Science and Scope of Biology will grow up to exhibit many of the

same characterictics as its parents.

What is Biology?
• Increase in cell size (unicellular) and/or
• The study of life
an increase in cell number
• The science of living things (multicellular)

Origins of word “biology” Reproduction

• Biology (Greek or Latin origin) • Is a single-celled organism reproduce by

first duplicating their DNA, and then
• Bios = life dividing it equally as the cells prepares
• Logos = study of to divide to form two new cells.

Characteristics of Life • Asexual- cell division (mitosis)—one cell

becomes two Ex: bacteria
1. Cellular composition
• Sexual- union of sex cells (sperm and
2. Growth egg) Ex: plants and animals
3. Reproduction Movement
4. Movement • 3 types:
5. Adaptation A. Place to Place- (ex: bear running, bird
6. Metabolism flying, etc)

7. Specific organization B. External Part- (ex: + phototropism,

8. Homeostasis
9. Responsiveness
Cellular Composition
• Made up of at least one cell
• Unicellular - made of one cell (bacteria,
amoeba, paramecium)
• Multicellular - made up of two or more
cells (plants, fungi, animals)
Growth
 Organism grows and develop following
specific instructions coded for by their
genes
plants orient leaves toward sun)
C. Internal- (ex: cytoplasmic streaming)
Adaptation
• Changing to meet the needs of the
environment
Examples:
1. Bird migration- behavioral adaptation
2. Human body temperature- Physiological
adaptation
3. Hibernation- physiological adaptation
4. Hare ear length (desert vs. arctic hares)-
structural adaptation

 Theses genes provide instructions that

will direct cellular growth and
development, ensuring that a species
 Metabolism
• Is essentially a collection of chemical
reactions occurring within the body (or
Cell).
• Set of chemical reactions that convert
“food” into energy.
• Theses reactions vary in form and
function but promote processes such as
protein synthesis, chemical digestion,
cell division, or energy transformation.
Specific Organization
• Certain parts do specific jobs (ex: heart,
nucleus, chloroplasts, etc)
Homeostasis
• Is the term used to describe
maintaining a stable internal
environment.
• Maintaining the same state
• (in other words, our bodies maintain a
constant body temperature or how
blood sugar levels are consistent.
Homeo = same, steady
Stasis = state
Examples:
-Water balance inside and outside of cell
-Human body temperature
*Cells function best when these are in balance
Responsiveness
• Reaction(s) to various stimuli
(this is simply a reaction to an internal or
external force.)
Examples of stimuli: light, heat, pH, vibration,
smell, etc.– earthworms respond to all of these
Biology is a Unified Science
• Biology + Chemistry + Physics= Science
Branches of Biology
1. Zoology- the study of animals
2. Ichthyology- the study of fish
Why Important? Fish are indicator species.
Alert humans to potential environmental
problems
3. Mammalogy- study of mammals
4. Ornithology- the study of birds
bioaccumulation- the build up of
chemicals or toxins in living things
5. Botany- the study of plants
Why important? Food production,
medicines
6. Microbiology- study of small life
Why important?
Medicines, bioterrorism
7. Anatomy- study of an organism’s parts
8. Physiology- study of how organism’s
parts work
Why important? Health professions,
veterinarians
9. Entomology- study of insects
Why important? West Nile virus, Yellow
fever– carried by mosquitoes
10. Genetics- study of heredity and genetic
material (DNA/RNA, chromosomes,
genes)
Why important? Cloning, research,
solving crime
 11. Ecology- study of all life in a particular • His hobby was lens grinding
area, the relationships b/t those life
** He did NOT invent the microscope, he
forms and the environment
perfected microscope lenses
Why important? Overpopulation
• He was the first person to see:
Ozone Depletion/Greenhouse Effect
A. Bacteria
Rainforest Destruction
B. Protozoans
Pollution- other states pay to dump
C. Red blood cells
garbage
D. Sperm cells
12. Cell Biology- the study of cells
-He did NOT support spontaneous generation

Lister
Why Important?
• British
Need to know about cells to learn more
about whole organisms • Hospital conditions were dirty &
infectious
Biology Pioneers
• Used phenol as a disinfectant
Aristotle
• “Father of Aseptic Surgery”
-Greek (1st bio. teacher)
Fleming
“Father of Biology and Zoology”
• British
• Supported spontaneous generation
theory • Accidentally discovered first antibiotic
(penicillin)
• Created a theory of the elements
Salk
4 elements:
• Developed 1st polio vaccine injection
A. Earth B. Air
(1955)
C. Water D. Fire
Sabin
-1st person to start classifying organisms
• Developed oral polio vaccine (1959)
Hippocrates
• Vaccines are weakened forms of
• Greek disease that tricks body into making
antibodies
• “Father of Medicine”

• Hippocratic Oath for doctors (part of his

life-long legacy)

Leeuwenhoek

• Dutch
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientific method requires intelligence,
imagination, and creativity.
What is scientific method?
The scientific method is a tool that helps
scientists and the rest of us to solve problems
and determine answers to questions in a logical
format.
It provides step-by-step, general directions to
help us work through problems.
Scientific Method
Problem/Question
Observation/Research
Formulate a Hypothesis
Experiment
Collect and Analyze Results
Conclusion
Communicate the Results
Steps of the
Scientific Method
Problem/Question: Develop a question or
problem that can be solved through
experimentation.
Observation/Research: Make observations and
research your topic of interest.
Formulate a Hypothesis: Predict a possible
answer to the problem or question.
Experiment: Develop and follow a procedure.
Include a detailed materials list.
The outcome must be measurable
(quantifiable).
Collect and Analyze Results: Modify the
procedure if needed.
Confirm the results by retesting.
Include tables, graphs, and photographs.
Conclusion: Include a statement that accepts or
rejects the hypothesis.
Make recommendations for further study and
possible improvements to the procedure.
Communicate the Results: Be prepared to
present the project to an audience.
Expect questions from the audience.
The Chemical Basis of Life
Basic principles of chemistry
It is important for us to understand the basic
principles of chemistry so we can understand
how the human body is organized
Elements
• Matter —anything that has mass and
occupies space
• Element—simple form of matter, a
substance that cannot be broken down
into two or more different substances
– There are 26 elements in the
human body
– There are 11 “major elements,”
four of which (carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, and nitrogen) make
up 96% of the human body
– There are 15 “trace elements”
that make up less than 2% of
body weight
Compounds
• Compound—atoms of two or more
elements joined to form chemical
combinations
• List some compounds that are made up
in your body.
Atoms
• Atomic structure—atoms contain
several different kinds of subatomic
particles; the most important are the
following:
– Protons (+ or p)—positively
charged subatomic particles
found in the nucleus
– Neutrons (n)—neutral
subatomic particles found in
the nucleus
– Electrons (– or e)—negatively
charged subatomic particles
found in the electron cloud
Atomic Number
• The number of protons
in an atom’s nucleus
• The atomic number is
critically important; it
identifies the kind of
element
Atomic Weight
• The mass of a single
atom
• It is equal to the
number of protons plus
the number of neutrons
in the nucleus (p + n)
Basic Chemistry
• Energy levels
– The total number of electrons
in an atom equals the number
of protons in the nucleus
(in a stable atom)
– The electrons form a “cloud”
around the nucleus
– Isotopes
– Isotopes of an element contain
the same number of protons
but contain different numbers
of neutrons
– Isotopes have the same atomic
number, and therefore the
same basic chemical properties,
as any other atom of the same
element, but they have a
different atomic weight
Molecules and Compounds
– Molecule—two or more atoms
joined together
– Compound—consists of
molecules formed by atoms of
two or more elements
Three types of bonds
• Covalent—formed by sharing of
electron pairs between atoms
• Ionic—formed by transfer of electrons;
strong electrostatic force that binds
positively and negatively charged ions
together
• Hydrogen---much weaker than ionic or
covalent bonds results from unequal
charge distribution on molecules
Three chemical reaction in human physiology
• There are three main chemical
reactions in human physiology:
1) Synthesis reaction
2) Decomposition reaction
3) Exchange reaction
Synthesis reaction
• Synthesis reaction—
combining of two or
more substances to
form a more complex
substance; formation of
new chemical bonds: A
+ B → AB
Example:
Amino Acid + Amino Acid → Protein
( combination of sodium chloride (Na) and
Chlorine (Cl) to produce sodium chloride (NaCl)
Decomposition reaction
• Decomposition
reaction—breaking
down of a substance
into two or more
simpler substances;
breaking of chemical
bonds: AB → A + B
• Example:
ATP → ADP + P + Energy (Heat)
(adenosine tri phosphate – adenosine
diphosphate + phosphate + energy (heat)
- It is the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to
water and breakdown of water to hydrogen and
oxygen.
Exchange reaction
• Exchange reaction—
decomposition of two
substances and, in
exchange, synthesis of
two new compounds
from them: AB + CD →
AD + CB
Example:
H*Lactate + NaHCO3 → Na*Lactate + H*HCO3
Metabolism
• Metabolism—all of the chemical
reactions that occur in body cells
• There are two types of metabolism:
-Catabolism
-Anabolism
• Catabolism
– Chemical reactions that break
down complex compounds into
simpler ones and release
energy; hydrolysis is a common
catabolic reaction
– Ultimately, the end products of
catabolism are carbon dioxide,
water, and other waste
products
– More than half the energy
released is transferred to ATP,
which is then used to do cellular
work
• Anabolism
– Chemical reactions that join
simple molecules together to
form more complex molecules
– Chemical reaction responsible
for anabolism is dehydration
synthesis
Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
• Organic molecules is a compound that
contains carbon—specifically C-C or
C-H bond
• Inorganic compounds—few have
carbon atoms and none have C–C or C–
H bonds
 • Inorganic compounds—few have
carbon atoms and none have C–C or C–
H bonds
Inorganic Compounds
• Water
– The body’s most abundant and
important compound
– Properties of water
• Polarity—allows water
to act as an effective
solvent; ionizes
substances in solution
• The solvent allows
transportation of
essential materials
throughout the body
Properties of water
– Polarity—allows water to act as
an effective solvent; ionizes
substances in solution
– The solvent allows
transportation of essential
materials throughout the body
– High specific heat—water can
lose and gain large amounts of
heat with little change in its
own temperature; enables the
body to maintain a relatively
constant temperature
– High heat of vaporization—
water requires absorption of
significant amounts of heat to
change water from a liquid to a
gas, allowing the body to
dissipate excess heat
– Oxygen and carbon dioxide—closely
related to cellular respiration
– Oxygen—required to complete
decomposition reactions
necessary for the release of
energy in the body
– Carbon dioxide—produced as a
waste product, also helps
maintain the appropriate acid-
base balance in the body
– Electrolytes
– Large group of inorganic compounds,
which includes acids, bases, and salts
– Substances that dissociate in solution to
form ions
– Positively charged ions are cations;
negatively charged ions are anions
– Acids and bases—common and
important chemical substances that are
chemical opposites
– Acids
– Any substance that releases a hydrogen
ion (H+) when in solution; “proton
donor”
– Level of “acidity” depends on the
number of hydrogen ions a particular
acid will release
– Bases
– Electrolytes that dissociate to yield
hydroxide ions (OH–)
or other electrolytes that combine with
hydrogen ions (H+)
– Described as “proton acceptors”
Organic Compounds
• There are 4 major organic compounds
that are important to humans:
 Macromolecules:
1) Carbohydrates
2) Proteins
3) Lipids
4) Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates
• There are three main carbohydrates:
1) Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
2) Disaccharides (double sugars)
3) Polysaccharides (complex sugars)
4) Carbohydrates—organic compounds
containing carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen; commonly called sugars and
starches
1) Monosaccharides—simple
sugars with short carbon chains;
those with six carbons are
hexoses (e.g., glucose), whereas
those with five are pentoses
(e.g., ribose, deoxyribose)
2) Disaccharides and
polysaccharides—two (di-) or
more (poly-) simple sugars that
are bonded together through a
synthesis reaction
Proteins
– Most abundant organic
compounds
– Chainlike polymers
– Amino acids—building blocks of
proteins
• Essential amino acids—
eight amino acids that
cannot be produced by
the human body
• Nonessential amino
acids—12 amino acids
can be produced from
molecules available in
the human body
• Amino acids consist of a
carbon atom, an amino
group, a carboxyl
group, a hydrogen
atom, and a side chain
Organic Molecules
• Lipids
– Water-insoluble organic
molecules that are critically
important biological
compounds
– Major roles:
• Energy source
• Structural role
• Integral parts of cell
membranes
Lipids
Triglycerides, or fats
• Most abundant lipids
and most concentrated
source of energy
• The building blocks of
triglycerides are
glycerol (the same for
each fat molecule) and
fatty acids (different for
each fat, they
determine its chemical
nature)
– Types of fatty
acids—
saturated fatty
 acid (all
available bonds
are filled) and
unsaturated
fatty acid (has
one or more
double bonds)
– Triglycerides
are formed by a
dehydration
synthesis
• Phospholipids
• Fat compounds similar
to triglyceride
• One end of the
phospholipid is water-
soluble (hydrophilic);
the other end is fat-
soluble (hydrophobic)
• Base pairs hold the two chains
• Phospholipids can join
two different chemical
• DNA functions as the molecule
environments
• Phospholipids may form
• RNA (ribonucleic acid) (Figure 2-
double layers called
bilayers that make up
cell membranes
• Steroids
• Main component is
steroid nucleus
• Involved in many
structural and
functional roles
Nucleic acids
• There are two types of nucleic acids:
• 1) DNA
• 2) RNA
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• Composed of
deoxyribonucleotides;
that is, structural units
composed of the
pentose sugar
(deoxyribose),
phosphate group, and
nitrogenous base
(cytosine, thymine,
guanine, or adenine)
• DNA molecule consists
of two long chains of
deoxyribonucleotides
coiled into double-helix
shape
• Alternating deoxyribose
and phosphate units
form backbone of the
chains
of DNA molecule together
of heredity
29, Table 2-7)
• Composed of the
pentose sugar (ribose),
phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base
• Nitrogenous bases for
RNA are adenine, uracil,
guanine, or cytosine
(uracil replaces
thymine)
• Some RNA molecules
are temporary copies of
segments (genes) of the
DNA code and are
involved in synthesizing
proteins
 • Some RNA molecules 2. Amylase – helps change starches into
are regulatory, acting as sugar
enzymes (ribozymes) or
3. Maltase – also found in Saliva; breaks
silencing gene
the sugar maltose into glucose
expression
(RNA interference) 4. Trypsin – found in the small intestine,
breaks proteins down into amino acids.
Similarities and Difference of DNA and
RNA 5. Lactase – also found in the small
intestine, breaks lactose, the sugar in
• Have similar nucleotides:
milk, into glucose and galactose.
Adenine (A)
6. Acetylcholineterase – breaks down the
Guanine (G) neurotransmitter acetylcholine in
nerves and muscles.
Cytosine (C)
7. Helicase – unravels DNA
• Differences:
8. DNA Polymerase – synthesize DNA from
-Double helix vs. single helix
deoxyribonucleotides.
-Ribose sugar vs. deoxyribose sugar

-RNA has a nucleotide of Uracil and

DNA has a nucleotide of thymine
Energy
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- transfers
energy from one chemical pathway to
another. It is composed of one adenine
molecule and three phosphate
molecules.
• ENZYMES
• -are biological molecules (typically
proteins) that significantly speed up the
rate of virtually all of the chemical
reactions that take place within cells.
What do enzymes do?
The digestive system – enzymes help the body
break down larger complex molecules into
smaller molecules, such as glucose, so that the
body can use them as fuel.
DNA replication – each cell in your body
contains DNA. Each time a cell divides, that DNA
needs to be copied. Enzymes help in this
process by unwinding the DNA coils and copying
the information.
Liver enzymes – the liver breaks down toxins in
the body. To do this, it uses a range of enzymes.

• - They are vital for life and serve a

wide range of important functions in
the body, such as aiding in digestion
and metabolism

Examples of specific Enzymes

1. Lipases – a group of enzymes that help

digest fats in the gut