Fracture of materials

Classification of fractureⅠ
① Amount of plastic deformation

Cup and cone Shear fracture Chisel point

Vertical fracture Type fracture （Separation of slip plane） fracture

Brittle fracture Ductile fracture

Small plastic deformation Large plastic deformation
Fracture surface geometry
Classification of fractureⅡ
② Transgranular and intergranular fracture

Intergranular Brittle fracture

fracture
Fracture occurs along grain boundary

Transgranular Ductile fractur

fracture
Fracture occurs in the grain

Intergranular and transgranular

fracture
Classification of fracture III
③ Atomic level
σ

Relation between slip and cleavage plane

Cleavage plane
fcc bcc hcp

σ ｛110｝ ｛0001｝
（a） Cleavage fracture Slip plane ｛111｝ ｛112｝ ｛1010｝
｛123｝ ｛1011｝
τ
Cleavage
Non ｛100｝ ｛0001｝
plane

Slip plane Al、Cu、Ni Cr、Mo、V Zn、Mg

Materials Ag、Au W、β-Ti Be、Sn
γsteel Mild steel α-Ti

τ
（b） Shear fracture
 Fractography
Fractography?
Method of observation and analysis of fracture surface
which records progress of fracture.

Fracture Initiation of Crack growth Final fracture

crack
surface
Fracture shows peculiar appearance

Macro-fractography
Process of fracture
Naked Angle/color
例．
Loupe Appearance

Micro-fractography
Optical
Microscopic
River pattern Electon appearance
 Characteristics of ductile fracture surfaceⅠ

Geometry of fracture surface depends on

Tensile fracture
stress state.
Plain strain
Perpendicular fracture surface

Shear fracture Plain stress

Slant type (shear) fracture surface
Example
Cup and cone type
Macroscopic ～ Difference between
tensile and shear
Color of fracture surface ： Gray

Microscopic ～ Dimple formation

Shear fracture Chisel point Characteristics: mentioned later
fracture
Characteristics of brittle fracture surfaceⅡ
Geometry
Cleavage
Color ： Metal gray Fracture pattern
Roughness Perpendicular fracture surface

Chevron pattern

Starter notch

Fatigue crack Chevron pattern

Shear lip

Brittle fracture surface

Characteristics of fatigue fracture surfaceⅢ
Ductile materials

・Low cyclic stress and thick plate

Perpendicular; fracture surface
・High cyclic stress and thin plate
Slant fracture surface Beach mark

Initiation point
Brittle materials
Perpendicular fracture surface

Fatigue
◎ Color ： Gray
（Brittle fatigue fracture ⇒ Metal luster

（Ductile）
fracture
For random cyclic stress

Final
Beach mark
Microscopic characteristicsⅠ（Ductile①）
Microscopic characteristics of ductile fracture

Dimple … Many dips are formed

Ripple
Wavy pattern

25μm 25μm 25μm 25μm

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Tensile ductile fracture in stainless steel（28% Cr－9% Ni steel ）

（Ductility）； (a) ＜ (b) ＜ (c) ＜ (d)）

Characteristics of ductile fracture surfaceⅡ
σ1
σ2
σ1 ττ M

ττ M
σ1
σ2 σ1

（a） Equaxed dimple （b） Elongated dimple （c） Elongated dimple

（Shear load） （Tear load）
Characteristics of brittle fracture surfaceⅣ
Characteristics of brittle fracture ①

River pattern

When crack propagates on

cleavage plane in which
dislocation exists,
River pattern is formed.

◎ Crack initiation is in grain boundary 20μm

◎ Flow of river pattern

River pattern for mild steel
＝ Propagation direction of crack growth at low temperature impact load
Characteristics of fatigue fracture surface Ⅵ
Characteristics of fatigue fracture surface

Striation

Microscopic

Depending on loading、
point of fracture surface

2μm
Fracture mechanism changes
each stage of growth
Striation
（25% Cr－5% Ni steel）
Microscopic pattern depends on
each stage of crack growth
Always don’t observe
 Ductile fractureⅠ
Theoretical shear strength Ductile fracture
Macro ～ Cup and cone etc.
Perfect crystal without defect Micro ～ Dimple

X Elastic line in X＝O

τ
τ ⎛ 2πX ⎞
τ=τmax 　
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ b ⎠

Slip plane a
O
X

b
τ （τmax ： Shear stress between atoms ）

Theoretical shear strength Next

Ductile fractureⅡ
Elastic line at X＝O
τ
◎ Whiskerー
Material without dislocation
O
X ◎ Normal materilas
1/10 ～ 1/100

（ τ at X＝0 ） …（ 4.1）

⎛ 2πX ⎞ 2πX
τ = τmax 　
sin ⎜ ⎟ ≒ τmax
⎝ b ⎠ b
（ For small θ ⇒ sin θ≒θ） ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ b ⎞ G
τmax = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟G ≒
⎝ 2π⎠⎝ a ⎠ 10
⎛X⎞
τ = Gγ　= G ⎜ ⎟ …（ 4.2） …（ 4.3）
⎝a⎠
Ductile fractureⅢ
Initiation and growth of void

Void : Initiates at inclusion and delaminate from matrix

Maximum
shear at
45 degree
（a） （b） （c） （d）

Cup and cone type tensile fracture process

Brittle fractureⅠ σ
X
Theoretical cleavage fracture strength

Cleavage plane a0
Brittle fracture surface
Macro ～ Chevron pattern
Micro ～ River pattern、Tonge
σ

Elastic line at X=0

Brittle fracture
a0
Absorbed energy : Small

Stress σ
σmax

Stored energy in material is

consumed to grow crack λ／2
Displacement X
Balance position
Rapidly crack growth ⇒ Instant fracture
Brittle fractureⅡ
Elastic line at X=0

a0
a0 ：Distance
Stress σ

σmax between atoms ◎ Whisker

Without dislocation ⇒ Near value

λ／2 ◎ High strength steel etc.

Displacement X Difference of one order more
Balance position

（Sine fuction） …（ 4.4）

⎛ 2πX ⎞ 2πX
σ = σmax 　
sin ⎜ ⎟ ≒ σmax
⎝ λ ⎠ λ
（For small θ ⇒ sin θ≒θ） ⎛ λ ⎞⎛⎜ E ⎞⎟
σmax = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
（Stress-strain relation at X＝0） ⎝ 2π⎠⎝ a 0 ⎠
⎛X⎞
σ = Eε　= E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ …（ 4.5）
…（ 4.6）
⎝ a0 ⎠
Brittle fractureⅢ
Elastic line at X=0

a0 Work used delamination of atoms

Stress σ

σmax

Energy consumes formation of

new free surface
λ／2
Displacement X γ： Surface energy per unit area
Balance position

⎛ λ ⎞⎛⎜ E ⎞⎟
σmax = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2π⎠⎝ a 0 ⎠ …（4.6）
⎛ Eγ⎞ 12 E
λ
⎛ 2πX ⎞ λσmax σmax = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≒
∫ 0
2
σmax sin ⎜
⎝ λ ⎠
⎟ dX =
π
= 2γ ⎝ a0 ⎠ 10
…（4.8、4.9）
…（4.7） Two new free surfaces
Brittle fracture Ⅳ （Griffith’s theory①）
Fracture strength of perfect brittle material with crack
σ
UE ： Strain energy stored in plate
σ2
UE = ×πc 2
Free plane 2E
πc 2σ2
UE = : Rigid solution
ρ E
2c
US ： Energy to form crack plane

U s = 2 × 2γc = 4γc

σ
Two planes Next
Brittle fractureⅤ （ Griffith’s theory ②）
dU E 2πcσ2
= Criterion of fracture
dc E
Rate of energy

dU E dU S
dU S = …（4.12）
= 4γ dc dc
dc 2πcσ2
= 4γ
E

Griffith’s equation
1
Crack length c
⎛ 2 Eγ ⎞ 2
σ= ⎜ ⎟ …（4.13）
Variation of energy rate ⎝ πc ⎠
With increasing crack length （Plane stress state）
Fig. An oil barge that fractured in a brittle manner
by crack propagation around its girth
（The New York Times）
Classification of fractureⅣ
④ Loading and environment Impact failure

Corrosion Static, Environmental

3% σ
Static fracture
Delay fracture、 13%
Stress corrosion cracking
5%

11% Fatigue Fatigue

Themal fatigue 60% t
Corrosion fatigue 8%
Fretting fatigue Loading and fracture

Low cycle fatigue

About 80% of fracture
Classification of fracture was caused by fatigue
Microscopic fracture surfaceⅢ（Ductile fracture③）

Microvoid along
grain boundary

Crack growth inside

Grain boundary

Elongated dimple
2μm 25μm
Shallow

(a) Shallow dimple (b) 組織

図．Two phase stainless steel （25% Cr-5% Ni steel）

Microscopic fracture surfaceⅤ（Brittle fracture②）
Brittle fracture surface ②

Tongue appearance

… Twin deformation related

τ
τ
20μm

Twin

Bound. Bound. 図．High Cr ferrite steel（475℃ageing

Fracture analysisⅠ
① Wire Rope failure to catch shark

Macroscopic Large Necking

Wire Rope ⇒ Ductile fracture
Microscopic Dimple

10μm 5μm

(a) Equiaxed dimple (b) Elongated dimple

図．Microscopic appearance of wire-rope
Fracture anaysisⅡ
② Rail fracture surface
Beach mark (a) … Fatigue
(b) … Brittle fracture

(a) Chevron pattern

(b)

10μm 15μm

（a） Striation （b） River pattern

Fracture anaysisⅢ
③ Bolt fracture surface for ship

Striation
10μm

図．Bolt（SUS304）microscopic appearance
Beach mark

Under cyclic loading

Fatigue facture

Measurement of striation space

Fatigue crack growth rate
Ductile fractureⅣ

◎ Microstructure effect ・Content

Void formation ⇒ Inclusion ・Size, Geometry
・Distribution

● Globular martensite Sample geometry、Stress condition

○ Ferriteト‐globular perrite
△ Ferrite‐layer perrite
Ductility

Sulfide

Inclusion(2 phase) Vol.%

Ductile fracture model
（McClintock）
Brittle fractureⅥ ①）
［Ⅰ］ Mechanical factor ①
・ Low temperature Locally stress increases
・ Loading rate
・ Notch Constrain of plastic
deformation Brittle
・ Thickness

Toughness evaluation
Hammer
Sharpy impact test
Measure
Potential energy of Hammer
h1
＝

Remained Energy after impact α β

h2
＋
Notched specimen
Absorbed energy of material
（Toughness） Sharpy impact tester
Brittle fractureⅦ
［Ⅰ］ Mechanical factors ② （Ductile-Brittle Transition Behavior）

160
Ductile
80
Reduction of area ％

Rate of reduction Tensile test

Absorption energy J
of area
60 120

40 80
Impact test
20
Absorption energy
40

0 0 Ductile-Brittle Transition
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 Temperature
Temperature ℃
Brittle Ductile-Brittle Transition
Brittle fractureⅧ
［Ⅰ］ Mechanical factors ③
（Question） Which is the best steel for tanker?
Each steel is the same strength.
Oil
Gas ⇒ Liquid
Absorption energy J

Natural Gas
Temperature decreases
（a） （b） （c） Ductile Brittle
High risk of brittle fracrure
Under low temperature
Material must keep ductile
D.-B. transition temp. must be low
Temperature ℃
（Ex. ： Titanic sinked in 1912.4.14）
・ Notch effect
Notch induces Stress concentration and high three axis stress condition
・ Plate thickness
Thickness increases, Three axis stress condition becomes high.
Brittle fractureⅨ
［Ⅱ］ Microstructure effect ① （Crystal structure, Chemical composition）

σ bcc crystal （Mild steel）

Low temperature brittle

Cleavage plane fcc crystal

（Cu、Al、Ni、18%Cr-8%Ni stainless steel）
Difficult brittle LiquidO2 orLiquidN2 vessel
σ

P, C, O, H etc.
Transition temp. Brittle
C、P Increase Urge

Low toughness Ni、Mn Decrease Restraint

Brittle fractureⅩ
［Ⅱ］ Microstructure ② （Carbon steel）

C content of carbon steel

High carbon

Charpy impact energy J

High Transition temperature
Low absorption energy

Brittleness

General
High strength Brittle

Fine grain Temperature ℃

High strength ＋ Improvement of toughness

 Creep fractureⅠ（Creep phenomenon）
Creep?
Under a stress and temperature
Plastic deformation is induced.
Failure
（Ex.

Strain ε
Accelerated creep

Steady creep
Heating
W
Transient creep
High temperature

Deformation ～ Stress and Time

Work hardening Softening
Work hardening Cancellation Softening）
Deformation depends on time
Time t
and loading
Creep fractureⅡ（Creep strength）
Creep rate at steady creep stage
Failure
Small creep rate
Strain ε

Creep rate
Time to tolerance strain
=long using period

Creep strength
（例）
A constant stress of 100MPa Strain=0.01%
Steady creep 103 Hours
Creep strength =100MPa at 0.01% ／ 103 h

Time t
Creep fractureⅢ
［Ⅰ］ Effects of temperature and stress ［Ⅱ］ Microstructure effect

Steady creep rate ％／hr

Stress increase
Temperature increase
Strain

Time
Time ℃
Temperature and stress increases
Steady creep is dominant Fcc crystal
Creep rate increases
Large Activated energy
Creep strength decreases
High creep strength
Creep fractureⅣ
［Ⅲ］ Grain size
Normal temperature=Low
Strengthening
Refinement strength

High temperature
Creep strength decreases
Grain size refinement
Under high temperature
Grain boundary slip

・ Substitutional element
Interaction between dislocation or vacancy is restrained
And then creep strength increases.
・ Stacking fault energy decreases, creep strength increases
Creep fractureⅤ
Void
A A
B ⇒ B
C C

Cavity
A A
B ⇒ B Grain boundary
C C

Cavity Particle
A A
B B
⇒
C C

W type cracking r type cracking

Two type intergranural cracking at high temperature creep
脆性破壊ⅩⅠ（脆性破壊に及ぼす諸因子の影響⑥）
［Ⅱ］ 材料学的因子の影響 ③ （熱処理） （教科書 P126 図4.32）

・ ４７５℃脆化 熱処理で性質が変化 ・ 高温焼戻し脆化

Cr 高温焼戻し
Mn 脆化
添加 粒界偏析

・ 青熱脆化
軟鋼を200~350℃で負荷
ひずみ時効
（転位の固着作用の促進） 脆化

20μm 20μm
・ σ相脆化
時効材 未時効材 高Crを持つαステンレス鋼など
脆性破面 延性破面 σ相
700~900℃ （脆性な第２相析出）
図．35% Cr-5% Niフェライト鋼の 加熱
４７５℃時効の引張破面形態に及ぼす影響 著しい脆化
巨視的破面の特徴Ⅳ（疲労破面②） （教科書 P100, 図4.6）

疲労破壊
微視組織の影響 大

結晶粒ごとに
き裂の進展方向が変化

組織の痕跡が破面上に残る

１mm
※ 脆性破面も巨視的には類似
微視的な特徴（破壊機構）が異なる 図．粗大結晶粒をもつ二相ステンレス鋼
（25% Cr－5% Ni鋼）
破面の色彩
破壊事故破面解析事例Ⅳ
④ その他 （破壊の実例）

◎ ジェット戦闘機 「F‐111」の破壊事故 （1969年）

⇒ 主翼の金具に疲労き裂が発生し、
このき裂のわずかな進展により早期運転中に破壊

◎ 日航ジャンボ機墜落事故 （1985年）
⇒ 機体後部圧力隔壁が金属疲労により破壊し、機体もろとも御巣鷹山に墜落
◎ 高速増殖炉「もんじゅ」のナトリウム漏洩事故 （1995年）
⇒ 温度計さやの金属疲労が原因で、大量のナトリウムが漏洩
◎ 京福電鉄事故、ブレーキ制御棒の破断 （2000年）
⇒ ブレーキ制御棒の金属疲労が進み破断に至った

◎ 中華航空機墜落事故 （2002年）
⇒ 金属疲労による機体の空中分解による墜落。