POLITICAL SCIENCE-I- PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

MODULE-IV-POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

1. MARXISM

The theory of socialism developed by Karl Marx and Frederich Engels , is known as Marxism or scientific
socialism. Marxism is essentially a theory of revolution, of revolutionary policies and action. It is the creed of a
revolutionary party and the proletariat or the working class.

Basic Principles and Policies

The basic principles and policies of Marxism are given in the Communist Manifesto (1848) and elaborated in
the Capital. They are later interpreted and enriched by Marxist theoreticians and statesmen like F.Engels,
V.I.Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Leon Trotsky, Mao-Zedong and other neo- Marxist scholars- Althusser, Adomo and
Antonio Gramsci. The basic principles of Marxism are:-

 Dialectical-cum-historical materialism
 Class struggle
 Surplus value
 Theory of state
 Theory of revolution
 The dictatorship of the proletariat and the withering away of the state.

Dialectical-cum-Historical Materialism
The dialectical materialism is the metaphysical background of the communist philosophy. The
dialectical theory means that all things and movements result from the conflict of opposing elements or
tendencies. The dialectics is the continuous and on-going principle and process found always and everywhere. It
moves towards the direction of development ad never ends. Materialism means that the driving force behind the
dialectical process is not mental but material factors. Historical events occur as a result of the conflict of
opposing tendencies which are generated by material conditions.
The materialistic interpretation of history is the corner stone of communism. It starts from the Marxian
proposition that modes of production and exchange of things form the basis of all social structures appeared
hitherto in history. The final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be found in the changes
in mode of production and exchange. The salient features of this doctrine of economic interpretation of history
are mainly two. Firstly, it is not human desires and thoughts but the economic process that turns the ultimate
springs of change. Secondly, all elements which would makeup social institutions and cultural life of a
particular period-ethical, legal, religious and social are the by-products of its fundamental economic structure.
This is known as the economic determinism of Marx.
Class struggle
The social relationship has been the same throughout the period of recorded history. It is one of
exploitation. So society is divided into two opposite classes-the exploiting and the exploited. This relationship
of exploitation has assumed a variety of different forms in known history. Marx mentions three distinct stages
of social formations:1) the age of slavery 2) the age of feudalism and 3) the age of capitalism. Each stage has
its corresponding social relations of exploitation determined by the economic forces of that stage.” The history
of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles”. These struggles each time ended either in a
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revolutionary re-construction of society or in the common ruin of the contending classes. This continuous class-
conflict-becomes all the more acute in the age of capitalism. It is marked by naked exploitation by means of
very high surplus value.
Theory of surplus value
The economic consequence of Marxism is centered around the doctrine of surplus value which depends
on the labour theory of value of the English classical economists. According to David Ricardo the value of any
commodity is determined by the labour expended in its production. The capitalist are unwilling to give the full
value of the workers who produced the commodity. The unpaid value actually goes to the producer. Marx calls
this unpaid value as surplus value. Thus, the capitalist accumulates his profit and capital by exploitation of
workers.
Theory of State
According to Marx the state is nothing but an instrument of exploitation and oppression in the hands
of those who rule the society. The owning class by force of its economic strength becomes the ruling political
class. The legal and political super structures (government, laws, religions) are based upon the economic
structure (forces of production and productive relations) of the society. The economically advanced class
exercise tremendous control over the government which in turn influence the policies of the government. The
state is only a tool of the capitalists to exploit the labourer. The state is an engine of tyranny and oppression.
The state is the product of private property and class structure of society. The power of the state rests on a
selected few who constitute the government and controls the economy.
Theory of Revolution
According to Marx a revolution of the proletariat (working class) is inevitable because capitalism
contains the seed of its own destruction. The system of capitalism is such that capital gets concentrated in to a
few hands. It ruins the lower middle class who are forced to become workers. Thus the number of workers goes
on increasing. They come closer and closer and live together in industrial towns sharing their hardships and
miseries amongst themselves. When they become conscious of their rights they rise in revolt against the
capitalists. Marx predicts the revolution will end in the final victory of the proletariat. Nobody could change the
dialectical process and the inevitable class mark. But one who understands the philosophy of history, can speed
up the advent of revolution.
Dictatorship of the proletariat and withering away of the State
Marx did not say anything about the social formation after the destruction of capitalism. But he
argues that between the defeat of capitalism and the realization of communism there will be a period of
transition. Marx refers to this period as “dictatorship of the proletariat”. The state is necessary during this period
to destroy the last remains of capitalism. The dictatorship of the preliterate will have all the characteristics of a
state. It becomes a tool in the hands of the proletariat to destroy the evils of the old order. When its historic role
is over, the “state will wither away” and a classless and stateless society will emerge. In such a society „each
would contribute according to his capacity and receive according to his needs‟.

2. GANDHISM
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948) the gentle prophet of the world‟s most extraordinary
liberation movement was a man of greatness and goodness. Gandhiji‟s whole life was an experiment with truth.
In fact he spiritualized politics. Gandhi was a great leader, thinker, teacher, preacher, nationalist, internationalist
and an enlightened soul. His ideas and ideals form a school of thought, a distinct, philosophy of life and is
known as „Gandhism‟. However, Gandhi never claimed to have enunciated any „ism‟.

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 Gandhism is not merely a politival creed. It is a message and a philosophy of life. Gandhi was not a
systematic academic thinker or writer. What Gandhism lacks in the shape of a systematic major book on
political theory is more than compensated by the majestic life of the man. The fundamentals of Gandhian
philosophy may be briefly analyzed here.

Politics and Religion

Gandhiji was deeply a religious man. To him, politics is only a pathway to the service of God
Gandhiji observed “Politics with out religion is a death trap because its kills the soul”. By religion Gandhiji
meant observance of higher religious values- ahimsa, truth, love, compassion, non-possession, non-attachment
in one‟s own life. Gandhiji did not consider rites and rituals as important. He speaks about a higher religion
different from temple worship or church worship. To him a religious person should be a seeker after truth.
Gandhi identified truth with God. Truth is the eternal law of the whole universe. In order to realize truth one
should adhere to ahimsa.

Theory of Non Violence (Ahimsa)

Gandhiji was an apostle of non violence. Non violence or ahimsa means avoiding injury to anything
on earth in thought word or deed. In the positive sense it means extending love to all living creatures and even
to the nature. Ganghiji‟s idea of non-violence is rooted in the Hindhu doctrine of Ahimsa. Ahimsa and truth are
the two sides of the same coin. Ahimsa is the means, truth is the end. Ahimsa is the law of mankind, truth is the
ideal. A seeker after truth should adhere to ahimsa in word, deed and thought Ahimsa is the heart of all
religions. Non violence is not passivity or inaction. Non-violence is the symbol of spiritual strength. It is the
„bravery of the soul‟. Non violence is not cowardice. When a choice falls between cowardice and violence,
Gandhiji would prefer to violence. A violent man can hope to become non-violent some day, but there is no
hope for a coward.
Gandhiji stressed very much to the purity of means. “The means are as important as the ends”. To
him the ideal society was an association rooted in non-violence. The moral discipline of the individual is the
most important means of social reconstruction. According to Gandhi there are five principles of non-violence.
 Non violence implies complete self-purification as is humanly possible.
 The strength of non violence is in exact proportion to the ability, to suffer.
 Non-violence is always superior to violence.
 There is no such thing as defeat in non-violence. The end of violence is defeat.
 The ultimate end of non-violence is sure victory.

Non-violence (Ahimsa) envisages a complete philosophy of life. Non violence demands simple living
and high thinking. Non violence demands decentralization of political power and a decentralized economy. It
stands for sustainable development. It is against massive production. It demands production by the masses. It
emphasizes self reliance and the use of appropriate technology suited to local situation. A non violent economy
is distribution system. It is against affluent living styles. The mode of production and distribution should be
localized and eco-friendly.

Theory of Satyagraha

Satyagraha literally means to be firm with truth. It is a combination of two Sanskrit words „sat‟ and
„agraha‟ which means „to be firm with satya‟. Satyagraha as a political weapon means “the exercise of the

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 purest soul force against all injustice, oppression and exploitation”. Satyagraha contemplates concerted mass
action for paralyzing the entire structure of a despotic government. Satyagraha is based on the theory of self
suffering. It upholds the truth not by inflicting suffering on the opponent but on oneself. Satyagraha is twice
blessed; it purifies the sufferer and the person whom against it is directed. Satyagraha is a method of solving
conflicts. The satyagrahi appeals to the reason or heart of the opponent by self suffering and sacrifice. Conflicts
can be resolved through the unison of herats. The conscious suffering of a satyagrahi evokes favourable public
opinion for the cause of the conflict.

Certain psychological and social conditions are necessary to make satyagraha effective. They
are:-

 The satyagrahi should not harbor any hatred within its heart against the opponent.
 The issue for which satyagraha is launched shall be true and substantial.
 The satyagraha shall be ready to undergo all kinds of humiliation and sufferings. He shall be
ready to sacrifice his life, if situation demands.

Techniques of Satyagraha
(a) Non Co-operation: By non cooperation Gandhiji meant the people should not co-operate with those who are
doing injustice or oppression. They should not be given any support from any corner and the oppressor should
feel himself alone. A non co-operator should have enough moral strength to face all odds and convince the
opponent.
(b) Civil Resistance: Another method of fighting against a powerful enemy is civil resistance. People should be
bold enough to declare their intention to disobey cruel and unjust laws. They should openly defy such orders
and should be ready to go behind the bars and suffer such cruelties as the oppressor might inflict upon them but
should carry on the struggle till the unjust law is replaced by a just law.
(c) Fasting: The sense of the persons in power can mist effectively be touching by fasting. Fasting can be
successful only when the person going on fast is spiritually disciplined and true to his cause. Fasting, if taken in
its real spirit, is bound to touch the better sense of the opponent.
(d) Strike: Strike is a strong weapon of workers. Workers should organize themselves in each industry to fight
against unjust acts imposed by the industrialists. Gandhiji however, made it clear that strikes should only aim at
getting their rights and equal status and should nit harbor hostility against the capitalist.
(e) Hijrat: If a person cannot tolerate injustice of the oppressor and also feels that he has not the required capacity
to become a good satyagrahi, for him, the best method is that of „Hijrat‟ or leaving one‟s ancestral place.

Gandhi’s idea of Trusteeship

Gandhiji wanted to transform the system of capitalism and put an end to its vicious effects on social
order. He, therefore, suggested the doctrine of trusteeship. He summed up his formula of trusteeship in the
following points.
a) Trusteeship provides a means of transforming the present capitalist order of society into an egalitarian one.
It gives no quarter to capitalism but gives the present owning class a chance of reforming themselves. It is
based on the faith that human nature is never beyond redemption.
b) It does not recognize any right of private ownership of property except in as much as if may be permitted by
society for one’s own welfare.
c) It does not exclude legislative regulation of property by the state.
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 d) Thus, under state – regulated trusteeship an individual will not be free to hold or use his wealth for selfish
satisfaction or disregard the interests of society.
e) Just as it is proposed to fix up a living minimum wage, even so a limit should be fixed for the maximum
income that could be allowed to any person in society.
f) Under Gandhian economic order the character of production will be determined by social necessity and not
by personal whims or greed.

Gandhi’s concept of Ideal Society (Ramarajya)

The ideal society of Gandhiji is a democracy without the state. It is an enlightened anarchy in which
social life is based not on external but on internal, that is, moral restraint. In such a society there is no
relationship of command and obedience, superior or inferior. Everybody rules over himself and regulates his
own action in the interests of the society. Society based on non- violence consists of groups settled in village in
which voluntary cooperation is the condition of dignified and peaceful existence. Everything in such a society
will be based on the observance of the laws of varnashram. The ideal society will be based on the principle of
free labour and non-possession. This society will be agricultural with cottage industries. There will be no
capitalism and no exploitation of man by man. There will be no scope for institutions of the state, like jails,
police and courts. The ideal society will be like a family avoiding the extremes, of individualism and
collectivism. Failing such an ideal society, Gandhiji would prefer a non-violent state with limited functions and
with social and economic equality as far as possible.
Gandhism may be still worth recalling as a source of strength, a beacon of light for guidance and not the
least, as a warning.
3. FASCISM
Fascism was an extreme rightist political ideology of the twentieth century. It is highly authoritarian and
totalitarian. The term fascism is described from the Latin word „fasces‟ which means a bundle of rods and an
axe. It symbolizes authority, discipline, unity and strength, the very characteristics of Fascism. Fascism
originated and developed in Italy first as a political movement before the Second World War. Benito Mussolini
was its leader and high priest. In fact fascism had no well worked out theory. At the same time fascism was
deadly opposed to rationalism, parliamentarianism, liberalism, communism, pacifism, individualism and
internationalism. It repudicated ideals like liberty, equality and justice. They were replaced by fascist key
word.‟ National action‟ was its gospel. It glorified the nation and conceived the nation state as a spiritual entity.
It could exercise total control over the whole life of men.

Basic Principles of Fascism

Fascism was anti intellectual. It repudiated reason and distrusted reasoning. Perpetual peace is
neither possible nor desirable. War is to man what maternity is to women.
Fascism repudiated democracy and all democratic institutions. According to the fascists it is basically
wrong to believe that all men are equal. People are born unequal and they will remain so.
Fascism is opposed to forms of individualism. Individuals are completely subordinate of the state. It is
the duty of the individual to obey blindly the orders of the government. Liberty of the citizen consists in
totally and completely obeying the laws of the state. ‘Everything for the state; nothing against the state and
nothing outside the state’ [Gentile 1875-1944] was its guiding motto.

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 Fascism is strongly imperialistic. The nation as it grows strong must have the means of expansion
and self expression. The fascists openly preached imperialist expansion and aggressive war. Imperialism is
the eternal and immutable law of life.
The German version of fascism named after as Nazism believes in racialism. In fact it was the most
reprehensible feature of Nazism. Hitler declared that Aryans were superior to every other race in the world
and hence most fit to rule the world.
Fascism conceived the nation state as a living or functioning corporate entity constituted by organic
units called corporations. The state does not consists of individuals but of groups or corporations which can
be considered a unit of social and political life. However, all of them should be under the state control and
they should function according to the will of the state.
The fascist view of political authority was undemocratic, oligarchic and dictatorial. It believed that
political authority was not derived from the community but was to be exercised for the community. Political
power must be vested in the chosen few who are best fitted and capable. Fascism had no faith in political
choice and wisdom of the common man. Liberal and democratic principles like adult franchise, free election,
discussion with opposition and majority rule were repudiated.

Italian Fascism was the typical example of totalitarianism. Its conception of the state was totalitarian.
It believed and claimed that the state has every right to control and regulate life totally. Freedom of expression,
association and faith depend on the discretion of the state. The Fascist policies followed by Mussolini and
Hitler‟s racialism ultimately resulted in the Second World War in which there was a colossal loss of men and
material.

4. LIBERALISM

Liberalism is a principle of political science which insists on Liberty of individual as the first and
foremost goal of the public policy. Liberty, in this sense implies liberation from restraints- particularly from the
restraints imposed by an authoritarian state. According to Britannica Encyclopedia, liberalism is a political and
economic doctrine that emphasizes on the rights and freedoms of the individual and on limited powers of the
state. In the economic realm, liberals in the nineteenth century urged the end of state interference in the
economic life of the society. Liberals in the late 19th and early 20th centauries advocated limited state
intervention in the market and the creation of state-founded social services, such as free public education and
health insurance. In modern society, liberals favor a liberal democracy with open, free and fair elections, where
all citizens have equal rights and equal opportunities.

Historical Development

Liberalism has been the result of numerous events which occurred in the West during the sixteenth,
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. These events included the Enlightenment, the Glorious Revolution and
the French Revolution. The Enlightenment refused to accept moral goals as absolute rights, Glorious
Revolution denounced the divine rights of the kings and the French Revolution gave the idea of individual
liberty and made it so sacred that no one could suppress it. Liberalism fought simultaneously on two fronts:
(1).against the unlimited and unrestricted powers of the monarchs, and (2).against the landed aristocracy.

It was, thus, a war against feudalism and absolute monarchy. As the war was launched by the
bourgeoisie, liberalism has been till date the political philosophy of the capitalists.
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 Broadly speaking liberalism emphasizes on individual rights. It seeks a society characterized by,

 Freedom of thought for individuals

 Limitations on power (especially on power and religion)
 The rule of law
 Free exchange of ideas
 A marker economy that supports free private enterprises
 A transparent system of government in which the rights of all citizens are protected.

Liberal political ideology mainly founded on the following things:

a) the natural goodness of man

b) the autonomy of the individuals
c) individual‟s civil and political liberties
d) limited nature of governmental intervention
e) the consent of the people
f) an economic theory- the maximum individual initiative and the minimum governmental interference in
economic affairs.

Essentials of Liberalism

 belief in the autonomy of the individual,

 a passion for the existence and protection of the rights,
 liberties of the people,
 rationalism with an eye on future progress,
 consent of the people in the formation and in the functioning of the state,
 free economy,
 constitutionalism and toleration, and
 limited government.

Forms of Liberalism.

Scholars have pointed out the following forms of liberalism;

Political liberalism

This is the belief that the individuals are the basis of law and society, and that society and its institutions
exists to further the ends of individuals. It enfranchises all adult citizens regardless of sex, race or economic
status. It emphasizes the rule of law and supports liberal democracy.

Cultural liberalism

This focuses on the rights of the individuals pertaining to conscience and life style, including such issues as
sexual freedom, religious freedom, cognitive freedom, protection from government and intrusion into private
life. Cultural liberalism generally opposes government regulation of literature, art, and academics.

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Economic liberalism

Also called classical liberalism, this is an ideology which supports the individual rights of property and
freedom of contract, without which, it argues, the exercise of other liberties is impossible. It advocates Laissez-
faire capitalism, meaning the removal of legal barriers to trade and cessation of government-bestowed
privileges such as subsidy and monopoly. Economic liberals want little or no government regulation of the
market.

Social liberalism

Also known as new liberalism and reform liberalism, this form of liberalism arose in the late nineteenth
century in many developed countries, influenced by the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham and J.S Mill.

The Role of State in Liberalism

Liberalism treats market society as the model of social organization. Where role of the state should be
confined to the protection of individual‟s life and property, enforcement of contracts, and maintenance of
minimum common services which would not be undertaken by private entrepreneurs. In liberal view state is a
necessary evil. Liberalism treats the state as the means and individual as the end. It rules out absolute authority
of the state.

Broad Streams of Liberalism

We can identify the broad streams of liberalism with three stages. (i).classical liberalism/negative
liberalism, (ii). Positive liberalism and (iii) neo-liberalism

Classical Liberalism/Negative Liberalism.

Early exponents of liberalism include John Lock (1632-1704), Adam Smith (1723-90), and Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832). All of them were English Philosophers. Lock is known as the father of liberalism. Smith
is known as the father of economics; and Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism. All of them defended the
principle of laissez-faire (a French term which means leave alone. It implied the policy of non intervention by
the state in the economic activities of the individuals) which implies least interference of the state in the
economic activities of the individuals. They are the founders of classical liberalism which is called negative
liberalism because it contemplates negative role of the state in the sphere of mutual interaction of individuals.

Early liberal theory developed in two main directions: (i) individualism, and (ii) utilitarianism.
Individualism conceded primacy of the individual as a rational being. It required that the individual‟s dignity,
independent existence and judgment should be given full recognition while making public policy and decisions.
It means, no individual shall be made to suffer in order to benefit any larger unit of society.

On the other hand, utilitarianism stands for “greatest happiness of the greatest number” where interest of
the few may be sacrificed in the interest of the collectivity. Happiness is defined as the balance of pleasure over
pain derived from various goods and services, acts and policies. Founder of this school of thought, Jeremy
Bentham, observed that nature has placed mankind under two sovereign masters-pleasure and pain. Human
behavior is guided by an urge to obtain pleasure and avoid pain. Moral principles and state policy should aim at
promoting greatest happiness of the greatest number.

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Positive Liberalism

In the nineteenth century T H green (1836-82), another English philosopher, sought to add a moral
dimension liberalism and thereby advanced a fully fledged theory of the welfare state. this tradition further
developed by L.T Hobhouse (1864-1929), Harold J Laski (1893-1950), and R.H Tawny (1880-1962)- all of
them were English philosophers. Thus, the theory and the practice of welfare state flourished in the first half of
the 20th century in England. This theory contemplates positive role of the state in securing a dignified life to the
individuals. It is, therefore, called positive liberalism.

On the political side, liberalism promotes democracy, on the economic side, it promotes capitalism.
Democracy is concerned with fulfilling needs and aspirations of ordinary people, but capitalism results in the
concentration of economic power in the hands of the few who may use it against the interests of the ordinary
people. This situation is sought to be rectified by the mechanism of the welfare state.

Welfare state

A state that safeguards liberty of its citizens and provides for various types of social services
for their benefit, Eg: social security, free education, public health, poor relief, supply of essential
goods and services like food grains, milk, fuel and transport to the needy at subsidized rates. It
undertakes the protection of cultural heritage including monuments, museums, libraries, art
galleries, botanical gardens and zoological parks etc. it also promotes higher education and
scientific research etc. A welfare state largely resorts to taxation of the rich to provide for the
common services as well as for giving relief to the poor and distressed.

Neo-Liberalism

Neo-liberalism, neo-classical liberalism or libertarianism stands for contemporary version of classical

liberalism which seeks to restore laissez-faire individualism. It denounces the welfare state, opposes state
intervention and control of economic activities. The chief exponents of neo-liberalism include F.A Hayek
(1899-1992), an Australian thinker, Milton Friedman (1912-2006), an American economist, and Robert Nozick
(1938-2002), an American philosopher.

In the second half of the 20th century, these thinkers realized that the theory of the welfare state was inimical
to individual liberty, as it involved the forced transfer of resources from the more competent to the less
competent. In order to restore individual liberty, they sought to revive the principle of laissez-faire not only in
economic sphere, but also in social and political spheres. In a nutshell, neo-liberalism upholds full autonomy
and freedom of the individual. It seeks his liberation from all institutions which tend to restrict his vision of the
world, including the institutions of religion, family and customs of social conformity apart from political
institutions. In the political sphere, neo-liberalism particularly insists that man‟s economic activity must be
actively liberated from all restrictions to enable him to achieve true progress and prosperity. In the economic
sphere market exemplifies the arena of individual freedom. In the political sphere, market represents a model of
genuine democracy, where votes are traded against welfare benefits, and the cost is borne by the most
productive members of society.
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 In the contemporary world, neo-liberalism found practical manifestation through three interrelated
principles: Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization.

1. Liberalization

The policy of removal or relaxation of governmental control or restriction on economic activity with a view
to maximizing its efficiency. It seeks to reduce the state‟s liability toward welfare of the individuals and
promotes incentive-based rewards rather than dependence on various subsidies.

2. Privatization

The policy of transferring government ownership and control of any sector of economy to private ownership
and control in order to improve the standard of its management and to prevent loss to the public exchequer.

3. Globalization

Policy of globalization holds that economic efficiency can be increased to the maximum if economic
activity is allowed to benefit from the resources available at the global scale. It encourages the utilization of
capital and machinery available in one part of the world, raw materials in another part, labor in still another part
for the process of production and search of markets for the final product all over the world. Its objectives
include the minimization of coast of a product, enhancement of its quality and the maximization of profit from
its marketing.

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