CLASSICAL MECHANICS

&
Relativity

Books to consult:
Classical Mechanics
1. Classical Mechanics by Herbert Goldstein
2. Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems by Thornton and Marion

Special relativity
1. Classical Mechanics by Herbert Goldstein
2. Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems by Thornton and Marion
3. Nuclear Physics by Kaplan
4. Modern Physics by J. B. Rajam
 Unit-1

Elementary Principles
Introduction

Physics: Very small Very large

Fraction of a proton Universe itself
1 : 1045

Mechanics: A branch of physical science that deals with

energy and forces and their effect on bodies

Mechanics concerns
o Motion of objects → Velocity and acceleration
o Cause of the motion → Force and energy

The objects move, but do not change their properties
o Idealized particles and rigid bodies
o Mass and moment of inertia are all what matters
Classical vs. Modern

“Modern” in physics means “20th century”

o Quantum Mechanics
o Relativity

Classical Mechanics = pre-Quantum Mechanics

o We include special relativity as well as E&M

What happened between the 17th and 20th

centuries?
Do We Care?

We know Relativity and QM are the “right answers”

 Newtonian Mechanics is a human-scale
approximation

Isn’t that enough?

 Why should we learn the theory that has been
superseded?

Classical mechanics introduces no new physical concepts

to the graduate student. It does not lead him directly into
current physics research. Nor does it aid him, to any
appreciable extent, in solving the practical mechanics
problems he encounters in the laboratory.
Goldstein, Preface to the First Edition
 Why Classical Mechanics?

Three Good Reasons
 Close connection to Modern Physics
 Mastering CM gives you clearer view of QM

 Powerful and versatile mathematical tools

 Indispensable for advanced studies in physics

 Reformulate familiar laws of physics using

completely different approaches
 Cleaner and more general formalism

Basic structure of physics based on principles of CM  like conservation

of energy; conservation of momentum; etc.  the principles by which
all systems evolve in nature.

But first, let’s go back to the 17th century…

Newtonian Mechanics

In principle, Newton’s Equation of Motion predicted

the motion of any object(s) from the force
 You need is a big, fast computer

In reality, it was not so easy

 Computers until 1968
 More fundamentally, the force may not be known

o It may depend on time, location, or even velocity

o E.g. ≥2 objects attracting each other by gravity
o Solving 3-body problem turns out to be impossible

→ Quest for more powerful mathematics

Generalizing Equation of Motion

Newtonian Mechanics deals with the object’s position

 Goal: finding x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t)
 3 coordinates for each object → 3N for N objects

Infinite other ways to describe motion

 E.g. a more natural way for a pendulum
x = l cosθ , y = −l sin θ , z = 0, θ = θ (t )
 Number of free variables may not be 3N
 Let’s call the new variables generalized coordinates

What are the Equations of Motion for generalized

coordinates?
Lagrangian Formulation

Newton’s Equation is about force F = ma

 You start from F = F(x, t) for all particles
 3N functions corresponding to 3N coordinates

Forget the force. Introduce something else

 Lagrangian: L = L(q, q& )
 Lagrange’s Equation Coordinate q and its time derivative

d  ∂L  ∂L
 − =0 Everything about this system is
dt  ∂q&  ∂q embodied in a scalar function L

Lagrangian does not depend on a coordinate system

 Switching to a different set of coordinates is a snap
Hamilton’s Principle

Hamilton’s Principle derives Lagrange’s Equation
from a simple rule:
The time integral of L is stationary for the
path taken by an actual physical system

δ ∫1 Ldt = 0
2
Hamiltonian Formulation
∂H ∂H

Hamilton Equation q& = , − p& =
∂p ∂q
 (p, q) are canonical variables
 H is a function called Hamiltonian

Canonical variables ~ position and momentum

Position and momentum as independent variables

 Allows wider range of variable transformations
than Lagrangian formulation
Success out of a Failure

Quest for tools that solve the 3-body problem failed

Byproducts (Lagrangians and Hamiltonians) turned

out to be the foundation of Quantum Mechanics

 Development of QM was guided by analogies to

Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations

o Pioneers of QM grew up with Classical Mechanics

Classical Mechanics is the missing link between

Newton and Schrödinger

 It allows you to fully appreciate QM

Newton’s Three Laws of Motion → Newtonian Mechanics

I. A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted

upon by a force.

II. A body acted upon by a force moves in such a manner that

the time rate of change of the momentum equals the force.

III. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

dp
Newton’s second law of motion: F=
dt
Let r  radius vector of a particle from some origin
dr
Then velocity: v= Linear momentum: p = mv
dt
 dp d
∴ We can rewrite: F= = (mv)
dt dt
In terms of mass of a particle: F = m
dv
= ma
dt
2
d r
a  vector acceleration a= 2
dt
Newton’s third law can be restated:

“ If two bodies constitute an ideal, isolated system, then the

accelerations of these bodies are always in opposite directions, and the
ratio of magnitudes of their accelerations is constant. This constant is the
inverse ratio of the masses of the bodies.”
For two isolated bodies 1 and 2: F1 = − F2

dp1 dp
Using definition of force from second law: =− 2
dt dt
  dv1   dv2 
Or with constant masses: m1   = m2  − 
 dt   dt 
or m1 (a1 ) = m2 (− a2 )
m2 a1
or =−
m1 a2
Inertial frame of reference  Galilean system
A reference frame in which Newton’s laws are valid.
More precisely,

• If a body subject to no external forces, moves in a straight line with

constant velocity, or remains at rest in a reference frame, then this
frame is inertial.

• If Newton’s laws are valid in one reference frame, they are also valid
in any other reference frame in uniform motion with respect to the
first one.
Second point expressed mathematically:
In the first inertial frame,
position of a free particle of mass m  r P

Second frame is moving at a

r
constant velocity  V relative to 1st frame r'

V
O Vt O'

If position of the particle in the second frame  r'

Then, after time t: r′ = r + Vt
d dr
Particle velocity: v′ = (r + Vt ) = + V
dt dt
= v+V (v is velocity in 1st frame)
 dv′ d
Then acceleration in 2nd frame: a′ = = (v + V )
dt dt
dv
= =a
dt
Conclusion:

the second reference frame is inertial since Newton’s laws are still
valid in it.
F′ = ma′ = ma
This result is called Galilean invariance, or the principle of
Newtonian relativity.

Newton’s equations do not describe motion of particles in non-

inertial frames.
Mechanics of a Particle
Newton’s equation of motion: F =
dp
dt
dv
F = m = m&r& (mass const. in time)
dt
Second order differential equation  may be integrated to find,
r = r (t ), if function F is known

Problem solving techniques:

• Sketch of the problem, indicating forces, velocities, etc.

• note given quantities
• useful equations, what is to be found?
• principles of physics to be used and method for solution to be used
• substitution of values of quantities for variables and determination of
required quantity
Example-1 (motion without friction)

A block of mass m slides without friction down a fixed, plane inclined at

an angle θ . Find the velocity of the block after it moves from rest to a
distance d.
Two forces: force of gravitation  Fg y
plane’s normal force  N x N

Total force: F = Fg + N
Fg cos θ
According to second law: F = m&r& θ
Fg
∴ Fg + N = m&r& Fg sin θ

θ
The force Fg can be resolved in two
components:
y – direction: m&y& = N − Fg cosθ
x – direction: m&x& = Fg sin θ
no motion along the y axis, so &y& = 0 → N − Fg cosθ = 0
 m&x& = Fg sin θ
Fg sin θ mg sin θ
so &x& = = = g sin θ
m m
To find velocity, multiply by 2 x& ,

2 x&&x& = 2 x&g sin θ

or
d 2
dt
( )
x& = 2 g sin θ
dx
dt
at t = 0, x = x& = 0 and at t = t final , x = d , x& = v
v d
so ∫0
d ( x
& 2
) = 2 g sin θ ∫0 dx

v 2 = 2 g sin θ d
v = 2 g sin θ d
Example-2 (resisted motion of a particle)
Consider resisted motion of a particle. Find the displacement and velocity
of horizontal motion in a medium in which the retarding force is
proportional to the velocity.
x

Retarding force: Fr = kmv v0 Resisting force

Velocity at t = 0 → v0
Equation of motion in x – direction: net force = retarding force
dv
ma = m = − kmv
dt
kmv  magnitude of retarding force, k is constant, m only to make
math. easier

dv dv
so = − kv → = −k dt
dt v
 dv
integrating ∫ v = −k ∫ dt
ln v = −kt + c1
Initial condition: v(t = 0) ≡ v0 ⇒ c1 = ln v0
so ln v = ln v0 − kt
Therefore, velocity of horizontal motion: v = v0 e −kt
dx
Now we can write: v = = v0 e −kt
dt
− kt v0 − kt
or x = v0 ∫ e = − e + c2
k
v0
Initial condition: x(t = 0) ≡ 0 ⇒ c2 =
k
v0
Then the displacement: x= (1 − e −kt )
k
Example-3 (projectile motion in two dimensions without air
resistance)
Let the muzzle velocity of the projectile be v0 and the angle of elevation
be θ. Find out the velocity, displacement and range of the projectile.

y v0

r
mg
θ
x
R

Using Newton’s second law, F = m.a

Only applied force is the gravitational force, so two components of force;
Fx = m&x& = 0
Fy = m&y& = − mg
so &x& = 0
&y& = − g
Using initial conditions:
x& (t = 0) = v0 cosθ
y& (t = 0) = v0 sin θ
Therefore, using v f = vi + at
x& (t ) = v0 cosθ (i)
y& (t ) = v0 sin θ − gt (ii)

and x = v0t cosθ (iii)

gt 2
y = v0t sin θ − (iv)
2
Using (i) and (ii), the velocity of projectile:

v = x& 2 + y& 2 = (v02 cos 2 θ + v02 sin 2 θ + g 2t 2 − 2v0 gt sin θ )1 2

v = (v02 + g 2t 2 − 2v0 gt sin θ )1 2

The total displacement, r using (iii) and (iv):

 22 2 4 2 1 2
g t gt
r = x + y =  v0 t cos 2 θ + v02t 2 sin 2 θ +
2 2
− 2v0t 

 4 2 
12
 2 2 g 2t 4 gt 3 
r =  v0 t + − 2v0 
 4 2 

The range of the projectile is value of x when it falls to the ground

at y = 0, so from (iv):
 gt 
y = t  v0 sin θ −  = 0
 2
Let t = T, when the projectile lands, then
gT
v0 sin θ − =0
2
or 2v0 sin θ
T=
g
Using this value of T in (iii):

2v02 sin θ cosθ

Range: x(t = T ) = R =
g
v02
R = sin 2θ
g
Maximum range occurs for θ = 45°
Example-4
Atwood’s machine consists of smooth pulley with two masses suspended
from a light string. Find the acceleration of the masses and tension in the
string when the pulley centre is at rest.
Neglecting the mass of string and friction in
the pulley → tension is same throughout the
string
Equations of motion for two masses: x1
x2
m1&x&1 = m1 g − T (i) T
m1
m2 &x&2 = m2 g − T (ii) T
m2
Combining two equations: m1g

m1&x&1 = m1 g − (m2 g − m2 &x&2 ) m2g

If the string is in-extensible, &x&2 = − &x&1

m1&x&1 = m1 g − m2 g − m2 &x&1
 m1&x&1 + m2 &x&1 = m1 g − m2 g

g (m1 − m2 )
&x&1 = = − &x&2 (iii)
m1 + m2
Using (iii) in (i), we can obtain tension:
g ( m1 − m2 )
m1 = m1 g − T
m1 + m2
g (m1 − m2 )
T = m1 g − m1
m1 + m2

2m1m2 g
T=
m1 + m2
Example-5
Find the acceleration of the masses and tension in the string for an
Atwood’s machine when the pulley is at rest in an elevator descending
with a constant acceleration α.

Origin is now at top of elevator shaft.

Elevator
x1′′ = x1′ + x1 x1' x2'

x2′′ = x2′ + x2 x1''

Equations of motion in this inertial system: x2''

m1&x&1′′ = m1 ( &x&1′ + &x&1 ) = m1 g − T x1

x2
T

m2 &x&2′′ = m2 ( &x&2′ + &x&2 ) = m2 g − T m1 T

m2
now &x&1′ = &x&2′ = α and &x&2 = − &x&1 m1g
m 2g
so m1 (α + &x&1 ) = m1 g − T (i)

m2 (α − &x&1 ) = m2 g − T (ii)
From (i) and (ii):
m1 g − m1α − m1&x&1 = m2 g − m2α + m2 &x&1

(m1 − m2 )
&x&1 = ( g − α ) = − &x&2
( m1 + m2 )

Then using (i), we find tension:

 m − m2 
m1α + ( g − α ) 1  = m1 g − T
 m1 + m2 
 m1 − m2 
T = m1 ( g − α ) − m1 ( g − α ) 
 m1 + m2 
2m1m2 ( g − α )
T=
m1 + m2
Conservation Theorems
• Conservation of Linear Momentum of a Particle
⇒ If the total force on a particle is zero, then p& = 0 and p is conserved.
• Conservation of Angular Momentum of a Particle

The angular momentum L of a particle with respect to an origin O is

given by:
L = r×p (order is important) (1)
r  position vector of the particle with respect to O
The torque or moment of force N with respect to the same origin:
N = r×F (F is applied force)
d d
as F= (mv) → N = r × (mv) (2)
dt dt
d dr d
Using vector identity: (r × mv ) = × mv + r × (mv)
dt dt dt
d
= v × mv + r × (mv)
=0 dt
Therefore from equations (1) and (2):
d d dL
N = (r × mv ) = (r × p) = (3)
dt dt dt
& = 0 and the angular
⇒ If total torque N on a particle is zero, then L
momentum L is conserved.
• Conservation of Energy of a Particle

consider resultant of all forces (i.e., the total force) applied F to a

particle of mass m between points “1” and “2”, work done by this force:
2
W12 = ∫1 F.ds (4)
d
now F= (mv) and ds = vdt
dt
2 dv m 2 dv
so W12 = m ∫
1 dt
⋅ vdt
= ∫1 2 v ⋅ dt
2 dt
m 2d m 2d
= ∫1 ( v ⋅ v )dt = ∫1 (v 2 )dt d da da da
(a.a) = .a + a. = 2 .a
2 dt 2 dt dt dt dt dt
 m 2 2 m 22 m 2 2
or W12 = ∫1 dv = v = (v2 − v1 )
2 2 1 2
In terms of kinetic energy: W12 = T2 − T1 (5)

If the force field is such that the work done is the same for any
physically possible path, then the force is said to be conservative.

∴ The work done around such a close path is zero: ∫ F ⋅ ds = 0

Vector analysis → Force can be defined as the negative gradient of
some scalar function of position.
so F = −∇V (r )
So work done in a conservative system:
2 2 d 
W12 = ∫ F.dr =∫
1 
− V (r )dr  = V1 − V2 (6)
1
 dr 
Combining (5) and (6): T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
⇒ If the force acting on a particle is conservative, then total energy of
the particle T + V is conserved.
Mechanics of a Systems of Particles
Consider now a system of n particles with position vectors ri; (i = 1,2,…,n)

Two forces  external force acting on ith particle

 internal force acting on ith particle due to jth particle

So equation of motion for the ith particle: Fie + ∑ F ji = p& i (7)

j

Assume that Fji obeys Newton’s third law of action and reaction, i.e.
the forces two particles exert on each other are equal and opposite
→ Weak law of action and reaction

Taking summation over all the particles:

d2
2 ∑ m r
i i = ∑ Fi + ∑ F ji
e
(8)
dt i i i, j
i≠ j
Total external force Fe Vanishes, since Fij + Fji = 0
Define the centre of mass and total mass:
∑ mi ri
R= M = ∑ mi
∑ mi i

∑ mi ri = MR in equation (8):
rj R
So using
ri

d 2R
∴ M 2 = ∑ Fie ≡ F e (9) O

dt i
⇒ Centre of mass moves as if total external force were acting on the
entire mass of system concentrated at the centre of mass.
Internal forces have no effect as they obey Newton’s third law.

• Conservation of Linear Momentum

We can write the linear momentum of the system:
p = ∑ mi v i
i
 dri d
or p = ∑ mi = ∑ mi ri
i dt dt i
as ∑ mi ri = MR
d dR d 2R
so p = MR = M → p& = M 2 = F e (10)
dt dt dt
⇒ If the total external force is zero, then the total linear momentum
is conserved.
• Conservation of Angular Momentum
Total angular momentum of a system of particles: L = ∑ ri × p i
i
d
Differentiating w.r.t. t: L& = ∑ ri × p i = ∑ r&i × p i + ∑ ri × p& i
dt i i i
(vanishes)
therefore L& = ∑ ri × p& i
i
From equation (8): p& i = Fie + ∑ F ji
i, j
i≠ j
Therefore, taking cross product with ri:
∑ i i
(r × p
& ) = &
L = ∑ i i + ∑ ri × F ji
r × F e
(11)
i i i, j
i≠ j
ri × F ji + r j × Fij = (ri − r j ) × F ji (12)
(because Fij = −F ji )
but (ri − r j ) = rij
So RHS of equation (12): rij × F ji rij
ri
Internal forces between two particle are not only
equal and opposite, but also lie along the line rj
joining the particle → Strong law of action and
O
reaction ⇒ all such cross products vanish.
dL
Then equation (11) can be written as: = ∑ ri × Fie = N e
dt i
⇒ Time derivative of total angular momentum is equal to moment of
external force about a point.
⇒ Total angular momentum is constant in time if the applied external
torque is zero.
• Conservation of Energy
The work done by all forces in moving the system from a configuration
“1” to configuration “2”:
2
W12 = ∑ ∫1 Fi ⋅ dsi
i
2 2
= ∑ ∫1 Fie ⋅ dsi + ∑ ∫1 F ji ⋅ dsi (13)
i i, j
i≠ j

Using equations of motion: Fi = p

& i = mi v& i and ds i = v i dt
therefore, LHS of (13) can be written as:
2 2
W12 = ∑ ∫1 Fi ⋅ dsi = ∑ ∫1 mi v& i ⋅ v i dt
i i
2 dv i 1 2 d
then W12 = ∫ 1 ∑ mi dt .vi dt = 2 ∫1 ∑ mi dt ( vi .vi )dt
i i
d da da da
Derivative of a scalar product: (a.a) = .a + a. = 2 .a
dt dt dt dt
 2 2
W12 = ∫ 1 ∑ 1 m dv 2
2 i i
= ∑∫ 1
d ( 1 m v2 )
2 i i
i i
So work done is difference between initial and final K.E. of the system:
W12 = T2 − T1 where T = 12 ∑ mi vi2 (14)
i
Transformation to the centre of mass
ri  radius vector of ith particle with reference to
i
origin O r'i
R  radius vector of the centre of mass with Centre
ri
reference to origin O of mass

r′′i  radius vector of ith particle with reference R

to the centre of mass

ri = ri′ + R
O
so
and v i = v′i + v
∴ T = 12 ∑ mi ( v + v′i ) ⋅ ( v + v′i )
i

= 12 ∑ mi v 2 + 12 ∑ mi vi′2 + v.(∑ mi v′i )

i i i
 d
or T = ∑ mi v + ∑ mi vi′2 + v.
1
2
2 1
2
(∑ miri′)
i i dt i
( ∑ mi ri′)  radius vector of centre of mass relative to centre of mass
i ⇒ null vector
Therefore, last term vanishes: T = 12 ∑ mi v 2 + 12 ∑ mi vi′2 (15)
i i
(K.E as if all mass concentrated at centre of mass)
(K.E of motion about centre of mass)

Now consider 1st term on RHS in equation (13), consisting external force:

In a case when F = −∇V (r ) :

2 e 2
∑∫ F ⋅ dsi
1 i
= −∑ ∫1 ∇iVi ⋅ dsi
i i
dri
as dsi = vi dt = dt = dri
dt
2 e 2 d 2 2
∑∫ F ⋅ dsi
1 i
= −∑ ∫1
dri
Vi (ri ) ⋅ dri = −∑ ∫1 dVi (ri ) = −∑Vi 1 (16)
i i i i
 2
Now consider 2nd term on RHS of equation (13): ∑∫ F
1 ji
⋅ dsi
i, j
i≠ j
If both Fij and Fji are conservative, they can be obtained from Vij.
To satisfy law of action and reaction, potential can only be function of
distance between particles:
(
Vij = Vij ri − r j ) (17)
Then two forces are equal and opposite F ji = −∇ iVij = +∇ jVij = −Fij

So we can write the 2nd term in (13) as sum over pairs of particles:

⋅ ds i = − ∑ ∫1 (∇ iVij ⋅ dsi + ∇ jVij ⋅ ds j )

2 2
therefore ∑∫ F
1 ji
(18)
i, j i, j
i≠ j i≠ j

If (ri − r j ) = rij and if ∇ ij stands for gradient w.r.t. rij Then:

∇ iVij = −∇ jVij = ∇ ijVij

and dsi − ds j = dri − dr j = drij

Therefore, equation (18) can be written as:

∑∫
2
F
1 ji
⋅ dsi = − ∑ ∫1 (∇ijVij dsi − ds j
2
[ ])
i, j i, j
i≠ j i≠ j
2 2 2 d 2
∑∫ F
1 ji
⋅ dsi = − 12 ∑∫ ∇ V
1 ij ij
⋅ drij = − 12 ∑∫ 1 dr ij
V ⋅ drij = − 12 ∑Vij 1 (19)
i, j i, j i, j ij i, j
i≠ j i≠ j i≠ j i≠ j
(internal potential energy of the system)

Factor of ½ is due to summing over both i and j each member of pair

appears twice.

Substitute from equations (16) and (19), in (13):

2 2
W12 = −∑ Vi 1 − 12 ∑Vij 1 (20)
i ij
If we define total potential energy as V then:
2
W12 = −V 1 = V1 − V2 (21)
Comparing equations (14) and (21):
T2 − T1 = V1 − V2
or T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
therefore E1 = E2
We have therefore proved the conservation of energy for a system of
particles where all the forces can be derived from a potential that are
independent of time; such a system is called conservative.

⇒ Total energy T + V of a conservative system of particles is conserved.

Rigid bodies
A system of particles in which the distances rij are fixed and cannot vary
with time. ⇒ vector drij ⊥ rij and also to Fij
⇒ Internal forces do no work
Internal potential energy (2nd term in (20)) in such system is constant.
Constraints

Equation of motion mi&r&i = Fi + ∑ F ji assumes the particle can move

e

anywhere in space. j

Not true  free space does not exist; constraints are present

• roller coaster is constrained on a rail.

• billiard ball is constrained on a pool table.
• in rigid bodies, constraints on the motions of particles keep
the distance rij unchanged.
• beads on a wire are constrained to one dimensional motion.
• Gas molecules are constrained by the walls of the container.
Holonomic constraints
Examples:
• Simple pendulum oscillating in (x,y) plane: x
x2 + y 2 = l2
l
The equation is a relation between two coordinates;
motion can be described by single independent (x,y)
coordinate.
y
• A particle moving on the surface of a sphere:
Three cartesian coordinates satisfy:
x2 + y2 + z 2 = a2
Two independent coordinates  knowing x and y, we can find z:
z = a2 − x2 − y2
Therefore, a holonomic constraint is one that can be expressed in the
form of an equation relating the coordinates:
f (r1 , r2 , r3 ......., t ) = 0 (21a)
where r 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2
A general example of holonomic constraint is a rigid body where the
distance between any two points is fixed:
(ri − r j ) 2 − cij2 = 0
Non-Holonomic constraints
Example:
• If a particle can be found any where inside a sphere, we have the
inequality condition:
x2 + y2 + z 2 ≤ a2
or r 2 − a2 ≥ 0
where r 2 = x2 + y2 + z 2
So a constraint which cannot be expressed in the form of an equation
relating the coordinates, is called a non-holonomic constraint.

Rheonomous constraints
Constraints having explicit dependence on time.

Scleronmous constraints
Constraints that are independent of time.
Difficulties due to constraints
1. Coordinates ri no longer independent; connected by equations of
constraint. ⇒ equations of motion are not all independent
2. Forces of constraint among the un-knowns  force exerted by the
wire on beads; by the wall on gas molecules

Generalised Coordinates
(To resolve 1st difficulty in case of holonomic constraints)

To derive equations of motion for a system:

 must select a set of coordinates for the problem
A set of coordinates or parameters, which uniquely describes the
geometric position and/or orientation of body, or system of bodies, is
called the generalised coordinates of the system.

Minimum number of independent generalised coordinates necessary to

completely describe the geometry is known as the number of degrees
of freedom.
N particles → 3N degrees of freedom
Introducing k holonomic constraints → 3N – k degrees of freedom

Define 3N - k independent variables (set of generalised coordinates):

q1 , q2 , q3 ,....., q3 N − k
Then transformation of old r1 , r2 , r3 ,....., rN coordinates in terms of
generalised coordinates:

ri = ri (q1 , q2 , q3 ,....., q3 N − k , t ) (22)

containing the constraints implicitly.

Inverting k equations of constraints, (qi) set can be transformed back to
ri variables.

Generalised coords. qi will not divide in groups of three, like cartesian

coords.
Examples:
• For the constraint that a particle lies on the sphere with radius 1
centred at the origin  Angles θ and φ (latitude, longitude):
ri = ri (θ ,φ )
Transformation from Cartesian coordinate system:
x = sin θ cos φ
y = sin θ sin φ
z = cosθ θ1

• Double pendulum: constrained to move in a plane

generalised coordinates  Angles θ1 and θ2 θ2

Generalised coordinates  often useful for systems without constraints

D’Alembert’s Principle
2. Forces of constraint among the un-knowns 
To overcome the 2nd difficulty, formulate a mechanics where the forces
of constraints disappear.

Consider a virtual displacement δri  change in the configuration of the

system as a result of an infinitesimal change in coordinates at instant t
(Actual displacement  occurring in the system in time interval dt, during
which forces and constraints may be changing)

System in equilibrium  total force on each particle vanishes Fi = 0

Therefore, the virtual work: ∑ Fi ⋅ δri = 0 (23)
i
We can write: Fi = Fia + fi (24)
(applied force) (force of constraint)

∑ Fi ⋅ δri + ∑ fi ⋅ δri = 0
a
then (23) → (25)
i i
Restricting to systems for which virtual work of forces of constraint is
zero  condition true in case of rigid bodies and a number of other
constraints
e.g. for a particle constrained to move on a surface 
force of constraint ⊥ surface; virtual displacement tangent to it
⇒ Virtual work vanishes (not true if friction forces present)

⇒ Condition for equilibrium of a system:

→ virtual work of applied forces vanishes

∑ Fi ⋅ δri = 0
a
Therefore, Eq. (25) takes the form: (26)
i

Equation (26) is called the principle of virtual work.

Fia ≠ 0 and δri are not independent (connected by constraints)
To equate coefficients of δri to zero, transform the principle into a
form involving virtual displacements of qi which are independent.
Equation (26) deals with statics of the system; therefore to involve the
dynamics of the system, we write the equation of motion:
Fi = p& i → Fi − p& i = 0
(actual force) (reversed effective force)

So instead of (23), we can write: ∑ (Fi − p& i ) ⋅ δri = 0

i

∑ (Fi − p& i ) ⋅ δri + ∑ fi ⋅ δri = 0

a
Then using (24):
i i
If the virtual work of the forces of constraints in zero, then:

∑ (Fi − p& i ) ⋅ δri = 0

a
(D’Alembert’s principle) (21)
i

So forces of constraint no longer appear; we can drop superscript a

To be in useful form  transform into expression involving virtual

displacements of generalised coordinates, independent of each other
(for holonomic constraints)