Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
By
JONATHAN C. BUSEY
I would like to thank Chris Overstreet and Prof. Keith Bullivant for patiently
teaching me German and putting up with questions, and Prof. Franz Futterknecht
for the motivation necessary to conceptualize and design yet another introduction to
German.
Motivation came from Prof. David Young’s unpublished introduction to Ancient
Greek and Dr. Robert Underhill’s dissertation, Turkish Grammar. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1976.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
CHAPTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1 WORD ORDER AND THE GERMAN CASE SYSTEM . . . . . . 3
1.1 Word order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Nominative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 The Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 The Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 The Genitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Appositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 NOUN FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Pronoun Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Word Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.1 N-nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Composita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 ARTICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 PRONOUNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1 Personal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Possessive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Reflexive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.4 Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.5 Relative and Interrogative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
iv
5 ADJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1 Predicative Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2 Attributive Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.1 Comparative and Superlative Forms . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2.2 Possessive Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.3 Ordinal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6 ADVERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7 VERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.1 Verb Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.1.1 The Infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.1.2 Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.1.3 Irregular Verb Endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.1.4 Verb Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.1.5 Prefix or Preposition? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2 Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.2.1 Indicative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.2.2 Imperatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.2.3 Subjunctive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.3 Modal Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.3.1 Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.4 Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.4.1 Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.4.2 Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.4.3 Imperfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4.4 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4.5 Future Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.4.6 Past Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.5 Verb Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.5.1 Full Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.5.2 Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.5.3 Reflexive Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.5.4 Phrasal Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.6 Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.6.1 Active . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.6.2 Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8 PREPOSITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.1 A Visual Overview of the Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.1.1 Prepositions of Movement and Motion . . . . . . . . . 76
8.1.2 Prepositions Exhibiting a Static State . . . . . . . . . 76
8.2 Prepositions Governing Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.2.1 Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
v
8.2.2 Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.2.3 Dative and Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.2.4 Genitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9 CONJUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.1 Coordinating Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.2 Subordinating Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.3 Infinitive Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.4 Proportionate Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10 NEGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11 QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
APPENDICIES
A PRONUNCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A.1 Guide to German Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A.2 Book Cover Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
B IRREGULAR VERB LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table page
1.1 Guidelines for German Word Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 The Nominative Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 The Nominative dummy-es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Uses of the Accusative Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 The Accusative Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Possessive and Personal Prounouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8 The Dative Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.9 The Genitive Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.10 The Genitive Declension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1 Endings Which Give Away the Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Sounds That Join Words in Composita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1 Differences in German and English Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 The German Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1 Personal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Pronoun Word Order Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3 The Possessive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4 Reflexive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5 Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.1 Primary Adjectival Endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 Secondary Adjectival Endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 The Ordinal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
vii
6.1 Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.1 Conjugation of Regular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.2 Conjugation of Some Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.3 Inseparable Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.4 Formation of Imperatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.5 The Main Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.6 The Two Types of Subjunctive in German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.7 Conjugation of Modal Verbs and möchten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.8 When One Can Leave Out the Infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.9 Imperfect Forms of sein and haben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.10 Phrasal Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.1 An Overview of the Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.2 The ‘Two Way Verbs’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.3 Some Two-way Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.4 Some Genitive Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.1 The Coordinating Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.2 Subordinating Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.3 Uses of the Infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10.1 Kein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.2 Nicht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
A.1 German Pronunciation Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A.2 Short Pronunciation Guide for German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
3.1 For an Indefinite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 For a Definite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.1 A Visual Representation of German Tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.1 an with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.2 auf with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.3 bis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.4 durch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.5 gegen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.6 hinter with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.7 in with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.8 neben with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.9 über with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.10 um . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.11 unter (i.e. beneath) with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.12 unter (i.e. among) with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.13 vor with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.14 zwischen with Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.15 an with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.16 auf with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.17 in with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.18 neben with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.19 über with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
ix
8.20 von . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.21 unter (i.e. beneath) with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.22 unter (i.e. among) with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.23 vor/hinter with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.24 zwischen with Dative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
A.1 ich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
A.2 Radfahr en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
x
Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts
By
Jonathan C. Busey
December 2001
Chair: Keith Bullivant
Major Department: Germanic and Slavic Studies
This papers aims to complement other beginning German language courses at
different levels: it is setup both for students searching for easier ways to remember the
basics and successfully complete what is required of them in the initial introductory
sequence and for the curious student who seeks a deeper explanation of grammar,
thereby making a stronger foundation and long-term success possible. The target
students range from beginners with no experience, to those who are at more ad-
vanced levels and search for a reference documenting the basics, to those have had
an introductory course and desire a refresher.
The grammar is organized in a non-cumulative fashion so that it is not necessary
to read from beginning to end. Rather, it is meant to be used to look up the desired
information one wants from each topic. This is enhanced by copious hyperlinks in
the electronic version and cross-references in the printed version.
xi
Reading the thesis through from beginning to end is designed to be beneficial to
the students who have taken German before, but is suggested to the beginning learner
only in conjunction with another course which includes dialogues and exercises.
The main goal of this paper is to provide an additional resource to students
interested in learning German at a deeper level than is required in a college level
introductory sequence.
xii
INTRODUCTION
There is no universal perfect system for learning any language or even any one
language, but by deciding what one wants from the experience, one can be more
successful. Only a few will truly master a new language in their adult life; most want
either to be able to read German, speak enough for travel, or merely pronounce the
words (such as radio announcers or music historians). One goal this paper attempts
to achieve is to enable the student to be more successful learning German by making
her/him define what s/he wants from the knowledge. The flexibility an instructional
text requires for this is achieved in a number of ways: the summary in the table in
each section should meet the needs of most looking for a quick refresher or the general
guidelines for a specific point.
In addition, the list of tables and list of figures are more specific tables of contents
which the student can use to locate information quickly. Within each section, the
information becomes increasingly more specific, so that the general, most relevant
information is presented first, and the more specific comes afterwards. The benefit of
this scheme is twofold: the most important points are stressed as one sees them most
often, and the student is able to stop reading whenever s/he has gone far enough into
detail.
This is written for the curious and thorough student who wishes to start with a
good foundation.
No linguistic knowledge is required. The concepts are based on linguistic fun-
damentals, but this will not burden an inexperienced student since no attention is
drawn to this.
2
As units such as counting, telling time, describing the weather, answering Wie
geht’s? are covered in the first days of every course, they are beyond the scope of this
document. Furthermore, there are no dialogues or exercises, but copious examples.
The somewhat unconventional approach to the basic word categories is an attempt
to make the material as relevant and comprehensible as possible. For example, word
order with dative and accusative pronouns are only referenced with word order and
handled in detail under Section 4.1.
CHAPTER 1
WORD ORDER AND THE GERMAN CASE SYSTEM
German word order is more flexible than English word order. Since every word
has some sort of identifying marker that identifies its function in a given sentence,
(the case endings reflect the gender, number, and whether the nouns are subjects
or objects), most of the words can be rearranged according to what needs to be
stressed. For example, the following sentences all have the same meaning, but different
connotations:
1. Jochen hat dem Fahrradhändler die 15 DM gegeben.
(both the default for “Jochen gave the bike salesman fifteen marks” and a pos-
sibility to stress the fact that it was Jochen and not someone else)
2. Dem Fahrradhändler hat Jochen die 15 DM gegeben.
(for example in answer to the question: “To whom did Jochen give money?”)
3. 15 DM hat Jochen dem Fahrradhändler gegeben.
(when doubt about the amount exists and is being clarified, for example in
answer to the question: “How much money did he pay for the bike?”)
4. and, in spoken:
Gegeben hat Jochen dem Fahrradhändler die 15 DM.
(gave as opposed to loaned)
Not only does this freedom of placement make it easier to stress certain aspects
of a sentence in written German (where intonation is not possible), it also calls for
a more strict adherence to word endings since they are what carry the grammatical
meaning of each word in the sentence. Word order in German principally conforms
3
4
Also, a clause can be in position 1 all by itself, in which case the next word
after the clause will be the predicate in the main clause, as is the case in subordinate
clauses. For example:
Wenn du es ihr nicht sagst, muss ich ihr es wohl sagen. [ If you don’t tell her,
I’ll have to.]
There are also guidelines for imperative sentences (see Section 7.2.2), negation
(see Chapter 10), and interrogative sentences (see Chapter 11).
There are tricks for word order when replacing nouns with pronouns in sentences
containing both direct and indirect objects in Section 4.1.
An examination of the cases follows one by one Sections 1.2–1.5.
Another important difference from English that German sentences follow is the
time before place concept. In German one says: Sie geht um 8 nach Hause; Er
fliegt nächste Woche nach München; etc. for the English: She’s going home at eight
and He’s flying to Munich next week.
1.2 Nominative
The nominative is the case one usually learns first because it occurs in nearly
every sentence. The noun in the nominative case is what determines the
declension of the verb, since it is the subject. When one says Ich heiße, the
ending -e matches the first person singular of the nominative case, because ich is the
subject. When the subject changes to sie (singular), the verb ending becomes heißt
to match the person and number of the subject, which is always in the nominative
case. This is exactly the same in German as in English.
Man
Something one sees and hears very often both in spoken and written German is
the pronoun man. It is always the subject of the sentence and is most often translated
6
as “one, people, or they. In English when one says things such as They say. . . , People
do that all the time, it would be man in German.
There are only three different declensions one has to know in order to master
the accusative case in German. One is for der, die, das, a second is for the ein-
words, which includes all the demonstratives (this, that, these, those), interrogatives
(which), negatives (none, not any, no), adjectival endings (there are none in English),
possessives (mine, yours, his, hers, its, theirs, our), and, of course, the indefinite article
a, an. The third set is the set of pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they). These
three declensions are in Table 1.6.
Notice that there are no plurals for the indefinite articles, just as in English
(which uses some), and that the same endings are used for all of the word classes
7
listed above. One only needs the word stems to form them, for example, the possessive
pronouns are in Table 1.7.
One of the instances in which the infinitive (see Section 7.1.1) occurs without zu
is with the accusative. This occurs only in conjunction with a few verbs and exhibits
the following characteristics:
1. In the first instance, the accusative object is an agent and the sentence describes
how the subject is cognizant of the action of this accusative agent. This is a
common occurrence and is limited to the verbs sehen, hören, fühlen, and spüren.
This construction is used to describe an instance in which one sees, hears, feels,
or senses someone doing some thing. The someone is in the accusative and
the thing is the infinitive.
Examples:
Das habe ich kommen sehen. (I saw that coming.)
Sie hat ihren Sohn Salat essen sehen. (She saw her son eating salad.)
Man hat mich schnarchen hören. (They/People heard me snoring.)
2. In the second instance the accusative is in its more conventional role, namely
as that of an object, and has the same value as it does in modal sentences (see
Section 7.3) but can be used with other, non-modal verbs:
Sie läßt die Studenten früher gehen. (She lets the students go early.)
8
The Dative case answers the question “to whom?” and, just like the accusative
and nominative, has endings that are added to the ein -words, the definite articles,
and personal pronouns. Most of the time, the dative case is just a re-naming of the
indirect object. It is used to convey the idea that something is doing something to
something else, which is the part of the sentence which will appear in the dative case:
Why don’t you buy me a new dictionary?
Janice wanted me to loan her my German book.
Notice that all verbs of giving, telling, showing, and the like can take indirect objects
and, likewise, can have dative objects in German, but not every sentence has to have
one–just as in English: I showed my stuff.
9
The principle differences in the English indirect objects and German dative ob-
jects are:
1. English objects do not have endings which reflect their case and must therefore
use prepositions and word order to show their function. German has certain
endings, articles, and pronouns to display this:
I am giving him my homework OR I am giving my homework to him.
Ich gebe ihm meine Hausaufgaben.
You can tell the judge your story OR You can tell your story to the judge.
10
Remember: different persons and numbers are designated in the following way:
number
singular plural
1st person 1st person
person 2nd person 2nd person
3rd person 3rd person
a
all genders!
3. Since one can usually tell in which case an object is by its form, there is a
differentiation between an accusative, a dative, or a genitive object after a
preposition (see Section 8.2.2 for more information about prepositions with the
dative.) Additionally, there are several prepositions that can take accusative or
dative objects, depending on whether the preposition is stationary (dative) or
expresses motion (accusative). This is explained in Section 8.2.3.
The genitive case is the possessive case. Its use is becoming less and less frequent
and is often replaced by a preposition and the dative (usually von). Also, there are
many prepositions (listed below) which, strictly speaking, govern the genitive but are
used increasingly often with the dative case. The genitive case is slowly dying out.
1.6 Appositions
Appositions are another example of the efficiency and precision of the German
case system. An apposition is a noun phrase, usually separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas, which serves to modify another noun or phrase. It is in the
same case as the noun it modifies.
I told Tom, my uncle, that I would be visiting him in June.
Ich habe Tom, meinem Onkel erzählt, dass ich ihn in Juni besuchen würde.
Many castles and park facilities were built by Louis the Fourteenth.
Viele Schlösser und Parkanlagen wurden von Ludwig dem Vierzehnten gebaut.
Notice in these examples that it is exactly the same as in English. However, since
this is a paradigm which carries over from one sentence to the next, rather than
having to clarify questions by adding prepositions or even repeating entire sentences,
in German one can answer the question with a noun or noun phrase in the correct
case, thus there is a loss of ambiguity in German.
12
sein, ihr, sein seine, ihre, seine sein, ihr, sein ihr ihre ihr
Add the same endings for singular, plural, nominative, and accusative as with ein.
Note that for all words in all three of these tables the feminine, neuter,
and plural are the same in the nominative as in the accusative, and that
the masculine accusative always ends in ‘n’.
Singular Plural
Sie Sie
er ihn
sie sie sie sie
es es
13
This chapter covers only the genders and plurals. For information on the case
declensions see the section for the respective case beginning with Chapter 1.1.
It is difficult to stress how important it is to learn the correct gender of every word
one learns. One cannot consider a word to belong to his or her lexicon (vocabulary)
without knowing the gender and plural and should therefore learn every word with
its article. Without the gender one cannot put the word into context. That being
said, the next step is to develop a method for learning the genders and plurals.
2.1 Gender
There are absolutely no concrete rules about which objects have which gender.
There are however a few endings which can give you clues listed in Table 2.1.
All other plurals must be basically learned with the vocabulary entry, although
some other patterns appear.
German has natural and grammatical genders. The natural gender is determined
by what it is, i.e. der Mann or die Tochter, and the grammatical gender is usually
based on historical usage and does not reflect in any way what the natural gender
of the object is. Examples include both die Sonne and der Stuhl –which do not have
any sort of inherent feminine or masculine characteristics in the minds of German
speakers–as well das Fräulein and das Mädchen, which are neuter because of the
dimunitive endings (the come from die Frau and the antiquated die Magd ).
In contrast to the Romance and Slavic languages, the gender of German sub-
stantives are not marked by their ending. The genders must be learned with each
15
16
a
except for words which have it as a part of the stem
and not as a suffix, such as Sprung and its derivates
The definite articles (Eng.: the) are der, die, das in the nominative. The indefi-
nite articles are ein, eine, ein in the nominative. The pronouns are er, sie, es in the
nominative. These three groups apply to every substantive and are interchangeable,
17
depending on the intended meaning. This is why it is important to know the gender:
the pronoun will often take the place of the subject:
• Meine Tante wohnt in der Nähe. → Sie wohnt in der Nähe.
• Friederike muss einen Computerkurs machen. → Sie muss einen Computerkurs
machen.
• Das Fenster ist offen. → Es ist offen.
In the same manner, wir, ihr and Sie can replace plural subjects:
Laura und ich = wir, du und Thomas = ihr, Sie und Ihre Frau = Sie
Likewise, direct objects, indirect objects, and the objects of prepositions can be
replaced by pronouns, just as in English:
• Julia und Friederike müssen einen Computerkurs machen. → Sie müssen ihn
machen.
• Du und Thomas sollt mit dem Auto fahren. Ihr seid mit ihm in zwei Stunden
dort.
• Ich habe von diesem Autor noch nichts gelesen. Er soll aber sehr gut sein.
• Kannst du mir mein Deutschbuch morgen mitbringen? Ich brauche es jeden
Tag.
2.3.1 N-nouns
There is a group of masculine nouns that ends in ‘-(e)n’ in the plural and every
case but the nominative:
A very simple phenomenon, however many language learners seem to forget it exists,
especially in the genitive (which is described in Section 1.5). Also note that some
books calls these Studenten-nouns.
One can recognize these words as the ones that are followed by -en, -en or -n -n in
any dictionary. There are also certain endings that fall into this category:
-and: Doktorand-en, Habilitand-en, Konfirmand-en
-ant: Demonstrant-en, Fabrikant-en, Musikant-en, -Praktikant-en
-(k)at: Demokrat-en, Kandidat-en, Soldat-en
-ent: Absolvent-en, Delinquent-en, Student-en
-et: Athlet-en, Poet-en, Prophet-en
-ist: Artist-en, Faschist-en, Jurist-en, Kommunist-en
-oge: Geolog-en, Pädagog-en
-nom: Agronom-en, Astronom-en
-soph: Anthroposoph-en, Philosoph-en
One that does not fall into the category but appears to except in the genitive
singular is der Name, die Namen:
19
2.3.2 Composita
Note that this is above and beyond what any first year course should require
of students. Nonetheless, for the curious, Table 2.2 contains some guidelines for the
patterns. There are so many different instances that one cannot speak of “rules” (the
list of “exceptions” would be much longer than Table 2.2), but the tendencies are
worth noting.
Although it is not a very hard concept to master, many learners do not make
the effort necessary, and it is therefore often an easy way to distinguish a very good
non-native speaker from a true native. There are very few words in German compared
with English, but the word formation is much more active than in English. This is
also what makes German such a production language–speakers have the ability to
be very creative. Sonntagsnachmittagsspazierfahrtstunde (the hour during which one
takes a walk on a Sunday afternoon), Donaudampfschifffahrtskapitän (the captain of a
steam ship on the Donau), and the like.
20
a
this information is condensed exclusively from [Fleischer, 136-145]
b
the sound at the end of ach
CHAPTER 3
ARTICLES
German articles and their use are very similar to English articles, so this should
not pose American students too much trouble. The main differences are listed in
Table 3.1.
When talking about articles in this section, the two forms definite (der, die,
das) and indefinite (ein, eine, ein) are meant, and not the entire spectrum of words
belonging to or sometime belonging to both this class and others. They are discussed
in Chapter 4 on Pronouns.
The complete forms for the two words in this class are listed in Table 3.2. Note
that most words declined this way–see Chapter 5 on Adjectives for more details.
For negation, see Chapter 10 on page 93. Note that the indefinite forms are the same
but preceded by a k, and that there is a plural.
The uses are generally the same as in English; that is: one uses definite articles to
specify something and distinguish it from others and indefinite articles to point out
one of many (that is why there is no plural). Notice that the negative does has a
plural because one is talking about none or zero, which is plural in German as well
as in English.
Many books introduce the indefinite article as the article to use when something
is introduced for the first time and the definite article hereafter. This may work when
on analyzes children’s stories, but take a look at the example in Figure 3.1.
There is only one viable choice between the commands:
Zeig auf einen/den Kreis! [Point to a/the circle.]
Likewise, there is only one possibility for the same command for the Figure 3.2.
21
22
a
surely by now everyone has heard of the famous
Kennedy blunder: Ich bin ein Berliner.
Singular Plural
masculine feminine neuter
nominative ein eine ein
accusative einen eine ein ∅
dative einem einer einem
genitive eines einer eines
Definite article:
Singular Plural
masculine feminine neuter
Pronouns are used in the place of nouns. They conform to the same patterns as
nouns in regards to agreement and case. Table 4.1 is an exhaustive list–notice that
the gentive are in parentheses because they are uncommon.
For more information about pronouns and agreement, see Section 2.2
Strictly speaking, pronouns do not replace nouns since they can of course be used
before the nouns are even mentioned, depending on context. Essentially, pronouns
have the following function:
Since people want to save time whenever possible, they shorten everything con-
text allows. One thing one needs to remember is that pronouns can replace long
noun phrases or even entire clauses since many modifiers need not be repeated. For
example:
1. Ich möchte mit deiner Schwester in die Schweiz fahren. . . Sie weiß, wo man
gut essen kann.
I would like to go to Switzerland with your sister. . . She knows good places to eat.
2. Der Mann mit dem roten Pulli neben der Treppe. . . Er. . .
The man with the red sweater next to the stairs. . . He. . .
3. Weisst du noch, als wir dieses Sofa gesehen haben, das so lang war, dass es
nicht in meiner Eltern Wohnzimmer gepasst hätte? Meine Tante hat es gekauft!
24
25
Do you still remember when we saw that couch that was so long that it wouldn’t
have fit in my parents’ living room? My aunt bought it!
The only inconsistency in Table 4.2 is the third item, in which two noun phrases
appear and the dative comes before the accustive. This sentence illustrates why:
Andreas gibt seiner Schwester einen Teller. [Andreas gives his sister a plate.]
Notice that since the feminine dative and genitive forms are the same, the incorrect
order would be confusing and leave the listener expecting the sentence to continue:
∗Andreas gibt einen Teller seiner Schwester. [Andreas is giving the plate of his
sister. . . ]
The possessive adjectives in Table 4.3 are used just like they are in English.
Forgetting about gender and cases for now, think about the actual forms themselves
(i.e. the roots) and how they correspond to the people whose “possessions” they
26
describe:
Tommy told his grandmother that her new car was a lemon. He said its paint was
bubbling up.
Regardless of the gender and case of grandmother, the root of the German possesive
adjective used will be sein , which refers back to the antecedent, Tommy. The same
will be true with ihr and grandmother and sein and car (das Auto).
The difference then lies only in the endings, which English does not have.
Reflexive pronouns are used in a reciprocal fashion, such as with reflexive verbs
(see Section 7.5.3), and illustrate a reference from the subject to the accusative or da-
tive object. The forms are identical to those of the personal pronouns (see Table 4.1)
except for the obviously missing nominative forms. In addition, the 2nd person formal
all 3rd person forms, singular and plural, are sich, as illustrated in Table 4.4.
The English equivalent is myself, yourself, himself, itself, herself, ourselves, them-
selves respectively. The two notable differences from English are:
1. sich is usually used for each other, such as in
They congratulated each other. [Sie haben sich gratuliert.]
2. The dative reflexive pronoun is used to show possession instead of the possessive
pronoun in reflexive sentences.
Examples:
• Er putzt sich die Zähne. [He is brushing his teeth.]
• Sie waschen sich die Hände.] [They are washing their hands.]
Also note that this avoids the confusion that often arises in English with regards
to the possessor:
Justin was playing soccer together with Ian. He pushed Ian and then broke his arm.
Whose arm did Justin break?
27
In German: Er hat sich das Bein gebrochen means he broke his own leg, while
Er hat sein Bein gebrochen means he broke the leg of someone else.
1
also derjenige, diejenige, dasjenige, derselbe, dieselbe, dasselbe
2
also jener, jene, jenes
28
Relative pronouns are pronouns which introduce relative clauses, such as the
underlined which in this sentence. Because they are pronouns, they must replace a
noun or noun phrase, and because they govern relative clauses, they are found in
dependent clauses only. Interrogative pronouns are question words used to elicit a
specific piece of information. For more information on interrogative pronouns and
questions see Chapter 11.
der, die, das (der–see Table 4.5) These represent the relative counterpart to the
demonstrative pronouns der, die, das above. The conjugation is the same as in
Table 4.5. These are used only relatively and not interrogatively.
welcher, welche, welches (der) These can be used both relatively and inter-
rogatively. As a relative pronoun they are used identically as der, die, das
(above), but are more formal. As interrogative pronouns they correspond to
the English: which.
was für ein (not declined) Used interchangeably with welch but less formal; note
that für is not a preposition here and that ein is therefore not necessarily in
the accusative case. Was für ein Vater würde seine Kinder im Einkaufzentrum
vergessen!
wer, was (not declined) correspond to English who and what.
29
a
In shorter terms: Where P is pronoun, N is noun
phrase, A is accusative, D is dative and < means “comes
first in sentence”
(a) 2P < D
(b) 1P < P
(c) 2N < A
30
sein, ihr, sein seine, ihre, seine sein, ihr, sein ihr ihre ihr
Singular Plural
Adjectives are used to describe nouns. They can be used in two ways: pred-
icatively and attributively, as described in Sections 5.1 and 5.2 respectively. The
endings are only for attribute adjectives.
The strong endings are there to signify the gender, number, and case, and the
weak endings are there for all subsequent modifiers.
There are two sets of endings for two different contexts:
1. strong or primary endings-adjectives following indefinite articles (ein , kein )
or no article at all
2. weak or secondary endings-adjectives following definite articles (der, die, das),
demonstrative and interrogative pronouns (dies /jen , welch )
Remember: ein guter Mann, der gute Mann
Primary endings:
Singular Plural
masculine feminine neuter
31
32
Secondary endings:
Singular Plural
masculine feminine neuter
nominative -e -e -e -en
Note: the primary endings are the same as the definite article except in the
genitive singular masculine and neuter: Juni letzten Jahres (June of last year).
Many books seem to forget this point.
These are not the type that usually cause students problems. Used predicatively,
an adjective is not declined (i.e. just as in English) and appears in the form as
one finds it in a dictionary. Predicate adjectives generally come after the verb.
Unlike in English, where most adverbs end in -ly and thus have different forms from
their adjectival counterparts, predicate adjectives in German look exactly as their
adverbial counterparts and can be differentiated only by their context. One basic
difference between adjectives and adverbs is that adjectives can be compared (see
Section 5.2.1).
Der Kaffe schmeckt gut.
Deine Hose sieht rot aus.
Der Hund ist braun.
5.2 Attributive Adjectives
Attributive adjectives are declined. They modify nouns and must agree in case,
number, and gender. One can tell to which noun the adjective belongs by its ending,
33
since adjectives are declined. Apart from the case, number, and gender, there are
two different categories of endings an adjective takes, as indicated above: primary
and secondary. The primary endings indicate the case, number, and/or gender of the
noun wherever possible. If the case of the noun is clear through an article or other
modifier (anything which is declined and describes something else), the secondary or
weak endings are used on all subsequent modifiers.
Examples:
ein schönes Haus, dieser grosse Mann
Notice that since ein is the same form for both the masculine and neuter in the
nominative, the following adjective must have a strong ending in order to show that
the following noun is neuter.
In other words, if an article is missing or does not clarify what the case and
gender of a noun is, the adjective takes on this responsibility in the form of primary
endings, and whenever the primary endings begin the noun phrase, all other modifiers
take the secondary endings. If an indefinite article introduces the noun phrase (such
as in ein guter Vater ), all subsequent adjectives take the primary endings: ein guter,
hilfsbereiter, liebenswerter Vater.
The gender, number, and case of a noun can almost always be ascertained from
its modifiers. Likewise, it is almost always apparent whenever one uses any type of
modifier without knowing the gender or case.
Also note that participles are really just adjectives directly derived from verbs
and follow all of the patterns above. See Section 7.4.2 for more information.
vowel where possible. For the superlative form, which in English is characterized by
most or the ending -est, German takes the umlaut as in the comparative and adds
-st- instead of -er. The endings come after the -er in the comparative and after the
-st in the superlative forms.
Examples:
• lang, länger, längste
• schnell, schneller, schnellste
• weit, weiter, weiteste
• groß, größer, größte
• modern, moderner, modernste
Here are some examples of declined adjectives in context. Notice that with positves
one often uses the expression so wie (English: as as), in comparison the expres-
sion als. . . (English: -er than. . . or more than. . . ), and with superlatives
der -ste (English: the -est or the most ).
• Dieses Auto ist schneller als das andere. Aber das blaue ist das schnellste.
• Euer Haus ist größer als unseres.
• Die längste Stunde meines Lebens war meine mündliche Prüfung in Deutsch.
Naja, manchmal ist Klavierunterricht länger.
• Es gibt eine sehr moderne Grundschule neben dem noch modereren Apartmen-
thaus.
• Das häßlichste Haus in unserem Wohnviertel liegt südlich von dem Stadthaus.
Sometimes one might see a superlative form when no comparison is being drawn.
This is called the elative form and can usually be tranlated as very . E.g.: Besten
Dank, höchst intelligent, größtes Lob etc. Another use of the superlative is with am
-sten, which means the of all : am längsten, am besten, am überraschendsten
etc.
Some irregularities:
35
Possessive adjectives is another name for possessive pronouns (see Section 4.2).
They are often called ‘adjectives’ because they are declined as adjectives are.
The pattern is fairly simple compared with English. One need only remember:
The root is the cardinal number with -(s)t + the ending, except in the cases of eins,
zwei and drei. This is just as in English (and most Indo-European languages). The
-s is only necessary when the word would otherwise be unpronounceable.
CHAPTER 6
ADVERBS
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They can answer one of
the the questions How? When? How much? In what way? Where? and
often have the ending -ly in English, although this must not always be the case. In
German, many adverbs look exactly like predicate adjectives (see Section 5.1), since
they remain uninflected.
A good examples of the difference between adjectives and adverbs can be illus-
trated with the often misused adjective good and the adverb well.
• *I’m doing good.
This happens in English often:
• *You are driving too slow.
Schön can be an adverb or an adjective, depending on how it is used:
• Das Wetter ist schön.
• Dein Wagen fährt sich schön.
Adverbs are written in the lower case unless they begin a sentence–the convention
is what differentiates them from many substantives:
Abend/abends, Morgen/morgens, etc.
Aside from the wo-, da- compounds mentioned in Table 6.1, some common end-
ings are: -s, -eise, -wärts, -fach, -mal.
37
38
An Infinitive is the word or group of words which is built from the predicate and
contains the full meaning of the predicate. The present infinitive is the unconjugated
form of the verb as one finds it in a dictionary. This corresponds to the English to .
The particle zu (to) is also used in German in specific instances as illustrated below.
The commonest use of the infinitive in German is with modal verbs (see Section 7.3),
where the particle zu is not used. When zu is used with an infinitive, one will find it
directly in front the infinitive. If it is in front of an adjective it is in adverb (such as
zu teuer ) and in front of a noun or pronoun in the dative it is a preposition (zu ihm,
zum Mitnehmen, zu der Frau.
Also, the infinitive has other tenses: future perfect, present perfect. The present
perfect infinitive formed with the present infinitive of the correct helping verb (haben
or sein) with the past participle of the main verb: bezahlt haben for bezahlen, gefahren
sein for fahren. The future perfect infinitive is formed with the present infinitive of
werden + the past participle of the main verb + the present infinitive of the helping
verb (haben or sein): werden gefahren sein for fahren, werden gegessen haben for
essen.
Note that all three forms of infinitives mentioned also have passive forms.
The uses of the infinitive are covered under each appropriate section, such as
Section 9.3 for infinitive conjunctions and Section 7.3 for modal verbs.
39
40
7.1.2 Conjugation
As mentioned above, there are two types of verbs in German: weak and strong
(schwach and stark ). They both take the same endings–being strong or weak only
has to do with the form of the verb, not with the endings. An irregular or strong verb
takes the same endings as the weak or regular verbs, but either the other verb forms
(i.e. the different tenses–see Section 7.4) are different or the stem has an ablaut.
There are, however, verbs that have special endings because of the stem. The
endings of these verbs differ because otherwise they would not be pronounceable.
• infinitives with stems ending in ‘t’, ‘d’, and ‘ß’
arbeiten, scheiden, heißen
• a few other (much rarer) letters combinations occurring in the infinitive stem
such as ‘z’, ‘gn’, ‘r’, and ‘l’
beizen, regnen, hetzen, tanzen, ändern, rudern, sammeln, segeln are examples
• haben and the irregular (strong) verbs sein and werden.
42
The fact that not every verb in German is unique and made of similar parts
that many other words use should not be surprising. In English there are many
prefixes common to dozens of words. One need only think about how many words
are built with prefixes. Notice that the meanings the prefixes denote are relative
and not absolute. Thus teaching a non-native speaker the morpheme -tract would
not ensure that s/he could deduce the meanings of attract, detract, subtract, extract.
Unfortunately, the same is true of German. But luckily, there are not nearly as many
affixes as there are in English (there are just as many suffixes). Just as in English,
there are inseparable prefixes and separable prefixes (cf. English phrasal verbs such
as to go/put/eat/work out, to beat/think/look up, to work/think through etc.).
The other type of prefixes are separable. They have three important character-
istics:
1. they are independent words and have a meaning when they stand by themselves
2. they always come at the end of the clause; sometimes the body of the verb
remains at the head and they are therefore separated, sometimes, as in modal
sentences and subordinate clauses, the rest of the verb also must go to the end
43
lieben
ver-
1. connecting, opposite of ent- 1. verheiraten, verbinden, etc.
2. to change or use up some- 2. verarbeiten, verspeisen,
thing verspielen, verändern, ver-
3. to do something incorrectly brauchen, etc.
4. a type of intensifier 3. verschlucken, verfärben, etc.
4. verhelfen, verbleiben, etc.
zer-
1. to divide up 1. zerteilen, zergliedern, etc.
2. to harm or destroy 2. zerstören, zerreden, etc.
45
Since the separable prefixes are also words with another grammatical function
whose meanings vary greatly from prepositional uses, it is important to know which
is meant. Luckily, it is not difficult to differentiate and there are not many cases
which pose problems.
The rules of thumb are:
1. Separable verbs are separated in the present and past tense, in indicative and
imperative mood but not in subordinate clauses.
2. They are not separated in the infinitive, such as when an auxiliary verb is
used and the infinitive appears at the end of the sentence (as is the case with
modals–see Section 7.1.1), or when used as participles (Section 7.4.2).
3. Prepositions have objects, and must therefore be followed by a noun in the re-
spective case (see Section 8.2). Separable prefixes are not followed by anything.
Examples:
• Sie sprach mir Mut zu. [prefix]
• Ich habe lange zwischen den Bäumen gesessen. [preposition]
46
7.2 Mood
Mood is a variant of the word mode and denotes the manner or way in which
a verb expresses its action. As in English, German has three moods: indicative,
imperative, and subjunctive. Each mood is divided into tenses, but most books
present the tenses of the indicative mood, then mention the other moods without
even presenting their tenses.
7.2.1 Indicative
This is the mood of regular speech and writing. Nearly every sentence in this
paper, including this one, is written in the indicative mood. If one is not telling
someone else what to do or supposing what may or might be but is not, chances are
he or she is speaking in the indicative mood.
7.2.2 Imperatives
The imperative, sometimes also called the hortative mood, is used for giving
commands.
For the most part, one encounters only 4 types of imperatives:
1. 1st Person Plural
2. 2nd Person Singular familiar
3. 2nd Person Singular polite
4. 2nd Person Plural
47
Formation
Tables 7.4 and 7.5 explain the formation of imperatives and the forms of the
imperatives for the irregular forms of sein, werden and haben.
• In the first person plural and 2nd Person formal forms the pro-
noun is not dropped but the order is changed in comparison with
the indicative form. The imperatives look exactly as questions
do. In the 2nd person familiar forms the pronoun is dropped.
• The first person plural looks exactly as it does in the infinitive:
essen → Wir essen. → Essen wir!
• The 2nd person singular familiar is formed by dropping the ‘t’
from the stem (the 3rd Person singular form) and removing any
umlaut that do not occur in the infinitivea :
lesen → Er liest. → Lies!
• The 2nd person plural familiar form is identical to the indicative
present:
Lest! Esst! Glaubt!
a
such as in schlafen or laufen; Er schläft → Schlaf ! ; Sie läuft →
Lauf !
a
a very uncommon imperative
b
Notice that haben follows the regular pattern of verbs.
49
is formed by dropping the ‘t’ from the 3rd person singular form and removing any
umlaut that doesn’t occur in the infinitive:
Word Order
In normal speech there are many words which nearly every native speakers uses
but which students do not usually learn. In most books they are called “flavoring
particles” for lack of a more descriptive term. Examples of a similar English phe-
nomenon are like, sort of, you know, you see. In German they are much more common
and occur not only in speech, but also to some extent in formal writing. One must
remember that people rarely give straight commands, as they are much too harsh
and usually do not result in the speaker obtaining what s/he wants. Take a look at
the following sentences:
Bob, clean your room.
Alice, try harder this time.
Just wait!
Most would agree, these commands would sound a lot gentler if they were a little
less direct. Alice and Bob be more compliant if one said something like:
Bob, why don’t you clean your room?
Alice, try just a little harder this time.
Wait just a second!
Naturally, the intonation also plays a big role here.
One should not be surprised to hear that German has the same tendencies.
Luckily the imperative form does not change at all, rather, two words (the so-called
“flavoring particles”) are added, usually right after the imperative form (i.e. including
the pronoun in the plural forms): doch and mal. This gives a very similar effect to
the Why don’t. . . :
Räume doch dein Zimmer auf !
Bemühe dich doch!
Warte mal kurz!
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Although some instructors tell their students to avoid using such particles in the
beginning stages, one will rarely hear real German commands without them, and it
is therefore the opinion of the author that even beginning learners try to use them.
7.2.3 Subjunctive
The subjunctive mood (Konjuntiv ) belongs to the more advanced topics and
may be only briefly mentioned in some first year courses. Nonetheless, it may be in
the first sentence one hears when one arrives in a German-speaking country and is of
utmost importance for an introductory German course.
Uses:
1. when something did not happen or is not going to happen, or is not true (con-
trary to fact):
as if, almost, I wish. . .
2. politeness: möchte (gern), hätte (gern), würde (also in questions)
3. if, when clauses
4. when reporting something that may or not be true–her the speaker/author is
distancing him/herself from the content of the statement and withholding a
judgment concerning its factuality (indirect speech)
Formation:
1. for weak verbs, it is the same as the imperfect (praeteritum) form
2. for strong verbs, one takes the praeteritum form changes the first vowel to an
umlaut where possible. The first person singular also adds an -e as a suffix.
There are many common verbs that are particularly old and therefore particu-
larly stubborn, such as helfen (hülfe), sterben (stürbe)
3. the auxiliary verb würden (Eng.: would) is often used with the main verb as an
infinitive instead of forming the subjunctive of the main verb. This is particu-
larly common in polite forms.
52
4. many verbs have two subjunctive forms for the two different types of subjunctive
(see Table 7.6) one is always not built from the praeteritum and must be learned
separately
For the subjunctive forms of modal verbs, see page 57.
53
a
[Duden, 163]
54
Examples:
Indirect speech:
1. Er sagt, ich sei sein Bruder.
2. Er sagt, ich soll sein Bruder sein.
3. In der Zeitung steht es, er habe sie nicht gekannt.
4. Man behauptet, sie hätten sich früher gekannt.
Commands:
1. Man möge dich herzlich willkommen heissen.
2. Es lebe der König.
3. Man nehme 2 Eier. . .
Polite forms:
1. Könnten Sie mir helfen?
2. Würdet ihr die Tür offen lassen?
3. Dürfte ich ein bißchen bleiben?
Conditions contrary to fact:
1. Fast hätte er es geschafft!
2. Wenn ich nur mehr Geld hätte . . .
3. Wenn du nicht so laut wärest, könntest du in der Küche spielen.
4. Am Telefon hörst du dich so an, als stündest du im nächsten Zimmer!
A modal verb is a sort of helping verb that expresses a wish, intention, or–on
a more basic level–a relation to the action in the sentence. This action is shown
by another verb in the sentence, which must be in the infinitive. In German, this
infinitive comes at the end of the sentence in main clauses (but not in subordinate
clauses). There are, however, many cases where the intent is so obvious that the
infinitive can be omitted-some examples are below in Table 7.8.
55
7.3.1 Conjugation
The 1st and 3rd singular forms are always the same in modal verbs; there is an
ablaut in the singular in all but sollen (and möchten); and the plural forms of 1st,
2nd formal, and 3rd always identical to the infinitive.
Notice that patterns: all the 1st and 3rd person singular forms are identical and
the infinitive is identical to the 1st, 3rd persons plural and the 2nd person formal. No
vowel changes occur in the plural but in every person in the singular in all verbs but
sollen. There is another verb, mögen, whose subjunctive form is very similar to and
often used as as modal verb. As sollen, it too has no Ablaut (stem vowel change).
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs which are usually accompanied by an infinitive.
They are sollen, wollen, möchten (special case), dürfen, müssen, können.
Past tenses of modal verbs. There are two ways to indicate modal actions
in the past:
1. with the present perfect tense–in this case the past participle of the modal verb
is only used when the infinitive can be ellided (see Table 7.8), otherwise the
auxiliary form of haben is used and the modal auxiliary is moved to the end of
the clause, i.e. after the infinitive complement:
Das habe ich nicht machen dürfen.
2. with the imperfect–the shorter and more common way is to use the imper-
fect form of the modal auxiliary (sollten, durften, konnten, mussten, wollten,
mochten) and leave the rest of the sentence as it is:
Das durfte ich nicht machen.
56
dürfen können
müssen wollen
sollen möchten
Note that the present perfect with main verbs (i.e. when the infinitive cannot be
ellided) is used infrequently with the indicative mood, and that the construction is
mostly used with subjunctive forms. A careful student of German will not mistake
the imperfect use of modals with the irreal use of the subjunctive:
1. Das durfte ich nicht machen.
2. Das hätte ich nicht machen dürfen.
In sentence one, the speaker was not allowed to do whatever is being spoken about,
and in sentence two the speaker did do it but should not have. See Section 7.2.3 for
more information.
subjunctive forms. There are two main uses for the subjunctive forms of
modal verbs: contrary to fact and forms of politeness.
1. As mentioned above in the previous section, the present perfect subjunctive is
just the present perfect indicative with the subjunctive form of haben. Thus:
(a) Das habe ich nicht tun sollen.
(b) Das hat sie nicht sagen können.
(c) Man hat mir nicht helfen können.
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2. In order to make requests more polite, German uses the subjunctive forms of
the modal verbs. This is consistent both with the tendency to use würden with
other verbs as well as with the English practice: would, can/could, may/might.
Note that, as mentioned above, möchten is not a true modal verb but the
subjunctive form of mögen. It is already a polite form.
7.4 Tenses
The time in which an action takes place is defined by the tense of the verb. Since
tense is within the verb itself, forms using auxiliary verbs put together are not tense.
Thus English does not have a future tense, since the auxiliary verb will rather than
word endings is used to signify actions which take place in the future. Although
German has its own set of tenses and expresses things in a much different way than
English, this is one thing they have in common. When we speak of tense here, as
is done in most books and courses, we will be focusing on the time expressed and
not on the strict rules of form; therefore “future” is handled in its own section just
as the other tenses. This section explains the meanings and uses of the concept of
tense, while some more in depth remarks and the formation of each tense is handled
individually in Sections 7.4.1–7.4.6.
It must also be pointed out that tense is not influenced by nor directly related
to mood or voice, and that each tense has different forms for the different moods and
voices.
The two important pieces of information in regards to analyzing tense are the
spoken time and point of reference. The spoken time is now, or whenever the
sentence is uttered, and the point of reference is the time at which the said event
takes place.
Examples of when to use which tense.
• It is 3:00 pm, and our speaker is going to eat dinner tonight at 6:00 pm.
Ich esse heute Abend um 18 Uhr. or Ich werde (heute Abend) um 18 Uhr essen.
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present perfect
Without the adverbial phrase heute Abend, the first sentence has a habitual
as opposed to a one-time meaning. The second sentence is in any event more
resolute or unwavering than the first.
Likewise, if one were to be asked When are you going to be finished? two possible
answers are Ich bin um 19 Uhr fertig and Ich werde um 19 Uhr fertig sein, where
the second gives the impression that the speaker wants to dispell any doubts
that s/he might not be finished by then.
• If someone were to invite the speaker to make plans for a time after this sched-
uled dinner, the answer might be: Ich werde um 19 Uhr (schon) gegessen haben.
A sample sentence in which the spoken time is 4:00 pm, the planned time to
eat is 6:00 pm, and the point of reference (underlined in this sentence) is 8:00
pm:
Bis ich dich wiedersehe, werde ich schon gegessen haben.
• Ich stehe (gewöhnlich) um 7 Uhr auf. displays habitual behavior which is
strengthened by gewöhnlich, whereas the sentence:
Ich bin um 7 Uhr aufgestanden means the speaker got up one time at 7:00 am.
Without a point of reference, it will be assumed that this morning is meant.
• The following sentence illustrates how the time was longer in the past:
Ich mußte um 10 Uhr nach Wien, also bin ich um 7 aufgestanden.
• The sentence: Ich stand um 7 Uhr auf most likely refers to a general action in
the past, such as While in college, I got up at 10:00, [but after I began working. . . ]
60
• At 3:00 pm, one describes what he did this morning–he will use the present
perfect, except with the few verbs which almost always are used in the imperfect
form (see Section 7.4.3).
• Ich bin um 7 Uhr aufgestanden und habe mir die Zähne geputzt. Dann habe ich
gefrühstückt und Nachrichten gehört. . .
Using imperfect is more appropriate when telling a story (the historical past)
which took place this morning but is told as a story with a removed point of reference:
• Ich sah den Polizisten, und er sah mich. Er konnte nicht glauben, dass ich vor
der gebrochenen Fensterscheibe stand, und er sagte “Halt!”. . .
Note that the imperfect is not used with a concrete point of reference in the
future–it must always be a completed action or a habitual action in the past which
no longer takes place. However, the present perfect tense is used to describe completed
actions, even if they have not taken place yet:
• Bis. . . [By the time. . . ] and nach. . . [after. . . ]
• Bis wir uns wieder sehen, habe ich die Karten schon gekauft.
• Nach 19 Uhr habe ich schon gegessen.
In these sentences, the point of reference is in the future (Bis wir uns wieder
sehen, Nach 19 Uhr ), but the action will be completed by then.
Note that both of these sentences are impossible with the imperfect:
• *Bis wir uns wieder sehen, kaufte ich die Karten schon.
• *Nach 19 Uhr aß ich schon.
This is what the past perfect (or plusquamperfect) is used for. For example:
• Nachdem du aus dem Kino gekommen warst, sah ich dich gleich.
For simultaneous actions in the past, als is used.
• Als du aus dem Kino kamst, sah ich dich gleich.
61
Note that this sentence would be impossible with the present perfect because
it does not refer to an exact point in time, but rather to the fact that the action is
completed:
• *Als du aus dem Kino gekommen bist, habe ich dich gleich gesehen.
On the order of tenses in German:
• in present - present the events take place at the same time
• in imperfect - imperfect the events take place at the same time
• in past perfect - past perfect the events take place at the same time
• in past perfect - imperfect the imperfect event took place after the past perfect
event, and both are in the past
Ich sah dich erst, nachdem du schon gewunken hattest. (winken=to wave)
• in present perfect - present the present event took place after the present perfect
event, and the present perfect event is completed
• in present - future the event in the future has not yet happened
• in present perfect - future perfect the event in future perfect will be completed
after the event in the present perfect has been completed, but exactly when
that is in reference to the spoken time depends up the context or the point of
reference.
7.4.1 Present
The present tense is the tense used in this sentence and any sentence in which
the verb is in the present tense form and the point of reference is the same as the
spoken time. Examples are below:
English German
I am eating, I eat, I do eat Ich esse Notice that in addition to tense,
English verbs also have aspect, which is used to determine if something is habitual,
62
a one time action, or is happening at this moment right now. German uses adverbs
and context to achieve this. For example,
The English sentences: I am sleeping, I do sleep, and I sleep would all be translated
into German as Ich schlafe without context, but within a conversation an effort should
be made to make sure that every nuance possible is translated as well. In order to
illustrate that the event is happening right now, such as the case is with the English
present progressive (I am sleeping), German uses the adverb gerade: Ich schlafe gerade.
In order to convey that an action is habitual, the present tense often uses the adverb
gewöhnlich:
• I get up at six. → Ich stehe (gewöhnlich) um sechs auf.
Because German does not have aspect, the “present tense” refers to a broader
possible time span than the English “present tense” does (which is broken down into
aspect). In German, the present tense is the tense used most often to refer to actions
in the future. See Section 7.4.4.
7.4.2 Perfect
The present perfect tense in German looks a lot like the English present perfect
but usually has a different meaning. It is formed with an auxiliary (either haben
or sein, depending on the verb–see page 64) and the past participle of the verb.
Just as with modal verbs (which are also auxiliaries), the conjugated form of haben
or sein appears in its expected position in the sentence, and the participle appears
at the end, just like the infinitive in a modal predicate. For example:
Ich habe meine Hausaufgaben schon gemacht.
Notice the prefix on the past participle and ‘t’ ending of this regular (German
schwach or ‘weak’) verb. This is the default form, but there are several reasons why
many of the verbs you encounter do not match this pattern:
1. the verb has a prefix, either separable or inseparable
63
2. the verb is stark (‘strong’), i.e. it just does not follow the pattern
Also, combinations of the two possibilities above are not uncommon. The reason why
most of the first verbs one learns in a foreign language are irregular is because they
are usually the oldest and most stubborn. Instead of resembling the patterns words
fell into when the language originated (i.e. became different enough to be called a
language and no longer just a dialect), the common words were so deep-rooted in the
speakers’ minds that a replacement would have been impossible. Compare the past
participle of English words such as sleep, drink, think, see, go, etc. to newer and more
common ones such as transpire, type, configure, etc.
There are two keys guidelines for learning all the past participles of all the verbs:
For weak verbs take the infinitive of the verb, drop the ‘-en’ ending and add a ‘-t’;
add a ‘ge-’ to the beginning of the non-prefixed verbs or between the prefix and
the root to the verbs with sep-arable prefixes. Verbs with insep-arable prefixes
as well as those ending in -ieren take no prefix whatsoever.
stellen → gestellt
aufstellen → aufgestellt
verstellen → verstellt
For strong verbs and the so-called mixed verbs there are several patterns which
can help you remember the forms but to make ‘rules’ of these would be sim-
ply too abstract at this point. For now it is best to simply memorize them.
Note that the rules for the absence of ‘ge-’ still apply. What makes them
strong/mixed is the fact that the vowel changes (Ablaut). The final ‘-en’ is not
dropped and replaced by a ‘-t’ in the strong verbs but is in the mixed.
ausziehen → ausgezogen [stark]
versehen → versehen [stark]
64
sein or haben?
As mentioned above, the auxiliary verb for the present perfect can be either
haben or sein, depending on the verb in question–or better: depending on whether
the verb indicates a change in motion or condition or does not. If the verb is a
motion verb–such as to run, to go–or a verb indicating a change in condition–such as
to become, to die, to happen, to break–the auxiliary is the form of sein that agrees
with the subject (i.e. bin, bist, etc., depending on number and person of the subject).
If not, it is conjugated with the correct form of haben. There are almost no verbs that
do not conform to this pattern (other than sein itself. Note also that all transitive
verbs are conjugated with haben.
Meaning
7.4.3 Imperfect
Often referred to as the ‘simple past,’ the ‘praeteritum,’ or the ‘historic past,’
the imperfect tense consists either of a different verb form (strong and mixed verbs)
or an inserted -t- and refers to events that took place in the past tense. It is used
both for habitual and one time actions in the past, but not for actions which began in
the past and are still continuing. It is more often used in written than spoken except
with the verbs in Table 7.9, for which it is also used in spoken German because the
verbs occur so often and are shorter than the present perfect forms.
In addition the the verbs sein and haben, the following verbs are used in the
imperfect more often than the present perfect in spoken German because of their
short forms: denken, finden, einsehen
7.4.4 Future
sein haben
In addition to the present tense with adverbs of time, the verb werden + infinitive
is used to express events in the future. It is not used interchangeably with the present
tense to express the future tense because it is less dependent on context or time
adverbs to exhibit its futurity. In addition, it has a more resolute tone than the
present tense + a time adverb.
In addition to the futurity werden + infinitive, it can also exhibit an assumption
on the part of the speaker. In this case, the said even may still be happening or not
have even happened yet.
Der Thomas wird krank sein. Thomas is probably sick.
Often, adverbs such as wohl, vermutlich, wahrscheinlich, vielleicht are used to
enhance the fact that the speaker sees this only as a possibility and not as fact or
that the speaker casts doubt on the statement:
• Das wirst du wohl am besten können, nicht wahr?
• Mein Vater wird vermutlich das Essen bezahlen.
The future perfect, also known as ‘future II,’ is the future counterpart to the
present perfect. It not only exhibits all the characteristics of the present perfect in
relation to when it takes place, it also has the possibility aspect the future tense has
as explained above. In this case, the event is complete, and the speaker is speculating
about the outcome or another aspect of the event:
• Mein Vater wird für das Auto bezahlt haben.
• Ich werde dich wohl gewarnt haben?!
It is formed with werden + present perfect infinitive (see Section 7.1.1).
The past perfect, or ‘plusquamperfect,’ is used to refer to events that were com-
pleted before an event in the past took place. For example, if it is now 3:00 pm and
67
Herr Schmidt called his wife at 11:30 am and then ate lunch at 12:00 pm, one might
say:
Er hatte seine Frau schon angerufen, bevor er Mittag gegessen hat.
Notice that it looks exactly as the present perfect, but the auxiliary verb haben,
which would be sein if the verb exhibited motion or a change of condition, is in the
perfect. The same is true for all verbs:
1. Man war schon gegangen, als Sie gekommen sind.
2. Wir hatten ihn schon sehen können, ehe er die Fahne trug.
3. Ihr seid erst zu Hause gewesen, nachdem wir angerufen hatten.
A full verb is a verb that can stand on its own as a predicate in a sentence and
has a lexical (as opposed to just a grammatical) worth. These are the normal main
verbs one means most of the time when referring the predicate of a sentence. If it is
not an auxiliary verb, a reflexive verb, a function verb, a modal verb, or an infinitive,
it is a full verb.
Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are the verbs haben, sein, and
werden when they are used in conjunction with main verbs to perform a grammatical
function in a sentence. The functions include building the passive, modal construc-
tions, and perfect constructions.
Reflexive verbs are verbs that have reflexive pronouns as their objects (see Sec-
tion 4.3). There are few verbs which are truly reflexive, that is, verbs that must be
used with reflexive pronouns, although this number is much higher than in English.
68
Usually when one speaks of reflexive verbs in German, one means any predicate that
has a reflexive pronoun as an object. The three most important characteristics of
reflexive verbs are:
1. they are transitive, which means they form their perfect tenses with haben
2. they are all active, since the object acted upon is acted upon by the subject
(itself)
3. as mentioned in Section 4.3, reflexive verbs are often used in German when
English would use possessive pronouns to show possession:
• Ich putze mir die Zähne.
• Er hat sich das Bein gebrochen.
• Hast du dir den Finger geschnitten?
There are many verbs in German which take on a different meaning when they
are used together with certain prepositional phrases. These are analogous to the
phrasal verbs in English, and although they are not a separate grammatical category,
they should be handled as a class of their own. Table 7.10 contains several examples
of the commonest and most important function verbs. It is important that one know
not only the verb and its conjugation but also the preposition and the case which it
governs (see Chapter 8).
Table 7.10–Continued
anfangen mit + dat to start, to beginn with Der Arzt hat mit der
[angefangen haben] someone or something Prozedur noch nicht ange-
fangen.
aufhören mit + dat to stop with someone or Hören Sie mit der Fragerei
[aufgehört haben] something auf!
beginnen mit + dat to start, to begin with Mein Bruder hat letztes
[begonnen haben] someone or something Jahr mit der Schule be-
gonnen.
jemanden bitten um + acc to ask someone for some- Man hat mich um
[gebeten haben] thing Verständnis gebeten.
nachdenken über + acc to think about someone or Ich habe lange über deine
[nachgedacht haben] something Erklärung nachgedacht.
jemandem danken für + to thank someone for some- Ich möchte Ihnen ganz her-
acc thing zlich für Ihre Hilfe.
[gedankt haben]
jemanden fragen nach + to ask someone about Habt ihr sie nach einer
dat someone or something zweiten Serviette gefragt?
[gefragt haben]
Table 7.10–Continued
jemanden halten für + acc to take someone for some- Ich habe ihn für einen
[gehalten haben] thing Lügner gehalten.
hoffen auf + acc to hope for something Sie hoffen auf gutes Wet-
[gehofft haben] ter.
lachen über + acc to laugh about someone or Sie lachten alle über mich.
[gelacht haben] something
leiden an + acc to suffer from something Sie leidet oft an dem Lärm
[gelitten haben] der Flugzeuge.
sich entschuldigen bei + to apologize to someone for Ich habe mich bei ihnen für
dat für + acc something die Unangenehmlichkeiten
[sich entschuldigt haben] to tell someone to be sorry entschuldigt.
for something
sich fürchten vor + dat to be afraid of someone or Ich fürchte mich vor Spin-
[sich gefürchtet haben] something nen.
sich freuen über + acc to be pleased with someone Ich habe mich sehr über
[sich gefreut haben] or something Ihren Anruf gefreut.
sich freuen auf + acc to look forward to Sie freut sich auf ein
[sich gefreut haben] (+ gerund) baldiges Wiedersehen.
sich interessieren für + acc to be interested in someone Er interessiert sich nur für
[sich interessiert haben] or something Autos.
71
Table 7.10–Continued
sich kümmern um + acc to take care of someone or Sie kümmert sich um ihn
[sich gekümmert haben] something nicht.
sich sorgen um + acc to worry about someone or Wir sorgen uns um seine
[sich gesorgt haben] something Finanzschwierigkeiten.
sich verlieben in + acc to fall in love with someone Sie hat sich in ihn verliebt.
[sich verliebt haben]
sich vorbereiten auf + acc to prepare for something Ich bereite mich auf die
[sich vorbereitet haben] Deutschprüfung vor.
sorgen für + acc to take care someone or Wir sorgen für ihn.
[gesorgt haben] something
sprechen mit + dat über + to talk with someone about Ich habe mit ihm über den
acc someone or something Plan gesprochen.
[gesprochen haben]
vertrauen auf + acc to have trust in someone or Ich vertraue auf meine Fre-
[vertraut haben] something unde und Familie.
72
Table 7.10–Continued
verzichten auf + acc. to do without something Ich habe auf den Preis
[verzichtet haben] verzichtet.
7.6 Voice
7.6.1 Active
A sentence is in the active voice when the subject of that sentence is the agent.
In other words, if the noun in the nominative is committing the action or if the
predicate has sein as its main verb, it is an active sentence.
7.6.2 Passive
In passive sentences, the agent is not the subject of the sentence. Sometimes it
is the object of the preposition von or durch, but often it is not even mentioned. The
subject is acted upon by some named or unnamed force, and the verb werden builds
the predicate as an auxiliary verb.
To convert from active to passive. One takes the direct object and makes
it the subject, paying attention to the new word order and remembering to conjugate
the verb accordingly. The indirect object does not change. If there is an active
agent (i.e. not man), it becomes the object of von and declined for the dative case
accordingly; if man is the subject of the active sentence, it is simply left out as it is
implied.
Examples:
• Man besucht diesen Tempel oft. → Dieser Tempel wird von Leuten oft besucht.
• Man schreit. → Es wird geschrieen. (no agent can be named here)
73
• Andreas schenkt Angelika das Buch. → Buch wird (von Andreas) Angelika
geschenkt.
Telling the difference between passive and future. In passive, the par-
ticiple is in the past tense (for future in the infinitive), cf.
Er wird es machen – Es wird gemacht. Sie wird essen – Sie wird gegessen.
Often the passive has the von + agent (in dative).
1
see Section 8.2.2
2
see Section 8.2.1
74
75
Table 8.1–Continued
3
see Section 8.2.4
76
Prepositions are very difficult to translate and therefore cause many students
problems, mainly because there is never a one to one correspondence in meaning.
So many contexts make wrote memorization impossible. The main difficulties arise
when the student:
1. does not know which case follows the preposition and therefore has trouble
locating the object
2. is not aware of the difference in meaning arising from the difference cases some
prepositions can govern
3. forgets the common meaning or encounters a usage new for him/her and cannot
surmise the meaning from the context
4. mistakes a separable prefix for a preposition or vice versa
The first two problems are easily resolved by studying the sections 8.2.1, 8.2.2, and
8.2.3 and learning the meanings with the proper cases. The third and fourth problems
are also resolvable but take a little more effort. Grappling with section 8.1 will help
a great deal in conceptualizing the spatial qualities of the prepositions, and with the
sections 7.5.4 on function verbs and 7.1.5 on separable verb prefixes one should be
well on the way to dealing with most prepositional problems one may encounter.
Figure 8.5: gegen Figure 8.6: hinter with Accusative
Figure 8.11: unter (i.e. beneath) with Figure 8.12: unter (i.e. among) with
Accusative Accusative
Figure 8.13: vor with Accusative Figure 8.14: zwischen with Accusative
(over, above)
(among)
(auf)
unter
Figure 8.21: unter (i.e. beneath) with Figure 8.22: unter (i.e. among) with
Dative Dative
81
Because English does not have a case system, one normally does not take note of
the differences in the nouns in prepositional phrases. But in sentences with predicates
such as to give and to tell, the difference becomes obvious:
I gave him the book.
I told her not to eat any more of my dandelion stems.
The him and the her clearly have different functions than the book and the phrasal
object not to eat any more of my dandelion stems. We can test this by asking the
questions:
What did you give him? To whom did you give the book?
What did you tell her? Whom did you tell not to eat any more of your dandelion stems?
Since German does have four distinct cases and prepositions that are always
followed by certain ones, one has to know which ones to use for which preposition.
Apart from the two groups of prepositions which govern the accusative and
dative, there is another group of prepositions which take objects in the accusative or
dative depending on the meaning of the sentence. This meaning is described below.
Semantics
The second major function of the dative and accusative cases, next to distin-
guishing the direct objects from the indirect objects, is to distinguish between ob-
jects showing motion (accusative) and those which are stationary (dative). English
does not have anything even similar to this, but it is a necessary part of German.
In English this motion is expressed simply by using different verbs, as illustrated in
Table 8.2. Note that the past participles are different for stationary verbs and verbs
of motion–verbs of motion have weak past participles, while stationary verbs have
strong past participles. Fortunately, there is not a large number of prepositions that
can govern either the dative or accusative in this fashion, so memorizing them should
be quite easy:
an auf hinter in neben über unter vor zwischen
To learn how to correctly use them, one need only to think of the two different types
of contexts they could appear in, as illustrated in Table 8.3.
English German
stationary with motion stationary with motion
to stand to put/place stehen stellen
to lie to lay liegen legen
to sit (be sitting) to sit down sitzen sich (hin)setzen
to sit to set sitzen setzen
to hang to hang up hängen hängen
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Note that the prepositions retain this property whether they are used with time
(zeitlich) or place (örtlich).
None of the prepositions governing the genitive case belong to the group of
twenty commonest preposition. Nonetheless, Table 8.4 illustrates several of the most
important ones one may encounter. For written purposes, one should nearly always
see them with the genitive case, also the the dative is slowly replacing the genitive.
In the feminine and plural one cannot tell whether the genitive or dative case is being
used, but it is evident with masculine and neuter singular nouns. For learners of
German as a foreign language it is best to still stick to the genitive, as using a dative
form will only draw a correction from a native speaker.
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(hinter)
vor
Figure 8.23: vor/hinter with Dative Figure 8.24: zwischen with Dative
CHAPTER 9
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are the words that connect two word groups or clauses. Grammar-
ians divide conjunctions into four different groups according to their function, but
one usually learns about two groups for beginning purposes and then discovers that
two other constructions he is familiar with and uses are actually also conjunctions.
In this paper all four groups will be presented together:
1. coordinating conjunctions
2. subordinating conjunctions
3. infinitive conjunctions
4. proportional conjunctions
Although each group can be further broken down into many sub groups, each group is
presented by itself over the next four sections and, with the exception of subordinating
conjunctions, no attempt is made to categorize its members.
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• The coordination conjunctions do not change the order of the sentences and
do count as position words when determining the location of the verb (see
Section 1.1).
Conjunction English Characteristics
equivalent
und and no comma before is subject is the same in both
clauses
aber but equivalent to Eng. ‘however’
sondern but (rather) requires a substitute–Eng.: not X but (rather) X
oder or
denn because cf. denn in Section 9.4–that one means than
nur only
sowohl . . . both . . . and sometimes translated as not only . . . but also al-
als auch though nicht nur . . . sondern auch is more accurate
in that case
entweder . . . either . . . or not used for negatives–that requires weder . . . noch–
oder see Chapter 10
allein alone, only more strengthening/alienating nur –do not confuse
with the adjective allein–here it has no object and
does not influence the case of the following words
doch but, however contradicts whatever was just said or believed to be
thought; can stand on its own as a contradictory
sentence–then it is an interjection
jedoch however infrequently used as the first word in a sentence
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Temporal
sooft whenever
nachdem after
Comparative
wie as
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Table 9.2–Continued
als (ob) as if
als wenn as if
wie wenn
Causal
(zumal) da since
Showing correlation
Concessive
Finite
dass that
a
also sofern
b
also obgleich, obschon, obzwar
• Ich kaufe die teuersten Boxen, um Musik laut spielen zu können. I am buying
the most expensive speakers (in order) to be able to play music loud.
Note that um zu is most often used in conjunction with modals, whereas sen-
tences such as: I want to work late today so that I can leave early tomorrow. do not
use the infinitive in English or German. cf. I want to work late today in order that I
might be able to leave early tomorrow.
Ohne zu is rendered as a gerund and not as an infinitive in English, i.e. Ohne
dich zu kennen . . . is Without knowing you . . . .
A fourth set of conjunctions are the proportionate conjunctions. They are rarely
taught as such and for that reason alone cause beginning students trouble. Their
name describes their function: they describe relations. In English, as and than are
sometimes used to unite two parts of a sentence when making comparisons. These
are proportionate conjunctions in German.
They are umso, desto, als, als, wie, denn, denn, als
CHAPTER 10
NEGATION
There are three basic things one might want to negate in a sentence: a noun, an
adjective/adverb, or the whole sentence–i.e. the verb.
Notice that English basically only has “no” and its forms (“none, not any, no
one, nobody” etc.) for nouns and “not” for verbs and adjectives. This is exactly the
same in German. It uses “kein ”, which is declined just like “ein ”, for the nouns
and “nicht” for the adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. Without even understanding a
sentence, one can easily pick out the negated part of sentence. The forms of “kein ”
come directly before the nouns they negate, and “nicht” is found:
• directly before the predicate adjectives and predicate nominatives:
Das ist nicht mein Hund. Der Hund ist nicht grün.
• before adverbs of indefinite time, place, and manner:
Ich kann nicht oft Fußball spielen.
Ich darf nicht bald wieder in die Schweiz.
Herr Reinhold ist nicht zu Hause.
Er fährt nicht mit dem Bus von Amerika nach Europa.
• before prepositions that express a direction or position:
Er fliegt nicht in die Schweiz.
Frau Hedewig möchte nicht nach Mainz.
Jacek ist nicht zu Hause.
Jurek wohnt nicht in Polen.
• before the infinitives in modal sentences:
Man darf sie nicht sehen.
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Some sentences will not be able to be directly negated because of their unusual
structure. For example, in English one says:
• I already know what he’s going to say and I still claim he’s the murderer.
but not:
• *I already don’t know what he’s going to say.
or
• *I don’t still claim he’s the murderer.
rather:
• I don’t know what he’s going to say yet. and I no longer claim he’s the murderer.
These are irregularities. German has the same thing for schon and noch:
• Ich weiß ja schon, was sie glaubt. → Ich weiß noch nicht, was sie glaubt.
• Ich esse noch Karotten. → Ich esse keine Karotten mehr.
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• Wir sehen uns heute Abend. → Wir sehen uns heute Abend nicht.
• Ich lese jetzt. → Ich lese jetzt nicht.
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Note that this is only for objects–people and forms of wer are formed as in the
previous sentences.
Some interrogatives:
wer, was, wann, wo, wie, warum, wieso, wieviel, wessen, wenn, wo- (such as
worauf, womit, wozu, etc.)
APPENDIX A
PRONUNCIATION
These are the basic sounds of German. One should be able to use these general
guidelines to correctly pronounce most German words one encounters. Notice that
the third column contains examples of the sound occuring in initial, middle, and final
position where available.
Vowels1
a a as in Am. Eng.: father Achtung, Ventilator, da
e similar to the e in English: bet eng, Hexe, Bäume
i short: similar to the vowel in English: if ich, wolkig, Zwirn
‘ie’ long: similar to the initial vowel in Eng.: Mikroskop, studieren, Utopie
even
1
Two primary differences to be noticed in the German vowel system are
1. In English, we tend to slur or glide vowels at the beginnings of words, while all
vowels beginning syllables begin with glottal stops (the ‘-’ in English ‘uh-oh’)
in German.
2. Most of the vowels in American English are not pure, but rather diphthongs;
we move our mouths to change from one vowel sound to a related one (feel this
by saying the word “ape” or “idle” slowly), while the vowels in this section are
pure and therefore involve no lip or jaw movement for their duration.
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Diphthongs
ei composed of the two vowels a and i. Similar Eisberg, schmeicheln, Prahlerei
to the Eng. diphthong (the long i in in prize),
but the first vowel is formed a little further
back in the mouth in German.
äu/ the German version of the Am. Eng. ‘oi’ äußerst, Teufel, Efeu
eu sound as in boy
au like the Am. Eng. ouch without nasality auch, unglaublich, genau
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Consonants
b just as in English2 bringen, [But!:]absagen, Staub
c3 usually a ‘k’ sound when found at the begin- Clou/Clique, –, –
ning of words otherwise found in the combi-
nation ‘ch’
ch either: 1: Chemie 2: acht 3: Chance
4: Chor
1. the ending sound in ‘ich’ [see Figure A.1]
4. ‘k’4
2
but note that all consonants lose their voicing at the end of words and syllables
3
the rules for this consonant are not as difficult to deal with as they at first
appear. In a dictionary of 16,000 words, only about 60 begin with ‘c’ or ‘ch’, and
the meanings of more than half of them can be guessed because they are spelled
exactly as in English. This is because nearly all German words beginning with ‘c’ are
loanwords
4
the deciding factor of which of these last two variants is used is based on the
word’s origin: the French words are often pronounced ‘sh’ and the Greek ones ‘k’
5
in the middle and at end of words ‘h’ lengthens the immediately preceding vowel
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s between Eng. ‘s’ and ‘z’; semi-voiced begin- Sonne, [But!:] tagsüber, nachts
ning a syllable and unvoiced after unvoiced
consonants and at syllable-end
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More Troublemakers
-er this halbvokal (semi-vowel) is pronounced er, –, Träumer
halfway between the e and a vowels. At a
normal speech rate the r is not heard!
-ion sounds like how Germans would pronounce –, national, Inflation
‘Jon’, ie with a ‘y’ initial consonant and a
pure vowel ‘o’
-ung there are about 30,000 (feminine!) German –, –, Regierung
substantives that carry this ending. Just
remember that the ‘g’ is pronounced as a
soft ‘k’ (i.e. voiceless!)
-ig this is not pronounced as a normal final –, –, wolkig/König
g (which is [k]) as one would expect, but
rather the ch variant which follows front
vowels ([ç], Figure A.1), which means it is
pronounced just as ich
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Vowels
a a as in American Eng.: father Achtung, Ventilator, da
e similar to the e in Eng.: bet eng, Hexe, Bäume
i short: similar to the vowel in: if ich, wolkig, Zwirn
‘ie’ long: similar to the 1st vowel in: even Mikroskop, studieren, Utopie
o pure o sound-no lip movement! oberflächlich, obwohl, Situation
u pure, relatively long u sound unglaublich, Abrundung, du
ä similar to -e in: bet–jaw wider äffisch, Schläge, –
ö like e with rounded lips Ökonomie, obszön, (Friseur)
ü long i with rounded lips short: y (üppsilon), Hütte, –
(French ‘u’) long: über, Besitztümer, –
y same as long ü –, Syntax, –
Diphthongs
ei a + i ; (long i in prize) Eisberg, schmeicheln, Prahlerei
äu/eu the German version of the American Eng. ‘oi’ äußerst, Teufel, Efeu
sound as in boy
au like the American Eng. ouch auch, unglaublich, genau
Consonants
b just as in Eng.‘p’ at syllable end bringen, [But!:]absagen, Staub
c ‘k’ sound at the beginning of words; otherwise Clou/Clique, –, –
in ‘ch’
continued on back cover
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Table B.1–Continued
English German 3rd singular Praeterite Perfect
to be sein er ist war er ist gewesen
to die sterben er stirbt starb er ist gestorben
to become werden er wird ward er ist geworden
to swim schwimmen er schwimmt schwamm er ist geschwommen
to come kommen er kommt kam er ist gekommen
to go gehen er geht ging er ist gegangen
to walk/run laufen er läuft lief er ist gelaufen
to fly fliegen er fliegt flog er ist geflogen
to flow fließen er fließt floß er ist geflossen
to drive fahren er fährt fuhr er ist gefahren
to drink trinken er trinkt trank er hat getrunken
to stink stinken er stinkt stank er hat gestunken
to force zwingen er zwingt zwang er hat gezwungen
to sing singen er singt sang er hat gesungen
to find finden er findet fand er hat gefunden
to leave verlassen er verläßt verließ er hat verlassen
to forget vergessen er vergißt vergaß er hat vergessen
to own besitzen er besitzt besaß er hat besessen
to eat essen er isst aß er hat gegessen
to do tun er tut tat er hat getan
to stand stehen er steht stand er hat gestanden
to lie (past=lay) liegen er liegt lag er hat gelegen
to stop (trans.) halten er hält hielt er hat gehalten
REFERENCES
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[Dreyer] is something everyone should have by the end of the first semester. It
is 360 pages long, has lots of exercises (with key). Audio cassettes/cds also available.
[Wahrig] is a German/German dictionary. The author strongly recommends
everyone who ever plans to learn German to buy a copy. There are many examples
of different usages given, which makes it indispensable for any student of German.
[Duden] is indispensable for anyone who speaks or writes German. It is the 4th
of 12 volumes of books describing many aspects of German. Roughly 850 pages in
German is difficult for most students, but after a short period abroad it is certainly
worth it.
[Helbig] is international standard for advance learners of German. In conjunction
with or after [Dreyer], it is very useful.
[Rausch] is a pronunciation and phonology/phonetics book. It is too difficult for
most beginners as it is in German and of a technical nature, but it is good for serious
students further along in their studies.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
After his first year as a student of German at the University of Florida in 1995,
Jon Busey spent a year abroad at the Universität Mannheim studying German Litera-
ture and Linguistics. The Department of Germanic and Slavic studies was then gener-
ous enough to help him acquire full financial support for a second year in Mannheim,
during which time he also studied Classics at the Universität Heidelberg. He earned
a B.A. in German Studies and Linguistics from the University of Florida in 1999. He
then taught two semesters solo of Beginning German at the University of Florida and
helped the department develop an online introductory German course which began
in Fall 2001.
After finishing an M.A. in German Literature in 2001 he will begin working on a
degree in Applied Mathematics at Florida State University. His hobbies include com-
puter assisted learning technologies, chess, home supercomputing, and cryptography.
His permanent E-mail address is: jcbusey@yahoo.com
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