Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
By
Thomas J. Rainey
B.Eng (Chem), Hons I
2009
IMPORTANT NOTICE
The information in this thesis is confidential and should not be disclosed for
any reason nor relied on for a particular use or application. Any invention or
other intellectual property described in this document remains the property of
Queensland University of Technology.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
© Copyright 2009
by Thomas J. Rainey
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Keywords
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Executive Summary
Bagasse, the fibrous residue that remains after sugar is extracted from
sugarcane, is normally burnt in Australia to generate steam and electricity for
the sugar factory. A study into bagasse pulp was motivated by the possibility of
making highly value-added pulp products from bagasse for the financial benefit
of sugarcane millers and growers. The bagasse pulp and paper industry is a
multibillion dollar industry (1). Bagasse pulp could replace eucalypt pulp
which is more widely used in the local production of paper products. An
opportunity exists for replacing the large quantity of mainly generic paper
products imported to Australia. This includes 949,000 tonnes of generic
photocopier papers (2). The use of bagasse pulp for paper manufacture is the
main application area of interest for this study.
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Dynamic Drainage Jar (DDJ). These chemical additives were then used in the
making of a pulp pad, and their effect on the steady-state and dynamic
permeability and compressibility of bagasse pulp pads was determined.
The most important finding from this investigation was that Australian
bagasse pulp was produced with higher permeability than eucalypt pulp, despite
a higher overall content of short fibres. It is thought this research outcome
could enable Australian paper producers to switch from eucalypt pulp to
bagasse pulp without sacrificing paper machine productivity. It is thought that
two factors contributed to the high permeability of the bagasse pulp pad.
Firstly, thicker cell walls of the bagasse pulp fibres resulted in high fibre
stiffness. Secondly, the bagasse pulp had a large proportion of fibres longer
than 1.3 mm. These attributes helped to reinforce the pulp pad matrix.
It was also found that Australian pulp derived from the ‘coarse’ bagasse
fraction had higher steady-state permeability than the ‘medium’ fraction.
However, there was no difference between bagasse pulp originating from a
diffuser or a mill.
The dynamic filtration model was found to give predictions that were in
good agreement with experimental data for pads made from samples of pre-
treated bagasse pulp, provided at least some pith was removed prior to pulping.
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
List of publications
Journal articles
Rainey, T.J., Doherty, W.O.S., Brown, R.J., Martinez, D.M., and Kelson, N.A.
– Pressure Filtration of Australian bagasse pulp, Appita J. (2009)
submitted to Transport Porous Med.
Rainey, T.J., Doherty, W.O.S., Brown, R.J., Martinez, D.M., and Kelson, N.A.
- An Experimental Study of Australian Sugarcane Bagasse Pulp
Permeability, Appita J. (2009) accepted for publication.
Conference papers
Rainey, T.J., Doherty, W.O.S., Brown, R.J., Kelson, N.A. and Martinez, D.M. -
Determination of the Permeability Parameters of Bagasse Pulp from Two
Different Sugar Extraction Methods. In Proceedings Tappi Engineering
Pulping and Environmental Conference, Session 4.1, Portland, Oregon,
USA. (2008).
Rainey, T., Brown, R., Martinez, D.M., and Doherty, B. - The use of CFD to
simulate the behaviour of bagasse pulp suspensions during the dewatering
process, Appita conference, Melbourne. (2006). Available online at QUT
e-prints.
Several of the above papers are available online at the following site:
http://eprints.qut.edu.au/
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Acknowledgements
This work would not have been possible without the financial
contribution of the Federal Government’s Sugar Research and Development
Corporation PhD scholarship fund, and income support from QUT’s Sugar
Research and Innovation. I would like to thank the Queensland Government’s
financial contribution through the PhD Smart State Fund. I also acknowledge
the financial contribution of the Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering
and the Engineering Systems theme. Your significant financial contributions
are deeply appreciated.
Thank you Neil McKenzie for helping build the experimental equipment.
Thank you also to the countless others that contributed to this thesis.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Informal supervisor
Prof. D. Mark Martinez, University of British Columbia, Department of
Chemical and Biological Engineering
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To
the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no materials previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature ___________________
Date __________________
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Contents
Executive Summary -------------------------------------------------- iv
Abbreviations and nomenclature --------------------------------xvii
Terminology----------------------------------------------------------- xx
Chapter 1 Introduction --------------------------------------------- 1
1.1. Background and motivation 2
1.1.1. The production of sugar and bagasse from sugarcane 3
1.1.2. Potential uses of bagasse 6
1.1.3. Paper manufacture 7
1.1.4. Issues with bagasse paper manufacture in the
Australian context 10
1.1.5. The benefits of flocculants to assist paper formation 12
1.2. Research aim 12
1.3. Statement of objectives 12
1.4. Statement of novelty 14
1.5. Summary of thesis chapters 16
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
References------------------------------------------------------------ 169
Appendix A Supplementary material for dynamic
filtration modeling ----------------------------------------------- 183
A.1 Derivation of the dimensional governing equation for
the dynamic filtration model 184
A.2 Non-dimensionalising of dynamic model for
FORTRAN 188
A.3 FORTRAN 77 program for the dynamic filtration
model 191
A.4 Graphs comparing predictions of dynamic filtration
model with experimental data 197
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Nomenclature
A cm2 the cross sectional area of a porous bed for use with Darcy’s
Law
a - an experimental constant for use in the Davies Kozeny factor
correction
b - an experimental constant for use in the Davies Kozeny factor
correction
c g/cm3 pulp concentration
D the flexural term in for the filtration governing equation; used
in Appendix A.
D* -
the dimensionless form of D used for coding the dynamic
filtration model in FORTRAN (Appendix A)
g cm/s2 acceleration due to gravity
h cm the height of the pulp mat in the compressibility cell
K cm2 Darcy’s permeability constant
k - the Kozeny factor
k’ cm2 a permeability constant used by El-Sharkawy and co-workers
for measuring an Indian bagasse pulp
∆L cm the height of a bed of porous material for use with Darcy’s Law
∆l cm the distance between the two manometers
L mm the length of a fibre or capillary
M kPa a compressibility constant, used in the expression Ps=McN
m kPa a compressibility constant, , used in the expression Ps=m Ф n
m* cm-1 the ratio of surface area to volume of a capillary
N - a compressibility constant, used in the expression Ps=McN
n - a compressibility constant, used in the expression Ps=m Ф n
ni - the number of fibres with length Li
∆P mPa the pressure drop across a bed of porous material for use with
Darcy’s Law,
∆p mPa the pressure drop between two manometers
Q cm3/s the flow rate through a porous material for use with Darcy’s
Law
2 3
Sv cm /cm the specific surface area of pulp fibre
t min time
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Greek letters
α cm3/g pulp swelling factor,
ε - pulp porosity (between 0 and 1)
µ mPa.s liquid viscosity
Φ - solidity (i.e. volume solids fraction)
ρ g/cm3 density
σ standard deviation
τ Student’s t- statistic
τs viscous stress tensor
Subscripts
e equivalent length, as distance through a capillary, Le, or velocity
through a capillary, ue.
f the fluid phase
i the number of a fibre or population, as in fibre length Li
PE pooled estimate
s the solid phase
w weighted basis, as in Lw.
0 initial
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Terminology
Digester a pulp and paper reactor (see Reactor) for the digestion
of lignocellulosic material by delignification to produce
pulp.
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Pulp mat used in this thesis to mean a thin sheet of fibres less
than a few millimetres produced from a dilute pulp
slurry, as at the wet end of a paper machine.
Pulp pad is used for very thick pulp mats, such as those used for
experiments in this thesis. Applies to mats more than a
few millimetres and up to 300 mm in depth.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
xxii
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
The study presented in this thesis investigates the permeability and
compressibility properties of Australian bagasse pulp pads1. Three options are
assessed for improving these properties of pulp pads. Firstly, the permeability
and compressibility properties of pulp prepared from ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’
size fractions of bagasse are compared. Secondly, bagasse produced from two
different modes of cane juice extraction, i.e. a mill and a diffuser, are
considered. Finally, the effect of flocculating chemical additives, namely
cationic polyacrylamide and bentonite, are examined. The steady-state
permeability and compressibility parameters for bagasse pulp are determined
experimentally using purpose built experimental equipment and are used as
inputs for a dynamic filtration model. The permeability and compressibility
properties of Australian bagasse pulp are compared with numerous benchmarks
including eucalypt pulp and bagasse pulp from Argentina.
In this chapter, the background and motivation for the work is presented
in section 1.1. Also, the aims (section 1.2) and the objectives (section 1.3) are
provided. A statement on the novel aspects of this study is in section 1.4 and
the chapter concludes with a summary of the thesis structure (section 1.5).
1
The ‘Terminology’ section in the preamble to this thesis should be read in order to assist the
reader’s understanding of key concepts.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Figure 1.1 shows a sketch of a billet of cane. The ‘bast’ is the external
part of the plant and the ‘pith’ is the internal part of the plant. The bast and the
pith are particularly important in the context of this thesis. The good
papermaking fibre from bagasse is mainly derived from the bast portion of the
sugarcane plant. Bagasse pulp quality is believed to be detrimentally affected
by short ‘pith’ material (length < 0.3 mm). This material is liberated by the
sugar extraction process and constitutes 30% of the bagasse. The short material
can block the holes in the paper mat, preventing water from draining through it,
reducing the production rate and various quality characteristics of the final
paper product (4-6). It is thought that ‘depithing’ of the bagasse by removing
30% of the shortest bagasse material is essential to make pulp of acceptable
quality (e.g. (7), (8)).
2
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Figure 1.1 Sketch of a billet of sugarcane showing the bast and pith
regions of the plant (adapted from 9).
Paper machines making fine papers (e.g. tissues, photocopier papers) use
short pulp fibres, such as bagasse and eucalypt, and are generally faster than
machines making paper products from longer fibres. Consequently these
machines require fibres with good filtration properties (i.e. better web drainage)
to generate a homogeneous sheet.
The billets are crushed in a sugar factory to extract the juice which
contains the sugar (13% - 15% of the plant). The juice is concentrated and
sugar crystals are produced. The fluid surrounding the sugar crystals, (i.e.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
molasses), has a high sugar content (around 40%) which is sold for cattle feed
or converted into fuel ethanol. In Australia, revenue from molasses and its
products is very small compared to the revenue from sugar. The fibre left over
from the crushing process, i.e. bagasse, constitutes around 14% of the plant.
Australia produces 10 million tonnes of bagasse annually. The production of
sugar and bagasse is shown in Figure 1.2.
Crushing
Sugarcane Juice Sugar
Molasses
Bagasse
Conventional
ethanol
There are two main methods of extracting juice from cane. Sugar ‘mills’
are used almost exclusively in Australian raw sugar factories. Sugar ‘diffusers’
are not common in Australia but are commonly used overseas.
4
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Delivery
nip
Feed nip
Figure 1.3 Sketch of a six roller unit where juice is extracted. Several of
these units follow the shredder and precede the final
dewatering roller mill (12).
Perforated plate
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
The subtle differences between mill bagasse and diffuser bagasse may
affect pulp quality. Thus, this project examined the impact of the extraction
process on pulp fibres.
Fibreboard and
Hydrothermal
building materials
liquefaction Bagasse
biofuels
Animal feed
6
Chapter 1 - Introduction
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Forming
fabric
(i) (ii)
It is thought that for bagasse pulp, the high content of short pith fibres
impede drainage which consequently reduces paper production rate.
There are two types of equipment commonly used to form a pulp mat
from a pulp slurry. These are the traditional ‘Fourdrinier former’ and the
modern ‘Twin-wire former’ which are normally designed for processing wood
pulp. Pulp fibres are suspended in water at 0.01% to 1% and are pumped into a
headbox.
8
Chapter 1 - Introduction
B headbox
C slice
G hydrofoils
Fabric 2
Fabric 1
Figure 1.8 Elevation sketch of a roll former adapted from Parker (25)
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
10
Chapter 1 - Introduction
(i) (ii)
The sugar extraction process also reduces the quality of the bagasse
fibres, reducing the pulp strength characteristics, including tensile strength, tear
strength and burst strength (28).
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
12
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1c: To select and add flocculants to the pulp slurry prior to pad
formation.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Dynamic Verification of
filtration dynamic filtration
experiments model
A bagasse pulp filtration study was performed as this has not been
studied extensively as will be shown in the literature review. Experimental
work and complementary mathematical modelling were used.
14
Chapter 1 - Introduction
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
represents paper mat filtration than the freeness test. The effect of these
additives on the dynamic filtration behaviour is also studied for the first time.
In addition to the novelty resulting from the filtration study, the type of
laboratory reactor used to produce the majority of the pulp samples (i.e. a
‘flow-through’ reactor) has not previously been used for processing bagasse.
Chapter 2 presents theory and a literature review for a study into bagasse
pulp filtration, setting this project in the context of the wider body of
knowledge. Areas covered include bagasse pulping, chemical additives,
filtration theory and experimental equipment used by other workers for
studying paper formation. The gaps in the body of knowledge are identified.
16
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 5 summarises the main conclusions resulting from the work, and
areas of further research are suggested.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
18
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Chapter 2
Theory and Literature Review
This chapter describes the theory and literature that is relevant to a study
on bagasse pulp filtration.
2.1. Background
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
64) and is focussed on the use of chemical additives that can be used to
improve the filtration properties. It is the authors view that despite the
consensus that pith adversely affects the filtration properties of bagasse pulp,
there is a significant gap in the literature when it comes to scientifically
quantifying its effect. This was one of the main objectives of this study.
The drainage and retention properties of the pulp. In the opinion of this
author, these properties are considered to be of more importance for the
economics of a bagasse paper mill than pulp strength;
20
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Apart from the work by Gartside and co-workers, pulp property data used
in this thesis is largely drawn from three excellent articles; Giertz and Varma
(4), Paul and Kasiviswanathan (70) and Triana and co-workers (71).
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
22
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
(65) 1.11
(50, 64) 0.73
Energy C90-176 and
Cane C90-178 (71)
2.0-2.1 23 13 5
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
24
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Paul and Kasiviswanathan (70) varied the level of depithing and report
the response of the bagasse pulp physical properties. In their study, the ‘fibre to
pith’ ratio is reported. The fibre to pith ratio is 1.8:1 to 2.0:1 for ‘whole
bagasse’, 2.6:1 to 2.8:1 for moist depithed bagasse, 3.0:1 to 3.8:1 for wet
depithed bagasse. The pulp samples were refined to 40 Schopper-Riegler
freeness. Some results from their study are reproduced in Table 2.5. In their
study, as the level of depithing increased (i.e. higher fibre to pith ratio), the
initial pulp freeness increased and the strength properties increased.
Fibre to pith ratio 0.86:1 1.84:1 2.25:1 2.79:1 3.43:1 3.8:1 5.2:1
Breaking length (km) 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.7
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
In 1856, Henry Darcy, developed an empirical law for the design and
construction of water distribution systems in Dijon, France. In his simple
experiment sand was packed into a column (see Figure 2.1) and water was
pumped through it.
26
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Q (cm3/s) p2 (mPa)
Q (cm3/s) p1 (mPa)
Figure 2.1 Sketch defining the parameters used in Darcy’s law for flow
through a homogeneous rigid porous media.
Darcy measured the flow rate through the packed bed and measured the
pressure drop between the top of the bed and the bottom of the bed, P, with
manometers. The resulting equation, Darcy’s original correlation is
Q K ' (∆P )
=
A ∆L
Equation 2.1
where Q is the volumetric flow rate through a bed of porous material with
cross-sectional area A, P is the frictional pressure drop across the length (L)
of the porous media bed, and K’ is a permeability constant which is dependent
on viscosity.
Q K∆P
=
A µ∆L
Equation 2.2
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
28
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Hollow
capillaries
Solid
material
d 2 ∆P
ue =
32µ L e
Equation 2.3
By definition, the ratio of surface area to volume (m*) of a capillary is
π d2L
d
m* = 4
e
=
πdL e 4
Equation 2.4
So d=4m* and substituting into Equation 2.3 gives
29
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
m *2 ∆P
ue =
k 0µ L e
Equation 2.5
Where k0 is a constant.
The average (i.e. superstitial) velocity across the bed of porous material,
u, is lower than the velocity in the capillary. Also the length of the capillary,
Le, is longer and more tortuous than the actual length of the pulp pad, L. i.e.
u Le
ue =
ε L
Equation 2.6
Substituting Equation 2.6 into Equation 2.5 yields
2
§L · m *2 ε ∆P
u = ¨¨ ¸¸
© Le ¹ k 0µ L
Equation 2.7
Defining a new constant, k
2
§L ·
k = k0¨ e ¸
© L ¹
Equation 2.8
And now applying the definition of m* over the whole of the porous
material,
pore volume ε
m* = =
surface area of particles (1 − ε )S v
Equation 2.9
1 ε 3 ∆P
u=
kS 2v (1 − ε )2 µL
Equation 2.10
30
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
1 ε3
K=
kS 2v (1 − ε )2
Equation 2.11
where the porosity (i.e. the void fraction) of the material is , the specific
surface area of the material (i.e. surface area per unit volume of porous
material) is Sv, and k is known as the ‘Kozeny factor’. The Kozeny factor, k, is
often referred to as a shape factor because it depends on the orientation and
interconnectivity of the channels. Unlike K, Sv is independent of concentration.
For this reason, Sv is more useful than K to compare the permeability of pulp
samples over a wide concentration range. Sv is used extensively in this thesis to
compare the steady-state permeability properties of pulp samples.
Values for Sv are widely reported in the literature for wood pulp (81-86).
The earliest reported values were by Robertson and Mason (86) for a sulfite
wood pulp. Sv was reported to be 2300 cm-1 for pulp that has never been dried
and 4100 cm-1 for pulp that has previously been dried. Gren (84) investigated
Sv as a function of kappa number for a sulphate wood pulp. Values of Sv were
reported to be between 2000 cm-1 and 3000 cm-1. These previous findings are
discussed in more detail when they are compared to the bagasse pulp measured
in this study (Chapter 4).
Despite its age this permeability model is still used today because of its
simplicity and accuracy. The Kozeny-Carman model is still being tailored
today for applications in a wide range of industries, such as in the coal industry
(88) and for groundwater management (89).
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
aε 3
k=
(1 − ε )
[
1/ 2
1 + b(1 − ε )
3
]
Equation 2.12
where a = 3.5 and b = 57 for fibrous materials. Other authors use a=4.0,
b=57 (81, 91) for rigid materials.
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Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Table 2.7 The form of the relation between Darcy’s permeability factor
and porosity developed by various workers (93)
Relation Author
3.3 Slichter (1898)
/(1-)2 Zunker (1920)
[(-0.13)/(1-)1.3]2 Terzaghi (1925)
3/(1-)2 Blake (1922), Kozeny (1927), Carman (1937, 1948)
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
ε
K = k'
(1 − ε )2
Equation 2.13
where k' is a permeability constant.
D2
K=
(
32 1 − ε )
(
− 2 ln (1 − ε ) − 3 + 4(1 − ε ) − (1 − ε )
2
)
Equation 2.14
For flow perpendicular to an array of cylinders, Happel’s equation is
D 2 ª § 1 · (1 − ε ) − 1 º
2
K= « ln ¨ ¸ + »
32(1 − ε ) ¬ © 1 − ε ¹ (1 − ε )2 + 1¼
Equation 2.15
34
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
D2 2
K= ( 3 F1 (φ) + 13 F2 (φ))
32φ
Equation 2.16
where
F1 (φ) = −2 ln (φ) − 3 + 4(φ) − (φ) from Equation 2.14
2
F2 (φ) = − ln φ +
(φ 2
−1)from Equation 2.15
(φ 2
+1)
35
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Ps = M c N
Equation 2.17
where c is the pulp concentration and M and N are experimental
constants.
∂ρ
+ ρ∇ • v = 0
∂t
Equation 2.18
recalling that divergence is defined as
36
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
∂v ∂v ∂v
∇•v = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
DV
ρs = −∇P + µ∇ 2 V + ρg
Dt
Equation 2.19
The derivation of the equations of momentum start with Cauchy’s
equation which was improved first by Navier in 1822 (97) and further refined
by Stokes in 1845.
The left hand term in Equation 2.19 is the acceleration term (or inertial
term), the right hand side of Equation 2.19 consists of the pressure gradient
Du
ρs φ
Dt
( )
= −φ∇Pf − ∇Ps + ∇ • φτ s + ρ s φg + m i
Equation 2.20
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Where u is the velocity of the fibres, s is the viscous stress tensor. The
subscript f refers to the fluid phase and the subscript s refers to the solid phase
(i.e. the fibre). mi is the interphase momentum transfer
Dv
ρ f (1 − φ)
Dt
( )
= −(1 − φ)∇Pf + ∇ • (1 − φ)τ s + ρ s φg − m i
Equation 2.21
These equations are used to develop the governing equation used in this
thesis (section 2.4).
There are a number of papers that have derived equations to calculate the
mechanics of fluid flow through compressible pulp media including porosity,
permeability and compressibility for various conditions (81, 95, 99-102).
Landman and co-workers (100) provide the governing equations for the basic
fluid mechanics of 1-D compressible porous media that can be determined
experimentally in a 1-D flow cell (Figure 2.4). The governing equations are
derived from the continuity equations, Navier-Stokes equations, Darcy’s Law
and the compressibility relation above. Landman and co-workers consider the
cases where (i) the initial pulp slurry is initially networked, as in a pulp pad, or
unnetworked, as in a pulp slurry, and (ii) the equipment used is a constant
pressure device (i.e. the piston exerts a constant force at variable rate as the pad
forms) or constant rate device (i.e. the piston exerts a constant rate despite the
increasing resistance as the pad forms). The four practical cases for which she
derives the solidity are:
38
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
µ 2
− ∇P = v + βρ v
K*
Equation 2.22
Where is an experimental constant and K* is a permeability constant
that is analogous to that used in Darcy’s Law.
39
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
This thesis uses an initially networked model for the permeability and
compressibility study since the steady-state permeability and compressibility
parameters. These parameters can be measured using simple equipment (see
sections 2.3.5.1). However, optimisation of a good chemical additives system
must be performed using equipment where a slurry is used rather than a pulp
pad, i.e. the pulp is initially un-networked. The equipment used for these
studies is described in section 2.3.5.2.
Figure 2.5 shows the cell used by Robertson and Mason which is fairly
typical of permeability and compressibility studies. In this particular
arrangement, the pulp is loaded into a 40 mm cylinder which is bounded by a
plunger with a reinforced 100 mesh screen at the top of the pad. The flow rate
is measured by timing the drop in level of a measuring cylinder, and the
pressure head is measured by the difference in fluid height between the cylinder
and a side arm.
40
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
In reality, paper manufacture involves thin pulp mats rather than thick
pulp pads. Experimentally measuring the permeability and compressibility of
thin pulp mats is difficult, and beyond the scope of this study. For this reason,
previous authors, as well as this author, measured the permeability and
compressibility of pulp pads because it only requires very simple equipment. It
is common practice to use the results from experiments with pulp pads to
represent the behaviour of pulp mats.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
42
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
The DDJ was modified by Britt and Unbehend in 1980 (106) to measure
the dryness of a sheet after exposure to a controlled vacuum. The vacuum was
applied to simulate the suction created on the Fourdrinier former; however, it
was not a pulsed vacuum. Britt and Unbehend (106) describe a method for
testing a dynamic drainage rate. An observation was that over-flocculation
created channels in the fibre pad, improving the initial drainage rate but once
the water was removed from the interstices of the pad air was sucked through
the sheet when vacuum was applied, resulting in higher final sheet moisture
content. Pulp suspensions of lower initial drainage rate tended to form more
consolidated and uniform sheets which when subjected to vacuum resulted in a
sheet of lower moisture content.
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Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
44
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
The Australian Pulp and Paper Institute (APPI) have pilot laboratory
equipment that more accurately simulates a Fourdrinier style paper machine;
see Figure 2.10 taken from Xu and Parker (109). It contains a moving belt with
hydrofoils attached in order to simulate the pressure pulses of a Fourdrinier
former. The equipment does not take into account the velocity profile of the
stock leaving the headbox slice.
45
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
46
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
see Figure 2.12. This equipment is particularly useful for developing numerical
models of pulp suspension behaviour. The unit consists of a sealed tank with a
riser tube. Inside the riser tube is a wire and support grid. The suspension of
fibre is allowed to drain through the wire. The fibre is retained on the wire and
forms a fibre mat. The water level inside the riser is measured with an
ultrasonic surface detector. The vertical velocity of the fibres is measured
through the wire by four pulsed ultrasound Doppler anemometers. The signal
sent from the surface detector and the anemometers are processed and the data
is captured. The probes can measure the vertical velocity of the fibres up to
70 mm above the wire. The water level in the riser tube is adjusted by valves
V1, V2 and V3. Assuming valves V1 and V3 have adequate accuracy and
response time, the programmable logic could be modified to allow a time-
varying pressure pulse, simulating the effect of foils in Fourdrinier forming.
47
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
1/ 3
§ 1 ·
(Kc ) 2 1/ 3
= ¨¨ 2 2 ¸¸ (1 − αc )
© kα S v ¹
Equation 2.23
Plotting (Kc2)1/3 against concentration, c, will give a linear relation.
Darcy’s permeability, K, is determined from permeability experiments using
equation (1) and c is calculated from the height and diameter of the pulp pad for
a known mass of pulp. The specific surface area, Sv, and the swelling factor, ,
are calculated from the slope and the intercept of the graph. This method was
first used by Robertson and Mason (86). Sv and are then inserted back into
equation (2) to test the agreement of the experimental data with the Kozeny-
Carman model. The Kozeny factor, k, is frequently assumed to be constant.
For randomly packed fibrous beds, k was determined to be 5.55 (114).
48
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
The hydraulic pressure at the top surface of the pulp pad is negligible so
the force on the fibres equals the force exerted on the platen.
49
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Expressed
water Applied
pressure Permeable
Ps top platen
x
Loaded
Depth into Height, h
pulp
the pulp
mat
Impermeable
base
The pulp concentration can be related to the solidity (that is, the volume
solids fraction), which is used in the dynamic model, by ĭ = c. Values for
are in the range of 3.2-3.8 cm3/g.
Ps=m ĭn
Equation 2.24
where m and n are experimental constants analogous to, and calculated
from, M and N.
50
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
dφ d ª dφ º dh dφ
= D (φ ) −
dt dx «¬ dx »¼ dt dx
Equation 2.25
Where
φ(1 − φ) K (φ) mnφ n −1
D(φ) =
Equation 2.26
K(Ɏ) is the permeability as predicted by the Kozeny Carman model
(Equation 2.11). This governing equation is subjected to the initial condition
ĭ(x,0) = ĭ0 as the solidity is uniform throughout the cell, as well as the
following boundary conditions:
x = 0, u = 0
dφ dh µ
=
dx dt K (φ )(1 − φ )mnφ n −1
Equation 2.28
51
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
The dynamic model assumes that 100% of the fibre is retained by the
platen and also neglects friction between the platen and the side wall.
52
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Hubbe (124) and Rojas & Hubbe (127) define three forms of chemicals
widely used as drainage additives: coagulants; flocculants; and microparticles.
Hubbe defines coagulants as compounds of high positive charge density which
act to neutralise the negative charge on fibres and ‘ionic trash’. Ionic trash is
undesirable very small fibres that are generated in mechanical pulping and has
very high surface area; bagasse pith may be considered ionic trash. Examples
of coagulants include aluminium sulphate (or alum), polyamines and
polyethyleneimine (PEI). Flocculants are polymers that link fine particles
together. Flocculants are often very high molecular weight copolymers of
acrylamide (PAM). Microparticles are very small negatively charged particles,
such as colloidal silica and bentonite, that interact with cationic flocculants (e.g.
53
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
CPAM) or cationic starch and further improve flocculation. Brouillette and co-
workers (128), Sherman and Keiser (129) and Ledda et al. (130) all describe
various microparticle systems.
54
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Kumar also used zeta potential to improve the retention of bagasse pulp
in a less thorough study (54). Using a DDJ, the bagasse pulp was fractionated.
The best order for retention aids was found to be rosin-starch-alum-filler. The
best zeta potential for retention was found to be -5 mV.
In contrast to the studies by Miyanishi and Shigeru (134, 135) and Kumar
(54), Britt (121) found that in dynamic systems, although zeta potential
provides additional information, flocculation can be improved without any
change in the zeta potential.
It is noted that most articles tend to focus on the fibre retention properties
of chemical additives rather than the drainage properties, which is the focus of
this thesis.
Abril’s work during the 1980s is the best reported literature with regards
to developing flocculant systems for improving the drainage behaviour of
bagasse pulp (39-41). Abril’s work was published in Spanish which was
translated into English because of its relevance to this study. Abril investigated
the effect of polymer drainage and retention aids on bagasse pulp (41). In this
laboratory study Abril used a DDJ to assess a range of drainage and retention
aids namely dextran, polyethyleneimine, anionic PAM and polyamideamine.
The polyethyleneimine and polyamideamine showed the biggest improvement
in retention and the best improvement in freeness.
55
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Ibrahem and co-workers (53) looked at PAM as a filler retention aid for
bagasse paper. The fillers investigated were titanium dioxide, silica and kaolin.
Strength data is provided for pulp containing each filler over a range of PAM
addition. PAM can improve filler retention by between 63% and 86%. It does
not contain information about the effect of PAM addition on drainage.
56
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
colloidal forces are measured by the difference between line A and line B.
Flocculants raise the A line and dispersants lower it.
Fines retention, %
57
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
The background literature for bagasse pulping has been discussed. The
work of Gartside and co-workers (28, 51, 65) stands out as the most thorough
work performed in Australia. However previous published work with bagasse
in Australia has traditionally focussed strongly on improving the pulp strength
properties and did not consider pulp filtration properties.
The pulp permeability and compressibility theory has been described for
both steady-state filtration and dynamic filtration under compression. The
Kozeny-Carman equation is the most common steady-state permeability
correlation linking Darcy’s permeability factor, K, to porosity. The power-law
compression model is the most common steady-state model for pulp pads. The
dynamic filtration model developed in this thesis is based on an initially
networked filtration model (100). The equipment designs most commonly used
in pulp filtration studies have been discussed.
58
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
This study is the first time that the filtration of bagasse pulp has been
directly compared to wood pulp.
59
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Chapter 3
Experimental procedure and
modelling
The experimental component of the research plan was substantial. For the
filtration study three pieces of experimental equipment were constructed
specifically for the study, namely the ‘permeability cell’, the ‘compressibility cell’
and the modified DDJ (all terms are defined later in this chapter). This was in
addition to the three styles of digestion equipment used to produce the pulp
samples.
60
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
(section 3.6). A suitable chemical additive system was optimised with a modified
Dynamic Drainage Jar (DDJ) using a bagasse pulp slurry, and the effect of
vacuum on drainage time was examined. The modified DDJ was also used to
obtain complementary information about the drainage behaviour through thin pulp
mats rather than thick pulp pads. The effect of chemical additives on the steady-
state permeability and compressibility constants of a bagasse pulp pad was
quantified (section 3.7). Finally a summary of the experimental procedure is
presented (section 3.8).
The aims and objectives were achieved in six phases using the following
program of work.
61
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
For Objective 1a, bagasse was separated into three fractions prior to pulping
using two wire mesh sieves of different aperture sizes (12.5 mm and 4 mm). The
three bagasse sizes produced were nominated: ‘coarse’, ‘medium’ and ‘fine’ pith
material. The terms ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp are used
extensively in this thesis and refer to pulp which originated from the coarse and
medium fractions of bagasse respectively. Pulp from the ‘fine’ material blocks
the pores of the paper mat as it forms, reducing the drainage rate and sheet quality
(e.g. poor formation and wire-marks). Removing as much ‘fine’ material as
possible prior to pulping improves the drainage properties of the mat.
For Objective 1b, samples of bagasse from the different modes of juice
extraction were collected (i.e. milled and diffuser bagasse) from the same factory.
62
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
The pulp fibres were thoroughly measured for their morphology including
the distributions of fibre length, using a Kajaani fibre length analyser, as well as
other parameters including wall thickness and collapse ratio using a confocal laser
microscope.
The variables measured in the steady-state testing are the pulp specific
surface area, Sv, and the swelling factor, . These parameters were determined for
use in the Kozeny-Carman permeability model (78, 79). These steady-state
variables are required for the dynamic filtration model. The findings of this
permeability study are compared to that of previous workers for wood pulp, as
63
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
well as to the only known previous work on bagasse permeability which was
performed recently (64).
The pulp pad was initially compressed over a very long time-period to
measure the quasi steady-state compressibility parameters. The steady-state
factors M and N are necessary for the dynamic filtration modelling. Objective 1a
and Objective 1b were investigated using Student’s t-test with respect to their
effect on the compressibility properties M and N.
The same samples tested for their steady-state permeability were also
measured for their steady-state compressibility and compared to the numerous
benchmark pulp samples used in this study, including eucalypt, as well as
previous workers.
64
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
are determined, the dynamic filtration of bagasse pulp can be predicted using a
filtration model similar to that used for wood pulp (100). This model requires the
steady-state permeability parameters, Sv and , and the compressibility
parameters, M and N, for bagasse pulp previously determined experimentally.
In previous phases of this study, thick pulp pads were investigated because
the permeability and compressibility can be determined with simple equipment.
The behaviour of pulp pads is frequently used by numerous workers to represent
the behaviour of thin pulp mats (e.g. 81, 82, 83, 84-86). In this phase, the
modified DDJ was also used to obtain additional information on the behaviour of
thin bagasse pulp mats, which more closely resembles a Fourdrinier former than a
Twin-wire former.
65
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Phase 6.
Development of a
Bagasse pulp slurry
chemical additives
With and without flocculants
system using a
pulp slurry
Bagasse pulp pad
Model
verification
66
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
The preparation and storage of bagasse and pulp created some challenges
since bagasse is extremely bulky with a specific mass of 150 kg/m3. Bagasse also
degrades quickly due to the presence of a residual sugar. It was necessary to wash
it and dry it as quickly as possible for long-term storage in a large walk in
refrigerator at 4 °C. The large number of pulp samples generated in this report are
summarised in Appendix B.
Bagasse was collected from CSR Invicta sugar factory. The Invicta milling
train consisted of a shredder and five milling units including the final dewatering
mill. The Invicta diffuser consisted of a separate shredder, a preliminary milling
unit, the diffuser and a final dewatering mill.
67
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
On 28th September 2006 ten 75 L bins were lined with garbage bags. Six
bins were filled with bagasse from the final dewatering mill of the milling train.
Four were filled with bagasse from the final dewatering mill following the
diffuser. Each bin was filled with 10 kg of bagasse. The bagasse in these bins
were turned over several times in order to reduce the temperature and moisture
content and hence degradation during transport. The bins arrived at QUT,
Carseldine Campus on 4th October 2006.
The bagasse obtained from the sugar mill was from cane species Q208B (B
for burnt). The bagasse collected from the diffuser was TellB. It was not possible
to collect bagasse of the same variety of cane from both the mill and the diffuser
during the visit. As will be shown in Chapter 4, the difference in cane varieties
was inconsequential. No difference was found in the pulping kinetics (section
4.1.1) or the permeability and compressibility characteristics (sections 4.3 and
4.4).
The fibre content of the parent cane was measured by factory staff and
determined to be 15.6% (wet basis) for both varieties of cane. The fibre content
of Australian cane is typically 10% to 17%. The fibre content of the cane was
towards the higher end of this range.
The bagasse was washed in copious amounts of water to remove sugar using
a cement mixer. The bagasse mixture was drained through a 4 mm wire mesh.
The fines in the filtrate were recovered by refiltering the filtrate through the
bagasse bed several times. Only 3% of the fines were lost through this washing
process.
The bagasse was allowed to dry to 10% moisture, see Figure 3.2. The
bagasse piles were rotated with one another for even exposure to the sun.
68
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
Bin 1 Bin 2
Bin 3 Bin 4
Bin 5 Bin 6
Bin 7 Bin 8
Bin 9 Bin 10
The washed milled and diffuser bagasse was separated into three fractions
prior to pulping using two wire mesh sieves of different aperture sizes, 12.5 mm
and 4 mm respectively. Subsamples of around 50 g of bagasse were manually
sieved for approximately 3 min to achieve the separation. The three bagasse sizes
produced were nominated: ‘coarse’ which accounts for the 25 % of the bagasse
that is retained on the 12.5 mm sieve (i.e. +2 mesh); ‘medium’ (i.e. 4.0 mm to
12.5 mm) which accounts for the 35% of the bagasse that passes the 12.5 mm
sieve but is retained on the 4.0 mm sieve (i.e. +6 mesh); and ‘fine’ which accounts
for around 40 % of the bagasse and passes through the 4.0 mm sieve (i.e. -6
mesh).
The fractionated bagasse samples are shown in Figure 3.3 (a), (b) and (c)
together with samples of ‘whole’ (unfractionated) Australian bagasse (d). The
‘coarse’ bagasse (a) contains a much higher content of large chip-like material
compared to the ‘medium’ bagasse (b). These definitions of ‘coarse’, ‘medium’,
69
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
‘fine’ and ‘whole’ bagasse pulp are used throughout this thesis. The ‘fine’ fraction
is assumed to be mainly pith material so this terminology is used interchangeably.
(a) (b)
50 mm 50 mm
(c) (d)
50 mm 50 mm
Figure 3.3 Photographs of (a) ‘coarse’, (b) ‘medium’ and (c) ‘fine’
fractions of Australian bagasse, and (d) Australian ‘whole’
bagasse.
After washing and fractionating, the bagasse was then stored in a walk-in
fridge (4 °C) until it was ready to be pulped.
70
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
was stored in the fridge but not washed so as not to alter its preparation conditions
prior to pulping. The pulp produced from this sample is referred to as
‘Argentinean’ bagasse pulp.
Several pulp samples were produced in a much larger batch 18.5 L reactor
for a number of reasons. The size of the samples produced in the APPI ‘flow-
through’ digester were not sufficient for destructive physical property testing
(section 3.3). Also, for experiments involving chemical additives (section 3.7),
2
For bagasse with a very high proportion of short fibres, it was not possible to pulp the material
because it was difficult to circulate the liquor in the APPI ‘flow-through’ digester.
71
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
the pulp had to be disposed after each experiment. As such, a much larger batch
of pulp was prepared so that subtle differences that may affect pulping
experiments could be eliminated as a potential source of error.
Over 60 pulp samples were produced in the course of the project. Each
bagasse pulp sample produced was labelled with a unique number which is
referred to hereafter in this thesis. The pulping conditions, origin of the bagasse,
yield and kappa number for each pulp sample are provided in Appendix B.
The APPI ‘flow-through’ digester consists of six cells into which bagasse is
packed. Each cell is 1.5 L. Hot cooking liquor is pumped from a 50 L tank
through each of the cells and drains back into the tank. The flow diagram of the
equipment is reproduced in Figure 3.4 (136) and a photograph of the equipment is
provided in Figure 3.5.
Digestion cells
72
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
Cells
Outlet liquor
lines
Bagasse was soaked in warm water for 20 min to soften it so that each 180 g
sample of ‘medium’ bagasse and 210 g of ‘coarse’ bagasse could be packed into
the digester cells. The increase in flexibility is due to the plasticisation of the
lignin rather than bending of the sclerenchyma pulp fibres.
Fifty litres of cooking liquor was recirculated through six cells containing
100-200 g of fractionated bagasse (air dry basis). The pulping conditions were 0.4
M sodium hydroxide (approx. 13.8% Na2O on oven dry fibre) and 0.1%,
anthraquinone, AQ, (on oven dry fibre) at 145 °C.
In this reactor, the cells can be independently isolated from the cooking
liquor by manual valves. The liquor is heated indirectly by steam. When the
liquor reaches temperature, the liquor can be circulated immediately through the
material in the cell.
73
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
required. Normally several hours is required to produce wood pulp using this
equipment (136). Bagasse pulp is well known to delignify much more quickly
than wood chips due to the high reactivity of grass lignins.
The depithed bagasse obtained from Argentina’s Ledesma Mill was also
pulped under these conditions for 30 min using the ‘flow-through’ reactor.
74
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
Vessel head
Crane for
moving
vessel head
Temperature
controller Heating
jacket
In addition to the ‘whole’ and ‘fine’ bagasse pulp samples, large quantities
of bagasse pulp originating from ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ fractions of bagasse were
produced in this reactor for physical property testing and the tests involving
chemical additives.
Pulp produced from ‘30% depithed’ bagasse was also produced in this
reactor under these cooking conditions. This pulp is used for benchmarking
purposes as it has been depithed to a similar level to that used by overseas
commercial operations. This benchmark pulp was cooked in this reactor so as to
prevent any pith material from being washed into the liquor. It is acknowledged
that this benchmark pulp sample was cooked at a higher temperature than the
majority of the pulp samples cooked using the ‘flow-through’ reactor. It was
decided that preserving the pith in this benchmark bagasse pulp sample, as could
be achieved using the Parr reactor, was very important.
75
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
A sample of kraft pine pulp was obtained from APPI, also in Melbourne.
The sample was similarly prepared in an air-bath reactor and pulped to a kappa
number of 20 using kraft pulping chemicals. The concentration of the cooking
chemicals that were used is not known.
76
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
2
(n x − 1)s 2x + (n y − 1)s 2y
s PE =
nx + ny − 2
Equation 3.1
Where s PE is the pooled estimate of standard deviation
nx is the number of samples in the first population
ny is the number of samples in the second population
sx is the estimated standard deviation of the first population
sy is the estimated standard deviation of the second population
Equation 2.26 assumes that the values are obtained from one experiment.
When an experiment has a limited sample size, repeating the experiment for each
sample improves confidence of each datum. Determining the pooled estimate
from the average values for each sample over a number of tests, improves
confidence in the accuracy of the values for each sample, xi and yi. The estimate
of standard deviation for each population is now
sx sy
s 'x = ; s 'y =
rx ry
Equation 3.2
where sx’ is the standard deviation of a population of averaged values
r is the number of times the experiment is performed. Substituting this value into
Equation 3.1 gives
s 2x s 2y
(n x − 1) + (n y − 1)
rx ry
s *2 =
nx + ny − 2
Equation 3.3
77
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
x−y
τ=
1 1
s* +
nx ny
Equation 3.4
Where x and y are the average values for the two hypothetical populations.
The observed value of is compared to tables of Student’s Test Statistic to
determine statistical significance provided in Appendix D. The tables provide
threshold values of for each degree of freedom and confidence interval. Values
of greater than those in the table mean that the sample group is from two
populations for the number of degrees of freedom and desired confidence interval.
The physical and chemical properties of selected bagasse pulp samples were
characterised. The chemical composition of several bagasse and bagasse pulp
samples was determined as well as eucalypt pulp (section 3.3.1). The pulp
physical properties of a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56) and a benchmark
Australian bagasse pulp (Sample 58) were studied at various levels of refining
(section 3.3.2) and the results were compared to the findings of other researchers.
The fibre length distribution of all pulp samples was determined by a Kajaani
Fibre Length Analyser and by a Fibre Quality Analysis unit (section 3.3.3). A
microscopy study was undertaken to determine the fibre dimensions including cell
wall thickness, lumen diameter and collapse of the fibres (section 3.3.4).
78
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
The cellulose content is related to the quantities of glucan and xylan in the
pulp/bagasse hydrolysate and the hemicellulose content is related to the quantity
of arabinan.
The samples analysed were a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56) and the
‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58). Sample 58 is the benchmark sample
and Sample 56 is a sample with high permeability (refer Chapter 5). Both
samples were produced from Australian bagasse.
The pulp samples were analysed for strength properties that are typically
required for photocopier paper, tissue and boxes. The strength properties
analysed were tensile, tear, short-span compression and burst strength properties.
For these tests, handsheets of 60 g/m2 were formed. The handsheets were tested
after conditioning at temperature 27 ± 1 ºC and a relative humidity of 65 ± 2%
according to ISO 5269/1. Test specimens were cut from the handsheets. The
79
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
tensile and tear tests involve measuring the force required in the direction of the
sheet and perpendicular to the sheet respectively before the specimen fails. The
compression test involves compressing the specimen until it buckles. The burst
test involves clamping a specimen and applying a hydrostatic force, allowing the
specimen to bulge, until the specimen fails.
The water retention value (WRV) was also measured. WRV is an important
parameter for non-wood pulp as it provides an indication of the ability to dry a
sheet of paper. The apparent density of the pulp samples was also determined.
The effect of refining was determined. Pulps were beaten in the laboratory
PFI mill to three freeness levels according to the ISO 5264/2 method. Again,
handsheets of 60 gsm were prepared according to the ISO 5269/1 method.
Lw =
n Li
2
i
n Li i
Equation 3.5
Where Lw is the length weighted fibre length, Li is the length of the ith fibre,
ni is the number of fibres with length Li.
For curl and kink properties, three samples (Sample 56, Sample 58 and
Sample 60) were analysed on a Fibre Quality Analyser LDA 96, supplied by
Optest Equipment, at the University of British Columbia, UBC. 5000 fibres were
analysed for each sample.
L
Curl index = −1 Equation 3.6
ll
80
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
where L is the true length of the fibre and l is the apparent length of the fibre
(see Figure 3.7).
L l
The kink index is related to the number and magnitude of bends in the fibre.
Figure 3.8 shows a typical fibre section with the fibre width and thickness
dimensions determined in the image analysis. The orientation of the fibre was
optimised so as to minimise the fibre area, according to the definitions listed
below.
81
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Fibre thickness
Fibre width
Figure 3.8 An image of a bagasse fibre cross section showing fibre width
and thickness for the microscopy investigation.
The following measurements were calculated for each fibre, amongst others:
• Fibre area. This is the area bounded by a rectangle around the fibre.
• Lumen area. The area of the lumen inside the inner fibre wall.
82
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
These measurements were compiled for each sample of 500 fibre sections.
The distributions of these parameters were collected.
Australian bagasse from a sugar mill and a diffuser was separated into three
size fractions (i.e. ‘coarse’, ‘medium’ and ‘fine’ fractions) prior to chemical
pulping. For comparative purposes, the permeability properties of kraft eucalypt
pulp, a hardwood pulp with short fibres typically around 0.8 mm in length, were
determined as the benchmark for this study. The permeability of several other
pulp samples was also measured including pulp made from milled bagasse that
has had 30% of the finest material removed (Sample 58), unfractionated milled
Australian bagasse (i.e. ‘whole’ bagasse) pulp (Sample 53), and depithed bagasse
pulp from Ledesma Sugar, Pulp and Paper Mill in Argentina (Sample 32).
Finally, the permeability of a kraft pine pulp, a long fibre pulp typically 3 mm in
length, was measured.
The pressure drop and flow rate data from the experiments were used to
determine Darcy’s permeability, K, and consequently the specific surface area, Sv,
and the swelling factor, , an indicator of the strength generation potential during
refining, were determined for use in the Kozeny-Carman permeability model (78,
79).
83
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
84
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
Water level
Constant
head tank
Town water
supply
Overflow
p
Manual
valve
Cell ID 41 mm
Water layer
Pulp mat
l
L, P
85
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Constant
head tank
Manometer
level
Rubber bung
Manual valve
Manometer
Permeability offtakes
cell
Mesh screen
The town water supply valve to the constant head tank was opened until the
tank overflowed and a constant head was maintained above the manual water
valve to the cell. The manual valve was opened and water flowed from the
constant head tank through the cell. The manual valve was adjusted until the
height in the manometer was constant (typically 5-15 min). The pulp pad height
(L) was recorded to determine the pulp concentration for a known pulp mass.
The flow rate of the water through the cell was measured (Q) with a measuring
cylinder and a stopwatch and the difference in water height between the two
86
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
manometers was recorded (p). The pressure drop p applies over the distance
between the two manometers, l. The hydraulic compression is negligible so
p/l is extrapolated over the full height of the pulp pad to determine P/L that
is required for the calculation of K using Darcy’s Law (Equation 2.2).
The town water supply temperature was 23 °C. The temperature of the
water supply varied only 2 °C during the period of the experiments. The variation
of the town water supply temperature did not significantly affect the pulp pad
permeability.
Great care was taken to ensure that the pulp pad was constantly saturated
with water by maintaining a pool of water above the pulp pad at all times. If the
pulp pad dries out, the fibres contract and the pulp pad could become unevenly
distributed across the cross section of the cell and channelling of water could
occur.
After these measurements at the lowest flow rate were recorded, the flow
rate of water through the cell was increased incrementally and the values for p,
L and Q were recorded.
Once these measurements were completed the supply of water to the cell
was turned off and another 500 mL of pulp slurry was then added to the
permeability cell. Values for L, Q, and p were again recorded over a range of
flow rates. Finally the remaining pulp slurry was added.
When fully loaded with pulp, the pad was compressed to heights of
210 mm, 180 mm and 150 mm using compressed air. In order to compress the
pulp pad, the permeability cell, including the rubber bung was detached from the
constant head tank. A compressed air line was attached to the rubber bung (and
hence the permeability cell) by a barbed nipple. At this point, the pulp pad is very
compressed (>0.1 g/cm3) and a pool of water above the pulp pad was easily
maintained as the compressed air was applied. Obtaining pressure drop and flow
rate data over a wide concentration range was important for accurate calculation
of Sv and .
87
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
For the Australian bagasse pulp samples, the permeability experiment was
performed at least twice and the average Sv and are presented in the results
section. For the other pulp samples, the permeability experiments were performed
typically five times and the average for Sv and are presented in the results
section.
A simple, custom made, ‘compression cell’ (this term is used hereafter) was
designed, fabricated and mounted to an Instron 5500R capable of a maximum
load of 100 kN although for this study the load applied did not exceed 5 kN.
Photographs of the cell assembly are shown in Figure 3.11. The engineering
88
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
drawings are available in Appendix F. The cell is 100 mm in height, the platen is
10 mm thick, resulting in a total possible working height of 90 mm. The platen is
fitted with a shamband and Teflon ring to prevent water flowing around the
platen, and the platen is drilled with thirty 6 mm holes for the water to evacuate
(see Figure 3.11).
(a) (b)
Figure 3.11 Photographs of (a) the loaded compressibility cell with the
barrel fixed onto the base and (b) the top platen and the base of
the cell when the cell is dismantled.
89
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
For all of the quasi steady-state compressibility tests, the platen finished
compressing the pulp pad 15 mm above the base of the cell. The platen was
lowered very slowly over 300 min at a constant rate of 0.25 mm/min (that is,
75 mm over 300 min). The wood pulp samples and the Argentinean bagasse pulp
(Sample 32) were compressed several times to obtain average values of M and N.
The Instron load and time were logged. The load on the platen was recorded by
the Instron and the applied pressure was calculated. The measured load was
reduced by the frictional resistance between the Teflon seal and the barrel. This
was typically equivalent to 2.5 – 4.5 kPa. This was measured by compressing the
cell when loaded with water.
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Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
The program outputs the solidity throughout the height of the cell for many
discreet time intervals. For comparison with the experimental data, the predicted
solidity at the top platen is determined and converted to fibre pressure (using
Equation 2.24). The model predictions using both a constant k (k = 5.55) and a
variable k (Equation 2.12) can then be compared with experimental data.
The same pulp samples which were tested for their steady-state permeability
and compressibility properties were also tested under dynamic conditions. The
model was verified with over 20 pulp samples.
The experimental procedure for the dynamic filtration experiments used the
equipment and procedure used for the steady-state compression experiments
91
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
outlined in section 3.5, but with a higher compression rate so that the dynamic
effects can be observed. In the dynamic filtration experimental phase, the
compression speed was increased by 100 times in most instances to 25 mm/min
(that is 75 mm over 3 min) and the load on the platen was recorded and converted
to average pressure over the platen.
For the dynamic filtration experiments, the compression cell was loaded to
75 mm in depth, leaving 15 mm clearance to the platen, and compressed to 15
mm. The lower initial height of the pad is required for the dynamic testing
because the calculated values of the compressibility constants are valid over the
limited range of pressures used in the quasi steady state testing.
A sample was also tested under dynamic conditions before and after
bleaching.
3.7. Equipment and procedure for testing the effect of chemical additives
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Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
Four types of bagasse pulp produced in the 18.5 L batch Parr reactor were
investigated; a ‘whole’ bagasse pulp (Sample 53); a depithed Australian bagasse
pulp (30% of shortest material removed as “pith” prior to pulping, Sample 58); a
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56); and a ‘medium’ bagasse pulp (Sample 60).
The pulping conditions were 90 min, 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, at 170 °C.
A range of additives used for pulp and paper manufacture were obtained
from Ciba Specialty Chemicals. Ciba recommended Percol 182, a high molecular
weight cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) in conjunction with Hydracol ONZ, a
modified bentonite microparticle, as the most effective chemical additives based
on their own work. Hence, this study only optimised one chemical additives
system.
93
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Up until this point in the study, the permeability and compressibility of thick
pulp pads was studied. In reality, industrial paper manufacture actually involves
water draining through thin pulp mats. Thin pulp mats were produced, without
using chemical additives, in the modified DDJ. The drainage of pulp slurry
through thin pulp mats provided complementary information to the pulp pad
filtration data collected in the previous phases.
500 mL of pulp slurry was made up to 0.1% consistency. The pinch valve
at the base of the vessel, below the screen, was opened for 30 s and the fines in the
filtrate (typically 120 mL) were collected and measured by filtering the filtrate
through a GP-C glass microfiber filter paper. The experiments were conducted
over a range of stirrer speeds from 500 rpm to 1500 rpm as recommended by the
test method.
94
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
The DDJ was modified to allow the pulp suspension to dewater under a
controlled vacuum. The DDJ was connected to a small filtrate vessel which is
under vacuum, supplied by a small vacuum pump. The vacuum level was
measured using a pressure transducer that sent a signal back to the PLC. The PLC
regulates the position of a bleed valve to control the vacuum level. The flow rate
was measured by a 2000 g set of scales with an analogue output. The data output
from the scales and the pressure transducer were logged. A diagram of the setup
is shown in Figure 3.13 and a photograph is provided in Figure 3.14. The
experimental setup closely resembles that described by Forsberg (104).
Data logger
Bleed line
DDJ
PLC
Vacuum
Receiver
PT Pump
Scales
95
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Stirrer
Vacuum line Controllers
and data
logging
equipment
Pressure
transducer
Filtrate receiver
vessel
Vacuum
controller
solenoid
DDJ
Filtrate line
Vacuum bleed line Digital weigh scales Flowmeter
(logged)
Figure 3.14 Photograph of the modified dynamic drainage jar with vacuum
control and data logging.
The vacuum was varied between 0 kPa and 40 kPa. Applying even a small
vacuum to the DDJ resulted in the entire amount of water in the slurry (i.e. almost
all of the 500 mL) passing through the screen in well under the 30 s required by
the Tappi test method. Tappi test method T 261 cm-00 was modified so that the
experiment ended when there was no water level in the DDJ (i.e. it had all passed
through the screen to become filtrate). The time for the water to pass through the
screen was recorded and the fines retention was calculated.
The effect of vacuum on the bagasse pulp fines retention and drainage time
was studied both with and without CPAM and bentonite drainage aids.
The fines retention data obtained using this method are not comparable with
the fines retention data presented in the previous section. The formation of a pulp
pad using the modified method increases the fines retention when compared to the
standard Tappi method.
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Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
97
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Three types of reactor were necessary to undertake the work program. The
‘flow-through’ digester was used mainly for comparing populations of pulp
samples in compressibility and permeability experiments. The 18.5 L ‘Parr
reactor’ was used for preparing large quantities of stock pulp. Pulp prepared in
this reactor was used for destructive testing such as physical property testing and
testing with chemical additives. The benchmark wood species supplied were
produced with an ‘air-bath reactor’.
The ‘permeability cell’ was used for measuring the steady-state permeability
parameters, Sv and , of bagasse and wood pulp pads.
98
Chapter 4- Results and discussion
Chapter 4
Results and discussion
This chapter presents the findings of the investigation into bagasse pulp
filtration, comparing the permeability and compressibility data of Australian
bagasse pulp with numerous benchmark pulp samples and the findings of previous
workers, such as El-Sharkawy and co-workers for bagasse pulp (64), and
Ingmanson for wood pulp (82). The effect of bagasse preparation and flocculants
affects the permeability and compressibility properties of a bagasse pulp pad. Of
particular importance are the steady-state permeability parameters, the specific
surface area (Sv) and the swelling factor () and the compressibility factors M and
N. These parameters are independent of pulp concentration.
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
bagasse pulp are compared to the findings of previous workers. The fibre
morphology is also measured (section 4.2). The steady-state permeability (section
4.3) and compressibility (section 4.4) of bagasse pulp pads was investigated. This
information was used to determine whether the fraction of bagasse or the mode of
juice extraction has a measurable effect on permeability and/or compressibility.
The steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters for bagasse pulp
were used in the dynamic model developed in this study. The output of the model
is compared to experimental data obtained under dynamic filtration conditions
(section 4.5). A suitable flocculant system was optimised with a DDJ using a pulp
slurry. The effect of vacuum on the drainage time of a bagasse pulp slurry was
examined. The effect of chemical additives on the permeability and
compressibility constants of a pulp pad was quantified (section 4.6).
100
Chapter 4- Results and discussion
30.0
25.0
Kappa number, -
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Pulping time, min
When the pulped samples were later screened with a Packer screen (200 m
slots), the rejects was in the range 3% to 7% of total pulp weight.
Data on screen rejects are available in the summary of the pulp samples
produced for this study (i.e. Appendix B).
3
The kappa number of the screened samples were 3-5 units higher than the unscreened samples.
101
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
samples is classified as being derived from four categories, ‘coarse’ bagasse from
a mill, ‘medium’ bagasse from a mill, ‘coarse’ bagasse from a diffuser and
‘medium’ bagasse from a diffuser. The variables were tested for statistical
significance using Student’s pooled t-test at a 95% confidence interval.
Although ‘coarse’ diffuser bagasse had 1.5% higher pulp yield than ‘coarse’
milled bagasse, this was found not to be statistically significant implying that the
method of bagasse preparation was not a factor.
The overall average pulp yield for Australian bagasse samples was 52.5%.
The screened rejects were 3% - 7%. However, the screened yield for the
Argentinean sample was much higher, 61.8%. The difference between the
Australian pulp and Argentinean pulp may be related to differences in cane
variety.
The average pulp yield for Australian bagasse obtained is slightly lower
than found by previous workers, perhaps due to the reasonably high level of
screened rejects or simply due to the type of digester used in pulping. Paul and
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Chapter 4- Results and discussion
Table 4.2 Summary of average bagasse pulp kappa number in the ‘flow-
through’ reactor.
Milled, - Diffuser, -
(number of samples) (number of samples)
Coarse 25.2 (6) 25.8 (3)
Medium 23.3 (5) 23.5 (4)
ıPE 1.01 1.00
IJ 2.97 3.00
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
145 °C. It was found that a cooking time of 30 min was required to make bagasse
pulp with an unscreened kappa number of 20.
The bagasse pulp yield and the pulp’s kappa number were not affected by
whether the pulp originated from bagasse was processed by a mill or a diffuser.
In this section, the results of the pulp chemical and physical properties are
presented and discussed (section 4.2.1 and section 4.2.2). The fibre length
distribution data is provided in section 4.2.3. The findings of the microscopy
investigation are shown in section 4.2.4. The chemical and physical property
testing are summarised in section 4.2.5.
The ash content of the whole bagasse (6.9%) was significantly higher than
for the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ fractions of the bagasse (1.8%-2.5%). Depithing
the bagasse has the added effect of reducing the ash content. Depithing removed
some fine dirt that was entrained in the whole bagasse. This effect has been noted
by previous workers, for example, Paul and Kasiviswanathan (70). For the
fractionated bagasse samples that were generated using the ‘flow-through’ reactor,
around 75% of the ash was removed during pulping. Less than 20% of the ash
from the whole bagasse produced in the ‘Parr’ reactor was removed during
pulping. This is believed to occur in the ‘flow-through’ reactor by liquor washing
the ash out of the pulp. The geometry of the ‘flow-through’ reactor is more
conducive to circulation of liquor through the bed of bagasse.
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Chapter 4- Results and discussion
The glucan content of the bagasse pulp hydrolysate was increased slightly
by fractionating the bagasse prior to pulping from 65.7% for the whole bagasse
pulp up to 75% for ‘coarse’ diffuser pulp. The diffuser pulp had slightly higher
glucan content than the milled bagasse pulp (around 69%).
The arabinan content of all the bagasse pulp samples was similar (mainly 4-
5%).
The depithed Argentinean bagasse had a lower glucan content and higher
arabinan content than the fractionated Australian bagasse pulp. However this did
not translate to any difference in the pulp composition.
105
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
106
Table 4.3 Chemical analysis of bagasse, bagasse pulp and eucalypt pulp.
Milled coarse bagasse (parent of Sample 26) 0.42% 21.05 1.02 2.245 45.6 27.2 2.2
Milled medium bagasse (parent of Sample 27) 0.49% 21.45 1.03 2.588 40.5 24.3 3.4
Bagasse
Diffuser coarse bagasse (parent of Sample 20) 0.45% 21.44 1.01 1.784 42.4 24.2 3.8
Diffuser medium bagasse (parent of Sample 39) 0.34% 21.69 0.99 2.477 40.9 24.3 5.8
Argentinean depithed bagasse (parent of Sample 32) 0.79% 21.29 0.99 2.330 37.0 23.7 7.1
Whole bagasse (parent of Sample 53) 0.48% 24.16 0.96 6.869 38.9 22.4 6.9
Milled coarse pulp (Sample 26) 0.17% 3.00 0.93 0.484 68.4 23.3 4.1
Bagasse pulp
Milled medium pulp (Sample 27) 0.19% 2.42 0.94 0.659 69.2 23.6 2.7
Diffuser coarse pulp (Sample 20) 0.18% 2.32 0.97 0.378 73.3 25.3 4.6
Diffuser medium pulp (Sample 39) 0.32% 2.60 0.96 0.551 75.3 25.4 5.9
Argentinean bagasse pulp (Sample 32) 0.46% 3.42 0.90 0.862 71.8 26.9 4.2
Whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53) 0.15% 1.43 0.95 5.704 65.7 23.9 4.1
106
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
Benchmark bagasse
‘Coarse’ bagasse pulp
Property pulp; ‘30% depithed’
(Sample 56)
pulp (Sample 58)
0 1000 2000 0 500 1000
Amount of PFI refining
(rev) (rev) (rev) (rev) (rev (rev)
Water Retention Value (%) 255 262 281 274 287 292
The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56) starts with a much higher freeness
than the benchmark pulp (Sample 58, Table 4.4) as would be expected from its
higher permeability (see section 4.3).
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp had much higher tear strength than the
benchmark pulp but for both samples, as shown in Figure 4.3, refining had a
significant detrimental effect on its tear index (-20%). The Australian bagasse
pulp had tear strength similar to those reported by previous workers (4, 70).
As shown in Figure 4.4, ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp had similar burst strength to
the benchmark pulp, but higher than the findings of other workers (4). Refining
was moderately effective for the burst index of ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (+21%) but
was extremely effective for the benchmark pulp (+49%). The datum from
Gartside and co-workers (28) are unusually high and may be as a consequence of
the much longer fibre length of their pulp. It is noted that the bagasse pulp used
by Gartside and co-workers had a longer fibre length, typically 1.38 mm for most
species of cane (although one variety is reported to be as long as 1.55 mm) than
the bagasse pulp in this study (~1 mm).
In this study, tensile and burst strengths did not improve by changing the
treatment conditions which is a different finding to that reported by Paul and
Kasiviswanathan (70). In this study, tear improved dramatically by changing the
pre-treatment conditions.
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Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
120
100
Tensile Index (Nm/g)
80
60
7
Tear Index (mN.m /g)
6
2
109
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
6
Burst Index (kPa.m /g)
2
The benchmark pulp had slightly better compression properties than the
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Figure 4.5). Refining provided a minor improvement to
compressive strength. The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp had better WRV than the
benchmark pulp (Figure 4.6). Refining was slightly detrimental to WRV. The
density of the benchmark pulp was initially better than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp
but deteriorated rapidly when refined (Figure 4.7).
The short-span compression, WRV and density of the bagasse pulp in this
study were not compared with previous workers as the associated pulp freeness is
not reported in other literature.
110
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
300
Water retention value, %
280
260
240
200
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Canadian Standard Freeness (ml)
111
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
0.9
0.8
Table 4.5 also presents a summary of the fines content. The FS100 unit
reported this information as the length of the first decile of the population, i.e. the
more fines, the shorter the length of the smallest 10% of fibres. It is noted that
every bagasse pulp sample have a higher proportion of short fibres than the
eucalypt pulp.
112
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
Figure 4.8 shows the fibre length distribution of Australian pulps derived
from fractionated bagasse, with those of Argentinean and eucalypt pulps. The
figure shows that the fraction of fibres shorter than 0.3 mm in length for bagasse
pulp is far higher than that for the eucalypt pulp. However, the bagasse pulp
samples have more fibres greater than 1.3 mm in length. The ‘coarse’ and
‘medium’ bagasse pulp samples often have a bimodal distribution which is more
pronounced in the ‘coarse’ bagasse samples than the ‘medium’ bagasse samples; a
curious observation. More data is available in Appendix E.
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Fibre length (mm)
Eucalypt
Argentinean bagasse pulp (Sample 32)
Pulp from coarse bagasse material (Sample 20)
Pulp from medium bagasse material (Sample 30)
Pulp from fine material (Sample 51)
The results for curl and kink index are presented in Table 4.6 as they were
produced on a FQA. The curl and kink index for the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp was
slightly lower than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp. It is presumed that the higher level
of mechanical damage may give appreciably higher curl and kink index for the
‘medium’ bagasse pulp fibres. Both the coarse and medium bagasse pulp fibres
were found to have a lower kink index than the 30% depithed bagasse pulp and
slightly lower curl.
Table 4.6 Curl and kink index measurements for bagasse pulp samples
114
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
The fibre widths of the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulp samples were around
20.5 m. The difference between the means of the two samples was less than the
Least Significant Difference, so there is no statistically significant difference in
fibre width between the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp samples. The
bagasse pulp width was slightly wider than the eucalypt pulp, 18.55 m.
The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp fibres were significantly thicker (13.86 m) than
the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp fibres (12.67 m). Fibres from both bagasse pulp
115
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
samples were thicker than those from the eucalypt pulp sample, 11.63 m.
Similarly, the fibre walls of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp fibres (5.13 m) were
significantly thicker than for the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp fibres (4.72 m) and the
eucalypt pulp fibres (4.19 m).
The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp fibres had a higher wall area (186 m2) than the
‘medium’ bagasse fibres (169 m2). The fibres from both bagasse pulp samples
had much higher wall area than the eucalypt pulp sample (132 m2). The lumen
area for the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp res (31.0 m2) was found to be slightly larger
than the eucalypt pulp fibres (26.3 m2). The mean lumen area of the ‘medium’
bagasse pulp fibres could not be differentiated statistically from either the ‘coarse’
or eucalypt pulp fibres.
The collapse ratio for the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (1.48) was substantially
greater than for the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp and the eucalypt bagasse pulp. This is
potentially due to the higher mechanical damage to the ‘medium’ bagasse material
in the milling train.
The morphological data suggests that the bagasse pulp fibres have thicker
cell walls and are less likely to collapse than the eucalypt pulp fibres.
116
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
The fibre length of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp is longer than the ‘medium’
bagasse pulp. The Argentinean bagasse pulp has similar fibre length to Australian
bagasse pulp prepared under the same conditions. All bagasse pulps had a much
wider fibre length distribution than the eucalypt pulp. They also had far more
short fibres than the eucalypt pulp.
The bagasse pulp fibres have thicker walls than the eucalypt fibres. This
suggests that they may be more rigid.
This section gives data for K (for two fixed concentrations), Sv and . The
effect of using a constant and variable k on the optimum values for Sv and is
reported (section 4.3.1). A statistical analysis to determine the effect of pre-
treatment conditions on pulp pad permeability is shown in section 4.3.2. A
discussion of the suitability of the Kozeny-Carman steady-state permeability
model for bagasse pulp is provided in section 4.3.3. The results are compared with
the findings of previous workers (section 4.3.4). The findings of the permeability
study given the high proportion of short material are surprising. Finally a
summary of the steady-state permeability results is given in section 4.3.5.
117
118
118
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
-4/3
(Kc ) , g cm
2/3
0.001
2 1/3
0.0005
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
3
c (g/cm )
Table 4.8 shows that fractionating the bagasse prior to pulping has a
significant effect on Sv. For Australian bagasse pulp samples, the samples
obtained from the ‘coarse’ bagasse fraction has the lowest Sv value whilst the pulp
obtained from ‘whole’ bagasse has the highest Sv value. The average Sv was
1490 cm-1 for Australian bagasse pulp obtained from the coarse bagasse fraction
and 2170 cm-1 for Australian bagasse pulp obtained from the medium bagasse
fraction.
The benchmark ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp also had higher Sv, 4640 cm-1
(Sample 58) than the pulp samples obtained from coarse and medium fractions of
bagasse. The very high values for Sv obtained for the fine bagasse pulp (Sample
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
51) and the whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53) was associated with the very high
proportion of pith material. Pith has a very high surface area to volume ratio and
consequently increases Sv.
The Sv of Argentinean bagasse pulp (Sample 32), 2100 cm-1, was higher
than the Australian pulps derived from the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse
fractions.
Although both the Australian ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58) and
the Argentinean bagasse pulp both had 30% of the shortest material removed, they
have quite different values for Sv. The difference between the Sv values was
possibly due to the difference between the APPI ‘flow-through’ reactor and the
batch Parr reactor. Alternatively the difference may have been related to the cane
variety. Argentinean sugarcane is bred specifically to produce fibre for paper
manufacture (144).
Significantly, the Australian bagasse pulp had a lower Sv than the eucalypt
pulp, 2480 cm-1, meaning that it has higher permeability. This is the most
important finding of this bagasse pulp study. The thicker fibre walls and the
higher proportion of longer fibres contributed to a more open pulp pad matrix,
despite the higher fraction of short fibres (section 4.2.3). A significant proportion
of pith was removed by the pre-treatment and possibly also by the cooking
process in the ‘flow-through’ digester, reducing the influence of pith on bagasse
pulp permeability.
The Sv for eucalypt pulp was much less than the benchmark ‘30% depithed’
bagasse pulp as expected.
The Sv for pine pulp was much lower than the pulp obtained from Australian
bagasse pulp because of its longer fibre length.
For the Australian bagasse pulp samples, when a variable k is used in the
calculation of Sv the value of Sv is about 400 cm-1 (~25%) on average lower than
when it is calculated with constant k. As mentioned previously, the factor k gives
an indication of the tortuosity for the capillaries through the pulp pad.
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Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
The values of the pulps derived from coarse and medium Australian
bagasse fractions were not very different from Argentinean bagasse (Sample 32)
and eucalypt pulp (see Table 4.8). The benchmark ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp
(Sample 58), also had a slightly lower value. affects the permeability
properties as well as Sv. values obtained with a variable k were about 25%
higher than the values obtained with a constant k. High values should also
indicate the potential for strength generation during refining. However, pulp
samples with higher values of were not observed to have better strength
generation properties during refining.
Table 4.9 Average Sv and Į values for pulp samples originating from
Australian bagasse.
Sv (cm-1) (cm3/g)
Coarse Medium Coarse Medium
Milled 1510 1970 3.52 3.27
Diffuser 1460 2470 3.57 3.10
The Sv and values for each type of bagasse pulp were compared using
Student’s pooled t-test with a 95% confidence interval. The test statistic, , used
to compare ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp is shown in Table 4.10 The
value indicates that there is a difference in Sv between coarse and medium bagasse
pulp for either milled and diffuser bagasse pulp. The test statistic for is less
clear. There is very strong evidence that there is a difference in between pulp
derived from coarse and medium bagasse from the diffuser (high = 6.07) but not
from the mill (low = 1.83).
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Table 4.10 IJ values for Sv and Į for pulp samples obtained from different
bagasse fractions.
The low values for the test statistic, , show that there is no difference
between the pulp samples obtained from the two sugar extraction methods for
either Sv nor (Table 4.11).
Table 4.11 IJ values for Sv and Į test statistic for pulp samples obtained
from different sugar extraction methods.
122
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
as the pulp concentration increases. It will be shown later in this chapter that
extrapolating the Kozeny-Carman model with a variable Kozeny factor beyond
this concentration range allows the dynamic model to give good predictions.
Kozeny prediction
Permeability, K (cm )
2
1.00E-07
1.00E-08
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Concentration, c (g/cm3)
ε
K = k' Equation 4.1
(1 − ε )2
where k’ is a permeability constant
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
In their study, bagasse pulp was fractionated using an axial feed pressure
screen with 0.06 mm slots to reduce the fines content and improve steady-state
permeability. Their data is presented in Table 4.12. They were able to improve
permeability by 30% by pressure screening increasing k’ from 2.36×10-9 cm2 to
3.08×10-9 cm2.
Rejected
5.61×10-10 200
material
The results of this work have been recalculated into the form of their
‘permeability constant’. It was found that the ‘permeability constant’ for ‘coarse’
and ‘medium’ Australian bagasse pulp was between 2×10-8 cm2 and 4×10-8 cm2.
This is compared to 2.36×10-9 cm2 for El-Sharkawy and co-worker’s original
Indian bagasse pulp, and 3.08×10-9 for their most permeable screened pulp, a ten-
fold improvement.
For data collected in this study, the form of the conventional Kozeny-
Carman model was found to have better agreement with the experimental data
than the permeability model used by El-Shakawy and co-workers.
Table 4.13 shows a comparison of the Sv and values from this study with
those of previous workers that investigated wood pulp. Most of these workers did
not specify the wood species used. The specific surface area, Sv, for the bagasse
pulp samples was lower than that found by previous workers for wood pulp.
Previous workers have reported a wide range for , from 1.65 cm3/g up to
124
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
4.5 cm3/g. The values of for bagasse pulp were in this range. Sv and for the
benchmark eucalypt pulp sample measured in this study was very similar to that
of Robertson and Mason for a kraft wood pulp (86).
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Australian pulp derived from the ‘coarse’ bagasse fraction has better steady-
state permeability than the ‘medium’ fraction, as measured by lower Sv. The
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp from a diffuser has a higher value. This confirms that
there is a difference between the fractions of bagasse (Objective 1a) with respect
to pulp permeability.
For bagasse pulp, a variable k gives a 25% higher value for and a 25%
lower value of Sv compared with a constant k. This is similar to the findings
obtained for wood pulps.
The findings from the steady-state permeability study are consistent with the
findings of previous workers. A standard Australian bagasse pulp (Sample 58)
had worse Sv than wood pulp but was improved dramatically by the pre-treatment
and pulping procedure. The values of for bagasse pulp are within the range of
findings for other workers using wood pulp.
Good agreement was found to exist between the experimental data and the
theoretical predictions for the permeability properties of Australian bagasse pulp
using the Kozeny-Carman model with a constant or variable k.
126
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
dynamic model later in this chapter. The effect of pre-treatment conditions on the
compressibility parameters is compared statistically (section 4.4.3). A summary
of the quasi steady-state compressibility tests is presented in section 4.4.4.
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
-1.3 -1.2 -1.1 -1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5
3
log (concentration) (g/cm )
Figure 4.11 Plot of the log of the platen pressure against the log of the pulp
concentration for a sample of bagasse pulp compressed under
quasi steady-state conditions (Sample 39; experimental data is
shown as the thin solid line and the linear approximation is
shown as the thick dashed line).
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Table 4.14 Table of values for the compressibility factors N and M found
in this study.
This study
Sample number Fraction Source N M (kPa)
Sample 26 Coarse Mill 2.83 7650
Sample 38 Coarse Mill 2.60 3320
Sample 43 Coarse Mill 2.94 8040
Sample 20 Coarse Diffuser 2.66 4990
Sample 21 Coarse Diffuser 2.68 3960
Sample 18 Medium Mill 2.72 6090
Sample 27 Medium Mill 2.61 3730
Sample 42 Medium Mill 2.56 3780
Sample 35 Medium Diffuser 2.72 4490
Sample 39 Medium Diffuser 2.65 3190
Average 2.70 4920
Whole bagasse pulp Whole Mill 2.74 4960
Fine bagasse pulp Fine Mill 3.23 25900
Argentinean bagasse pulp 2.82 8450
Eucalypt pulp 2.43 4780
Pine pulp 2.47 6010
Gren and Hedstrom (85) report N over the full range of kappa numbers for
chemical pulps, from 2.22 for a fully bleached pulp to 2.37 for a 100 kappa pulp
whilst Ingmanson reports N to be between 2.66 and 3.17 (81-83). Gren and
Hedstrom (85) noted that the difference in their results compared to Ingmanson’s
(81) is due to the different compression range used in their experiments. Our
results for N were all within the range reported by these authors.
128
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
Table 4.15 Table of values for the compressibility factors N and M found
by other workers.
Previous studies
Sample description N M (kPa)
Unclassified wood pulp at moderate Not
2.22-2.37
levels of compression (85) provided
Wood pulp (81) 2.66 1450
Beaten wood pulp (82, 83) 3.12 2950
Beaten wood pulp (82, 83) 3.14 3160
Unbeaten wood pulp (82, 83) 3.17 3480
Unbeaten wood pulp (82, 83) 3.14 3190
The bagasse pulp was not statistically different from the eucalypt pulp in
terms of M and N (determined using Student’s t-test with a 95% confidence
interval). This is despite the significant difference in the fibre morphology.
Bagasse pulp has a longer fibre length and thicker cell walls than the eucalypt
pulp.
The average values for N and M within each of the milled and diffuser
bagasse pulp populations are provided in Table 4.16
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Table 4.16 Table of average N and M values for milled and diffuser,
coarse and medium bagasse.
N (-) M (kPa)
Coarse Medium Coarse Medium
Milled 2.79 2.63 5890 4410
Diffuser 2.67 2.57 4440 3030
130
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
mode of juice extraction on M and N firstly within the ‘coarse’ bagasse population
and then the ‘medium’ bagasse population.
Table 4.18 IJ values for N and M comparing pulp from two methods of
juice extraction.
The output of the dynamic model was tested using a sensitivity analysis of
the key permeability and compressibility variables, Sv, , M and N (section 4.5.1).
The output of the dynamic model was compared with experimental data obtained
under dynamic filtration conditions (section 4.5.2) and a summary is provided
(section 4.5.3).
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Australian bagasse pulp is shown in Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13 where the time
axis was scaled to 3 min. The data presented used typical values for the
permeability and compressibility parameters obtained in this study. The solidity,
ĭ = c is initially constant through the cell (in Figure 4.12 as t 0 min) but
during the experiment, the solidity at the top platen is higher than lower in the cell
(Figure 4.13). The concentration gradient throughout the cell is roughly uniform
and small.
0.9
0.8 t = 0 min
0.7 t = 1 min
0.6 t = 2 min
ĭ (-)
0.8
at the top platen
0.7
at the base
0.6
0.5
ĭ (-)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3
t (min)
Figure 4.13 Output from the dynamic model for Sample A; graph of ĭ as a
function of time.
132
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
Ps = m(αc )
n
Equation 4.2
recalling that m and n are calculated from M and N. Hence has a
considerable effect on the dynamic model.
133
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
experiments was selected based on the observation in the figure that this
compression rate is fast enough for the model to exhibit the effects of dynamic
filtration.
300
75 mm compression over 5 hr
75 mm compression over 20 min
250 75 mm compression over 3 min
75 mm compression over 1 min
200
Sv=1740; N=2.71
Ps (kPa)
150
100
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
C/Cmax
Figure 4.14 Effect of compression rate on the fibre pressure; dynamic
model predictions; Ɏ0 = 0.04, Sv = 1740 cm-1; N = 2.71 kPa; M
= 5100.
134
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
300
150
100
50
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
C/Cmax
300
250 N=3.2
150
100
50
0
0
C/Cmax
135
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
300
200
Ps (kPa)
150
100
50
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
C/Cmax
Figure 4.18 and Figure 4.19 show the experimentally determined pressure at
the top platen compared to Ps calculated from the dynamic model. It was found
that for all pulp samples, the best agreement with experimental data occurs when
using a variable Kozeny factor (Equation 2.12) rather than a constant Kozeny
factor (i.e. k = 5.55). This means that the tortuosity of the capillaries through the
pulp pad is changing as the pad compresses. The bagasse pulp samples and the
pine pulp sample had very good agreement between the experimental data and the
model predictions. The eucalypt pulp had only fair agreement. The reason for the
poorer performance in predicting the behaviour of eucalypt pulp is not known.
Two pulp samples had poor agreement between the dynamic model and
experimental data; the pulp made from whole bagasse (Sample 53) and fine
bagasse (Sample 51). These pulp samples have the highest fine fibre content and
136
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
deviation from the dynamic model is thought to have been caused by incomplete
retention of fine fibre by the platen. The comparison between the predictions of
the dynamic model and the experimental data for other pulp samples are presented
in the supplementary material (Appendix A).
The dynamic filtration model provided good prediction of the fibre pressure
of a compressed bagasse pulp pad at high compression rates when significant
dynamic effects occur. It is particularly accurate for bagasse pulp, provided some
pith is removed, and pine pulp. The model only provides qualitative predictions
for eucalypt pulp at high compression rates. The Kozeny-Carman permeability
model allows the dynamic model to give excellent predictions, particularly when a
variable Kozeny factor is used (Equation 2.12), rather than a constant Kozeny
factor (i.e. k = 5.55).
137
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
100
Experimental 100
Experimental
80 Theoretical; constant k
Pressure (kPa)
80 Theoretical; constant k
Pressure (kPa)
60 Theoretical; variable k Theoretical; variable k
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Time (min)
Time (min)
(a) (b)
100 100
Experimental Experimental
Pressure (kPa)
80 80
Pressure (kPa)
20 20
0
0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (min) Time (min)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.18 Comparison of the dynamic model with experimental data for
bagasse pulp (constant and variable k) (a) Medium milled
bagasse pulp (Sample 20); (b) Coarse milled bagasse pulp
(Sample 26); (c) Medium diffuser bagasse pulp (Sample 18); (d)
Coarse diffuser bagasse pulp (Sample 39).
138
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
100 100
Experimental Experimental
80 80 Theoretical; constant k
Pressure (kPa)
Pressure (kPa) Theoretical; constant k
60 Theoretical; variable k
60 Theoretical; variable k
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (min)
Time (min)
(a) (b)
100
Experimental
80
Pressure (kPa)
Theoretical; constant k
60 Theoretical; variable k
40
20
0
0 1 2 3
Time (min)
(c)
Figure 4.19 Comparison of the dynamic model with experimental data for
(a) Argentinean bagasse pulp, (b) eucalypt pulp and (c) pine
pulp (constant and variable k).
139
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
140
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
100
90
80
70
Fines retention, % 60
50
40
30 Whole bagasse pulp
Whole bagasse pulp + 0.01% CPAM
20
Whole bagasse + 0.05% CPAM
10
Whole bagasse pulp + 0.5% CPAM
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.20 The effect of CPAM concentration and shear on fines retention
on a whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53).
The effect of bentonite addition to a pulp slurry containing 0.1% fibre and
0.05% CPAM (on dry fibre) was investigated. Ciba recommended that their
modified bentonite, Hydracol ONZ, should be added at a rate of 0.3% after the
CPAM is added to the pulp slurry. Bentonite was added 1 min after CPAM was
added to the pulp slurry in the DDJ.
It was found that the addition of CPAM and bentonite, at this rate, actually
reduced the fines retention. A high level of bentonite was observed in the filtrate.
Consequently, the effect of bentonite addition rate on a bagasse fibre-CPAM
system was explored. Figure 4.21 shows that for a pulp slurry containing 0.1%
fibre and 0.05% CPAM, the optimum addition rate of bentonite was around
0.06%. A high level of shear (1500 rpm) was used to compare the effect of the
level of bentonite. Above this addition level, bentonite is in excess and not
attached to the fibre flocs.
141
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
100%
90%
80% 0.05% Percol 182 (CPAM)
in all samples
70%
Fines Retention
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
Whole bagasse pulp, 1500 rpm
0%
0.0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0.8% 1.0% 1.2% 1.4% 1.6%
Bentonite addition (on dry fibre)
Figure 4.21 The effect of bentonite addition rate on the fines retention of a
whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53) with 0.05% CPAM added.
142
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
100%
60%
40%
Whole bagasse pulp
Whole bagasse pulp + 0.05% CPAM
20% Whole bagasse pulp + 0.05%CPAM +0.06% bentonite
Whole bagasse pulp + 0.05%CPAM + 0.3% bentonite
0%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.22 The effect of shear, CPAM and bentonite addition rate on the
fines retention of a whole bagasse pulp.
The addition of (i) 0.05% CPAM and (ii) 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
was then tested on the benchmark ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58).
Depithed bagasse pulp has better drainage properties than whole bagasse pulp as
shown in (section 4.3). Figure 4.23 shows that depithed bagasse pulp had the
same response to chemical additives as the whole bagasse pulp. The addition of
0.05% CPAM improved fines retention and was enhanced by the addition of
0.06% of bentonite.
143
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
100%
80%
Fines retention
60%
0%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.23 The effect of shear, CPAM and bentonite addition rate on the
fines retention of a ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58).
The effect of CPAM and bentonite on bagasse pulp derived from the
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56), which has high permeability, was performed
(Figure 4.24). The addition of CPAM and CPAM & bentonite on the ‘coarse’
bagasse pulp mirrored the results for the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp and the
whole bagasse pulp.
144
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
100%
80%
Fines retention
60%
40%
'Coarse' bagasse pulp
0%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.24 The effect of shear CPAM and bentonite addition rate on the
fines retention of a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp.
100%
80%
Fines retention
60%
40%
Medium bagasse pulp
20% Medium bagasse pulp + 0.05% CPAM
Figure 4.25 The effect of shear, CPAM and bentonite addition rate on the
fines retention of a ‘medium’ bagasse pulp.
145
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
100%
90%
80%
70%
Fines retention
60%
50%
40%
30% Whole bagasse pulp
Not Tappi method-
20% 0kPa vacuum 100% of water is
20kPa vacuum removed
10%
40kPa vacuum
0%
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.26 The effect of vacuum and shear on the fines retention of a
whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53), no chemical additives.
The time taken for the DDJ to drain was measured as a function of vacuum.
The drainage time decreased quickly as the first 10 kPa of vacuum were applied
(Figure 4.27). The data in Figure 4.27 was collected at a single moderate level of
shear. The stirrer speed was set to 1000 rpm.
146
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
100% 200
Read from left hand axis
90% 180
80% 160
70% 140
Figure 4.27 The effect of vacuum on the fines retention and drainage time
of a whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53), 1000 rpm shear, no
chemical additives.
The experiment was repeated for ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58,
Figure 4.28), ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56, Figure 4.29) and ‘medium’
bagasse pulp (Sample 60, Figure 4.30). In these experiments, the effect of
chemical additives was also investigated as a function of vacuum. The chemicals
added were 0.05% CPAM and 0.06% bentonite.
147
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
100% 100
90% Read from left hand axis 90
80% 80
Figure 4.28 The effect of vacuum and chemical additives on the fines
retention and drainage time of a ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp
(Sample 58), 1000 rpm shear.
100% 100
90% Read from left hand axis 90
80% 80 Drainage time (s)
70% 70
Fines retention
60% 60
50% 50
40% Read from right hand axis 40
30% 30
20% 20
10% 10
0% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Vacuum kPa
Fines retention no additives Fines retention 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
Figure 4.29 The effect of vacuum and chemical additives on the fines
retention and drainage time of a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample
56), 1000 rpm shear.
148
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
100% 100
90% 90
Read left right hand axis
80% 80
Figure 4.30 The effect of vacuum and chemical additives on the fines
retention and drainage time of a ‘medium’ bagasse pulp
(Sample 60), 1000 rpm shear.
For each bagasse pulp examined, the CPAM/bentonite system improved the
retention of fines and the drainage time.
149
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
100% 100
90% 90
Read from left hand axis
80% 80
60% 60
No additives
50% 50
40% 40
Read from right hand axis
30% 30
20% 20
10% 10
0% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Vacuum kPa
Fines retention 'Coarse bagasse' Test 56 no additives Fines retention 'Depithed bagasse' Test 58 no additives
Drainage time 'Coarse bagasse' Test 56 no additives Drainage time 'Depithed bagasse' Test 58 no additives
Figure 4.31 The effect of vacuum on the fines retention and drainage time
of ‘coarse’ (Sample 56) and ‘30% depithed’ (Sample 58)
bagasse pulp, 1000 rpm shear, no flocculants added.
This effect was exacerbated when chemical additives were used (0.05%
CPAM and 0.06% bentonite). At 5 kPa, the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp had
faster drainage than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp.
150
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
100% 100
95% 90
Read from left hand axis
90% 80
Drainage time 'Coarse bagasse' with additives Drainage time 'Depithed bagasse' with additives
Figure 4.32 The effect of vacuum on the fines retention and drainage time
of ‘coarse’ (Sample 56) and ‘30% depithed’ (Sample 58)
bagasse pulp, 1000 rpm shear, with flocculants added.
It was anticipated that the drainage time of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp under
vacuum and shear conditions would be quicker than the ‘depithed’ bagasse pulp
based on its substantially lower Sv alone (~4600 cm-1 for ‘30% depithed’ bagasse
pulp compared to ~1500 cm-1 for ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp). This affect was also
observed for ‘medium’ bagasse pulp. Fibre to fibre interactions during
compression evidently plays an important role during bagasse pulp pad formation
in the DDJ. This is explored further in the next section.
The study into the permeability properties of bagasse pulp was revisited
using the CPAM/bentonite additive system. The experimental procedure used in
section 3.4 was repeated with the exception that the chemical additives were
added to the pulp slurry prior to loading into the cell. Figure 4.33 and Figure 4.34
show the graph of (Kc2)1/3 against c for a ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp
respectively. As can be observed from the figures, there was not found to be a
151
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
0.0018
0.0016
0.0014
0.0012
2 1/3
0.001
(Kc )
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
Sample 43 no additives
0.0002 Sample 43 with additives
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Concentration, c (g/cm3)
152
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
0.0016
0.0014
0.0012
0.001
2 1/3
(Kc )
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
Sample 18 no additives
0.0002 Sample 18 with additives
Linear (Sample 18 no additives)
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Concentration, c (g/cm3)
The effect of additives was significant for a ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp
(Sample 58), see Figure 4.35. ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp had higher
permeability when chemical additives were used, although the permeability was
still lower than that of eucalypt (without additives). This was confirmed at a 95%
confidence interval.
153
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
0.0014
0.0012
0.001
0.0008
2 1/3
(Kc )
0.0006
0.0004
The results for Sv and are shown in Table 4.19. The chemical additives
had a strong affect on the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp, greatly reducing its Sv but
not on the ‘coarse’ or ‘medium’ bagasse pulp. There was not found to be any
statistically significant difference in for any bagasse pulp sample using a 95%
confidence interval.
154
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
155
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
156
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
Typical results for the steady-state compressibility test are shown in Table
4.20. The results were duplicated using other pulp samples (Sample 26, a ‘coarse’
bagasse pulp and Sample 42, a ‘medium’ bagasse pulp). The only statistically
significant result is that the chemical additives system affected the ‘depithed’
bagasse pulp compressibility parameters by increasing both M and N.
157
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
The dynamic filtration tests in section 3.6 were revisited to look at the effect
of chemical additives. The results for ‘coarse’ pulp (Sample 43), ‘medium’ pulp
(Sample 18) and ‘30% depithed’ pulp (Sample 58) are shown in Figure 4.39.
Similar results for the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulps were obtained using Sample
26 (a ‘coarse’ pulp) and Sample 42 (a ‘medium’ pulp).
158
100
80
70
'Medium' pulp
Pressure (kPa)
60
50 'Coarse' pulp
40
30
20
10
'Coarse' bagasse pulp (Sample 43) no additives 'Coarse' bagasse pulp (Sample 43) with additives
'Medium' bagasse pulp (Sample 18) no additives 'Medium' bagasse pulp (Sample 18) with additives
'Depithed' bagasse pulp, (Sample 58) no additives 'Depithed' bagasse pulp (Sample 58) with additives
Figure 4.39 The effect of chemical additives on the dynamic filtration of ‘depithed’, ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp.
159
159
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Let us now re-examine the finding in section 4.6.2 where the ‘30%
depithed’ bagasse pulp had faster drainage under vacuum in the modified DDJ
than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp, particularly when chemical additives were used.
The possible mechanisms for consolidation of compressible fibrous media are
(from 102):
1. Fibre collapse
2. Bending of fibres & fibre realignment
3. Breaking of fibres
The Australian bagasse fibres are very rigid and significant fibre collapse
was not observed in the microscopy study. Fibre breakage is not occurring due to
the high repeatability of the permeability and compressibility experiments. This
leaves the bending of fibres and fibre realignment.
In the initial stages of pad formation, without chemical additives, the pith
fibres roam freely and block pores in the pulp pad. With chemical additives, the
pith is attached to the longer fibres and are held back in suspension slightly
160
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
allowing a more porous pad during pad formation. Under the dynamic conditions
in the DDJ, as vacuum increased, the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp pad
consolidated better than the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulp samples. Under the
dynamic conditions in the compression cell, the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulp
samples filtered more easily.
It was found that addition of 0.05% CPAM (as Ciba Percol 182) and 0.06%
modified bentonite (as Ciba Hydracol ONZ) improved the retention of bagasse
pulp fines over a wide range of shear using a DDJ.
Applying vacuum to the DDJ had the effect of dramatically reducing the
drainage time. Every bagasse pulp benefitted from the addition of the flocculants
in the DDJ, as measured by reduced drainage time and increased fines retention, at
any level of vacuum.
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
For initially unnetworked suspensions, and the conditions that occur in the
DDJ, the fastest drainage rate was achieved by a standard depithing regime
practiced by industry (i.e. removal of 30% of the shortest fibres) using high levels
of vacuum and chemical additives. These conditions most closely resemble those
of a Fourdrinier former rather than a Twin-wire former. The lower WRV of the
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp indicates that it would dry more quickly.
162
Chapter 5 - Conclusions
Chapter 5
Conclusions
A study of bagasse pulp was motivated by the possibility of making highly
value-added products from bagasse for the financial benefit of sugarcane millers
and growers. In Australia, there is a perception that bagasse pulp always has poor
filtration characteristics which results in slower paper production compared to
local eucalypt pulp. Surprisingly, there has previously been very little rigorous
investigation into bagasse pulp permeability and compressibility. Only freeness
testing of bagasse pulp has been published in the open literature. Consequently,
this study focussed on improving the filtration properties of bagasse pulp pads.
This study investigated three options for improving the permeability and
compressibility properties of Australian bagasse pulp pads. Firstly, the effect of
the bagasse size, whether ‘coarse’ or ‘medium’ fractions, was considered. The
effect of the mode of juice extraction, whether from a mill or a diffuser, was
determined. Finally the effectiveness of chemical additives, which are known to
improve freeness of pulp slurries, was assessed.
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
rigs. These parameters were used as inputs for a dynamic filtration model which
more accurately represents industrial paper manufacture. The filtration model was
developed with a view to assist with the development of specialised bagasse pulp
processing equipment. The predicted results of the dynamic model were
compared to experimental data.
The specific surface area, Sv, for eucalypt pulp was consistent with the
findings of previous workers. The benchmark Australian bagasse pulp had worse
permeability than the eucalypt pulp which is in harmony with the conventional
wisdom which holds that bagasse pulp normally has poor permeability properties.
Australian pulp derived from the ‘coarse’ bagasse fraction had higher
steady-state permeability than the ‘medium’ fraction as measured by the specific
surface area, Sv. However, there was not found to be a difference in bagasse pulp
steady-state permeability between bagasse pulp from a diffuser or a mill.
164
Chapter 5 - Conclusions
The values for the swelling factor, Į, were similar for the bagasse pulp
samples and the eucalypt pulp which were all within the ranges reported by
previous workers for wood pulp.
For bagasse pulp, a variable Kozeny factor, k, resulted in a higher value for
Į and a lower value for Sv compared with a constant k. This was similar to the
findings obtained for wood pulps reported by Ingmanson (81).
The dynamic model was particularly accurate for bagasse pulp, provided at
least some pith was removed. The Kozeny-Carman permeability model allowed
the dynamic model to give excellent predictions when a variable Kozeny factor
was used (Equation 2.12), rather than a constant Kozeny factor.
165
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
experiments showed that there was a small improvement in permeability for the
‘medium’ bagasse pulp.
For initially unnetworked suspensions, and the conditions found in the DDJ
which is similar to Fourdrinier forming, the fastest drainage rate was achieved by
a standard depithing regime practiced by industry (i.e. removal of 30% of the
shortest fibres) using a significant level of vacuum and chemical additives.
However, the lower WRV of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp indicates that it would dry
more quickly.
The physical properties of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp were compared to the
benchmark Australian bagasse pulp. The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp had significantly
improved initial freeness, tear properties and WRV of the pulp. However, the
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp did not have higher tensile strength or burst properties and
had slightly worse apparent density and compressive strength. Also, refining did
not significantly improve any strength property. The bagasse pulp had acceptable
physical properties for the production of generic versions of each paper grade
considered (i.e. photocopier papers, tissues and packaging), by comparison with
Indian bagasse pulp.
In summary, this study has shown that bagasse pulp can be produced with
pulp pad permeability properties that are superior to eucalypt pulp, contrary to
conventional wisdom. The high permeability arises from the stiff pulp fibres and
the high proportion of longer fibres creating an open matrix. Given its higher
pulp pad permeability, ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp could be used for a range of
applications where its properties are superior to conventional bagasse pulp.
166
Chapter 5 - Conclusions
A dynamic filtration model was developed and verified for bagasse pulp at
ambient conditions. This model will be a valuable tool for assisting the
development of pulp processing equipment that is specially designed for
processing bagasse pulp. This work could be conducted as a further study.
The issues which are preventing the development of a bagasse pulp industry
in Australia (outlined in section 1.1.3) are (i) the poor filtration properties of
bagasse pulp, (ii) the poor physical strength properties, (iii) high capital cost and
167
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
(iv) the remoteness of cane farms to existing pulp mills. For the first issue, there
has recently been significant progress made to improve the filtration properties of
bagasse pulp as outlined in this thesis and also by El-Sharkawy and co-workers
(50, 64). For the second issue, hopefully pulp strength will be improved by
breeding more appropriate cane varieties and changing the juice extraction
method in alignment with the work by Gartside and coworkers (28, 51, 65). For
the third issue, technologies that reduce the capital cost of a bagasse pulp mill
should be explored.
168
References
References
169
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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hyaluronic acid and its contribution to tissue permeability, Biorheology
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Mem. Acad. Sci. Inst. France 6: 389-440 (1822).
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Flocculated Suspensions, AIChE J. 41(7): 1687-1700 (1995).
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flocculated suspensions by pressure filtration, Physics of fluids A 3(6):
1495-1509 (1991).
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Porous-Media .2. Dynamic Behavior, AIChE J. 38(9): 1349-1356
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Porous-Media .1. Steady-State Conditions, AIChE J. 38(9): 1340-1348
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Optimising simulated commercial paper for pulp quality analysis.,
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
180
References
181
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
Appendix A
Supplementary material for
dynamic filtration modeling
183
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
dh
1D assumption; u (velocity of fibres) = v (velocity of water) = at the top
dt
platen
dφ d(1−φ)v
− − =0 (C.1.2)
dt dx
(C.1.1)+(C.1.2)
δ(φu) d(1−φ)v
+
δx dx =0
δ[φu+(1−φ)v]
=0
δx
→φu+(1−φ)v=c(t)
where c(t) is a constant.
dh
sub in Boundary Condition: at x=h(t),u=v=−
dt
dh dh
→−φ −(1−φ) =c(t)
dt dt
dh
c(t)=−
dt
184
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
dh
→φu+(1−φ)v=−
dt
Momentum balance
Fibres:
Du
ρsφ
Dt =−φ∇Pf−∇Ps+∇⋅(φτs)+ρsφg+m (C.1.3)
Du
=0
Dt
as inertia not significant
g→ 0
as gravity effects insignificant
τs=0
as shear effects insignificant Fluid:
Dv
ρfφ =−(1−φ)∇Pf+∇⋅[(1−φ)τf]+ρfφg−m (C.1.4)
Dt
(C.1.3)+(C.1.4)
0=−φ∇Pf+∇Ps
in 1-D
dPf dPs
+ =0
dx dx
which is Terzaghi’s principle.
d(Pf+Ps)
=0
dx
Pf+Ps=c(t)
At bottom Ps=σ(t) since Pf=0 at x=0 recall
m=(1−φ)α(φ)(u−v)
back to equation (C.1.4)
−(1−φ)∇Pf−m=0
dPf
=α(φ)(u−v) (C.1.5)
dx
sub (C.1.5) into (C.1.3)
185
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
dPs
0=−φα(φ)(u−v)−
dx +(1−φ)α(φ)(u−v)
dPs
0=−(1−φ)
dx +α(φ)[(1−φ)u−(1−φ)v]
recall
dh
φu+(1−φ)v=−
dt
so
dPs dh
0=−(1−φ) +α(φ)[(1−φ)u+ +φu]
dx dt
dPs dh
→(1−φ) =α(φ)[u+ ]
dx dt
(1−φ) dPs dh
− =u
α(φ) dx dt
recall (C.1.1) is
dφ δφu
dt − δx =0
eliminate u
1−φ dPs dh
dφ[ − ]
dφ α(φ) dx dt
− =0
dt dx
dφ d φ(1−φ) dPs dh dφ
dt = dx α(φ) dx + dt dx
µ
use fitting model α(φ)=
K(φ)
and recall
Ps=MφN
dPs
f'(φ)=
dφ
dPs dPs dφ
dx = dφ dx
186
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
dPs dφ
→ =f'(φ)
dx dx
so
dφ d φ(1−φ)K(φ)f'(φ) dφ dh dφ
dt dx
dx dt dx
= +
µ
let
φ(1−φ)K(φ)f'(φ)
D(φ)=
µ
dφ d dφ dh dφ
=
D(φ) − (C.1.6)
dt dx dx dt dt
(C.1.6) is the governing equation
recall
(1−φ) dPs dh
u= −
α(φ) dx dt
(1−φ) dφ dh
= f'(φ) −
α(φ) dx dt
Boundary condition 1
dh
x=h(t),u=−
dt
dh (1−φ) dφ dh
− = f'(φ) dx −
dt α(φ) dt
dφ
→
dx =0
Boundary condition 2
x=0, u=0
(1−φ) dφ dh
0= f'(φ) −
α(φ) dx dt
dφ dh α(φ)
→
dx = dt (1−φ)f'(φ)
187
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Where h0 is defined as the initial height of the platen above the base and u0
dh
is the speed of the platen (u0= )
dt
recall the governing equation in dimensional form
dφ d dφ dh dφ
dt = dx D(φ) dx − dt dx
we can immediately transform the spatial co-ordinates
dφ d D(φ) dφ u0 d φ
= − (C.2.1)
dt dX
(h −u t) dX h0−u0t dX
2
0 0
Firstly, we need to establish a couple of simple relations, by the chain rule
dφ δφ δX δφ δt
dx = δX δx + δt δx
δt
but at a constant rate =0 so
δx
δφ 1 δφ
= (C.2.2)
δx h0−u0t δX
also
δx
x=X(h0−u0t)→=−u0X (C.2.3)
δt
By the chain rule, the LHS of (1) becomes
188
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
δφ δφ δt* δφ δx
= +
δt δt* dt δx δt
substitute (C.2.2) and (C.2.3) and rearranging, the LHS of (C.2.1) reduces to
δφ u0 δφ u0 X δφ
= + (C.2.4)
δt h0 δt* h0 1−t* δX
substituting (4) into (3) and rearranging
u0 δφ d D(φ) dφ u0 1−X δφ
h0 δt dX
h02(1−t*)2 dX− h0 1−t* δX
*=
h0
Multiplying all terms by (1−t*)2 we get
u0
δφ δ D(φ) dφ δφ
(1−t*)2 *=
−(1−X)(1−t*)
δt δX u0h0 dX δX
φ(1−φ)K(φ)f'(φ)
by definition D(φ)= substituting the definitions of
µ
1 (1−φ)3
K(φ)= 2 2 and f'(φ)=MNφN−1 we get
kSv φ
NM
D(φ)= 2 (1−φ)4φN−2
µkSv uoh0
applying the definition of D*(φ) we end up with the non-dimensional
form of the governing equation
δφ δ * dφ δφ
(1−t*)2 *=
D (φ) −(1−X)(1−t*) (C.2.5)
δt δX dX δX
δφ
=0
δX
Boundary condition (2) at X = 0
δφ δh φ
=
δx δt D(φ)
189
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
1 δφ u0φ
=
h0−u0t δX u0h0D*(φ)
substituting the definition of t* and rearranging
δφ φ(1−t*)
=
δX D*(φ)
190
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
****************************************************************
*
* Tom Raineys pulp compression modelling program
* adapted from
* D03PCF Example Program Text
*
* VERSION 6: FINAL
*
* Assisted by Neil Kelson
*
* This version is used for bagasse pulp compression modelling
* by adjusting the parameters below
*
*
* To compare with experimental data need to specify PhiInit; Hinit; MPHI;
* NPHI; Sv; and DHDT.
* Generates two files: fort.21 (output for Ps) and fort.22 (output for phi)
*
****************************************************************
* .. Parameters ..
INTEGER NOUT
PARAMETER (NOUT=21)
INTEGER NPDE, NPTS, INTPTS, ITYPE, NEQN, NIW, NWK, NW
* PARAMETER
(NPDE=2,NPTS=20,INTPTS=6,ITYPE=1,NEQN=NPDE*NPTS,
* + NIW=NEQN+24,NWK=(10+6*NPDE)*NEQN,
* + NW=NWK+(21+3*NPDE)*NPDE+7*NPTS+54)
PARAMETER
(NPDE=1,NPTS=50,INTPTS=50,ITYPE=1,NEQN=NPDE*NPTS,
+ NIW=NEQN+24,NWK=(10+6*NPDE)*NEQN,
+ NW=NWK+(21+3*NPDE)*NPDE+7*NPTS+54)
191
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
* .. Data statements ..
XOUT(1) = 1.0D-6
DO 60 I = 2, 51
XOUT(I) = 0.02+XOUT(I-1)
60 CONTINUE
* .. Executable Statements ..
WRITE (NOUT,*) 'Raineys compression testing results - Ps'
WRITE (NOUT+1,*) 'Raineys compression testing results - PHI only'
ACC = 1.0D-6
M=0
ITRACE = 0
MPHI = 4774D+0
* MPHI unitless
NPHI = 2.4333D+0
* NPHI in Pa
PHIINIT = 0.025429D+0
* Typical value in compression experiments
IND = 0
ITASK = 1
*
* Set spatial mesh points
*
PIBY2 = 0.5D0*X01AAF(PI)
HX = PIBY2/(NPTS-1)
X(1) = 0.0D0
X(NPTS) = 1.0D+0
DO 20 I = 2, NPTS - 1
X(I) = SIN(HX*(I-1))
20 CONTINUE
*
* Set initial conditions
*
TS = 0.0D0
TOUT = 0.1D-5
* for testing - reduce TOUT step
192
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
* TOUT = 0.05D0
* Tom:
ILOOPS = 87
* Tom: Changed above line from 5 to 83 to get values of TOUT 0 to
* 0.83(=75mm/90mm at constant rate)
DO 40 IT = 1, ILOOPS
IFAIL = -1
TOUT = 0.01D0+TOUT
* Tom: Introduce a linear timestep
*
* Call the solver
CALL
D03PCF(NPDE,M,TS,TOUT,PDEDEF,BNDARY,U,NPTS,X,ACC,W,NW,IW
,
+ NIW,ITASK,ITRACE,IND,IFAIL)
*
* Interpolate solution at required spatial points
CALL
D03PZF(NPDE,M,U,NPTS,X,XOUT,INTPTS,ITYPE,UOUT,IFAIL)
40 CONTINUE
*
* Print integration statistics
*
WRITE (NOUT,99997) IW(1), IW(2), IW(3), IW(5)
STOP
*
99999 FORMAT (//' Accuracy requirement = ',D12.5,/
+ ' PHIINIT = ',D12.5,/
193
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
* .. declarations ..
INTEGER I, NPTS
DOUBLE PRECISION PHIINIT, MPHI, NPHI
DOUBLE PRECISION U(1,NPTS)
* .. common blocks..
COMMON /VBLE/PHIINIT,MPHI,NPHI
* .. Executable Statements ..
DO 20 I = 1, NPTS
U(1,I) = PHIINIT
20 CONTINUE
RETURN
END
****************************************************************
************
SUBROUTINE PDEDEF(NPDE,T,X,U,DUDX,P,Q,R,IRES)
* .. Scalar Arguments ..
DOUBLE PRECISION T, X
INTEGER IRES, NPDE
* .. Array Arguments ..
DOUBLE PRECISION DUDX(NPDE), P(NPDE,NPDE), Q(NPDE),
R(NPDE),
+ U(NPDE)
* .. Scalars in Common ..
DOUBLE PRECISION DPHI
DOUBLE PRECISION PHIINIT,MPHI, NPHI
DOUBLE PRECISION MU, KOZ, SV, DHDT, HINITIAL
* .. Common blocks ..
194
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
COMMON /VBLE/PHIINIT,MPHI,NPHI
* NPHI (-) and MPHI (Pa) are the exponent and pre-exponent for the
* compression correlation
* mu is the viscosity (Pa.s)
* koz is the variable kozeny factor (or set to 5.55)
* Sv is the specific surface area (m^-1)
* DHDT is the rate of the piston (m/s)
* HINITIAL is the initial height (m)
* Average Milled bagasse pulp MPHI
* Average Milled bagasse pulp NPHI
MU = 0.001D0
* Viscosity of water in Pa.s
KOZ = 3.5*((1-3.5*U(1))**3)*(1+(57*((3.5*U(1))**3)))/
+ ((3.5*U(1))**0.5)
* Koz can be set as constant k=5.55 if desired
SV = 191700D0
* SV as m-1; this value is for optimum for variable koz factor
DHDT = 4.1667D-4
* in m/s - 75 mm displacement over 3 MINS
HINITIAL = 0.073D0
* Initial height of the platen is 90mm, height in metres
* .. Executable Statements ..
DPHI = MPHI*NPHI*((1-U(1))**4)*((U(1))**(NPHI-2))
+ /(MU*KOZ*SV*SV*DHDT*HINITIAL)
Q(1) = -(1-X)*(1-T)*DUDX(1)
R(1) = DPHI*DUDX(1)
P(1,1) = (1-T)*(1-T)
RETURN
END
****************************************************************
************
SUBROUTINE BNDARY(NPDE,T,U,UX,IBND,BETA,GAMMA,IRES)
* .. Scalar Arguments ..
DOUBLE PRECISION T
INTEGER IBND, IRES, NPDE
* .. Array Arguments ..
DOUBLE PRECISION BETA(NPDE), GAMMA(NPDE), U(NPDE),
UX(NPDE)
* .. Executable Statements ..
IF (IBND.EQ.0) THEN
BETA(1) = 1.0D+0
GAMMA(1) = -U(1)*(1-T)
195
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
ELSE
BETA(1) = 1.0D+0
GAMMA(1) = 0.0D+0
END IF
RETURN
END
196
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
197
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
198
198
Appendix A - Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
199
199
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
200
200
Appendix A - Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
201
201
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
202
202
Appendix B
Summary of pulp samples
203
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Sample 11 14/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 40 0.4436 21.9 4.68%
Sample 12 14/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 55 0.4783 19.6 4.58%
Sample 13 14/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 70 0.4644 16.1 2.31%
Sample 14 16/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 6 0.5031 23.7 7.48%
Sample 15 16/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 12 0.4953 27.7 7.60%
Sample 16 16/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 18 0.4953 26.6 5.41%
Sample 17 16/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 24 0.4837 25.1 7.45%
Sample 18 16/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 30 0.4698 23.7 5.71%
Sample 19 16/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 30 0.4896 21.7 3.47%
Sample 20 17/11/2006 Diffuser Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5678 26.7 2.98%
Sample 21 17/11/2006 Diffuser Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5615 26 3.62%
Sample 23 17/11/2006 Diffuser Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5201 22.7 5.93%
Sample 24 17/11/2006 Diffuser Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5419 24.6 5.38%
Sample 26 20/11/2006 Mill Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5467 26.2 3.70%
Sample 27 20/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5098 24.3 6.07%
Sample 29 20/11/2006 Mill Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5354 26 5.57%
Sample 30 20/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5117 24.1 6.38%
Sample 31 20/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5061 22.9 6.13%
Sample 32 21/11/2006 Ledesma Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.6180* 22.5 4.47%
Sample 33 21/11/2006 Mill Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5440 25.1 4.22%
Sample 34 21/11/2006 Mill Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5469 25.4 5.31%
Sample 35 21/11/2006 Diffuser Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5075 23.9 6.36%
Sample 36 21/11/2006 Diffuser Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.4843 23.9 9.58%
Sample 37 21/11/2006 Ledesma Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 *Combined with Sample 32
Sample 38 22/11/2006 Mill Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5456 23.6 3.76%
Sample 39 22/11/2006 Diffuser Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5145 22.3 4.49%
Sample 40 22/11/2006 Diffuser Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 Not recorded
Sample 41 22/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.4718 12.08%
Sample 42 22/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5082 22 3.98%
Sample 43 22/11/2006 Mill Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5238 24.6 4.21%
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Screened
Cooking Screened kappa %
Sample name Cook date Origin Fraction Reactor type Cooking conditions time yield number rejects
(min) (-) (-) (%)
12.5% Na2O, 14:1 liq fibre, 170 deg, 105 minutes, no
Sample 52 17/07/2007 Mill Whole bagasse Large Parr Reactor AQ 105 0.5260 40 0.24%
15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 105 mins, 170
Sample 53 19/07/2007 Mill Whole bagasse Large Parr Reactor deg 105 9.2
Sample 55 9/04/2008 Mill Medium Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 90 mins, 170 deg 90 0.4066 9.2 1.09%
Sample 56 14/04/2008 Mill Coarse Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 60 mins, 170 deg 60 0.4924 16.2 5.09%
Sample 57 16/04/2008 Mill Coarse Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 90 mins, 170 deg 90 0.4910 10.3 2.80%
Sample 58 23/04/2008 Mill 30% depithed Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 60 mins, 170 deg 60 0.4068 14.3 8.07%
Wood pulps
Eucalyptus Globulus Ensis Air-bath reactor 11.75% Na2O, 25% sulfidity, 165 deg 120 19
Pinus Radiata APPI Air-bath reactor 20
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Appendix C-Supplementary photographs of experimental work
Appendix C
Supplementary photographs of
experimental work
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Figure C.1 Photograph of bagasse packed into a cage ready for insertion
into a ‘flow-through’ reactor cell.
Top flange
Packed bagasse
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Appendix C-Supplementary photographs of experimental work
Serpentine
cooling coils
Figure C.3 Photograph of the inside of the unloaded 18.5 L Parr reactor.
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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Appendix D
Table of Students t distribution
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Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
The point tabulated is t, where P(tv>t)=p and tv has Student’s t-distribution with
v degrees of freedom.
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Appendix E
Fibre length data of pulp sample
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214
30%
58 Milled depithed 5857 0.965 17.45
60 Milled Medium 4573 1.149 11.1
214
Appendix F
Engineering drawings of compression
cell
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Thomas J. Rainey - A study of bagasse pulp filtration
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Appendix F - Engineering drawings of compression cell
217
First angle
projection
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Thomas J. Rainey - A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Third angle
projection
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218
Appendix F - Engineering drawings of compression cell
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Thomas J. Rainey - A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Third angle
projection
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Appendix F - Engineering drawings of compression cell
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Third angle
projection
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