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Contents
Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................... 2

Transformers ............................................................................................. 3
DC Machines ........................................................................................... 11
Synchronous Machines ........................................................................... 16
Induction Machines ................................................................................. 27
Single Phase Induction Motor ................................................................. 34
© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.
1
Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
What are K-Notes?
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
When do I start using K-Notes?
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
How do I use K-Notes?
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use of
it.
© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.
2
Transformers
Impact of dimensions on various parameters of Transformer
KVA Rating  (Core Dimension)4
Voltage Rating  (Core Dimension)2

Current Rating  (Core Dimension)2
No-Load Current  Core Dimension
Core Loss  Core Volume
Induced EMF in a Transformer

d
E1  N1
dt
d
E2  N2
dt
E1 (rms)  4.44fN1m
E2 (rms)  4.44fN2m
 Where E1 and E2 are emf in primary and secondary windings of Transformer respectively.
 Φ is the flux in the transformer and Φm is maximum value of flux.
 The polarity of emf is decided on basis of Lenz Law as currents in primary and secondary
should be such that primary and secondary flux should oppose each other.
 Also, primary current enters the positive terminal of primary winding as primary absorbs
power and secondary current leaves the positive terminal of secondary winding as
secondary delivers power and this way we can mark emf polarities.
Exact equivalent circuit
3
Exact equivalent circuit w.r.t. primary
2 2 2
N  N  N 
R 2 = R 2  1  ; X 2 = X 2  1  ; Z L = Z L  1  ;
 N2   N2   N2 
 Approximately Equivalent Circuit
R 01 = R1  R 2
X 01 = X1  X 2
Tests Conducted on a Transformer
(i) Open Circuit Test
o Conducted on LV side keeping HV side open circuited

o Equivalent Circuit
4
V12
o Power reading = P = V1 I0 cos 0 = -------- (i)
Rc
o Ammeter reading  I = I 0
P
o cos 0 =
V1 I0
o Calculate sin 0 = 1 - cos2 0
V12
o Q = V1 I0 sin 0 = ------- (ii)
Xm
Calculate R c from (i) & Xm from (ii)
(ii) Short Circuit Test
o Conducted on HV side keeping LV side short circuited

o Equivalent Circuit
o R 01 & X 01 are equivalent winding resistance & equivalent leakage reactor referred to
HV side.
Wattmeter reading = P = Isc R01 from this equation, we can calculate R 01
2
o
Vsc
o Z 01 = & X01 = Z012  R012
Isc
o We obtain R 01 , X 01 & full load copper losses from this test.
Losses on Transformers
o Copper Loss
PCu = I12R1  I22R 2
= I12R01  I22R02
Where I1 = primary current
I2 = secondary current
5
R 1 = primary winding resistance
R 2 = secondary winding resistance
2 2
N  N 
R 01 = R1   1  R 2 ; R 02 = R 2   2  R 1
 N2   N1 
o Core Loss
(i) Hysteresis Loss
Pn = KnBm
x
f
X = 1.6
Bm = maximum value of flux density
Pn = KnBm1.6f
V
Bm 
f
V = applied voltage
f = frequency
1.6
V
Pn = Kh   f = KhV1.6f 0.6
f 
If V is constant & f is increased, Ph decreases
(ii) Eddy Current Loss
Pe = KeBm2 f 2
V
Bm 
f
2
V
Pe = K e   f 2 = K e V 2
f
Core loss = Pc = Pe  Pn
6
Efficiency
x KVA  cos 
=
x KVA  cos   Pi  x2PCu,FL
X = % loading of Transformer
cos  = power factor
Pi = iron loss
PCu,FL = Full load copper losses
KVA = Power rating of Transformer
For maximum efficiency,
Pi
x=
PCu,FL
Voltage Regulation of Transformer
VNL  VFL
Regulation down   100
VNL
VNL  VFL
Regulation up   100
VFL
Equivalent circuit with respect to secondary
N2
K = Transformation Ratio 
N1
No-load voltage  V2
Full-load voltage  V2
Approximate Voltage Regulation
I2 R 02 cos 2  X 02 sin 2 
VR =
V2
7
cos 2 = power factor of load ZL
+ sign is used for lagging pf load

- sign is used for leading pf load
Condition for zero voltage regulation
R 
2 = tan-1  02 
 X 02 
The power factor is leading, Voltage Regulation can never be zero for lagging pf load.
Condition for maximum voltage regulation
X 
2 = tan-1  02 
 R 02 
The power factor is leading, Voltage Regulation can never be negative for lagging pf loads
Three – Phase Transformers
In a 3-Phase transformers; the windings placed parallel to each other at as primary & secondary of
single phase transformer.
Rules to draw Phasor diagram
1) Always draw phasors from A to B, B to C & C to A for line voltages.

2) The end points should have same naming as the input or output terminals.
3) If we draw primary phasor from dotted to undotted terminal and if secondary voltage is also
from dotted to undotted, then secondary voltage is in same phase else in opposite phase.
Some examples
8
Phasor
o If you observe carefully, we traverse from dotted to undotted terminal in primary while
going from a2 to b2 , b2 to c2 & c2 to a2 .
Same is the case when we traverse the secondary winding, so secondary voltage are in-
phase to primary.
o Then, we draw reference phasors from neutral to terminal and mark it with phase with
same name as terminal it is pointed to.
Then we plot it on clock & we observe it is like 12 0 clock so name is Dd12
connection.
Another example
Phasor
9
o Here, we traversed primary from dotted to undotted terminal & in secondary from undotted
to dotted so all secondary phasor are out of phase wrt primary.
Parallel operation of Transformer
Necessary Conditions
1) Voltage ratings of both transformers should be same.

2) Transformers should have same polarity.
3) Phase sequence of both transformers must be same in case of 3- phase transformers.
4) Phase displacement between secondary’s of both transformers must be 0 .
If there are 2 transformers A & B supplying a load power SL .
ZB ZB
S A = SL ; SB = SL
Z A  ZB Z A  ZB
ZB = impedance of transformer B (in ohms)
Z A = impedance of transformer A (in ohms)
Auto Transformer
o Generally, auto transformer is created from 2- winding transformer.

o If rating of auto – transformer is LV/HV or HV/LV
LV = low voltage
HV = high voltage
LV
Transformation Ratio = K =
HV
 1 
o KVA rating of auto transfer =   (KVA rating of 2- winding Transformer)
1 - R 
o In auto- transformer, power is transferred from primary to secondary by 2 methods
induction & conduction.
o KVAinduction = 1 - K  Input KVA 
o KVAconduction = K  Input KVA 
o % Full load losses = 1 - K  %FL losses in2  winding Transformer 

o If copper & core losses are not given separately, then we consider losses as constant,
same as that of two winding transformer while calculating efficiency
10
DC Machines
Induced emf equation
NZ  P 
Ea =  
60  A 
 = flux per pole  wb 
N = speed of machine rpm
P = number of poles
A = number of paralled path
Z = number of conductors
A = 2 for wave winding
A = P for lap winding
Z  P 
If speed is given in rad/sec Ea =   where ω = speed (rad/s)
2  A 
 PZ 
 
2 A
 
  = Km
 
PZ
Km = = machine constant
2A
Developed Torque
T = KmIa
PZ
Km = = machine constant
2A
 = flux per pole
Ia = armature current
11
Classification of DC Machine
(i) Separately excited
(ii) Shunt excited
(iii) Series excited
(iv) Compound Excited
12
Terminologies
R a : Armature Resistance
R se : Series Field winding Resistance
R sh : Shunt Field winding Resistance
o The only difference between Generator & Motor will be that the direction of armature current is
coming out of positive terminal of emf Ea. In case of motor, armature current flows into Ea.
Performance Equations of DC Machines
For shunt & separately excited machine
Generator: Ea = Vt  IaR a
Motor: Ea = Vt  I aR a
For series & compound excited machine
Generator: Ea = Vt  Ia R a  R se 
Motor: Ea = Vt  Ia R a  R se 
Power Flow
Shaft Power Armature Power Electrical Power
Pa  EaIa 
Rotational loss Copper loss
o This power flow diagram is for a dc generator.

o If you traverse the diagram from right to left then it is a power flow diagram for a motor.
13
Losses
Rotational loss Copper loss

 
 I 2R  I 2R  I 2R  V I 
 a a se se f f BD a 
 
Ohmic loss Brush
contact loss
Friction & Hystersis   N & Stray load
Windage loss Pf w  Eddy current  N2  PLL  i2 
Friction windage  N2 
Bearing Brush
  N  N2 
Efficiency
VaIa
= ; for generator
VaIa  Ia2Ra  VBDIa  Pk
Pk = sum of all constant loss
For maximum efficiency
Pk
For shunt & separately excited machine Ia =
ra
Pk
For series & compound excited machine Ia =
ra  rse
14
Characteristics of DC Generator
External characteristics
If no-load voltage is same for all types of generators:
There are two categories of compound generators/motors
1. Cumulative Compound => If series field flux aids the shunt fields flux.
2. Differentially Compound => If series field flux opposes the shunt field flux.
If full – load voltage of all generators is kept same
1  series excited 5  separately excited
2  over compound 6  shunt excited
3  level compound 7  differentially compound
4  under compound
Conditions for voltage build-up in Shunt Generator
1) There must be residual flux.

2) Correct polarity of field winding with respect to armature winding so that field flux aids
residual flux for a given direction of rotation.
3) Field Resistance must be less than critical value
R f< R f cr 
Critical resistance is equal to the slop of air-gap line.
4) Speed of rotation should be more than critical value for a given field resistance R f .
N > Ncr
15
Braking of DC Motor
Plugging
o Supply to armature terminals is reversed whole field is left undisturbed.

o The current reverses resulting into negative torque & that brings rotor quickly to rest.
I' a =
V  E  a
R a
 R ex 
EaIa
o Plugging Torque  ,  = speed of rotor

 V - Ea 
Before plugging, Ia 
Ra
EaIa
Load Torque 

Breaking Torque = (Load Torque + Plugging Torque)
Synchronous Machine
Induced emf
Phase voltage  4.44 Nph f
Nph : number of turns per phase
 : flux per pole
f : frequency
This phase voltage is rms value
Armature Winding
o Usually, coil span is 180 (electrical)

o If coil span = 180 (electrical), coil is called as full pitch coil.
o  
If coil span = 180   (electrical), coil is called as Chorded coil or short pitched winding.
16

o Pitch Factor, KP = cos
2
o Induced emf   4.44 N ph f K P 
o For nth harmonic
Induced emf   4.44 N ph f K P 
 n
KP = cos  
 2 
To eliminate nth harmonic
n 
=
2 2
180
 =
n
 electrical
Distributed Winding
number of slots
m=
number of poles  no. of phase
number of slots
Coil Span =
number of poles
180
=  electrical ;
coil span
 m 
sin  
Distribution Factor, K d 
 2 
m sin  2  
For nth harmonic,  is replaced by n 
 mn 
sin  
Kd   2 
 n 
m sin  
 2 
17
 n  n
o For uniform distribution replace sin   by
 2  2
Winding Factor, K w = KPK d
Induced emf = 4.44 Nphf K w
Armature Resistance
Generally winding resistance is measured using voltmeter ammeter –method.
For star connection
V voltmeter reading
Rm = =
I ammeter reading
Rm = 2R
Rm
R=
2
For Delta Connection
voltmeter reading
Rm =
ammeter reading
2
Rm = R
3
3
R= R
2 m
This resistance is dc resistance but ac resistance is higher due to skin effect.
Raac = 1.2 to 1.3R
18
Armature Reaction
Power factor Generator Motor

Unity
Zero pf lagging
Zero pf leading
Lagging pf  cos 
Leading pf  cos 
19
Leakage Flux
Leakage flux links only one winding but not both so if it is present in stator, it won’t link to rotor &
vise versa.
Equivalent Circuit
X s = synchronous reactance
 X ar  X l
= sum of armature reaction & leakage reactance
E   V 0 + Ia  (R a  jX s ) , for Synchronous Generator
E     V 0 - Ia  (R a  jX s ) , for Synchronous Motor
Where Φ is power factor angle (leading)

for lagging power factor we replace Φ by “– Φ”
Voltage Regulation
EV
Voltage regulation   100%
V
For zero voltage regulation
 Xs 
   = 180  = tan-1  
 Ra 

cos  = load pf leading 
20
For maximum voltage regulation
=
cos  = load pf lagging 
Characteristics of Alternator
OCC & SCC
Open circuit characteristics & short circuit characteristics
open circuit voltage at same field current

ZS =
short circuit current at same field current
Generally, open circuit voltage is given as Line to Line value so, before calculating Z S , we
need to find phase voltage
Voc / 3
ZS = : For Star Connection
Isc
If = constant
Voc
ZS = : For Delta Connection
Isc I = constant
f
Short circuit ratio
Field current required for rated open circuit voltage

SCR =
Field current required for rated short circuit current
1

X S pu 
XS pu = synchronous reactance in pu
21
Finding Voltage Regulation
There are usually 4 methods to find voltage regulation
o EMF Method
o MMF Method
o Potier Triangle Method
o ASA Method
Order of voltage regulation: EMF  ASA>ZPF>MMF
Power Angle Equation
Output of generator
VtEf Vt2
Pout = cos       cos 
ZS ZS
VtEf V2
Qout = sin       t sin 
ZS ZS
Input of motor
Vt 2 VE
Pin = cos S  t f cos     
ZS ZS
Vt 2 VE
Qin = sin   t f sin     
ZS ZS
Synchronous Impedance = Z s = R a  jXS = Z S 
X 
  tan-1  S 
 Ra 
If R a = neglected, Z s = jXS = XS 90
Ef Vt V
Pout g =
XS
sin  ;  Qout  = t Ef cos   Vt 
g XS
22
Developed power in synchronous motor
Ef Vt E2
Pdev = cos       f cos 
ZS ZS
Ef Vt E2
Q dev = sin       f sin 
ZS ZS
If ra is neglected, ZS = XS 90
Ef Vt
Pdev = sin 
ZS
Ef Vt Ef 2
Q dev = cos  
ZS ZS
o Developed Power is the power available at armature of motor.

o In all power expressions, all voltages are line voltages and if we want to use phase voltage, we
must multiply all expressions by a factor of 3.
Parallel operation of Alternators
Necessary Conditions
1) Terminal voltage of incoming alternator must be same as that of existing system.

2) Frequency should be same.
3) Phase sequence should be same.
23
Synchronization by Lamp Method
1) Observe if 3 lamps are bright & dark simultaneously, that means phase sequence of
incoming alternator is same as that of existing system.
Otherwise, phase sequence is opposite and stator terminals must be interchanged to
reverse phase sequence of incoming generator.
2) The frequency of alternator is usually a bit higher than infinite bus.
3) To understand the concept better, refer Ques. 39 of GATE – 2014 EE-01 paper.
o If two alternators are supplying a load and we change either excitation or steam input of one
machine is varied, then following effects will happen:
o If excitation of machine 1 is increased
Parameter Machine 1 Machine 2

Real Power Same Same
Reactive Power Increases Decreases
Armature Current Increases Decreases
Power Factor Decreases Increases
o If steam input of machine 1 is increased
Parameter Machine 1 Machine 2

Real Power Increases Decreases
Reactive Power Constant Constant
Armature Current Increases Decreases
Power Factor Increases Decreases
24
Droop Characteristics
fNL  fFL
droop of generator =  100%
fFL
Example: Refer Kuestions on Electrical Machines Type-8
Salient Pole Machine
o In case of salient pole machine, There are 2 reactances

Xd & Xq
X d : Direct axis reactance
Xq : quadrature axis reactance
o Id = Ia sin        90
Iq = Iacos      
 =   
For synchronous generator
Vsin  IaX q   lagging pf

tan  = ;
V cos   IaR a -  leading pf
For synchronous motor
Vsin  IaX q   leading pf

tan  = ;
V cos   IaR a -  lagging pf
Power – Angle Characteristics
VtEf V2  1 1 
P= sin   t    sin2
Xd 2  Xq Xd 
Excitation Reluctance power
power
25
Slip Test
If machine is run by prime mover at a speed other than synchronous speed & voltages & currents
are observed
Maximum Voltage
Xd =
Maximum Current
Maximum Voltage
Xq =
Maximum Current
Power Flow Diagram
3 EfIa cos 
Input Shaft Power Pe
3Vt Ia cos 
Field Rotational SC load
Circuit loss Loss 
loss 3Ia2ra 
Power Flow for Synchronous Generator
3 EfIa cos 
Input Pe Shaft Power
3VtIa cos 
Field SC load Rotational
Circuit loss  2
loss 3Ia ra  Loss
Power Flow Diagram for Synchronous Motor
26
Induction Machines
Stator & Rotor Magnetic Fields
o When a 3-phase supply is connected to the stator, than a magnetic field is set up
whose speed of rotation is
120f
NS =
P
f = frequency of supply
o If negative sequence currents are applied the rotating magnetic field rotates in
opposite direction as compared to magnetic field produced by positive sequence
currents.
o The rotor rotates in same direction as the stator magnetic field with a speed, Nr .
Ns  Nr
slip s =
Ns
 Nr = Ns 1  s 
o Speed of rotor magnetic field with respect to rotor = sNs
o speed of rotor magnetic field with respect to stator = Ns .
Hence, stator & rotor magnetic fields are at rest with respect to each other.
o Frequency of emf & current in rotor = sf
Relative Speed of
Stator Stator Rotor Rotor
Magnetic Magnetic
Field Field
Stator 0 Ns Ns(1-s) Ns
With Stator -Ns 0 -sNs 0
respect Magnetic
to Field
Rotor -Ns(1-s) sNs 0 sNs
Rotor -Ns 0 -sNs 0
Magnetic
Field
27
Inverted Induction Motor
o When a 3   supply is connected to the rotor & stator terminals are shorted or are
connected to the resistive load.
o Then a rotor magnetic field is set up which rotates at speed Ns with respect to rotor ;
120f
Ns = where f is frequency of supply.
P
o If rotor rotates at speed Nr , than slip
Ns  Nr
s=
Ns
Here, the rotor rotates in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of stator
magnetic field.
o Speed of rotor magnetic field with respect to stator
= Ns  Ns 1  s  = sNs
Speed of stator magnetic field = sNs
o Frequency of emf & current induced in stator = sf
f = supply frequency on rotor.
Relative Speed of
Stator Stator Rotor Rotor
Magnetic Magnetic
Field Field
Stator 0 sNs Ns(1-s) sNs
With Stator -sNs 0 -Ns 0
respect Magnetic
to Field
Rotor -Ns(1-s) Ns 0 Ns
Rotor -sNs 0 -Ns 0
Magnetic
Field
Equivalent circuit of Induction Motor
28
If we refer all parameters on stator side
2 2
N   N  
r2 = r2  1  ; x2 = x2  1 
N   N  
 2   2 
N1 = N1 k1
Where N1 = no. of turns per phase on stator
k1 = winding factor of stator winding
N2 = N2 k2
N2 = number of turns per phase on rotor
k2 = winding factor of rotor winding
Tests Conducted on Induction Motor
(i) No-Load Test
o Conducted on Stator with no-load on rotor side.

o It gives No-Load Losses ( Rotational Loss + Core Loss).
(ii) Blocked Rotor Test
o Conducted on stator side keeping rotor blocked

o It gives full load Copper Losses and equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance
referred to Stator Side.
29
o R 01 & X 01 are equivalent winding resistance & equivalent leakage reactor referred to
Stator side.
Wattmeter reading = P = Isc R01 from this equation, we can calculate R 01
2
o
Vsc
o Z 01 = & X01 = Z012  R012
Isc
o We obtain R 01 , X 01 & full load copper losses from this test.
o R 01 = R1+ R2’ ; X 01 = X1+ X2’
Power Flow Diagram
Rotor i/p = Pg (Airgap power) Mechanical Power Developed
Pin
Stator Stator Rotor Rotor Friction &

I2R loss core loss I2R loss core loss windage loss
3I22r2
Pg =
s
I2 = rotor current
s = slip
r2 = rotor resistance per phase
Rotor Cu Loss = 3I2 r2 = sPg

2
Mechanical power developed = Pg  sPg = 1-s Pg
Developed Torque, Te =
Pm
=
1-sPg  Pg
wr 1-s ws ws
30
Torque – Slip Characteristics
If core loss is neglected then equivalent circuit looks like as shown
V1  jXm 
Ve =
r1  j  X1  Xm 
r1Xm X1 X m
Re = ; Xe =
X1  Xm  X1  Xm 
mVe2 r2
Torque developed, Tc = 
 
2  s
r 2
ws  Re  2    X   Xe  
 s   2  
  
 
For Approximate analysis,
3 V12 r2
Stator impedance is neglected; Tc = 
ws  
2  s
 R 2  
  X22 
 s  
  
31
o At low slip, s  1
R 2 3 sV1 2
 X 2 , Tc =   Tc  s
s ws R2
o At high slip , s  1
2
R 2 3  V1  R 2 1
 X 2 , Tc = 
s ws  X   s s
 2 
For maximum torque
R 2
Sm,T =
2
R e2   Xe  X2 
 
It stator impedance is neglected
R 3 V12
Sm,T = 2 and Tmax =
X2 s (2X 2 )
T 2
And also, = , where T is the torque at a slip ‘s’
Tmax  s s 
  m,T 
 sm,T s 
For maximum power
R2
Sm,P =
2 2
R  R     X  X    R 
 e 2   e 2  2
   
Starting of Induction Motor
(i) Direct on – line starting

o Directly motor is connected to supply.
2
Te,st I 
o =  st  SFL
Te,FL  IFL 
32
(ii) Auto Transformer Starting

o Instead of connecting the motor to direct supply we reduce the voltage from
V1 to  xV1 
o This is done with the help of auto – transformer.
2
Te,st 1  Ist 
o = 2   SFL
Te,FL X  IFL 
2
Te,st auto X'mer   XV 
o =  1  = X2
Te,FL direct   V1 
(iii) Star – Delta Starting

o At starting, stator winding is connected in star & in running state stator winding
is connected in delta.
2
 V1 
 
V1 TY  3 1
o Vph = ; = =
3 TD V1 2
3
1
o IY = ID
3
2
 1 
2
 Ist,d  2
Tst I  Tst 1 I 
o =  st,Y  SFL =  3  S ; =  st,Y  SFL
TFL I   I  FL TFL 3  IFL,d 
 FL,d  FL,d
 
 
Speed Control of Induction Motor
o Constant V Control
f
2
180 sV1
At low slip, T= 
2Ns R 
2
Ns  N
s=
Ns
180 Ns  N V1
2
2
V 
T=     1  Ns  N
2Ns Ns R 2  f 
33
For constant torque, Ns  N = constant

So, by varying frequency we vary Ns & since Ns  N = constant we vary N accordingly.
Crawling
o Due to harmonies, the actual torque characteristics may look like
o Due to this saddle region, the motor may become stable at a low speed & this is called as
crawling.
Cogging
o If number of stator slots is equal to or integral multiple number of rotor slots, than at the
time of start, the strong alignment forces between stator teeth & rotor teeth simultaneously
at all rotor teeth may prevent movement of rotor. This is called cogging.
Single Phase Induction Motor

o According to Double field Revolving Theory, a single phase mmf can be resolved into two
rotating fields one rotating clockwise called as Forward field & other rotating anti-clock wise
called as Backward Field.
Both fields rotate at synchronous speed
120f
Ns =
P
o If rotor rotates at speed Nr , or a slips with respect to forward field.

Than slip with respect to backward field is  2  s 
34
o Due to these two fields producing opposing torques on rotor single phase IM is not
self starting.
o To produce starting torque, we introduce an auxiliary winding which is used at the time
of start & is disconnected during the run stage.
We generally design auxiliary winding such that phase difference is approximately 90

between main winding & auxiliary winding currents.
35
o Capacitor Start Motor
o Capacitor Run Motor
36

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Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................... 2

© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Manual for K-Notes

What are K-Notes?

When do I start using K-Notes?

How do I use K-Notes?

© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

KVA Rating  (Core Dimension)4

Voltage Rating  (Core Dimension)2

Core Loss  Core Volume

Induced EMF in a Transformer

Exact equivalent circuit

Exact equivalent circuit w.r.t. primary

 Approximately Equivalent Circuit

Tests Conducted on a Transformer

(i) Open Circuit Test

o Conducted on LV side keeping HV side open circuited

Calculate R c from (i) & Xm from (ii)

(ii) Short Circuit Test

o Conducted on HV side keeping LV side short circuited

PCu = I12R1  I22R 2

Where I1 = primary current

R 1 = primary winding resistance

R 2 = secondary winding resistance

Bm = maximum value of flux density

If V is constant & f is increased, Ph decreases

(ii) Eddy Current Loss

cos  = power factor

PCu,FL = Full load copper losses

KVA = Power rating of Transformer

For maximum efficiency,

Voltage Regulation of Transformer

Equivalent circuit with respect to secondary

Full-load voltage  V2

Approximate Voltage Regulation

cos 2 = power factor of load ZL

+ sign is used for lagging pf load

Condition for zero voltage regulation

Condition for maximum voltage regulation

Three – Phase Transformers

Rules to draw Phasor diagram

1) Always draw phasors from A to B, B to C & C to A for line voltages.

Parallel operation of Transformer

1) Voltage ratings of both transformers should be same.

If there are 2 transformers A & B supplying a load power SL .

ZB = impedance of transformer B (in ohms)

Z A = impedance of transformer A (in ohms)

o Generally, auto transformer is created from 2- winding transformer.

o KVAconduction = K  Input KVA 

o % Full load losses = 1 - K  %FL losses in2  winding Transformer 

 = flux per pole  wb 

N = speed of machine rpm

A = number of paralled path

A = 2 for wave winding

A = P for lap winding

(i) Separately excited

(ii) Shunt excited

(iii) Series excited

(iv) Compound Excited

R se : Series Field winding Resistance

R sh : Shunt Field winding Resistance

Performance Equations of DC Machines