + 375)
= x2 + 10x − 375
Thus, the average profit from selling 30 cans of beans, which is the average value of P (x) on [0, 30],
is
R 30
P (x) dx
Pave = 0
30 − 0
3
30
x 2

+ 5x − 375x
s
3
ic
0
= = 75
30
at
em
Thus, an average profit of P75 is gained from selling 30 cans of beans.
We end this part with a proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus.
h
at
Z x
d
Proof. Let f be continuous on [a, b]. We wish to show that f (t) dt = f (x).
M
dx a
of
Z x
Let F (x) = f (t) dt. We have
e
a
ut
F (x + ∆x) − F (x)
tit
F 0 (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
s
In
F (x + ∆x) − F (x)
Consider the expression . We have
UP
∆x
Z x+∆x Z x
f (t) dt − f (t) dt
F (x + ∆x) − F (x) a a
=
∆x ∆x
Z x+∆x
f (t) dx
x
=
∆x
Now, consider the function f (t) on [x, x + ∆x]. Since f is continuous, we use the Mean Value
Theorem for Integrals to conclude that there exists c ∈ [x, x + ∆x] such that
Z x+∆x
f (t) dt = f (c) [(x + ∆x) − x] = f (c)∆x
x
Thus,
Z x+∆x
f (t) dx
F (x + ∆x) − F (x) f (c)∆x
F 0 (x) = lim = lim x
= lim = f (c)
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x
Note that c depends on x and ∆x. Finally, because x ≤ c ≤ x + ∆x and lim x = lim (x + ∆x) =
∆x→0 ∆x→0
x, we conclude by the Squeeze Theorem that lim c = x. Hence, by continuity of f ,
∆x→0

0
F (x) = lim c = f lim c = f (x)
∆x→0 ∆x→0
ic s
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stit
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4.7.1 Exercises
A. Do as indicated.
Z 2
3
1. Given that x dx = , find the average value of f (x) = x in the interval [−1, 2]. Find
−1 2
the value of x ∈ [−1, 2] at which the average value occurs.
Z 3
2. If f is continuous and f (x) dx = 4, show that f takes on the value of 2 at least once
1
on the interval.
3. Use Theorem 4.3.2 to prove the following inequalities:
Z 2 Z 3
1 1 1 4
a. 2+4
dx ≤ c. ≤ dx ≤ 4
0 x 2 2 −1 x3 + 5
Z 2 ln 9+1
x2 − 1
Z
1 64
b. 0 ≤ sin πx dx ≤ 2 d. 0 ≤ sinh3 dx ≤
s
2 2 27 ln 9
ic
0 1
at
4. Find the value of b such that the average value of g(x) = 3x2 − 4x − 1 on [0, b] is equal to
2.
em
h
at
B. Find a closed interval containing the definite integral of the following functions on the corre-
M
sponding closed interval:

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e
1. f (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1 on [−1, 2] 1

ut
5. g(x) = on [3, 9]
6 x−2
tit
2. g(x) = on [−4, −2] √

(x + 1)2 6. h(x) = 16 − x2 on [−2, 4]
s
3. f (x) = 3x2 + sin(x) on [0, π]

In
x2 + 5

1 1 7
7. h(x) = on ,
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4. g(x) = 2 on [0, 1]
x +1 x−4 2 2
C. Find the average value of the following functions on the corresponding interval, and find
a value of c in the interval which satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals:
1. f (x) = 6x2 − 4x + 1 on [−2, 1]

π
6. f (x) = sec2 3x on 0,
2. f (x) = x3 − 4x − 6 on [1, 5] 18
x+2 √ √
3. f (x) = on [4, 6] csc(π x) cot(π x)

1 1

x−3 7. f (x) = √ on ,
1 x 16 9
4. f (x) = 2 on [1, 3]
x + 2x + 1
1

1+π 1 8. f (x) = p
5. f (x) = sin(3x − 1) on ,π + √ on [16, 64]
3 3 9− x
A. Find a closed interval containing the definite integral of the following functions on the corre-
sponding closed interval:
1. f (x) = 12 + 3x2 + x3 on [−1, 5] 1

5. g(x) = on [3, 9]
x2 −3
2. g(x) = ln(x + 1) on [0, e3 − 1] √
16 − x2
π 6. h(x) = on [2, 4]
3. f (x) = sin−1 (x) + on [−1, 1] x
2
2 − 3x
4. g(x) = cosh−1 (x) on [1, 3] 7. h(x) = on [−3, 3]
x+4
B. Find the average value of the following functions on the corresponding interval, and find
a value of c in the interval which satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals:
9. f (x) = ex on [−3, 1]
s
1. f (x) = 3x − 12 on [−3, 7]
ic
at
2. f (x) = x2 − 3x − 9 on [−3, 3] 10. f (x) = 4x − 2x on [−3, log2 5]
em
3. f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 3 on [−2, 4] 11. f (x) = 2x + 2−x on [−4, −1]
h
4. f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 3 on [−2, 0] 12. f (x) = 4x − 3 on [−2, 2]
at
M
5. f (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x − 1 on [−3, 2] 13. f (x) = sinh(x) on [0, 1]

x 14. f (x) = x cosh(x2 ) on [0, 1]
of
6. f (x) = √ on [1, 5]
24 + x2
15. f (x) = π tanh2 x on [0, ln 3]
e
ut
1
7. f (x) = √ on [0, 2] 16. f (x) = sech(2x) on [− ln 3, ln 5]
tit
16 − x2
1 sinh−1 (x)
s
8. f (x) = √ on [−4, 4] 17. f (x) = √ on [0, 1]

In
9 + x2 x2 + 1
UP
C. Solve the following problems completely.
1. A container containing 1,000L of some liquid loses half its contents every 8 hours. Find
the average volume of the liquid during a 24-hr period.
2. On a given day on Planet E, which has a 24-hr day, the heat index (in ◦ C) was determined
to be modeled by the equation
T (x) = −0.15x2 + 0.4x + 37
where x is the number of hours from 12nn. Calculate the average heat index on Planet E
from 2 am to 10pm. (4 pts)
Reviewer
I. Evaluate the following integrals.
Z 2 Z √
sech x tanh x + 6 sinh x
1. |4x − 1| dx 4. dx
0 cosh x
√ 3
e2
2sec x
Z Z
1
2. √ √ √ dx 5. 1
p dx
x cot( x) cos( x) e2 x 2 ln x − (ln x)2
3π
(x + 1)2
Z Z
2 sin θ
3. √ dx 6. dθ
1−x π cos2 θ + 2 cos θ + 2
Z ln(x)+1 p
II. Let F (x) = 1 + t4 dt.
1
1. Use the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to determine F 0 (x).

2. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of F at x = 1.
ic s
at
III. After ending their friendship, Al threw Vin’s gift vertically from an elevation of 27 meters
em
atop a building. Unbeknownst to Al, Vin is at the foot of the building and reaches out to
catch the gift so he could return it ot Al. If Vin’s outsretched arms are 2 meters high and
h
at
the gift reached its maximum height after 2 seconds, when will Vin catch the gift? (Use -10
M
m/s2 for the acceleration due to gravity.)

of
IV. Let R be the region bounded by x = log2 y, y = 4, and y = (x − 1)2 as shown below.
e
ut
y
tit
(2, 4)
s
(3, 4)
In
UP
R
(0, 1)
SET-UP a definite integral or a sum of definite integrals equal to:
1. the area of R using vertical rectangles

2. the perimeter of R
3. the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved abot the line x = 3 using the
method of washers
Bibliography
[1] H. Anton, I. Bivens, S. Davis, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, John Wiley and
Sons, 7th Edition, 2002.
[2] M. Castillo, F. Reyes, F. Cejalvo, J. Tangco, College Algebra and Trigonom-

etry, National Book Store, 2008.
[3] L. Leithold, College Algebra and Trigonometry, Addison Wesley Longman Inc.,
1989, reprinted-Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd, 2002.
ic s
[4] L. Leithold, The Calculus 7, Harpercollins College Div., 7th edition, December 1995.
at
em
[5] J. Stewart, The Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Brooks/Cole, 6th Edition, 2008.
h
at
M
of
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stit
In
UP
288
Institute of Mathematics, College of Science

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Mathematics 21 Module Writers and Editors:

Carlo Francisco Adajar

1 Limits and Continuity 1

1.4 Limit of a Function: The Formal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.4.1 The Formal Definition of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.4.2 Proving Limits using the Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

1.5 Continuity of Functions; The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2 Derivatives and Differentiation 79

2.4 Derivatives of Other New Classes of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

2.4.1 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

2.4.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

2.4.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

2.4.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

2.5 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

2.5.1 Rolle’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

2.8.2 Review of Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3 Applications of Differentiation 143

3.4 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

3.4.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

3.4.3 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

3.4.4 Indeterminate Forms of Type 1∞ , 00 and ∞0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

3.4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

4 Integration and Its Applications 191

4.2.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Limits and Continuity

1.1 Limit of a Function: An Intuitive Approach

• evaluate limits of functions using substitution, cancellation of common factors,

and rationalization of radical expressions (for indeterminate forms 0/0).

1.1.1 An Intuitive Approach to Limits

Figure 1.1.1: Graphs of y = f (x), y = g(x) and y = h(x) in Illustration 1.1.1.

1. Let f (x) = 3x − 1 and consider the tables below.

reaching 1, then the values of g(x) go closer and closer to 2.

3. Let h(x) = . Here, h(1) = 0. If x 6= 1, then h(x) = f (x) and as in above,

comparison of f , g and h.)

from Illustration 1.1.1. Here, h(1) = 0 but lim h(x) = 2.

limit of f (x) as x approaches a does not exist (dne).

Example 1.1.9. Let H(x) be defined by

1.1.2 Evaluating Limits

1. If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique.

4. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 where L1 , L2 ∈

(e) lim [f (x)]n = (L1 )n for n ∈

N, n > 1 and provided that L1 > 0 when n is even.

Example 1.1.11. Determine lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = lim 2x3 − lim 4x2 + lim 1

(x − 3)(x2 − 2) lim (x − 3)(x2 − 2)

lim (1 − 3x) = lim 1 − lim 3x = 1 − 6 = −5 6= 0.

x→2 x→2 x→2

lim (2x + 5) = lim 2x + lim 5 = 4 + 5 = 9 > 0.

Thus, using the theorem,

Theorem 1.1.14. Let f be a polynomial or rational function. If a ∈ dom f , then

lim f (x) = f (a).

Example 1.1.15. Evaluate lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1 = −5.

1.1.3 Other Techniques in Evaluating Limits

x→a x→a x→a g(x) 0

cancellation of common factors and rationalization of expressions (if applicable).

A. Let f be the function whose graph is shown in the figure below.

2x2 − 13x + 20 6x + 2x2

5. lim 10. lim √

A. Evaluate the following limits.

determine the value of b and find the limit.

1.2 One-Sided Limits