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Cartography
Cartography (/kɑːrˈtɒɡrəfi/; from Greek χάρτης chartēs, "papy rus, sheet of paper, map"; and γράφειν graphein, "write") is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science,
aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in way s that communicate spatial information effectiv ely .

The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to:

Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as
toponyms or political boundaries.
Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.
Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization.
Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.
Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design.
Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information sy stems.
A medieval depiction of the Ecumene (1482,
Johannes Schnitzer, engraver), constructed after
the coordinates in Ptolemy's Geography and using
Contents his second map projection. The translation into
Latin and dissemination of Geography in Europe, in
History the beginning of the 15th century, marked the
Ancient times rebirth of scientific cartography, after more than a
Middle Ages and Renaissance millennium of stagnation.
Printing technology
Lettering
Color
The Enlightenment
Modern period
Deconstruction
Map types
General vs. thematic cartography
Topographic vs. topological
Map design
Map purpose and selection of information
Naming conventions
Map symbology
Map key or legend
Examples of point symbols
Map labeling
Map generalization
Map projections
Cartographic errors
See also
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

History

Ancient times
What is the earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the term "map" is not well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall
painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöy ük (prev iously known as Catal Huy uk or Çatal Hüy ük) has been dated to the late 7 th millennium BCE. [1 ][2 ] Among the prehistoric alpine
rock carv ings of Mount Bego (France) and Valcamonica (Italy ), dated to the 4th millennium BCE, geometric patterns consisting of dotted rectangles and lines are widely interpreted[3 ][4 ] in
archaeological literature as a depiction of cultiv ated plots. [5 ] Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan "House of the Admiral" wall painting from c. 1600 BCE, showing a seaside
community in an oblique perspectiv e, and an engrav ed map of the holy Baby lonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th – 12th centuries BCE). [6 ] The oldest surv iv ing world maps are from 9th
century BCE Baby lonia. [7 ] One shows Baby lon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assy ria, Urartu[8 ] and sev eral cities, all, in turn, surrounded by a "bitter riv er" (Oceanus). [9 ] Another depicts Baby lon
as being north of the center of the world. [7 ]
Valcamonica rock art (I), Paspardo r.
29, topographic composition, 4th
The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps from the time of Anaximander in the 6th century BCE. [1 0 ] In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography , Geographia. [1 1 ] This
millennium BCE
contained Ptolemy 's world map – the world then known to Western society (Ecumene). As early as the 8th century , Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic. [1 2 ]

In ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, during the Warring States period.
In the book of the Xin Y i Xiang Fa Y ao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cy lindrical projection. [1 3 ][1 4 ] Although this method of charting seems to hav e
existed in China ev en before this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form.

Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and surrounding constellations. [1 5 ] These charts may hav e been used for nav igation. [1 5 ]

Middle Ages and Renaissance

Mappae mundi ("maps of the world") are the mediev al European maps of the world. About 1,100 of these are known to hav e surv iv ed: of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the The Bedolina Map and its tracing,
remainder exist as stand-alone documents. [1 6 ] 6th–4th century BCE

The Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his mediev al atlas Tabula Rogeriana (Book of Roger) in 1154. By combining the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean, Europe, and the Far East
(which he learned through contemporary accounts from Arab merchants and explorers) with the information he inherited from the classical geographers, he was able to write detailed descriptions of a
multitude of countries. Along with the substantial text he had written, he created a world map influenced mostly by the Ptolemaic conception of the world, but with significant influence from multiple
Arab geographers. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries. [1 7 ][1 8 ] The map was div ided into sev en climatic zones, with detailed descriptions of each zone. As part of this
work, a smaller, circular map was made depicting the south on top and Arabia in the center. Al-Idrisi also made an estimate of the circumference of the world, accurate to within 10%. [1 9 ]

In the Age of Exploration, from the 15th century to the 17 th century , European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own, based
on explorers' observ ations and new surv ey ing techniques. The inv ention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy . In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German cartographer,
made the oldest extant globe of the Earth. [2 0 ]

In 1507 , Martin Waldseemüller produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (Universalis Cosmographia) bearing the first use of the name "America". Portuguese cartographer A 14th-century Byzantine map of the
British Isles from a manuscript of
Diego Ribero was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527 ). Italian cartographer Battista Agnese produced at least 7 1 manuscript atlases of sea charts. Johannes
Ptolemy's Geography, using Greek
Werner refined and promoted the Werner projection. This was an equal-area, heart-shaped world map projection (generally called a cordiform projection) which was used in the 16th and 17 th
numerals for its graticule: 52–63°N of
centuries. Ov er time, other iterations of this map ty pe arose; most notable are the sinusoidal projection and the Bonne projection. The Werner projection places its standard parallel at the North Pole; a the equator and 6–33°E from
sinusoidal projection places its standard parallel at the equator; and the Bonne projection is intermediate between the two. [2 1 ][2 2 ] Ptolemy's Prime Meridian at the
Fortunate Isles.
In 1569, mapmaker Gerardus Mercator first published a map based on his Mercator projection, which uses equally -spaced parallel v ertical lines of longitude and parallel latitude lines spaced farther
apart as they get farther away from the equator. By this construction, courses of constant bearing are conv eniently represented as straight lines for nav igation. The same property limits its v alue as a
general-purpose world map because regions are shown as increasingly larger than they actually are the further from the equator they are. Mercator is also credited as the first to use the word "atlas" to describe a collection of maps. In the later
y ears of his life, Mercator resolv ed to create his Atlas, a book filled with many maps of different regions of the world, as well as a chronological history of the world from the Earth's creation by God until 1568. He was unable to complete it to his
satisfaction before he died. Still, some additions were made to the Atlas after his death and new editions were published after his death. [2 3 ][2 4 ]

In the Renaissance, maps were used to impress v iewers and establish the owner's reputation as sophisticated, educated, and worldly . Because of this, towards the end of the Renaissance, maps were display ed with equal importance of painting,
sculptures, and other pieces of art. [2 5 ] In the sixteenth century , maps were becoming increasingly av ailable to consumers through the introduction of printmaking, with about 10% of Venetian homes hav ing some sort of map by the late
1500s.

There were three main functions of maps in the Renaissance:[2 6 ]

General descriptions of the world

Navigation and wayfinding
Land surveying and property management

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In mediev al times, written directions of how to get somewhere were more common than the use of maps. With the Renaissance, cartography began
to be seen as a metaphor for power. [2 6 ] Political leaders could lay claim on territories through the use of maps and this was greatly aided by the
religious and colonial expansion of Europe. The most commonly mapped places during the Renaissance were the Holy Land and other religious
places.

In the late 1400s to the late 1500s, Rome, Florence, and Venice dominated map making and trade. It started in Florence in the mid to late 1400s.
Map trade quickly shifted to Rome and Venice but then was ov ertaken by atlas makers in the late 16th century . [2 7 ] Map publishing in Venice was
completed with humanities and book publishing in mind, rather than just informational use.
The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Muhammad al-
Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154
Printing technology
There were two main printmaking technologies in the Renaissance: woodcut and copper-plate intaglio, referring to the medium used to transfer the image onto paper.
Copy (1472) of St. Isidore's TO map
In woodcut, the map image is created as a relief chiseled from medium-grain hardwood. The areas intended to be printed are inked and pressed against the sheet. Being raised from the rest of the block, of the world.
the map lines cause indentations in the paper that can often be felt on the back of the map. There are adv antages to using relief to make maps. For one, a printmaker doesn't need a press because the
maps could be dev eloped as rubbings. Woodblock is durable enough to be used many times before defects appear. Existing printing presses can be used to create the prints rather than hav ing to create
a new one. On the other hand, it is hard to achiev e fine detail with the relief technique. Inconsistencies in linework are more apparent in woodcut than in intaglio. To improv e quality in the late fifteenth century ,
a sty le of relief craftsmanship dev eloped using fine chisels to carv e the wood, rather than the more commonly used knife.

In intaglio, lines are engrav ed into workable metals, ty pically copper but sometimes brass. The engrav er spreads a thin sheet of wax ov er the metal plate and uses ink to draw the details. Then, the engrav er
traces the lines with a sty lus to etch them into the plate beneath. [2 8 ] The engrav er can also use sty li to prick holes along the drawn lines, trace along them with colored chalk, and then engrav e the map. Lines
going in the same direction are carv ed at the same time, and then the plate is turned to carv e lines going in a different direction. To print from the finished plate, ink is spread ov er the metal surface and scraped
off such that it remains only in the etched channels. Then the plate is pressed forcibly against the paper so that the ink in the channels is transferred to the paper. The pressing is so forceful that it leav es a "plate
mark" around the border of the map at the edge of the plate, within which the paper is depressed compared to the margins. [2 9 ] Copper and other metals were expensiv e at the time, so the plate was often reused
for new maps or melted down for other purposes. [2 9 ]

Whether woodcut or intaglio, the printed map is hung out to dry . Once dry , it is usually placed in another press of flatten the paper. Any ty pe of paper that was av ailable at the time could be used to print the
map on, but thicker paper was more durable.

Both relief and intaglio were used about equally by the end of the fifteenth century .
Europa regina in Sebastian
Münster's "Cosmographia",
Lettering 1570
Lettering in mapmaking is important for denoting information. Fine lettering is difficult in woodcut, where it often turned out square and blocky , contrary to the sty lized, rounded writing sty le popular in Italy
at the time. [2 9 ] To improv e quality , mapmakers dev eloped fine chisels to carv e the relief. Intaglio lettering did not suffer the troubles of a coarse medium and so was able to express the looping cursiv e that
came to be known as cancellaresca. [2 9 ] There were custom-made rev erse punches that were also used in metal engrav ing alongside freehand lettering. [2 8 ]

Color
The first use of color in map making cannot be narrowed down to one reason. There are arguments that color started as a way to indicate information on the map, with aesthetics coming second. There are also arguments that color was first
used on maps for aesthetics but then ev olv ed into conv ey ing information. [2 9 ] Either way , many maps of the Renaissance left the publisher without being colored, a practice that continued all the way into the 1800s. Howev er, most publishers
accepted orders from their patrons to hav e their maps or atlases colored if they wished. Because all coloring was done by hand, the patron could request simple, cheap color, or more expensiv e, elaborate color, ev en going so far as silv er or
gold gilding. The simplest coloring was merely outlines, such as of borders and along riv ers. Wash color meant painting regions with inks or watercolors. Limning meant adding silv er and gold leaf to the map to illuminate lettering, heraldic
arms, or other decorativ e elements.

The Enlightenment
Maps of the Enlightenment period practically univ ersally used copper plate intaglio, hav ing abandoned the fragile, coarse woodcut technology . Use of map projections ev olv ed, with the double hemisphere being v ery common and Mercator's
prestigious nav igational projection gradually making more appearances.

Due to the paucity of information and the immense difficulty of surv ey ing during the period, mapmakers frequently plagiarized material without giv ing credit to the original cartographer. For example, a famous map of North America known as
the "Beav er Map" was published in 17 15 by Herman Moll. This map is a close reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer, in turn, had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697 , and François
Du Creux, in 1664. By the late 18th century , mapmakers often credited the original publisher with something along the lines of, "After [the original cartographer]" in the map's title or cartouche. [3 0 ]

Modern period
In cartography , technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were produced manually , with brushes and
parchment; so they v aried in quality and were limited in distribution. The adv ent of magnetic dev ices, such as the compass and much later, magnetic storage dev ices, allowed for the creation of far
more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally .

Adv ances in mechanical dev ices such as the printing press, quadrant and v ernier, allowed the mass production of maps and the creation of accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Hartmann
Schedel was one of the first cartographers to use the printing press to make maps more widely av ailable. Optical technology , such as the telescope, sextant and other dev ices that use telescopes,
allowed accurate land surv ey s and allowed mapmakers and nav igators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the Sun at noon.

Adv ances in photochemical technology , such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, make possible maps with fine details, which do not distort in shape and which resist moisture and wear.
This also eliminated the need for engrav ing, which further speeded up map production. A pre-Mercator nautical chart of
1571, from Portuguese cartographer
In the 20th century , aerial photography , satellite imagery , and remote sensing prov ided efficient, precise methods for mapping phy sical features, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, watersheds, and
Fernão Vaz Dourado (c. 1520–c.
topography . The United States Geological Surv ey has dev ised multiple new map projections, notably the Space Oblique Mercator for interpreting satellite ground tracks for mapping the surface. The use 1580). It belongs to the so-called
of satellites and space telescopes now allows researchers to map other planets and moons in outer space. [3 1 ] Adv ances in electronic technology ushered in another rev olution in cartography : ready plane chart model, where observed
av ailability of computers and peripherals such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analy tic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for v isualization, image latitudes and magnetic directions are
processing, spatial analy sis, and database management, democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located v ariables onto existing maps created new plotted directly into the plane, with a
constant scale, as if the Earth were a
uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also digital raster graphic.
plane (Portuguese National Archives
These day s most commercial-quality maps are made using software of three main ty pes: CAD, GIS and specialized illustration software. Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon).

be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dy namic, interactiv e maps that can be manipulated digitally .

Field-rugged computers, GPS, and laser rangefinders make it possible to create maps directly from measurements made on site.

Deconstruction
There are technical and cultural aspects to producing maps. In this sense, maps can sometimes be said to be biased. The study of bias, influence, and agenda in making a map is what comprise a map's
deconstruction. A central tenet of deconstructionism is that maps hav e power. Other assertions are that maps are inherently biased and that we search for metaphor and rhetoric in maps. [3 2 ]

It is claimed that the Europeans promoted an "epistemological" understanding of the map as early as the 17 th century . [3 2 ] An example of this understanding is that "[European reproduction of terrain
on maps] reality can be expressed in mathematical terms; that sy stematic observ ation and measurement offer the only route to cartographic truth…". [3 2 ] 17 th-century map-makers were careful and
Mapping can be done with GPS and
precise in their strategic approaches to maps based on a scientific model of knowledge. Popular belief at the time was that this scientific approach to cartography was immune to the social atmosphere. laser rangefinder directly in the field.
Image shows mapping of forest
A common belief is that science heads in a direction of progress, and thus leads to more accurate representations of maps. In this belief European maps must be superior to others, which necessarily
structure (position of trees, dead
employ ed different map-making skills. "There was a 'not cartography ' land where lurked an army of inaccurate, heretical, subjectiv e, v aluativ e, and ideologically distorted images. Cartographers wood and canopy).
dev eloped a 'sense of the other' in relation to nonconforming maps."[3 2 ]

Although cartography has been a target of much criticism in recent decades, a cartographer's 'black box' alway s seemed to be naturally defended to the point where it ov ercame the criticism. Howev er, to later scholars in the field, it was
ev ident that cultural influences dominate map-making. [3 2 ] For instance, certain abstracts on maps and the map-making society itself describe the social influences on the production of maps. This social play on cartographic knowledge "…
produces the 'order' of [maps'] features and the 'hierarchies of its practices.'"[3 3 ]

Depictions of Africa are a common target of deconstructionism. [3 4 ] According to deconstructionist models, cartography was used for strategic purposes associated with imperialism and as instruments and representations of power [3 5 ] during
the conquest of Africa. The depiction of Africa and the low latitudes in general on the Mercator projection has been interpreted as imperialistic and as sy mbolic of subjugation due to the diminished proportions of those regions compared to
higher latitudes where the European powers were concentrated. [3 6 ]

Maps furthered imperialism and colonization of Africa in practical way s by showing basic information like roads, terrain, natural resources, settlements, and communities. Through this, maps made European commerce in Africa possible by
showing potential commercial routes and made natural resource extraction possible by depicting locations of resources. Such maps also enabled military conquests and made them more efficient, and imperial nations further used them to put
their conquests on display . These same maps were then used to cement territorial claims, such as at the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885. [3 5 ]

Before 17 49, maps of the African continent had African kingdoms drawn with assumed or contriv ed boundaries, with unknown or unexplored areas hav ing drawings of animals, imaginary phy sical geographic features, and descriptiv e texts. In
17 48, Jean B. B. d'Anv ille created the first map of the African continent that had blank spaces to represent the unknown territory . [3 5 ] This was rev olutionary in cartography and the representation of power associated with map making.

Map types

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General vs. thematic cartography

In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be div ided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography . General cartography inv olv es those maps that are
constructed for a general audience and thus contain a v ariety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location sy stems and often are produced in a series. For example, the 1:24,000 scale
topographic maps of the United States Geological Surv ey (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The gov ernment of the UK produces the classic 1:50,000 (replacing
the older 1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Surv ey " maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail. Many priv ate mapping companies hav e also produced
thematic map series.

Thematic cartography inv olv es maps of specific geographic themes, oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area
map of Ohio counties, div ided into numerical choropleth classes. As the v olume of geographic data has exploded ov er the last century , thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and Small section of an orienteering map.
necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data.

A third ty pe of map is known as an "orienteering," or special purpose map. This ty pe of map falls somewhere between thematic and general maps. They combine general map elements with thematic
attributes in order to design a map with a specific audience in mind. Oftentimes, the ty pe of audience an orienteering map is made for is in a particular industry or occupation. An example of this kind of
map would be a municipal utility map. [3 7 ]

Topographic vs. topological

A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including (especially in the 20th and 21st centuries) the use of contour lines showing elev ation. Terrain or relief
can be shown in a v ariety of way s (see Cartographic relief depiction). In the present era, one of the most widespread and adv anced methods used to form topographic maps is to use computer software
to generate digital elev ation models which show shaded relief. Before such software existed, cartographers had to draw shaded relief by hand. One cartographer who is respected as a master of hand- Topographic map of Easter Island.
drawn shaded relief is the Swiss professor Eduard Imhof whose efforts in hill shading were so influential that his method became used around the world despite it being so labor-intensiv e. [3 8 ][3 9 ]

A topological map is a v ery general ty pe of map, the kind one might sketch on a napkin. It often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational
information. Beck's London Underground map is an iconic example. Although the most widely used map of "The Tube," it preserv es little of reality : it v aries scale constantly and abruptly , it straightens
curv ed tracks, and it contorts directions. The only topography on it is the Riv er Thames, letting the reader know whether a station is north or south of the riv er. That and the topology of station order
and interchanges between train lines are all that is left of the geographic space. [4 0 ] Y et those are all a ty pical passenger wishes to know, so the map fulfills its purpose. [4 1 ]

Map design

Map purpose and selection of information

Relief map Sierra Nevada
Arthur H. Robinson, an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography , stated that a map not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure." He also claimed, when considering all
aspects of cartography , that "map design is perhaps the most complex."[4 2 ] Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be designed foremost with consideration to the audience
and its needs.

From the v ery beginning of mapmaking, maps "hav e been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes". [4 3 ] The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the percipient
acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term percipient refers to the person receiv ing information and was coined by Robinson. [4 4 ] The principle of figure-ground refers to this notion of
engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leav ing no confusion concerning the purpose of the map. This will enhance the user's experience and keep their attention. If the user is unable to
identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be regarded as useless.

Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. Alan MacEachren explains that a well designed map "is conv incing because it implies authenticity ". [4 5 ] An interesting map will no doubt engage a reader.
Information richness or a map that is multiv ariate shows relationships within the map. Showing sev eral v ariables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness of the map. This also generates Illustrated map.
hy pothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. In order to conv ey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the reader in the ov erall understanding of
its purpose. The title of a map may prov ide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the ov erall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it. [4 6 ]

In the 21st century it is possible to find a map of v irtually any thing from the inner workings of the human body to the v irtual worlds of cy berspace. Therefore, there are now a huge v ariety of different
sty les and ty pes of map – for example, one area which has ev olv ed a specific and recognisable v ariation are those used by public transport organisations to guide passengers, namely urban rail and
metro maps, many of which are loosely based on 45 degree angles as originally perfected by Harry Beck and George Dow.

Naming conventions
Most maps use text to label places and for such things as the map title, legend and other information. Although maps are often made in one specific language, place names often differ between languages.
So a map made in English may use the name Germany for that country , while a German map would use Deutschland and a French map Allemagne. A non-nativ e term for a place is referred to as an
exony m.
3D cartography of Washington State,
Mount Rainier National Park,
In some cases the correct name is not clear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its name to My anmar, but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use Burma.
Pinnacle Peak trail.
Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use. Examples include the use of Saigon for Ho Chi Minh City , Bangkok for Krung Thep and
Ivory Coast for Côte d'Iv oire.

Difficulties arise when transliteration or transcription between writing sy stems is required. Some well-known places hav e well-established names in other languages and writing sy stems, such as Russia or Rußland for Росси́я, but in other
cases a sy stem of transliteration or transcription is required. Ev en in the former case, the exclusiv e use of an exony m may be unhelpful for the map user. It will not be much use for an English user of a map of Italy to show Liv orno only as
"Leghorn" when road signs and railway timetables show it as "Liv orno". In transliteration, the characters in one script are represented by characters in another. For example, the Cy rillic letter Р is usually written as R in the Latin script,
although in many cases it is not as simple as a one-for-one equiv alence. Sy stems exist for transliteration of Arabic, but the results may v ary . For example, the Y emeni city of Mocha is written v ariously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukhā,
Mocca and Moka. Transliteration sy stems are based on relating written sy mbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of another. Chinese writing is now usually conv erted to the Latin
alphabet through the Piny in phonetic transcription sy stems. Other sy stems were used in the past, such as Wade-Giles, resulting in the city being spelled Beijing on newer English maps and Peking on older ones.

Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not hav e a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases, cartographers may hav e to choose between v arious phonetic spellings of local names v ersus older
imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some countries hav e multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the capital of Belgium is both Brussel and Bruxelles. In Canada, English and French are
official languages and places hav e names in both languages. British Columbia is also officially named la Colombie-Britannique. English maps rarely show the French names outside of Quebec, which itself is spelled Québec in French. [4 7 ]

The study of placenames is called topony my , while that of the origin and historical usage of placenames as words is ety mology .

In order to improv e legibility or to aid the illiterate, some maps hav e been produced using pictograms to represent places. The iconic example of this practice is Lance Wy man's early plans for the Mexico City Metro, on which stations were
shown simply as sty lized logos. Wy man also prototy ped such a map for the Washington Metro, though ultimately the idea was rejected. Other cities experimenting with such maps are Fukuoka, Guadalajara and Monterrey . [4 0 ]

Map symbology
Cartographic sy mbology encodes information on the map in way s intended to conv ey information to the map reader efficiently , taking into consideration the limited space on the map, models of human understanding through v isual means,
and the likely cultural background and education of the map reader. Sy mbology may be implicit, using univ ersal elements of design, or may be more specific to cartography or ev en to the map.

A map may hav e any of many kinds of sy mbolization. Some examples are:

A legend, or key, explains the map's pictorial language.

A title indicates the region and perhaps the theme that the map portrays.
A neatline frames the entire map image.
A compass rose or north arrow provides orientation.
An overview map gives global context for the primary map.
A bar scale translates between map measurements and real distances.
A map projection provides a way to represent the curved surface on the plane of the map.
The map may declare its sources, accuracy , publication date and authorship, and so forth. The map image itself portray s the region.

Map coloring is another form of sy mbology , one whose importance can reach bey ond aesthetic. In complex thematic maps, for example, the color scheme's structure can critically affect the reader's ability to understand the map's information.
Modern computer display s and print technologies can reproduce much of the gamut that humans can perceiv e, allowing for intricate exploitation of human v isual discrimination in order to conv ey detailed information.

Quantitativ e sy mbols giv e a v isual indication of the magnitude of the phenomenon that the sy mbol represents. Two major classes of sy mbols are used to portray quantity . Proportional sy mbols change size according to phenomenon's
magnitude, making them appropriate for representing statistics. Choropleth maps portray data collection areas, such as counties or census tracts, with color. Using color this way , the darkness and intensity (or v alue) of the color is ev aluated
by the ey e as a measure of intensity or concentration.

Map key or legend

The map key , or legend, describes how to interpret the map's sy mbols and may giv e details of publication and authorship.

Examples of point symbols

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Symbol Explanation

mine (Hammer and pick symbol), former mine

castle, Burg

church, chapel, monastery (♁)

monument

Hotel

airport

railway station

Tourist information

Map labeling
Most maps label features so that the map reader can know features' names. For example, country names may be printed on a world map, each label within the outline of the country it names. Features
and background may be in any color, which can make reading labels printed ov er them harder to read than reading text from a book. [4 8 ] Two traits of good labels are legibility and easy feature
association. In order for a label to be legible, it must hav e a ty pe, size and color that are easy to read. Ideally , a label would not interfere with other map features or labels. A halo may be placed around
the label to contrast it against the background. A label must also be easily associated with the feature it names, regardless of the feature's category or extent. Choosing a location for a label to enhance
this association while av oiding clutter and conflict with other labels is an art that incorporates many techniques. One technique is to use a different font per category of feature. For example, using an
italicized, dark blue font for a water label can suggest wav es. Or, labels for contour lines can be thin and hav e the same color as the contours. In difficult cases where there is not enough space to place
the label near the feature to form an unambiguous association, a leader line can connect the label to the feature.
Legend or key of a Belgian road map
(Michelin 1940)
Map generalization
A good map has to compromise between portray ing the items of interest (or themes) in the right place on the map, and the need to show that item using text or a sy mbol, which take up space on the map and might displace some other item of
information. The cartographer is thus constantly making judgements about what to include, what to leav e out and what to show in a slightly incorrect place. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e. the map
shows a larger area) because the information shown on the map takes up more space on the ground. A good example from the late 1980s was the Ordnance Surv ey 's first digital maps, where the absolute positions of major roads were
sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of meters away from ground truth, when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250,000 and 1:625,000, because of the ov erriding need to annotate the features.

Map projections
The Earth being spherical, any flat representation generates distortions such that shapes and areas cannot both be conserv ed simultaneously , and distances can nev er all be preserv ed. [4 9 ] The mapmaker must choose a suitable map projection
according to the space to be mapped and the purpose of the map.

Cartographic errors
Some maps contain deliberate errors or distortions, either as propaganda or as a "watermark" to help the copy right owner identify infringement if the error appears in competitors' maps. The latter often come in the form of nonexistent,
misnamed, or misspelled "trap streets". [5 0 ] Other names and forms for this are paper townsites, fictitious entries, and copy right easter eggs. [5 1 ]

Another motiv e for deliberate errors is cartographic "v andalism": a mapmaker wishing to leav e his or her mark on the work. Mount Richard, for example, was a fictitious peak on the Rocky Mountains' continental div ide that appeared on a
Boulder County , Colorado map in the early 197 0s. It is believ ed to be the work of draftsman Richard Ciacci. The fiction was not discov ered until two y ears later.

Sandy Island (New Caledonia) is an example of a fictitious location that stubbornly surv iv es, reappearing on new maps copied from older maps while being deleted from other new editions.

See also
Animated mapping Fantasy map History of Cartography Project Scribing (cartography)
Cartogram Figure-ground in map design List of cartographers Toponymy
Cartographic relief depiction Geoinformatics Locator map World map
City map Geovisualization OpenStreetMap
Counter-mapping Geo warping Pictorial maps
Critical cartography Historical cartography Planetary cartography

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8. Catherine Delano Smith (1996). "Imago Mundi's Logo the Babylonian Map of the World". Imago Mundi. 48: 209–211. 32. Harley, J. B. (1989). "Deconstructing the Map". Cartographica, Vol. 26, No. 2. pp 1-5 (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/passages/
doi:10.1080/03085699608592846 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03085699608592846). JSTOR 1151277 (https://www.jstor.org/ 4761530.0003.008/--deconstructing-the-map?rgn=main;view=fulltext)
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10. "History of Cartography" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060502013409/http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_78153452 34. Stone, Jeffrey C. (1988). "Imperialism, Colonialism and Cartography". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,
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(ed.). Highlights of Astronomy. 11B. Norwell: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 714. ISBN 978-0-7923-5556-4.
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40. Ovenden, Mark (2007). Transit Maps of the World. New York, New York: Penguin Books. pp. 22, 60, 131, 132, 135.
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42. Robinson, A.H. (1953). Elements of Cartography (https://archive.org/details/elementsofcartog01robi). New York: John Wiley
& Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-72805-4.
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44. MacEachren, A.M. (1995). How Maps Work . New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-57230-040-8.
45. MacEachren, A.M. (1994). Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design. University Park: The Pennsylvania
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47. Illustrated Atlas of the World. Rand McNally. 1992. ISBN 978-0-528-83492-9. 50. Monmonier, Mark (1996). 2nd. (ed.). How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-226-
48. Jill Saligoe-Simmel,"Using Text on Maps: Typography in Cartography" (https://www.drjill.net/map-fonts-article-1-the-basics-o 53421-3.
f-typography-for-cartography/) 51. Openstreetmap.org Copyright Easter Eggs (https://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Copyright_Easter_Eggs)
49. Albrecht, Jochen. "Maps projections" (http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/~jochen/gtech201/lectures/lec6concepts/map%20co
ordinate%20systems/how%20to%20choose%20a%20projection.htm). Introduction to Mapping Sciences, 2005 (http://www.
geo.hunter.cuny.edu/~jochen/gtech201/201syllabusSp05.htm). Retrieved 2013-08-13.

Bibliography
Ovenden, Mark (2007). Transit Maps of the World. New York, New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311265-5.

Further reading
Mapmaking

MacEachren, A.M. (1994). Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 978-0-89291-214-8.
Monmonier, Mark (1993). Mapping It Out. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53417-6.
Kraak, Menno-Jan; Ormeling, Ferjan (2002). Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-088890-7.
Peterson, Michael P. (1995). Interactive and Animated Cartography. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-079104-7.
Slocum, T. (2003). Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-035123-4.

History

Ralph E Ehrenberg (October 11, 2005). Mapping the World: An Illustrated History of Cartography (https://archive.org/details/mappingworldillu00ehre/page/256). National Geographic. p. 256 (https://archive.org/details/mappingworldillu00ehre/page/256).
ISBN 978-0-7922-6525-2.
J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1987). The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31633-8.
J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1992). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31635-2.
J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1994). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31637-6.
David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis (eds) (1998). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies [Full text of the Introduction by David Woodward and G.
Malcolm Lewis]. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90728-4.
David Woodward (ed) (2007). The History of Cartography Volume 3: Cartography in the European Renaissance. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-90733-8.
Mark Monmonier (ed) (2015). The History of Cartography Volume 6: Cartography in the Twentieth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226534695.
Matthew Edney and Mary S. Pedley (eds). The History of Cartography Volume 4: Cartography in the European Enlightenment. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31633-8.
Roger J. P. Kain et al. (eds). The History of Cartography Volume 5: Cartography in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

Meanings

Monmonier, Mark (1991). How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53421-3.
Wood, Denis (1992). The Power of Maps (https://archive.org/details/powerofmaps00wood). New York/London: The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-0-89862-493-9.

External links
International Cartographic Association (ICA) (http://www.icaci.org/), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals
Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS), USA (http://www.cartogis.org/) The CaGIS(ociety) promotes research, education, and practice to improve the understanding, creation, analysis, and use of maps and geographic information. The
society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts, techniques, approaches, and experiences by those who design, implement, and use cartography, geographical information systems, and related geospatial technologies.
Society of Cartographers (http://www.soc.org.uk/) supports the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration
North American Cartographic Information Society (NACIS) (http://www.nacis.org/), A North American-based cartography society that is aimed at improving communication, coordination and cooperation among the producers, disseminators, curators, and
users of cartographic information. Their members are located worldwide and the meetings are on an annual basis
Mapping History (http://www.bl.uk/learning/artimages/maphist/mappinghistory.html) – a learning resource from the British Library
Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide (https://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmilltoc.html), by the staff of the US Library of Congress.
Antique Maps (https://web.archive.org/web/20070202062403/http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/contents.html) by Carl Moreland and David Bannister – complete text of the book, with information both on mapmaking and on mapmakers, including short
biographies of many cartographers
Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography (http://www.newberry.org/collections/conbib.html), Newberry Library
cartographers on the net (http://www.carto.net/) SVG, scalable vector graphics: tutorials, examples, widgets and libraries
Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection (https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/), Cornell University Library

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