What is resistor?

Resistor - is an electrical component that reduces the electric current.

The resistor's ability to reduce the current is called resistance and is measured in units of ohms (symbol: Ω).
If we make an analogy to water flow through pipes, the resistor is a thin pipe that reduces the water flow.
A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit. Resistors can
also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active device such as a transistor.

All other factors being equal, in a direct-current (DC) circuit, the current through a resistor is inversely proportional to
its resistance, and directly proportional to the voltage across it. This is the well-known Ohm's Law. In alternating-current
(AC) circuits, this rule also applies as long as the resistor does not contain inductance or capacitance.

Resistors can be fabricated in a variety of ways. The most common type in electronic devices and systems is the carbon-
composition resistor. Fine granulated carbon (graphite) is mixed with clay and hardened. The resistance depends on the
proportion of carbon to clay; the higher this ratio, the lower the resistance.

Another type of resistor is made from winding Nichrome or similar wire on an insulating form. This component, called
a wirewound resistor, is able to handle higher currents than a carbon-composition resistor of the same physical size.
However, because the wire is wound into a coil, the component acts as an inductors as well as exhibiting resistance. This does
not affect performance in DC circuits, but can have an adverse effect in AC circuits because inductance renders the device
sensitive to changes in frequency.

What is resistance?

Resistance - is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.

Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω). Ohms are named after Georg Simon Ohm (1784-
1854), a German physicist who studied the relationship between voltage, current and resistance. He is credited for
formulating Ohm's Law.

It is represented by the uppercase letter R. The standard unit of resistance is the ohm, sometimes written out as a word, and
sometimes symbolized by the uppercase Greek letter omega:

When an electric current of one ampere passes through a component across which a potential difference (voltage) of
one volt exists, then the resistance of that component is one ohm. (For more discussion of the relationship among current,
resistance and voltage, see Ohm's law.)

In general, when the applied voltage is held constant, the current in a direct-current (DC) electrical circuit is inversely
proportional to the resistance. If the resistance is doubled, the current is cut in half; if the resistance is halved, the current is
doubled. This rule also holds true for most low-frequency alternating-current (AC) systems, such as household utility circuits. In
some AC circuits, especially at high frequencies, the situation is more complex because some components in these systems can
store and release energy, as well as dissipating or converting it.

The electrical resistance per unit length, area, or volume of a substance is known as resistivity. Resistivity figures are often
specified for copper and aluminum wire, in ohms per kilometer.

Opposition to AC, but not to DC, is a property known as reactance. In an AC circuit, the resistance and reactance combine
vectorially to yield impedance.
 What is voltage?

Voltage - is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes charged electrons
(current) through a conducting loop, enabling them to do work such as illuminating a light.

In brief, voltage = pressure, and it is measured in volts (V). The term recognizes Italian physicist Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827), inventor of the voltaic pile—the forerunner of today's household battery.

In electricity's early days, voltage was known as electromotive force (emf). This is why in equations such as Ohm's
Law,voltage is represented by the symbol E.

Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a quantitative expression of the potential difference in charge between two points
in an electrical field.

The greater the voltage, the greater the flow of electrical current (that is, the quantity of charge carriers that pass a fixed point
per unit of time) through a conducting or semiconducting medium for a given resistance to the flow. Voltage is symbolized by
an uppercase italic letter V or E. The standard unit is the volt, symbolized by a non-italic uppercase letter V. One volt will drive
one coulomb (6.24 x 1018) charge carriers, such as electrons, through a resistance of one ohm in one second.

Voltage can be direct or alternating. A direct voltage maintains the same polarity at all times. In an alternating voltage, the
polarity reverses direction periodically. The number of complete cycles per second is the frequency, which is measured
in hertz (one cycle per second), kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, or terahertz. An example of direct voltage is the potential
difference between the terminals of an electrochemical cell. Alternating voltage exists between the terminals of a common
utility outlet.

A voltage produces an electrostatic field, even if no charge carriers move (that is, no currentflows). As the voltage increases
between two points separated by a specific distance, the electrostatic field becomes more intense. As the separation increases
between two points having a given voltage with respect to each other, the electrostatic flux density diminishes in the region
between them.

What is current?

Current - is the rate at which electrons flow past a point in a complete electrical circuit. At its most
basic, current = flow.
An ampere (AM-pir), or amp, is the international unit used for measuring current. It expresses the quantity of electrons
(sometimes called "electrical charge") flowing past a point in a circuit over a given time.

Current is a flow of electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or electron-deficient atoms. The common symbol for current is
the uppercase letter I. The standard unit is the ampere, symbolized by A. One ampere of current represents one coulomb of
electrical charge (6.24 x 1018 charge carriers) moving past a specific point in one second. Physicists consider current to flow from
relatively positive points to relatively negative points; this is called conventional current or Franklin current. Electrons, the most
common charge carriers, are negatively charged. They flow from relatively negative points to relatively positive points.

Electric current can be either direct or alternating. Direct current (DC) flows in the same direction at all points in time, although
the instantaneous magnitude of the current might vary. In an alternating current (AC), the flow of charge carriers reverses
direction periodically. The number of complete AC cycles per second is the frequency, which is measured in hertz. An
example of pure DC is the current produced by an electrochemical cell. The output of a power-supply rectifier, prior to filtering,
is an example of pulsating DC. The output of common utility outlets is AC.
Current per unit cross-sectional area is known as current density. It is expressed in amperes per square meter, amperes per
square centimeter, or amperes per square millimeter. Current density can also be expressed in amperes per circular mil. In
general, the greater the current in a conductor, the higher the current density. However, in some situations, current density
varies in different parts of an electrical conductor. A classic example is the so-called skin effect, in which current density is
high near the outer surface of a conductor, and low near the center. This effect occurs with alternating currents at high
frequencies. Another example is the current inside an active electronic component such as a field-effect transistor (FET).

An electric current always produces a magnetic field. The stronger the current, the more intense the magnetic field. A
pulsating DC, or an AC, characteristically produces an electromagnetic field. This is the principle by which wireless signal
propagation occurs.

A current of 1 ampere means that 1 coulomb of electrons—that's 6.24 billion billion (6.24 x 1018) electrons—is moving past a
single point in a circuit in 1 second. The calculation is similar to measuring water flow: how many gallons pass a single point in a
pipe in 1 minute (gallons per minute, or GPM).

Conductor - is a substance in which electrical charge carriers, usually electrons, move easily from atom to
atom with the application of voltage.
Conductor is the current-carrying component of a transmission cable, typicallya copper wire. Conductivity, in general, is the
capacity to transmit something, such as electricity or heat.

Transistor is a device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic
signals.

Transistors consist of three layers of a semiconductor material, each capable of carrying a current.

The transistor was invented by three scientists at the Bell Laboratories in 1947, and it rapidly replaced the vacuum tube as an
electronic signal regulator. A transistor regulates current or voltageflow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic signals. A
transistor consists of three layers of a semiconductor material, each capable of carrying a current. A semiconductor is a material
such as germanium and silicon that conducts electricity in a "semi-enthusiastic" way. It's somewhere between a real conductor
such as copper and an insulator (like the plastic wrapped around wires).

The semiconductor material is given special properties by a chemical process called doping. The doping results in a material
that either adds extra electrons to the material (which is then called N-type for the extra negative charge carriers) or creates
"holes" in the material's crystal structure (which is then called P-type because it results in more positive charge carriers). The
transistor's three-layer structure contains an N-type semiconductor layer sandwiched between P-type layers (a PNP
configuration) or a P-type layer between N-type layers (an NPN configuration).

A small change in the current or voltage at the inner semiconductor layer (which acts as the control electrode) produces a large,
rapid change in the current passing through the entire component. The component can thus act as a switch, opening and
closing an electronic gate many times per second. Today's computers use circuitry made with complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) technology. CMOS uses two complementary transistors per gate (one with N-type material; the other
with P-type material). When one transistor is maintaining a logic state, it requires almost no power.

Transistors are the basic elements in integrated circuits (IC), which consist of very large numbers of transistors interconnected
with circuitry and baked into a single silicon microchip.
 What is the Ohm's Law?

Ohm's Law - is the mathematical relationship among electric current, resistance and voltage. The principle
is named after the German scientist Georg Simon Ohm.

In direct-current (DC) circuits, Ohm's Law is simple and linear. Suppose a resistance having a value of R ohms carries a current
of I amperes. Then the voltage across the resistor is equal to the product IR. There are two corollaries. If a DC power source
providing E volts is placed across a resistance of R ohms, then the current through the resistance is equal to E/R amperes. Also,
in a DC circuit, if E volts appear across a component that carries I amperes, then the resistance of that component is equal
to E/I ohms.

Mathematically, Ohm's Law for DC circuits can be stated as three equations:

E = IR

I = E/R

R = E/I

When making calculations, compatible units must be used. If the units are other than ohms (for resistance), amperes (for
current), and volts for voltage), then unit conversions should be made before calculations are done. For example, kilohms
should be converted to ohms, and microamperes should be converted to amperes.

Ohm's law
The resistor's current I in amps (A) is equal to the resistor's voltage V in volts (V)
divided by the resistance R in ohms (Ω):

The resistor's power consumption P in watts (W) is equal to the resistor's current I in amps (A)
times the resistor's voltage V in volts (V):
P=I×V
The resistor's power consumption P in watts (W) is equal to the square value of the resistor's current I in amps (A)
times the resistor's resistance R in ohms (Ω):
P = I2 × R
The resistor's power consumption P in watts (W) is equal to the square value of the resistor's voltage V in volts (V)
divided by the resistor's resistance R in ohms (Ω):
P = V2/ R
Resistors in parallel

The total equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel RTotal is given by:

So when you add resistors in parallel, the total resistance is decreased.

Resistors in series

The total equivalent resistance of resistors in series Rtotal is the sum of the resistance values:
Rtotal = R1+ R2+ R3+...
So when you add resistors in series, the total resistance is increased.

Dimensions and material affects

The resistance R in ohms (Ω) of a resistor is equal to the resistivity ρ in ohm-meters (Ω∙m) times the resistor's length l in meters (m)
divided by the resistor's cross sectional area A in square meters (m2):
Resistor image
Resistor symbols
Resistor
(IEEE) Resistor reduces
Resistor the current flow.
(IEC)
Potentiometer
(IEEE) Adjustable resistor
Potentiometer - has 3 terminals.
(IEC)
Variable
Resistor /
Rheostat
(IEEE) Adjustable resistor
Variable - has 2 terminals.
Resistor /
Rheostat
(IEC)
Trimmer
Presest resistor
Resistor
Thermal resistor -
change resistance
Thermistor
when temperature
changes
Photoresistor
/ Light
Changes resistance
dependent
according to light
resistor
(LDR)
Resistor color code
The resistance of the resistor and its tolerance are marked on the resistor with color code bands that denotes the resistance value.
There are 3 types of color codes:
 4 bands: digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance.
 5 bands: digit, digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance.
 6 bands: digit, digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance, temperature coefficient.

Resistance calculation of 4 bands resistor

R = (10×digit1 + digit2) × multiplier
Resistance calculation of 5 or 6 bands resistor
R = (100×digit1 + 10×digit2+digit3) × multiplier
Resistor types

Variable resistor Variable resistor has an adjustable resistance (2 terminals)

Potentiometer Potentiometer has an adjustable resistance (3 terminals)

Photo-resistor Reduces resistance when exposed to light

Power resistor Power resistor is used for high power circuits and has large dimensions.

Surface mount
SMT/SMD resistors have small dimensions. The resistors are surface mounted on the printed circuit board
(SMT/SMD) (PCB), this method is fast and requires small board area.
resistor

Resistor network Resistor network is a chip that contains several resistors with similar or different values.

Carbon resistor

Chip resistor

Metal-oxide
resistor

Ceramic resistor

Pull-up resistor

In digital circuits, pull-up resistor is a regular resistor that is connected to the high voltage supply (e.g +5V or +12V) and sets the
input or output level of a device to '1'.

The pull-up resistor set the level to '1' when the input / output is disconnected. When the input / output is connected, the level is
determined by the device and overrides the pull-up resistor.
Pull-down resistor
In digital circuits, pull-down resistor is a regular resistor that is connected to the ground (0V) and sets the input or output level of a
device to ' 0 '.
The pull-down resistor set the level to ' 0 ' when the input / output is disconnected. When the input / output is connected, the level is
determined by the device and overrides the pull-down resistor.

Alternating current (AC) occurs when charge carriers in a conductor or semiconductor periodically
reverse their direction of movement. Household utility current in most countries is AC with a frequency of 60 hertz (60
complete cycles per second), although in some countries it is 50 Hz. The radio-frequency (RF) current in antennas and
transmission lines is another example of AC.

An AC waveform can be sinusoidal, square, or sawtooth-shaped. Some AC waveforms are irregular or complicated. An example
of sine-wave AC is common household utility current (in the ideal case). Square or sawtooth waves are produced by certain
types of electronic oscillators, and by a low-end uninterruptible power supply (UPS) when it is operating from its battery.
Irregular AC waves are produced by audio amplifiers that deal with analog voice signals and/or music.
The voltage of an AC power source can be easily changed by means of a power transformer. This allows the voltage to be
stepped up (increased) for transmission and distribution. High-voltage transmission is more efficient than low-voltage
transmission over long distances, because the loss caused by conductor resistance decreases as the voltage increases.

The voltage of an AC power source changes from instant to instant in time. The effective voltage of an AC utility power source is
usually considered to be the DC voltage that would produce the same power dissipation as heat assuming a pure resistance.
The effective voltage for a sine wave is not the same as the peak voltage . To obtain effective voltage from peak voltage,
multiply by 0.707. To obtain peak voltage from effective voltage, multiply by 1.414. For example, if an AC power source has an
effective voltage of 117 V, typical of a household in the United States, the peak voltage is 165 V.

Nikola Tesla, a Serbian-American scientist, electrical engineer, and inventor, developed the alternating-current (AC) electrical
system, as well as radio, the Tesla coil transformer, wireless transmission, and fluorescent lighting.

DC (direct current) - is the unidirectional flow or movement of electric charge carriers (which are
usually electrons). The intensity of the current can vary with time, but the general direction of movement stays the same at
all times. As an adjective, the term DC is used in reference to voltage whose polarity never reverses.

In a DC circuit, electrons emerge from the negative, or minus, pole and move towards the positive, or plus, pole. Nevertheless,
physicists define DC as traveling from plus to minus.

Direct current is produced by electrochemical and photovoltaic cells and batteries. In contrast, the electricity available from
utility mains in most countries is AC (alternating current). Utility AC can be converted to DC by means of a power supply
consisting of a transformer, a rectifier (which prevents the flow of current from reversing), and a filter (which eliminates current
pulsations in the output of the rectifier).

Virtually all electronic and computer hardware needs DC to function. Most solid-state equipment requires between 1.5 and
13.5 volts. Current demands can range from practically zero for an electronic wristwatch to more than 100 amperes for a radio
communications power amplifier. Equipment using vacuum tubes, such as a high-power radio or television broadcast
transmitter or a CRT (cathode-ray tube) display, require from about 150 volts to several thousand volts DC.

Electron - is a negatively charged subatomic particle. It can be either free (not attached to any atom), or bound to
the nucleus of an atom. Electrons in atoms exist in spherical shells of various radii, representing energy levels. The larger the
spherical shell, the higher the energy contained in the electron.

In electrical conductors, current flow results from the movement of electrons from atom to atom individually, and from
negative to positive electric poles in general. In semiconductor materials, current also occurs as a movement of electrons. But
in some cases, it is more illustrative to envision the current as a movement of electron deficiencies from atom to atom. An
electron-deficient atom in a semiconductor is called a hole. Holes "move" from positive to negative electric poles in general.

The charge on a single electron is considered as the unit electrical charge. It is assigned negative polarity. The charge on an
electron is equal, but opposite, to the positive charge on a proton or hole. Electrical charge quantity is not usually measured in
terms of the charge on a single electron, because this is an extremely small charge. Instead, the standard unit of electrical
charge quantity is the coulomb, symbolized by C, representing about 6.24 x 1018 electrons. The electron charge, symbolized by
e, is about 1.60 x 10-19 C. The mass of an electron at rest, symbolized me, is approximately 9.11 x 10-31kilogram (kg). Electrons
moving at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light, for example in a particle accelerator, have greater mass because of
relativistic effects.

Proton - is a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of every atom. The particle has a positive electrical charge,
equal and opposite to that of the electron. If isolated, a single proton would have a mass of only 1.673 ? 10-27 kilogram, just
slightly less than the mass of a neutron.
The number of protons in an element's nucleus is called the atomic number. This number gives each element its unique
identity. In the atoms of any particular element, the number of protons in the nuclei is always the same. An atom of simple
hydrogen has a nucleus consisting of a single proton all by itself. The nuclei of all other elements nearly always contain
neutrons in addition to protons.

Protons need not be confined to the nuclei of atoms. When protons are found outside atomic nuclei, they acquire fascinating,
bizarre, and potentially dangerous properties, similar to those of neutrons in similar circumstances. But protons have an
additional property. Because they carry an electric charge, they can be accelerated by electric and/or magnetic fields. High-
speed protons, and atomic nuclei containing them, are emitted in large numbers during solar flares. The particles are
accelerated by the earth's magnetic field, causing ionospheric disturbances known as geomagnetic storms.