aerospace

Article
Experimental Investigation of the Wake and the
Wingtip Vortices of a UAV Model
Pericles Panagiotou, George Ioannidis ID
, Ioannis Tzivinikos and Kyros Yakinthos * ID

Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachinery, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; peripan@eng.auth.gr (P.P.);
georioan.meng@gmail.com (G.I.); ioannistzivinikos@gmail.com (I.T.)
* Correspondence: kyak@auth.gr; Tel.: +30-231-099-6411

Received: 5 October 2017; Accepted: 30 October 2017; Published: 1 November 2017

Abstract: An experimental investigation of the wake of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) model
using flow visualization techniques and a 3D Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) system is presented
in this work. Emphasis is given on the flow field at the wingtip and the investigation of the tip
vortices. A comparison of the velocity field is made with and without winglet devices installed at
the wingtips. The experiments are carried out in a closed-circuit subsonic wind tunnel. The flow
visualization techniques include smoke-wire and smoke-probe experiments to identify the flow
phenomena, whereas for accurately measuring the velocity field point measurements are conducted
using the LDA system. Apart from the measured velocities, vorticity and circulation quantities
are also calculated and compared for the two cases. The results help to provide a more detailed
view of the flow field around the UAV and indicate the winglets’ significant contribution to the
deconstruction of wing-tip vortex structures.

Keywords: UAV; measurements; LDA; vortex; winglets

1. Introduction
In recent years, there is an increasing trend in the development and use of fixed-wing Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) by both military forces and civilian organizations [1]. They are ideal solutions
for a wide range of operations, such as fire detection, search and rescue, coastline and sea-lane
monitoring, and security surveillance [2]. Due to the absence of crew on-board, they present several
advantages, such as the reduced operational cost, the ability to operate under hazardous conditions,
and the increased flight endurance, which is one the most important characteristics when it comes to
the aforementioned missions. In the case of a UAV, where the endurance is only limited by the available
fuel on-board, it is essentially up to the aerodynamic efficiency of the configuration to maximize the
flight time. For a given mission, the required lift force is defined, therefore the optimization process is
essentially keeping the corresponding drag force as low as possible.
For a UAV that operates in the low subsonic, incompressible regime, as is the case with most
Medium-Altitude-Long-Endurance (MALE) UAVs [3–6], a drag breakdown analysis was conducted
in [7], which shows that the part that contributes the most to the total drag force of the aerial vehicle is
the main wing. More specifically, when exposed in subsonic, incompressible flow, a finite wing’s drag
is a combination of profile drag and induced drag. The profile drag is the drag due to the shape of
the body (skin friction + flow separation effects), whereas the induced drag is a result of the pressure
imbalance at the tip of a finite wing between its upper (suction side) and lower (pressure side) surfaces.
At the tip though, this imbalance causes the high-pressure air from the lower side to move upwards,
where the pressure is lower, leading to the formation of a vortex, i.e., the wingtip vortex (Figure 1).
This three-dimensional motion alters the flow field above the entire wing as well, thus resulting in the

Aerospace 2017, 4, 53; doi:10.3390/aerospace4040053 www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 2 of 17
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 2 of 17

appearance
drag to the oftotal
the induced
drag forcedrag term [8].
budget, a lotDue to thehas
of effort importance of in
been made thethe
induced drag
previous to the total
decades drag
to minimize
force budget, a lot of effort has been made in the previous decades to minimize
this component and pertain the wingtip vortex. The most notable achievement is probably this component andthe
pertain the concept,
winglet wingtip vortex. The most
introduced notable achievement
by Whitcomb [9]. Having is probably
been studied thebywinglet
variousconcept, introduced
researchers over the
byyears,
Whitcomb [9]. Having
for issues that havebeen
to studied
do with by various researchers
aerodynamic over the
and structural years,
issues, for issues
using that have to do
both experimental and
with aerodynamic and structural issues, using both experimental and computational
computational tools for design and optimization purposes [10–14], it is essentially a sophisticated tools for design
and optimization
type of wingtippurposes
fence that[10–14], it isflow
alters the essentially a sophisticated
at the tip typeincreases
in a manner that of wingtip fence that alters
aerodynamic the
efficiency
flow
andatreduces
the tip inthe
a manner thattip
size of the increases
vortex. aerodynamic efficiency and reduces the size of the tip vortex.

Figure 1. Tip vortex formation [7].

Figure 1. Tip vortex formation [7].

A lot of experimental studies exist that deal with the flow over wings and tip vortices.
A lot of experimental studies exist that deal with the flow over wings and tip vortices. Even
Even though the configurations vary, the flow development is based on the same fundamental
though the configurations vary, the flow development is based on the same fundamental principles,
principles, which means that the information from the existing literature can serve as a solid reference
which means that the information from the existing literature can serve as a solid reference point. For
point. For instance, Shekarriz et al. [15] studied the near field behavior of a wing tip vortex, yielding
instance, Shekarriz et al. [15] studied the near field behavior of a wing tip vortex, yielding useful
useful conclusions regarding the velocity distributions and the roll-up process. Using the data provided
conclusions regarding the velocity distributions and the roll-up process. Using the data provided by
by Hoffmann and Joubert [16], Nielsen and Schwind [17] divided the vortex into three regions based
Hoffmann and Joubert [16], Nielsen and Schwind [17] divided the vortex into three regions based on
on an analogy with turbulent boundary layers: the vortex core (inner) region, the logarithmic region,
an analogy with turbulent boundary layers: the vortex core (inner) region, the logarithmic region,
and the defect law region. Based on the equations describing these regions, Corsiglia et al. [18]
and the defect law region. Based on the equations describing these regions, Corsiglia et al. [18]
conducted three-dimensional hot-wire anemometer measurements in the far field, providing modified
conducted three-dimensional hot-wire anemometer measurements in the far field, providing
empirical equations and constants that describe the circulation distributions, as well as information
modified empirical equations and constants that describe the circulation distributions, as well as
regarding the meandering (lateral movement) of the wingtip vortex core in space as a function of
information regarding the meandering (lateral movement) of the wingtip vortex core in space as a
time. This phenomenon, known as “vortex wandering”, has also been experimentally investigated by
function of time. This phenomenon, known as “vortex wandering”, has also been experimentally
various researchers over time [19–23]. Huang and Lin [24] experimentally studied the flow patterns and
investigated by various researchers over time [19–23]. Huang and Lin [24] experimentally studied
characteristics of vortex shedding on a wing with a NACA 0012 airfoil section using smoke-wire and
the flow patterns and characteristics of vortex shedding on a wing with a NACA 0012 airfoil section
surface oil-flow techniques for visualization, and hot-wire anemometry to characterize the frequency
using smoke-wire and surface oil-flow techniques for visualization, and hot-wire anemometry to
domain of the unsteady flow structures. The information on the frequency domain can be useful when
characterize the frequency domain of the unsteady flow structures. The information on the frequency
it comes to estimating the expected frequencies and setting the acquisition time for reliable mean
domain can be useful when it comes to estimating the expected frequencies and setting the
values, as is the case in the current work. Pino et al. [25] studied the velocity field behind a wingtip
acquisition time for reliable mean values, as is the case in the current work. Pino et al. [25] studied
vortex and compared the results with trailing vortex theoretical models, whereas in a recent study
the velocity field behind a wingtip vortex and compared the results with trailing vortex theoretical
Serrano-Aguilera et al. [26] developed a theoretical model in order to characterize the wingtip vortices
models, whereas in a recent study Serrano-Aguilera et al. [26] developed a theoretical model in order
in the near field using smoke-wire visualizations in combination with a laser sheet. Their results were
to characterize the wingtip vortices in the near field using smoke-wire visualizations in combination
used as a first validation in the flow visualizations that were employed in this paper. In a comparative
with a laser sheet. Their results were used as a first validation in the flow visualizations that were
study, Zheng and Ramaprian [27] conducted a detailed study of the vortex of a rectangular wing,
employed in this paper. In a comparative study, Zheng and Ramaprian [27] conducted a detailed
comparing the flowfield of a stationary wing to the case where a sinusoidal pitch oscillation is induced.
study of the vortex of a rectangular wing, comparing the flowfield of a stationary wing to the case
Moreover, Elsayed et al. [28] conducted Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) studies, at flapped and
where a sinusoidal pitch oscillation is induced. Moreover, Elsayed et al. [28] conducted Particle Image
unflapped wing configurations, and compared the velocity fields, vorticity contours, and circulation
Velocimetry (PIV) studies, at flapped and unflapped wing configurations, and compared the velocity
charts. In a very interesting approach, they showed how various vortex characteristics depend directly
fields, vorticity contours, and circulation charts. In a very interesting approach, they showed how
various vortex characteristics depend directly on the angle of attack, emphasizing on peak tangential
velocity, vorticity, and circulation distribution. Finally, Muthusamy [29] carried out experiments in a
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 3 of 17
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 3 of 17

on the angle ofwith

configuration attack,
andemphasizing
without winglets on peakat atangential
low speedvelocity, vorticity,
windtunnel. Theand studycirculation
was limited distribution.
to force
Finally, Muthusamy [29] carried out experiments in a configuration
balance measurements though, and no information was provided regarding the flow development with and without winglets at a low
speed
and thewindtunnel. The study
effect the winglet has was
on the limited to force
tip vortex. Tobalance
the bestmeasurements
of our knowledge, though,no and
study noexists
information
where
was provided regarding the flow development and the effect the winglet
a direct comparison is made in terms of flow field development between a configuration with, has on the tip vortex. Toand
the
best of our knowledge, no study exists where a direct comparison is made
without a winglet device installed at the wingtip, and few of the existing studies on wingtip vortices in terms of flow field
development
deal with UAVbetweenplatforms.a configuration
However, and with,
sinceand without
in UAV a winglet device
development the time installed
and budget at theiswingtip,
limited
and few of the existing studies on wingtip vortices deal with UAV
when compared to a commercial airliner, the wings are of less complex geometry (in terms platforms. However, andofsince in
airfoil
UAV development
profiles, twist anglethe time
etc.) andand budget simple
relatively is limited when compared
to manufacture. to athe
Thus, commercial airliner,
tips are highly the wings
loaded and
are of less complex geometry (in
are ideal platforms for winglet studies [11]. terms of airfoil profiles, twist angle etc.) and relatively simple to
manufacture. Thus, the tips are highly loaded and are ideal platforms for
In the current paper, an experimental study of the flow field around a UAV model is presented. winglet studies [11].
In the
The aim, andcurrent paper, an experimental
main contribution, is to address study of the
the two flow field around
aforementioned a UAV
remarks. model
That is, toisinvestigate
presented.
The aim, and main contribution, is to address the two aforementioned remarks.
the flowfield at the wing tip of the UAV and to quantify the effect the winglets have on the tip vortex. That is, to investigate
the flowfield
The at the
study is part wing
of the tip of the
Hellenic CivilUAV and to quantify
Unmanned the effect
Air Vehicle (HCUAV)the winglets have on
design study that the
wastipcarried
vortex.
The at
out studytheisLaboratory
part of the Hellenic
of FluidCivil Unmanned
Mechanics andAir Vehicle (HCUAV)
Turbomachinery designatstudy
(LFMT) the that was carried
Department of
out at the Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachinery
Mechanical Engineering, at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH) [6,7]. A (LFMT) at the Department of Mechanical
detailed
Engineering, of
presentation at the
theAristotle
experimentalUniversitystudiesof Thessaloniki
is made, including(AUTH) flow[6,7]. visualization
A detailed presentation
techniquesofand the
experimental studies is made, including flow visualization techniques
velocity measurements. Smoke-wire, laser sheet, and smoke-probe techniques are used for the flow and velocity measurements.
Smoke-wire, laser
visualization sheet, and smoke-probe
investigations, whereas pointtechniques
measurements are usedby for the flow
means visualization
of Laser Doppler investigations,
Anemometry
whereas
(LDA) arepoint measurements
performed in the near bywake.
meansTwo of Laser Doppler
different Anemometry
wingtip configurations (LDA) areare performed
used, one with-inand the
near wake. Two different wingtip configurations are used, one with-
one without the winglet device of the HCUAV, to compare the velocity field for the two cases. The and one without the winglet
device ofconfiguration
winglet the HCUAV, was to compare
a result theof avelocity
parametricfieldCFDfor the two[7]
study cases.
and The winglet configuration
its characteristics are givenwas in
a result2.of a parametric CFD study [7] and its characteristics are given in Figure 2.
Figure

Figure
Figure 2.
2.Hellenic
HellenicCivil
CivilUnmanned
UnmannedAir AirVehicle
Vehicle(HCUAV)
(HCUAV) configuration
configuration without
without and
and with
with the
the winglet
winglet
installed, including the winglet’s characteristics in the detail [7].
installed, including the winglet’s characteristics in the detail [7].

2.
2. Materials
Materials and
and Methods
Methods
The
The experiments
experiments were
were conducted
conducted in inaaclosed-circuit,
closed-circuit,low-speed
low-speedwindtunnel
windtunnelfacility
facilityatatthe
theLFMT.
LFMT.
The
The wind tunnel has an 1810 mm × 600 mm × 600 mm test section (Figure 3) and is capable of
wind tunnel has an 1810 mm × 600 mm × 600 mm test section (Figure 3) and is capable of
producing
producing aa maximum
maximum speed
speed ofof 50 m/s. The
50 m/s. Thewindtunnel
windtunnelblower
blowerspeed
speedisiscontrolled
controlled by
by aa frequency
frequency
inverter.
inverter. A
A smoke
smoke generator
generator isis placed
placed inside
inside the
the closed-loop
closed-loop wind
wind tunnel,
tunnel,away
awayfrom
fromthethetest
testsection.
section.
Considering the models used in the study, two scaled variants (1:22) of the HCUAV were used,
one without and one with the winglet devices installed at the tip. The models were manufactured by
means of 3D printing to ensure accurate representation of the original geometry. Specifically, the
main wing has a mean chord of 36.5 mm, a tip chord (c) of 21 mm, an Aspect Ratio of 8, and a NASA
NLF(1)-1015 airfoil [30], whereas the wing span is 302 mm. A custom mechanism with a supporting
rod is used to place the model at the center of the test section area, away from the windtunnel walls,
and ensures that the model is accurately positioned within ± 0.5 deg (Figure 4). The model maximum
cross-sectional area at the largest examined angle of attack (15 deg) divided by the area of the wind-tunnel
cross-section is equal to 1.05%. Hence, no corrections due to the blockage effect were made [31].
 Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 4 of 17
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 4 of 17

Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 4 of 17

Figure 3. Schematic of the experimental setup and arrangement of the measurement devices inside the
Figure 3. Schematic of the experimental setup and arrangement of the measurement devices inside
test section.
the test section.

Considering the models used in the study, two scaled variants (1:22) of the HCUAV were used,
one without and one with the winglet devices installed at the tip. The models were manufactured by
means of 3D printing to ensure accurate representation of the original geometry. Specifically, the main
wing has a mean chord of 36.5 mm, a tip chord (c) of 21 mm, an Aspect Ratio of 8, and a NASA
NLF(1)-1015 airfoil [30], whereas the wing span is 302 mm. A custom mechanism with a supporting
rod is used to place the model at the center of the test section area, away from the windtunnel
walls, and ensures that the model is accurately positioned within ±0.5 deg (Figure 4). The model
maximum
Figure cross-sectional areaexperimental
3. Schematic of the at the largest examined
setup angle of attack
and arrangement (15 deg) divided
of the measurement by the
devices area of
inside
the wind-tunnel cross-section
the test section. is equal to 1.05%. Hence, no corrections due to the blockage effect were
made [31].

Figure 4. The HCUAV model inside the windtunnel.

A series of flow visualization experiments were initially conducted on both UAV models for the
flow phenomena to be identified and for the measured planes to be defined. More specifically, both
smoke-probe and smoke-wire techniques were used to investigate the flow at the wingtip, at a wide
range of angles of attack. Regarding the smoke-probe, a 3 mm diameter plastic probe is used,
mounted on a set of copper pipes, through which the smoke was channeled. The copper pipes set is
attached to a three-axes traversing mechanism featuring high accuracy and repeatability (with 4 μm
standard deviation) in order for the smoke probe to be accurately positioned. The mechanism consists
of a driving bolt connected Figure to a stepper motor for
4. The HCUAV eachinside
model axis.the
Finally, a flexible rubber pipe connects
windtunnel.
the copper pipes with the smoke Figure 4. The HCUAV
generator. To model
carry inside
out the thesmoke-wire
windtunnel. study, a custom frame is
used. Specifically,
A series of flowa 0.3 visualization
mm diameter experiments
wire is mounted wereoninitially
a rigid aluminum
conductedframe,
on bothandUAV
a glass syringe
models for
isthe A
adjustedseries of flow
on top, wherevisualization experiments were initially conducted on both UAV models for the
flow phenomena to the glycerin-water
be identified mixture
and for was stored.
the measured The mixture
planes consistsMore
to be defined. of 30% glycerin
specifically,
flow70%
and phenomena to be identified
distilled water dripsand for wire
the measured planes tosyringe.
be defined. More specifically,of both
both smoke-probe andandsmoke-wire on techniques
the through the
were used glass
to investigate Proper positioning
the flow at the wingtip,the
smoke-probe
syringe ensures and smoke-wire techniques were used to investigate the flow at the wingtip, at a wide
at a wide range the right amount
of angles of attack.ofRegarding
mixture dripping over theawire.
the smoke-probe, 3 mmΑn external
diameter power
plastic supply
probe is
is used,
range
used to of angles
charge the of attack.
wire, thus Regarding
creating a the smoke-probe,
close circuit, in order a for
3 mmthe diameteronplastic
mixture the wireprobe
to be isburnt.
used,
mounted on a set of copper pipes, through which the smoke was channeled. The copper pipes set is
mounted
The entire toon a set
frame is of
in copper pipes,
turntraversing
placed inthrough which the
the test section, smoke
close to thewas channeled.
model. The The copper pipestaken set is
attached a three-axes mechanism featuring high accuracy andphotographs
repeatabilitywere
(with 4 µm
attached
using to
a Nikon a three-axes
D3000in DSLRtraversing mechanism featuring high accuracy and repeatability (with 4 μm
standard deviation) ordercamera
for theand
smokeNikorr
probe 35tomm, f 1.8 and Nikorr
be accurately 18–105
positioned. mm,
The f 3.5–5.6 lenses.
mechanism consists
standard deviation) in order for the smoke probe to be accurately positioned.
Regarding the LDA measurements, and since the flow field is symmetric, only half the wake was The mechanism consists
of a driving
examined, sobolt
thatconnected to a stepper
the experiments weremotor for each
conducted at axis. Finally,
the right winga flexible rubber pipe
of the model. The connects
relative
the copper pipes with the smoke generator. To carry out the smoke-wire study, a custom frame is
used. Specifically, a 0.3 mm diameter wire is mounted on a rigid aluminum frame, and a glass syringe
is adjusted on top, where the glycerin-water mixture was stored. The mixture consists of 30% glycerin
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 5 of 17

of a driving bolt connected to a stepper motor for each axis. Finally, a flexible rubber pipe connects the
copper pipes with the smoke generator. To carry out the smoke-wire study, a custom frame is used.
Specifically, a 0.3 mm diameter wire is mounted on a rigid aluminum frame, and a glass syringe is
adjusted on top, where the glycerin-water mixture was stored. The mixture consists of 30% glycerin
and 70% distilled water and drips on the wire through the glass syringe. Proper positioning of the
syringe ensures the right amount of mixture dripping over the wire. An external power supply is
used to charge the wire, thus creating a close circuit, in order for the mixture on the wire to be burnt.
The entire frame is in turn placed in the test section, close to the model. The photographs were taken
using a Nikon D3000 DSLR camera and Nikorr 35 mm, f 1.8 and Nikorr 18–105 mm, f 3.5–5.6 lenses.
Regarding the LDA measurements, and since the flow field is symmetric, only half the wake
was examined, so that the experiments were conducted at the right wing of the model. The relative
position for each measurement plane is presented in Figure 5. The first plane lies half a tip chord
(X/c = 0.5), the second plane one tip chord (X/c = 1), and the third planes lies two tip chords (X/c = 2)
downstream of the wingtip, respectively. The measurement grid at each of the planes is the same,
and has 625 nodes in a 25 × 25 arrangement, covering a 50 mm × 50 mm area. In order to increase the
accuracy, the grid is denser at the location of the vortex, as indicatively presented for the regular wingtip
case in Figure 6. The starting point of the coordinate system at each measurement was located at tip
of the wing/winglet for all measurements. To conduct the measurements a complete 3-component
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 5 of 17
LDA system from Dantec Dynamics (Skovlunde, Denmark) is used, which consists of an Ar-ion
Beam Generator,
position an optical system
for each measurement planewith 3D component
is presented in Figure Probes,
5. Theafirst
3-axes traverser,
plane lies halfand
a tipa chord
dedicated(X/c
= 0.5), the second plane one tip chord (X/c = 1), and the third planes lies two tip chords (X/c =3D
commercial software (BSA Software© by Dantec Dynamics A/S). The Traverser on which the 2)
component Probes
downstream of the are mounted,
wingtip, is placed The
respectively. nextmeasurement
to the test-section, with
grid at theofProbes
each facing
the planes is the
themodel.
same,
Using
and hasthe smoke
625 nodesgenerator,
in a 25 × 25a smoke cloud is covering
arrangement, generateda throughout
50 mm × 50 the mmentire
area. path of the
In order windtunnel,
to increase the
thus inducing the particles in the flow that are needed for the LDA Measurements.
accuracy, the grid is denser at the location of the vortex, as indicatively presented for the regular Since no apparent
frequencies
wingtip casewere expected
in Figure 6. The instarting
the lower frequency
point range [18,21,22],
of the coordinate system the acquisition
at each time was
measurement wasset at 5 s
located
for each node, adequately long for providing reliable mean values.
at tip of the wing/winglet for all measurements. To conduct the measurements a complete 3-
Finally,LDA
component regarding
system the inletDantec
from conditions,
Dynamicsfor the LDA measurements
(Skovlunde, Denmark)the freestream
is used, whichvelocity
consistsat ofthe
an
× 3
Ar-ion Beam Generator, an optical system with 3D component Probes, a 3-axes traverser, and10a
test section is 13.2 m/s, held constant within 1%, which gives a Reynolds Number equal to 33
based on the
dedicated mean aerodynamic
commercial software (BSA chord, resembling
Software© existing
by Dantec wingtip A/S).
Dynamics vortex-related studies
The Traverser on [26,28].
which
The freestream turbulence intensity was measured at 0.7%. For the
the 3D component Probes are mounted, is placed next to the test-section, with the Probes facing flow visualization studies,
the
the freestream
model. Using velocity
the smoke is 2generator,
m/s to make sure that
a smoke the smoke
cloud is clearly
is generated visible [32].the
throughout Due to the
entire difference
path of the
in freestreamthus
windtunnel, velocity and, consequently,
inducing the particles in inthe
theflow
corresponding Reynolds
that are needed number,
for the no direct comparison
LDA Measurements. Since
no apparent frequencies were expected in the lower frequency range [18,21,22], theThe
can be made between the flow visualization results and the LDA measurements. visualization
acquisition time
studies
was set are
at 5critical though,
s for each node,toadequately
get a first view
longof the
for flowfieldreliable
providing and accurately position and size the LDA
mean values.
measurements grids. The lateral velocity components are insignificant in all studies.

Figure 5. Measurement planes for the Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) measurements around the
Figure 5. Measurement planes for the Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) measurements around the
Hellenic Civil Unmanned Air Vehicle (HCUAV) model.
Hellenic Civil Unmanned Air Vehicle (HCUAV) model.
 Figure 5. Measurement planes for the Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) measurements around the
Hellenic Civil Unmanned Air Vehicle (HCUAV) model.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 6 of 17

Figure 6. High resolution grid for the 3rd measurement plane (regular wingtip). The trailing edge is
Figure 6.
marked High
with resolution
dark red. grid for the 3rd measurement plane (regular wingtip). The trailing edge is
marked with dark red.
3. Results
Finally, regarding the inlet conditions, for the LDA measurements the freestream velocity at the
At first, isthe
test section results
13.2 m/s, at theconstant
held tip of the model
within with
1%, the regular
which wingtip (winglet
gives a Reynolds Numberdevice
equal removed)
to 33 × 103
are shown,
based followed
on the by the resultschord,
mean aerodynamic at theresembling
tip of the model with
existing the winglet
wingtip installed.studies
vortex-related Concluding,
[26,28].
a comparison of the flow field between the two configurations is made. The contour plots show
the flow field in the wake of the HCUAV right wing, assuming that the view point of the reader is
downstream of the aerial vehicle, whereas line plots and other charts are also shown to give a better
understanding of the phenomena inside the core. The normal and spanwise axes have been normalized
using the tip chord of the model (c), and the time-averaged velocities have been normalized using
the freestream velocity (Uinf ). Moreover, the vorticity and circulation quantities are normalized by
appropriately using the tip chord and freestream velocity.

3.1. Regular Wingtip

Figure 7 presents the results of the smoke-probe investigations (top view), whereas Figure 8
presents the results of the combined smoke-wire/laser sheet method, at one tip chord downstream of
the wing (X/c = 1). The corresponding planes and direction of freestream velocity are also given for
each case. As is evident, at 0 deg of angle of attack, the tip vortex is practically non-existent, since the
lift production is negligible and the pressure imbalance between the two sides is very small. At −5 and
5 deg, the vortex is more clearly defined, especially in the laser sheet visualization. At −5 deg of angle
of attack the vortical structure is upside down, since the lift production is inverse. At 10 deg of angle
of attack, the tip vortex appears to be even larger in size and robust, whereas at 15 deg, the vortical
structure retains its size but fades quickly as the flow moves downstream of the wing. In general,
the flow visualization studies may not directly provide numbers about the examined phenomenon,
but they helped a long way in identifying the key-characteristics of the vortex at each angle of attack,
i.e., size and core location. Thus, the LDA measurement grids could be properly sized with greater
accuracy, at a reduced time.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 7 of 17
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Figure7.7.
Figure
Figure 7.Smoke-probe
Smoke-probevisualization
Smoke-probe visualizationstudies
visualization studiesatat
studies atthe
thewingtip.
the wingtip.
wingtip.

Figure8.8.
Figure
Figure 8.Laser
Lasersheet
Laser sheetvisualization
sheet visualizationstudies
visualization studiesatat
studies atthe
thewingtip.
the wingtip.
wingtip.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 8 of 17

The LDA results are presented in Figures 9 and 10 in contour plots and in Figures 11–13 in line
plots. Note that the vortex core radius is defined as the radius at which the swirl velocity component
maximizes, whereas the axial vorticity was calculated using the experimental data from the swirl
velocity components, and more specifically

dW dV
Ω= − (1)
dΥ d
where V is the normal and W the spanwise, time-averaged velocity components. In Figure 9,
the time-averaged axial, normal and spanwise velocity components and axial vorticity are presented
in contour plots at X/c = 1 and three different angles of attack, whereas in Figure 10, the same variables
are shown for the three measurement levels at 10 deg of angle of attack in contour plots at the three
measurement locations. The freestream velocity direction is identical the one presented in Figure 8.
When observing the axial velocity component (U), it is evident that the wake at the wingtip can be
divided at two separate regions. One region is behind the main wing, which corresponds to the
typical wake profile observed behind a blunt body, as a result of shear layer separation, and the other
corresponds to the wingtip vortex. In the wing-wake region, U is of smaller order of magnitude
when compared to the vortex core one, with the exact values varying greatly between the different
angles of attack and measurement levels. Regarding the time-averaged normal and spanwise velocity
components (V and W), two maxima of opposite sign are observed around a point where V and W
equal to zero. This point coincides with the one where the local minimum of the U component is
located (U0 ) at every measurement location. Hence, that point was defined as the center of the vortex.
At every measurement plane, the V magnitude increases considerably as the angle of attack grows
(Figure 9), but for the same angle of attack, as the flow moves downstream of the tip, the difference
in magnitude is smaller (Figure 10). The same observations can be made for the spanwise velocity
component. Overall, due to the fact that the W component itself does not add any new information
on the phenomenon, and since the axial vorticity includes both of the V and W components, it was
decided to not present the spanwise component in the rest of the figures of this work.
The time-averaged axial velocity component inside the vortex core can be more clearly seen
in Figure 11, where line plots show the normalized values of U. It should be noted that for each
measurement the line plot sections pass through the corresponding vortex center. The time-averaged
axial velocity component appears to form an axisymmetric wake-like profile. This axisymmetric
behavior is also observed in Figures 12 and 13, which indicate that the roll-up process is complete
for X/c < 1, as also reported in [13,25]. Namely, Figure 12 presents the V component in line plot
representation. At 15 deg of angle of attack, the range of the swirl velocity magnitude is approximately
three times higher than the one measured at 0 deg, indicating that the tip vortex grows in strength.
Regarding the change in magnitude between different longitudinal positions, an average decrease
of 10% was calculated between X/c = 1 and X/c = 0.5 for every examined angle of attack, whereas
between X/c = 2 and X/c = 1, the percentage average is approximately 13%. Moreover, it should
be noted that behind the main wing geometry, the normal velocity component has negative values
outside the vortex core. This is probably due to the downwash effect and the corresponding velocity
component that appears in the normal axis. The third parameter in the contour plots, i.e., the axial
vorticity, is also presented in line plots in Figure 13. At every measurement level the vorticity maximum
is approximately three times larger at 15 deg than the one at 0 deg. Between 10 and 15 deg of angle
of attack, though, the difference in peak vorticity is very small, indicating that the lift increases at
a much lower rate and, possibly, that stalling occurs. As a general observation, the peak vorticity
values follow the trend of the normal velocity, having a 10–15% difference from level to level, at each
angle of attack, an observation that is in agreement with the data from [28]. However, the line plots
provide the information in a more detailed way, so that a direct comparison with another experimental
or computational data, can be made.
Aerospace 2017,
Aerospace 4, 53
2017, 4, 53 99 of
of 17
17

Figure 9. Time-averaged axial, normal and spanwise velocity, and vorticity contours at the wingtip.
Figure 9. Time-averaged axial, normal and spanwise velocity, and vorticity contours at the wingtip.
Comparison between various angles of attack.
Comparison between various angles of attack.
 Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 10 of 17
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 10 of 17
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 10 of 17

Figure 10. Time-averaged axial, normal and spanwise velocity and vorticity contours at the wingtip.
Figure 10. Time-averaged
10.
Comparison
Figure between theaxial,
Time-averaged various
axial, normal and
and spanwise
measurement
normal velocity and
levels.velocity
spanwise and vorticity
vorticity contours
contours at
at the
the wingtip.
wingtip.
Comparison between the various measurement levels.
Comparison between the various measurement levels.

Figure 11.Line
Figure11. Lineplots
plotsofoftime-averaged
time-averagedaxial
axialvelocity
velocityatatthe
thevortex
vortexcore.
core.
Figure 11. Line plots of time-averaged axial velocity at the vortex core.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 11 of 17
Aerospace
Aerospace 2017,
2017, 4,
4, 53
53 11
11 of
of 17
17

Figure
Figure 12. Line
12.Line
Figure12. plots
Lineplots of
plotsof time-averaged
oftime-averaged normal
time-averagednormal velocity
velocityatat
normalvelocity the
atthe vortex
thevortex core.
vortexcore.
core.

Figure
Figure 13.
Figure13. Line
13.Line plots
Lineplots vorticity
plotsvorticity for
vorticityfor the
forthe three
thethree measurement
threemeasurement planes.
measurementplanes.
planes.

AA direct
direct comparison
A direct comparison between betweenthe
between thethree
the threemeasurement
three measurement
measurement levels
levels
levelsis
is made
made
is made in
in Figures
Figures
in Figures14
14 and 14 15.
and 15.
and More
More
15.
specifically,
specifically,
More Figure
Figure
specifically, 14
Figure presents
14 presents
14 presents the time-averaged
the the
time-averaged
time-averaged U and
U and
U and V components,
V components,
V components, vorticity
vorticity
vorticity and
andand circulation
circulation
circulation at
at
the
the vortex
vortex core
core at
at an
an angle
angle of
of attack
attack of
of 10
10
at the vortex core at an angle of attack of 10 deg. Regarding deg.
deg. Regarding
Regarding the
the velocities,
velocities, it
it is
is evident
evident that
that the
the
it is evident that the normal normal
normal
component
componentalong
component along
alongwith with the
withthe axial
theaxial vorticity
axialvorticity
vorticityhave have
haveaaamuch
much smaller
muchsmaller
smallerchange change
changein in magnitude
inmagnitude
magnitudethan than
thanthethe axial
theaxial
axial
velocity, between
velocity,between
velocity, betweenthe the three
thethree streamwise
threestreamwise locations.
streamwiselocations. Namely,
locations.Namely,
Namely,aa10% a 10%
10%and and
and13% 13% change
13%change in
changeininVVand V and vorticity
andvorticity
vorticity
was
was measured,
measured, respectively,
respectively, from
from one
one level
level to
to the
the next
next one,
one, which
which
was measured, respectively, from one level to the next one, which is in agreement with the comments is
is in
in agreement
agreement with
with the
the comments
comments
made
madein
made in the
inthe previous
theprevious paragraph.
paragraph. The
previous paragraph. The vortex
The vortex core
vortex coreis
core islocated
is locatedat
located ataaaradius
at radiusof
radius ofof0.07·c,
0.07·c,around
0.07·c, aroundthe
around thecenter
the center
center of
of
the
ofthe vortex,
vortex,
the vortex, the
thethesame
same
same for all
forfor three
allall
three
threemeasurement
measurement
measurement planes
planes
planesat this
at this
at thisangle
angleangleof attack.
of attack.
of attack. The
TheThecirculation
circulation
circulation was
waswasalso
also
calculated
calculated
also calculated for
for forcomparison
comparison
comparison purposes,
purposes,
purposes, as
as as the
thetheflux
fluxof
flux ofofvorticity,
vorticity, through
vorticity, integration.
through integration.
through integration. The The following
Thefollowing
following
equation
equationwas
equation was used:
wasused:
used:
x
Γ= Ω·dS (2)
= S (2)
(2)
where Ω is the axial vorticity from Equation (1) and S is the surface. Since it was more convenient,
where
where Ω
Ω is
is the
the axial
axial vorticity from Equation (1) and
and SSwith
is
is the surface. Since it was more convenient,
polar coordinates werevorticity
employed from
for Equation
this type of (1)chart, thethesurface.
startingSincepointitofwas the more convenient,
coordinate point
polar
polarthe coordinates
coordinates were employed for this type of chart, with the starting point of the coordinate point
being center of were employed
the vortex. for thisthree-region
The typical type of chart,distinction
with the startingcan be made point [14,16],
of the coordinate
with the slope point
being the center of the vortex. The typical three-region distinction can be made [14,16], with the slope
in the logarithmic region decreasing as the vortex gets carried downstream. The changes are inslope
being the center of the vortex. The typical three-region distinction can be made [14,16], with the the
in
in the
the logarithmic
logarithmic region
region decreasing
decreasing as
as the
the vortex
vortex gets
gets carried
carried downstream.
downstream. The
The changes
changes are
are in
in the
the
same order of magnitude with the ones at normal velocity and vorticity, that is between 10% and 15%
same
same order
order of
of magnitude
magnitude with
with the
the ones
ones at
at normal
normal velocity
velocity and
and vorticity,
vorticity, that
that is
is between
between 10%
10% and
and 15%
15%
from level to level.
from
from level
level toto level.
level.
In
In Figure 15,
Figure 15, the
the smaller
smaller value
value of of axial
axial velocity
velocity inside
inside thethe vortex
vortex core core (U (U00)) is
is shown
shown for for the
the three
three
measurement
measurement planes at every angle of attack. At each level, a linear interpolation can be made,
planes at every angle of attack. At each level, a linear interpolation can be made,
indicating
indicating that that U U00 decreases
decreases as as the
the angle
angle of of attack
attack grows
grows at at every
every measurement
measurement plane. plane. TheThe magnitude
magnitude
of U
of U0, though, increases as the planes move downstream, whereas the linear slope dU0/dα decreases.
0, though, increases as the planes move downstream, whereas the linear slope dU 0 /dα decreases.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 12 of 17
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 12 of 17
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 12 of 17

Figure 14. Time-averaged axial (a) and normal velocity (b), vorticity (c), and circulation (d), without
Figure 14.
winglet.Time-averaged
Figure axial (a)axial
14. Time-averaged and (a)
normal velocityvelocity
and normal (b), vorticity (c), and (c),
(b), vorticity circulation (d), without
and circulation winglet.
(d), without
winglet.

Figure 15. Time-averaged

Figure 15. Time-averagedaxial
axialvelocity
velocityin in
thethe center
center of vortex
of the the vortex
(U0 ) (U 0) at the three measurement
at the three measurement levels,
levels, without
Figure
without winglet.
15. Time-averaged axial velocity in the center of the vortex (U0) at the three measurement
winglet.
levels, without winglet.
3.2. Winglet Installed
In Figure 15, the smaller value of axial velocity inside the vortex core (U0 ) is shown for the
3.2. Winglet Installed
threeFigure 16 showsplanes
measurement the time-averaged
at every angleaxial and normal
of attack. At each velocity
level, aand axial
linear vorticity in contour
interpolation can be made,plots
at X/c = Figure
indicating1 for
that5,16
U10,
0 and
shows 15the
decreases deg
as of
the angle
time-averaged
angle of
of attack.
axial
attack The
and
grows freestream
normal
at velocity
velocity
every and
measurementdirection
axial is identical
vorticity
plane. The in contourto
magnitude the
plots
one presented
X/c = 1 forin Figure
5, 10, and 8. Based
15 deg on
of the
angle results
of of
attack. this
Thestudy, two
freestream separate
of U0 , though, increases as the planes move downstream, whereas the linear slope dU0 /dα decreases.the
at velocity swirling
direction motions
is can
identical be
to
observed, one around
one presented the vortex
in Figure core,on
8. Based at the
the results
tip of the of winglet,
this study,andtwoanother
separatearound the entire
swirling winglet
motions can be
3.2.observed,
Winglet Installed
configuration. Thearound
one normalthe velocity
vortex magnitude
core, at the tipis about
of thetwo timesand
winglet, larger inside
another the “vortex”
around the entire region.
winglet
However,
Figurea 16
second
configuration.shows region
The normal
the can be clearlymagnitude
velocity
time-averaged observed
axial around the
is aboutvelocity
and normal two entire
times
andwinglet
larger configuration,
inside the
axial vorticity from plots
in “vortex”
contour now
region.
on
at X/c = 1 for 5, 10, and 15 deg of angle of attack. The freestream velocity direction is identicalthe
referred
However, toaas the
second “winglet”
region canregion.
be In
clearly terms of
observed vorticity,
around the difference
entire is
winglet even greater,
configuration, since
from now
to
vorticity maximum inside the vortex core is at least three times as high,
the one presented in Figure 8. Based on the results of this study, two separate swirling motions canthe
on referred to as the “winglet” region. In terms of vorticity, the compared
difference is even to the
greater,vorticity
since
values of themaximum
be vorticity
observed, “winglet”
one around region.
inside Hence,
the the vortex
vortex thecore
core, “winglet”
is attip
at the region
least
of three
the indicates
times as
winglet, that
andhigh,another vortical
compared
another around structure
to the
the vorticity
entire
exists, which
values of may
the be far
“winglet” weaker
region. in terms
Hence, theof magnitude
“winglet” but
region covers a
indicates
winglet configuration. The normal velocity magnitude is about two times larger inside the “vortex” larger
that area,
another since it
vortical spreads
structure
exists, which may be far weaker in terms of magnitude but covers a larger area, since it spreads
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 13 of 17

Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 13 of 17
approximately all over the winglet wake region. Furthermore, both V and vorticity magnitude
present very small differences between 10 and 15 deg, indicating that the lift generation has reached
its peak,However,
region. resembling the corresponding
a second region can be trends without
clearly the winglet
observed aroundinstalled
the entire atwinglet
the tip. Regarding
configuration,the
axial now
from velocity, and in atosimilar
on referred fashion to region.
as the “winglet” the regular wingtip
In terms case, thethe
of vorticity, wake can be divided
difference at two
is even greater,
since the vorticity maximum inside the vortex core is at least three times as high, compared toboth
separate regions, i.e., the “blunt body wake” region and the “vortex” ones. The axial velocity in the
regions isvalues
vorticity reduced in magnitude
of the “winglet” as the angle
region. of attack
Hence, increases.
the “winglet” region indicates that another vortical
Moreover,
structure exists,awhich
comparison
may be offar
theweaker
aforementioned
in terms variables
of magnitudeinsidebut
thecovers
vortexaislarger
madearea,
in Figure
since17 it
for all of the examined angles of attack. The streamwise and normal time-averaged
spreads approximately all over the winglet wake region. Furthermore, both V and vorticity magnitude velocity and the
axial vorticity
present very smalllinedifferences
plots provide more10detail
between and 15about
deg, the development
indicating that theof
liftthese quantities
generation inside the
has reached its
vortex at the tip of the winglet and can be used in order for a comparison with computational
peak, resembling the corresponding trends without the winglet installed at the tip. Regarding the axial data to
be made. It should be noted that the peak values of the normal velocity component
velocity, and in a similar fashion to the regular wingtip case, the wake can be divided at two separate and the axial
vorticityi.e.,
regions, aretheconsiderably
“blunt bodysmaller than the
wake” region and ones presented
the “vortex” ones.inThe
Figures 11–13. A
axial velocity in more detailed
both regions is
comparison between the two cases is made
reduced in magnitude as the angle of attack increases. in Section 3.3.

Figure
Figure 16. Time-averaged axial
16. Time-averaged axial velocity,
velocity, normal
normal velocity,
velocity, and
and vorticity
vorticity contours
contours at
at the
the wingtip,
wingtip,
with
with winglet.
winglet.

Moreover, a comparison of the aforementioned variables inside the vortex is made in Figure 17 for
all of the examined angles of attack. The streamwise and normal time-averaged velocity and the axial
vorticity line plots provide more detail about the development of these quantities inside the vortex at
the tip of the winglet and can be used in order for a comparison with computational data to be made.
It should be noted that the peak values of the normal velocity component and the axial vorticity are
considerably smaller than the ones presented in Figures 11–13. A more detailed comparison between
the two cases is made in Section 3.3.

Figure 17. Time-averaged axial velocity (a), time-averaged normal velocity (b), and vorticity (c),
with winglet.
 Figure
Aerospace 16.
2017, 4, 53 Time-averaged axial velocity, normal velocity, and vorticity contours at the wingtip,
14 of 17
with winglet.

Figure17.
Figure 17. Time-averaged
Time-averaged axial
axial velocity
velocity (a),
(a), time-averaged
time-averaged normal
normal velocity
velocity (b),
(b), and
and vorticity
vorticity (c),
(c),
with winglet.
with winglet.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 14 of 17

3.3.
3.3. Comparison
Comparison
Having
Having measured
measuredand and analyzed
analyzedthe the
flowfield around
flowfield both without
around and with
both without andthewith
winglet
theinstalled,
winglet
ainstalled,
direct comparison between the
a direct comparison two cases
between thecan
twobecases
made. More
can specifically,
be made. More as is evident from
specifically, as is the two
evident
previous sections, there is a considerable decrease in the size and magnitude of the
from the two previous sections, there is a considerable decrease in the size and magnitude of the wingtip vortex,
when thevortex,
wingtip wingletwhen
devicethe
is installed
winglet at the tip.
device This decrease
is installed cantip.
at the be This
qualitatively
decreaseobserved in Figure 18,
can be qualitatively
where
observeda top view of18,
in Figure thewhere
smoke-probe visualization
a top view experiments
of the smoke-probe is presented
visualization at the tip is
experiments of presented
the wing,
with and without the winglet installed, at X/c = 1 and 10 deg of angle of attack.
at the tip of the wing, with and without the winglet installed, at X/c = 1 and 10 deg of angle of attack.

Figure 18.
Figure 18. Smoke-probe visualization studies
Smoke-probe visualization studies at
at the
the wingtip,
wingtip, without
without (left)
(left) and
and with
with winglet
winglet (right).
(right).

This comparison is also made in Figure 19 using LDA contour plots for time-averaged axial
This comparison is also made in Figure 19 using LDA contour plots for time-averaged axial
velocity and axial vorticity and in Figure 20 using line plots. The angle of attack of 10 deg at
velocity and axial vorticity and in Figure 20 using line plots. The angle of attack of 10 deg at X/c = 1
X/c = 1 was chosen as a reference point, since at that angle, the vortex appears to be strong and well-
was chosen as a reference point, since at that angle, the vortex appears to be strong and well-defined
defined for both cases. In Figure 20a, the time-averaged axial velocity is shown, followed by the time-
for both cases. In Figure 20a, the time-averaged axial velocity is shown, followed by the time-averaged
averaged normal velocity component in Figure 20b. It is clear that, even though the axial component
normal velocity component in Figure 20b. It is clear that, even though the axial component is of the
is of the same order of magnitude between the two cases, with a percentage difference smaller than
same order of magnitude between the two cases, with a percentage difference smaller than 5%, the swirl
5%, the swirl component peak values are reduced with the addition of the winglet by a factor of 3.
component peak values are reduced with the addition of the winglet by a factor of 3. That can also be
That can also be seen in Figure 20c, where the peak axial vorticity with winglet equals to 35.5% of the
seen in Figure 20c, where the peak axial vorticity with winglet equals to 35.5% of the corresponding
corresponding peak vorticity without winglet. In other words, the addition of the winglet seems to
peak vorticity without winglet. In other words, the addition of the winglet seems to reshape the wake
reshape the wake and tip vortex, causing the swirl velocity components and peak vorticity magnitude
and tip vortex, causing the swirl velocity components and peak vorticity magnitude inside the vortex
inside the vortex core to reduce. Finally, in Figure 20d the slope of the curve inside the logarithmic
core to is
region reduce. Finally,
reduced to 28%in with
Figure
the20d the slope
addition of the
of the curvewhereas
winglet, inside the logarithmic
the maximumregion is almost
value is reducedfive
to
28%
timeswith the addition of the winglet, whereas the maximum value is almost five times smaller.
smaller.
 corresponding peak vorticity without winglet. In other words, the addition of the winglet seems to
reshape the wake and tip vortex, causing the swirl velocity components and peak vorticity magnitude
inside the vortex core to reduce. Finally, in Figure 20d the slope of the curve inside the logarithmic
region is reduced to 28% with the addition of the winglet, whereas the maximum value is almost five
times smaller.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 15 of 17

Figure
Figure
Aerospace 19.53Time
2017,19.
4, Timeaveraged
averagedaxial-velocity
axial-velocity(top)
(top)and
andaxial
axialvorticity
vorticity(bottom)
(bottom)comparison
comparisonwithout
withoutand
and
15 of 17
withwinglet
with winglet(α(α==10 ◦ , X/c
10°, X/c = 1).

Figure
Figure 20.
20. Time-averaged
Time-averaged axial
axial (a)
(a) and
and normal
normal velocity
velocity (b),
(b), vorticity
vorticity (c)
(c) and
and circulation
circulation (d),
(d), with
with and
and
without
without winglet.
winglet.

4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
The
The near
near flow
flow field
field around
around aa UAV model was
UAV model was experimentally
experimentally investigated
investigated by
by means
means of
of flow
flow
visualization
visualization and 3D LDA point measurements. The experiments were carried out at a wide range of
and 3D LDA point measurements. The experiments were carried out at a wide range of
angles of attack to ensure that all the operational conditions are examined and emphasis was
angles of attack to ensure that all the operational conditions are examined and emphasis was given given
on the flow at the wingtip area. Two configurations, one without and one with winglets installed,
were used. The flow visualization studies were conducted using the smoke-probe, smoke-wire, and
laser sheet methods. The LDA measurements yielded the three time-averaged velocities, whereas the
axial vorticity and circulation quantities were in turn calculated using the experimental data. Thus, a
complete experimental investigation of the wingtip vortex of a UAV could be made, whereas a direct
Aerospace 2017, 4, 53 16 of 17

on the flow at the wingtip area. Two configurations, one without and one with winglets installed,
were used. The flow visualization studies were conducted using the smoke-probe, smoke-wire,
and laser sheet methods. The LDA measurements yielded the three time-averaged velocities, whereas
the axial vorticity and circulation quantities were in turn calculated using the experimental data.
Thus, a complete experimental investigation of the wingtip vortex of a UAV could be made, whereas
a direct comparison of the flowfield without and with a winglet installed is made, serving as the main
contribution of this study.
Considering the flow at the wingtip, a comparison at various angles of attack for three locations
downstream of the model was made. The tip vortex does not appear to have a defined structure until
5 deg, whereas as the angle of attack increases the vortex grows in strength, the swirling components
increase in magnitude, and the vorticity at the core increases as well. The wake seems to form two
distinctive regions: one affected by the presence of the vortex, and another affected by the shear layer
separation at the wake of the model. At every angle of attack, an average difference of 10–15% was
measured, between the three levels for the time-averaged normal velocity and axial vorticity.
In the “winglet installed” case, the trends resemble those of the “winglet removed” case, regarding
the changes between the various angles of attack. A second swirling motion, weaker in strength,
was also identified, which in contrary to the wingtip vortex exists all over the winglet wake region.
Overall, the addition of the winglet reshapes the tip vortex, causing the swirl velocity components and
peak vorticity magnitude inside the vortex core to reduce. More specifically, the maximum vorticity
magnitude in this study is reduced by a factor of three with the winglet installed.
The above observations help to acquire a better idea about the tip vortex of a UAV and about
the effect the winglet device has on its dispersion. Concerning future studies, a turbulence budget
investigation could also be conducted to provide even more details about the vortex core, whereas
a flow visualization using a high-speed camera is suggested in order to acquire more information
about the wandering of the vortex and the effect the winglet has on this phenomenon.

Acknowledgments: The work presented in this paper is a part of the 11SYNERGASIA_6_629 “Hellenic
Civil Unmanned Air Vehicle—HCUAV” research project, implemented within the framework of the
National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) and through the Operation Program “Competitiveness &
Entrepreneurship—SYNERGASIA 2011”. The research project is co-financed by National and Community Funds,
25% from the Greek Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs-General Secretariat of Research and Technology
and 75% from E.U.—European Social Fund.
Author Contributions: Pericles Panagiotou conceived, designed and performed the experiments, analyzed the
data, and wrote the paper; George Ioannidis and Ioannis Tzivinikos performed the experiments and analyzed the
data; Kyros Yakinthos supervised the experimental procedure, analyzed the results, and wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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