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UNIT I –Modern Physics UNIT-I MODERN PHYSICS Black Body Radiation Black
Body Radiation

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UNIT I –Modern Physics

UNIT-I MODERN PHYSICS

Black Body Radiation

Black Body Radiation

A hot body emits thermal radiations which depend on composition and the
temperature of the body. The ability of the body to radiate is closely related to its
ability to absorb radiation. A Body which is capable of absorbing almost all the
radiations incident on it is called a black body. A perfectly black-body can absorb the
entire radiations incident on it. Platinum black and Lamp black can absorb almost all the
radiations incident on them.

Emissive power of a black body: It is defined as the total energy radiated per second
from the unit surface area of a black body maintained at certain temperature.

Absorptive power of a black body: It is defined as the ratio of the total energy absorbed
by the black body to the amount of radiant energy incident on it in a given time interval.
The absorptive power of a perfectly black body is 1.

Spectral Distribution of energy in thermal radiation

(Black Body radiation spectrum)

A good absorber of radiation is also a good emitter. Hence when a black body is
heated it emits radiations. In practice a black body can be realized with the emission of
Ultraviolet, Visible and infrared wavelengths on heating a body. German physicists
Lummer and Pringsheim studied the energy density as a function of wavelength for
different temperatures of a black body using a spectrograph and a plot is made. This is
called Black Body radiation spectrum.

Uλ

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

The Salient features of black body radiation spectrum are as below

1) The energy density increases with wavelength then takes a maximum value Em
for a particular wavelength λm and then decrease to a value zero for longer
wavelengths. Hence the Energy distribution in the spectrum is not uniform
2) As the Temperature increases the Wavelength (λm) corresponding to the
maximum emission energy (Em) shifts towards shorter wavelength side. Thus the
λm is inversely proportional to temperature (T) and is called Wein’s
b
Displacement Law. Mathematically λm = .Here b is Wein’s Constant of value
T
2.898x10-3 mK.
3) The total energy emitted by the black body at a given temperature is given by
the area under the curve and is proportional to the fourth power of
temperature. This is called Stefan’s law of radiation. Mathematically E= σ T4,
here ‘σ’ is the Stefan’s constant of value 5.67 x 10-8 Wm2K-4.

Explanation of Black Body Radiation Spectrum

Classical Theories
Wein’s Distribution Law: In the year 1893 Wein using thermodynamics showed that the
energy emitted per unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ+dλ
C2
C1 −
E λ dλ = e λT
dλ
λ5
Here C1 and C2 are empirical constants. A suitable selection for these constants helps to
explain the experimental curve in the shorter wavelength region. The drawback of this
law is it fails to explain the curve in the longer wavelength region. Also according to this
equation the energy density at high temperatures tends to zero which contradicts
experimental observations.

Rayleigh-Jeans Law: British Physicists Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans made an attempt
to explain the Black Body radiation spectrum Based on the concepts formation of
standing electromagnetic waves and the law of equipartition of energy. According to
this law the energy density of radiation is given by
8π k T
E λ dλ = dλ
λ4
Here ‘k’ is Boltzmann constant with value 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1. This law successfully explains
the energy distribution of the black body radiation in the longer wavelength region.
According to this law black body is expected to radiate large amount of energy in the
shorter wavelength region thus leading to no energy available for emission in the longer
wavelength region. Experimental observations show that the most of the emissions of
the black body radiation occur in the visible and infrared regions. This discrepancy is
called Ultraviolet Catastrophe.

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

Quantum theory of radiation

Planck’s law of radiation: German physicist Max Plank successfully explained the energy
distribution in the black body radiation based on the following assumptions
1) The surface of the black body contains oscillators
2) These oscillators absorb or emit energy in terms of integral multiples of discrete
packets called quanta or photons. The energy ‘E’ of photons is proportional to
the frequency ‘ν’ of the radiation. Mathematically E=nhν here h is a constant
called Planck’s constant and its value is 6.625 x 10-34 Js, and ‘n’ can take integer
values
3) At thermal equilibrium the rate of absorption and emission of radiation are
equal.
According to Planck’s law of radiation the expression for energy density of radiation
is given by
 
8π h c  1 
E λ dλ = dλ
λ5  λhckT 
 e − 1

Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light, ‘k’ is Boltzmann constant and ‘h’ is Planck’s
constant. This law explains the distribution of energy in the black body radiation
spectrum completely for all wavelengths and at all temperatures. Also this law can
be reduced to Wein’s distribution law in the shorter wavelength region and to
Rayleigh-Jeans law in the longer wavelength region.

Photo-Electric effect

“The emission of electrons from the surface of certain materials when radiation
of suitable frequency is incident on it is called the phenomenon of Photo-Electric
effect.” The electrons emitted are called photo electrons and the material is said to
be photo sensitive. This was discovered in the 1887 by Henrich Hertz.

Incident
Radiation

Photo Electrons

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

The experimental observations of photoelectric effect are

1) Photo electrons are emitted instantaneously as soon as the radiation is incident

2) Photo electric emission occurs only if the frequency of the incident radiation is
greater than a certain value called Threshold frequency.
3) The kinetic energy acquired by photo electrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of the incident radiation and is independent of the intensity.
4) The number of photoelectrons emitted depends on the intensity of the incident
radiation and is independent of the frequency

Photoelectric effect signifies the particle nature of radiation.

Einstein’s explanation of the photo electric effect

When metal is illuminated with radiation of suitable frequency, the photons of

the radiation interact with electrons in the metal. When a photon interacts with an
electron, the electron absorbs it and the photon vanishes. The energy acquired by
the electron from the photon is made use in two stages. A part of the energy is used
by the electron to free itself from the metal since it is bound within metal. Thus
some minimum amount of energy is required for the electron just to escape from
the metal is called Work Function (φ). The rest of the energy is carried by the
electron as Kinetic Energy (KE). Since the energy of the photon is ‘hν’ the
photoelectric effect satisfies the following equation

hν = φ + KE
This is called Photoelectric Equation. Here ‘ν’ is the frequency of the incident
radiation
1
h ν = h ν 0 + mv 2
2
Here ‘ν0’ is the threshold frequency and ‘v’ is the velocity of electron and ‘m’ the
mass. Thus from the photoelectric equation, if the frequency of the radiation ν < ν0
no photoelectrons are emitted.

Compton Effect

“The phenomenon of scattering of X-rays from suitable material and hence increase
in its wavelength is called Compton Effect.”

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics
Scattered Photon

Incident Photon
θ

Recoiled Electron

When X-rays are incident on certain materials they are scattered and the
scattered X-rays contain two components. One component has the same
wavelength as the incident X-ray and the other with wavelength greater than the
incident X-rays. This is due to the scattering of X-ray photons from the electrons
present in the material. Due to the transfer of energy from X-ray photon to electron
the wavelength of X-ray increases and the electron recoils. This can be treated as
collision between two particles. Thus Compton Effect signifies particle nature of
radiation. The change in wavelength which is also called Compton Shift is given by
h
∆λ = λ1 − λ = [1 − Cosθ ]
m0 c
Here ‘λ’ is the wavelength of incident X-rays and ‘λ1‘is the wavelength of
scattered X-ray ‘θ’ is the scattering angle and ‘m0’ is the rest mass of electron. The
h
quantity is called Compton Wavelength.
m0 c

Dual Nature of Radiation and de Broglie’s hypothesis

The phenomenon like Interference, Diffraction and Polarization are attributed to

the wave properties of radiation. The Quantum theory of radiation and experiments
like Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect describe the particle nature of
radiation. Thus radiation behaves like waves and like particles under different
suitable circumstances. Hence radiation exhibits dual nature.

In the year 1924 French physicist Louis de Broglie made a daring suggestion “If
radiant energy could behave like waves in some experiments and particles or
photons in others and since nature loves symmetry, then one can expect the
particles like protons and electrons to exhibit wave nature under suitable
circumstances.” This is well known as de Broglie’s hypothesis.

Therefore waves can be even associated with moving material particles called
Matter waves and the wavelength associated with matter waves is called de Broglie

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

h
wavelength. The de Broglie wavelength is given by λ = where ‘m’ is the mass of
mv
the particle and ‘v’ is its velocity.

Expression for de Broglie wavelength from analogy

According to the Einstein’s photon theory the energy of the photon is given by
E=hν
Here ‘ν’ is the frequency of the incident radiation and ‘h’ is Planck’s constant. If ‘m’ is
the mass equivalent of the energy of the photon then
mc2 = hν
Since the frequency of the incident radiation could be expressed in terms of wavelength
c
‘λ’ as ν = we get
λ
hc h
mc 2 = ⇒ mc = =p
λ λ
Here ‘p’ is the momentum of the photon
h h
Therefore λ = =
mc p
Thus, according to de Broglie’s hypothesis, for a particle moving with velocity ‘v’ the
above equation can be modified by replacing the momentum of photon with the
momentum of the moving particle ‘mv’. Therefore the de Broglie wavelength associated
with a moving particle is given by
h h
λ= = ..........(1)
p mv
Here ‘m’ is the mass of the moving particle.

de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated with a potential difference of

‘V’ volt

Consider an electron accelerated by a potential difference of ‘V’ volts. The kinetic

energy acquired by the electron is given by
1 2E
E = mv 2 ⇒v=
2 m
Here ‘m’ is the mass of the electron and is given by 9.1 x 10-31 kg
Substituting the value of ‘v’ in equation (1) we get
h h
λ= =
2E 2mE
m
m
Since the electron acquires kinetic energy from the applied potential difference ‘V’

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

The kinetic energy of the electron is also given by E=eV where ‘e’ is the charge on
electron with value 1.6 x 10-19C
h
Hence the expression for the de Broglie wavelength λ =
2meV
Substituting the values for the constants h, m and e we get
12.26 0
λ= Α
V

Davisson and Germer Experiment

(Experimental evidence for de Broglie’s hypothesis)

The experimental set up is as shown in figure. It consists of an arrangement to

study Bragg diffraction of electrons generated from an electron gun ‘E’. The electrons
can be accelerated to a desired velocity. Then the electrons are made to incident on the
nickel crystal ‘C’ mounted on the turntable which can be rotated. The electrons are
scattered in all direction by the atomic planes of the crystal. The No. of electrons
scattered (Intensity) in a direction can be measured by a detector (Ionization Chamber)
to which a galvanometer ‘G’ is connected. The deflection in the galvanometer is
proportional to the intensity of the electron beam entering the detector. The angle ‘φ‘
can be measured using a circular scale ‘S’. The whole instrument is placed in an
evacuated chamber.

Experiment: During the investigation, The Electrons accelerated by a potential

difference of 54V are made to incident on the nickel crystal. The first order electron
beam reflection intensity is found to be maximum for a value of φ = 50° (Fig 2 and 3)

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

with the glancing angle of incidence 65°. The spacing of family of Bragg’s planes
involved in the reflection is determined using X-rays and is found to be 0.091 nm.

Bragg’s
Planes

Intensity
65°
-
54 volt e
Beam 25°
25°
50°
φ in degree

According to Bragg’s law for the first order reflection maxima (n=1)
2d Sinθ = n λ
⇒ λ = 2d Sinθ = 2 × 0.091 × 10 −9 × Sin(65 0 )
= 0.165 × 10 −9 m
According to de Broglie’s hypothesis for an electron accelerated by potential difference
of 54 V the de Broglie wavelength is given by
12.26 0 1.226 × 10 −9
λ= Α= = 0.166 × 10 −9 m
V 54
The experimentally determined value is in good agreement with the value
calculated according to de Broglie’s hypothesis. Thus Davisson and Germer experiment
not only confirms the wave associated with moving particle it also verifies the de
Broglie’s hypothesis.

Phase velocity and Group velocity

Phase velocity (vp)

The velocity with which a wave travels is called phase velocity and is also called
wave velocity. If a point is marked on the wave representing the phase of the particle
then the velocity with which the phase propagates from one point to another is called
ω
phase velocity. It is given by v p = Where ‘ω’ is the angular frequency and ‘k’ is wave
k
2π
number. Substituting for ω = 2πν and k = we get v p = νλ
λ
hν E
Therefore v p = = Where ‘E’ is the energy and ‘p’ is momentum
h p
λ

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

mc 2 c 2
vp = = Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light and ‘v’ is the velocity of the particle.
mv v
From the above expression it is evident that the phase velocity is not only
greater than the particle velocity it is also greater than the velocity of light. Hence there
is no physical meaning for phase velocity of matter waves.

Group velocity (vg)

Since the velocity of matter waves must be equal to that of the particle velocity and
since no physical meaning can be associated with phase velocity the concept of group
velocity is introduced.

Particle vp

Vg

Matter wave can be considered as a resultant wave due to the superposition of

many component waves whose velocities differ slightly. Thus a wave group or wave
packet is formed. The velocity with which the wave group travels is called group
velocity which is same as particle velocity. It is denoted by vg.

Properties of Matter waves

The following are the properties associated with the matter waves
1) Matter waves are associated only with particles in motion
2) They are not electromagnetic in nature
3) Group velocity is associated with matter waves
4) The phase velocity has no physical meaning for matter waves
5) The amplitude of the matter wave at a given point is associated with the
probability of finding the particle at that point.
6) The wave length of matter waves is given by λ = h
p

Expression for Group velocity using the concept of superposition of waves

Consider a wave group formed by the superposition of a minimum of two waves
which slightly differ in their velocities with amplitudes ‘A” traveling in the same
direction and are represented mathematically as below

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

y1 = A Sin(ω1t − k1 x) .........(1)
y 2 = A Sin(ω 2 t − k 2 x) .......( 2)
According to the principle of superposition the resultant wave is given by
y = y1 + y 2 = A Sin(ω1t − k1 x) + A Sin(ω 2 t − k 2 x)
C − D C + D
We know that Sin C + Sin D = 2 Cos  Sin 
 2   2 
 (ω − ω 2 ) (k1 − k 2 )   (ω + ω 2 ) (k1 + k 2 ) 
y = 2 A Cos 1 t− x  Sin 1 t− x  ...........(3)
 2 2   2 2 
But ω1 − ω 2 = ∆ω , k1 − k 2 = ∆k and since ω1 ≅ ω 2
(ω + ω 2 ) (k1 + k 2 )
we have 1 ≅ ω and ≅k
2 2
Therefore equation (3) could be written as
 ∆ω ∆k 
y = 2 A Cos t− x  Sin(ω t − kx ) ...........(4)
 2 2 
ω
Equation (4) represents resultant wave with phase velocity v p = whose amplitude
k
varies as
 ∆ϖ ∆k 
R = 2 A Cos t− x
 2 2 
The velocity with which this amplitude variation propagates represents group velocity
and is given by
∆ω
vg = 2 = ∆ω
∆k ∆k
2
In the limit  ∆ω  →  dω 
 ∆k   dk 
Therefore the group velocity is given by v g =
dω
dk

Relation between group velocity and phase velocity

ω
The phase velocity is given by v p = ⇒ ω = v pk
k
The group velocity of matter waves is given by
dω dv p
vg = = vp + k
dk dk
dv p dλ
vg = vp + k × .........(1)
dλ dk
The wave number ‘k’ is given by

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

UNIT I –Modern Physics

2π
k= Differentiating the equation we get
λ
dk 2π dk λ2
=− 2 ⇒ =− ....( 2)
dλ λ dλ 2π
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1) we get
dω dv p
vg = = vp + k
dk dk
dv p λ 2
vg = vp − k ×
dλ 2π
2π dv p λ 2
vg = v p − ×
λ dλ 2π
Thus the relation between group velocity and phase velocity is given by
dv p
vg = v p − λ
dλ

Relation between group velocity and particle velocity

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’.We know that the group
velocity is given by
dω
vg =
dk
2πE
But the angular velocity is given by ω = 2πν ⇒ ω =
h
2π dE
Differentiating we get dω =
h
2π 2π p
The propagation constant is given by k = ⇒k=
λ h
2π dp
Differentiating we get dk =
h
dω dE
∴vg = = ......(1)
dk dp
The total energy of the particle is given by E= Kinetic energy + Potential energy
mv 2 p2
E= +V = +V
2 2m
Differentiating the above equation we get

2 p dp dE p mv
dE = ⇒ = = = v , The particle velocity
2m dp m m
Hence Group velocity and particle velocity are equal.

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

 UNIT I –Modern Physics

Expression for de Broglie wavelength using the concept of group velocity

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ and having a constant
potential energy ‘V’. The group velocity of the matter wave is given by
dω
vg =
dk
But ω = 2πν , dω = 2π dν and k =
2π
, dk = 2π d 1
λ
( λ)
dν
vg =
Substituting the values we get
( λ)
d 1
.

⇒d 1 ( λ ) = dvν = .dvν Because v = v g

g

The total energy of the particle is given by E= Kinetic energy + Potential energy
mv 2
E= +V
2
mv 2
hν = +V
2
h d ν = mv dv
dν m
= dv
v h
1 m
d   = dv
λ  h

Integrating the above equation we get

1 mv
⇒ = + C (Integration Constant)
λ h
Choosing value of ‘C’ as Zero we get
mv 1
⇒ =
λ h
h h
∴λ = =
mv p

Hence the expression for de Broglie wave length.

K.S. Mahesh Lohith, Dept. of Physics, AIEMS.

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