SynETechRefV4 (001 101)

SynerGEE Electric 4.0.
1
Technical Reference
Edition
This edition applies to SynerGEE Electric 4.0.1 and to subsequent releases and modifications until otherwise
indicated in new editions.
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and product names are trademarks of the respective owner.
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Copyright notice
© 2011 GL Noble Denton, Inc.
600 Bent Creek Blvd., Suite 100
Mechanicsburg, PA 17050 USA
+1 717 724 1900
www.gl-nobledenton.com
Table of Contents 3
Table of Contents
1 Introduction to SynerGEE Electric ............................................................ 31

1.1 Distribution Characteristics .................................................................................. 32
1.2 Model Forge .......................................................................................................... 33
1.2.1 The Script .................................................................................................. 34
1.3 Modeling ............................................................................................................... 36
1.3.1 Model cleanup .......................................................................................... 37
1.3.2 Built by power engineers .......................................................................... 37
1.3.3 Benefits of SynerGEE Electric .................................................................... 38
1.4 Planning................................................................................................................. 38
1.5 Capacity ................................................................................................................. 39
1.6 SynerGEE Protection ............................................................................................. 42
1.6.1 Large-scale device coordination ............................................................... 44
1.6.2 Protection Modeling ................................................................................. 45
1.6.3 Detailed models ........................................................................................ 45
1.6.4 Built to grow.............................................................................................. 46
1.7 Load Modeling ...................................................................................................... 46
1.7.1 Load Types ................................................................................................ 48
1.7.2 Data Development .................................................................................... 48
1.8 SynerGEE Reliability .............................................................................................. 49
1.8.1 Predictive metrics historical events .......................................................... 50
1.8.2 Multi-year modeling ................................................................................. 51
1.8.3 Actual outage events ................................................................................ 51
1.8.4 Designed for all engineering teams .......................................................... 52
1.9 SynerGEE Cable ..................................................................................................... 52
1.9.1 Reports ...................................................................................................... 53
1.9.2 All of the details ........................................................................................ 53
4 Table of Contents
1.9.3 Easy model building .................................................................................. 54

1.10 Load Forecasting ................................................................................................... 55
1.11 Power Quality ....................................................................................................... 56
1.11.1 Comprehensive and easy to use ............................................................... 57
1.12 CMM...................................................................................................................... 59
1.13 Arc Flashover......................................................................................................... 60
1.14 Solver .................................................................................................................... 61
1.14.1 Scenario 1: Custom Applications .............................................................. 62
1.14.2 Scenario 2: GIS Extraction ......................................................................... 62
1.14.3 Scenario 3: Engineering Analysis in GIS .................................................... 62
1.14.4 Scenario 4: Information hub ..................................................................... 63
1.14.5 COM Solver ............................................................................................... 63
1.14.6 Solver Interface & Object Model .............................................................. 64
1.14.7 Object Model ............................................................................................ 64
1.14.8 Data Management .................................................................................... 65
1.14.9 Data Validation ......................................................................................... 65
1.14.10 Engineering Analysis ..................................................................... 65
1.14.11 Reporting Features ....................................................................... 66
1.14.12 Complete solution:........................................................................ 66
2 Modeling Your System ............................................................................ 68

2.1 The SynerGEE Vision ............................................................................................. 68
2.2 Feeders and Substations ....................................................................................... 69
2.3 Sources .................................................................................................................. 69
2.4 Switches and Switchable Devices ......................................................................... 73
2.5 Switch types and functions ................................................................................... 74
2.5.1 Basic switch ............................................................................................... 74
2.5.2 Loop tie switch .......................................................................................... 74
2.5.3 Wandering lateral tie switch ..................................................................... 74
2.5.4 Automatic switch ...................................................................................... 74
2.5.5 Auto-transfer switches.............................................................................. 74
2.6 Switch details ........................................................................................................ 75
2.6.1 Phasing ...................................................................................................... 75
Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

Table of Contents 5
2.6.2 Exception handling.................................................................................... 75

2.6.3 Switch results ............................................................................................ 75
2.6.4 Radial feeders with loops.......................................................................... 75
2.6.5 Invalid tie switches.................................................................................... 76
2.7 Visual switch modeling ......................................................................................... 76
2.7.1 Example 1 .................................................................................................. 76
2.7.2 Example 2 .................................................................................................. 76
2.7.3 Example 3 .................................................................................................. 77
2.7.4 Example 4 .................................................................................................. 77
2.8 Rules for transformer network protector operation ............................................ 78
2.9 Switching in DPA/G and other systems ................................................................ 78
2.10 Section phases fed from different directions ....................................................... 81
3 Power Distribution .................................................................................. 87

3.1 Distribution System Characteristics ...................................................................... 88
3.2 Voltage Level ......................................................................................................... 89
3.3 Common power system relationships .................................................................. 90
3.4 The per-unit system .............................................................................................. 90
3.4.1 Three-Phase per-unit values ..................................................................... 91
3.4.2 Single-Phase per-unit values ..................................................................... 91
3.5 Symmetrical components ..................................................................................... 92
3.6 Transformer impedances ...................................................................................... 93
3.7 Nominal voltage & volts........................................................................................ 93
3.8 Delta / Wye transformations ................................................................................ 95
3.8.1 Current, voltage, power ............................................................................ 97
3.8.2 Voltage drop needs to be contained ........................................................ 97
3.8.3 Different voltage levels ............................................................................. 97
3.9 Graph theory definitions....................................................................................... 97
3.9.1 Non-directed graphs ................................................................................. 97
3.9.2 Directed graphs ......................................................................................... 98
3.9.3 Relationships ............................................................................................. 98
4 Economics ............................................................................................... 99
4.1 Financial Worksheets ............................................................................................ 99
6 Table of Contents
5 Lines and Cables .................................................................................... 101

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 101
5.2 Conductors .......................................................................................................... 102
5.2.1 Geometric mean radius .......................................................................... 102
5.2.2 Wire size .................................................................................................. 102
5.2.3 Converting strand parameters to MCM ................................................. 103
5.3 Damage curves .................................................................................................... 104
5.3.1 Example: Damage curve calculation ....................................................... 105
5.4 Overhead Lines ................................................................................................... 105
5.4.1 Impedance values ................................................................................... 106
5.5 Conductors .......................................................................................................... 118
5.5.1 The conductor table ................................................................................ 118
5.5.2 Conductor data ....................................................................................... 118
5.5.3 Conductor configurations ....................................................................... 119
5.6 Impedance display in section characteristics ..................................................... 123
5.7 Line impedance calculations ............................................................................... 123
5.7.1 Symbols ................................................................................................... 123
5.7.2 Line modeling details .............................................................................. 123
5.7.3 Modeling with equivalent spacings ........................................................ 125
5.7.4 Primitive impedance matrix .................................................................... 126
5.7.5 Reduction of the primitive impedance model ........................................ 127
5.7.6 Impedance values for balanced analysis ................................................ 128
5.7.7 Lines specified by sequence values ........................................................ 130
5.8 Line capacitance (admittance) calculations ........................................................ 132
5.8.1 Robust by-phase derivation .................................................................... 132
5.8.2 Robust admittance calculations.............................................................. 133
5.8.3 Physical model ........................................................................................ 135
5.8.4 Ungrounded Wye- or Delta-connected lines .......................................... 136
5.8.5 Relationship of Wye ungrounded to Wye grounded .............................. 138
5.8.6 Balanced ungrounded line ...................................................................... 138
5.8.7 Approximate capacitance values ............................................................ 139
5.8.8 Equidistant case ...................................................................................... 139
5.9 Cable impedance calculations ............................................................................ 141

Table of Contents 7
5.9.1 Concentric neutral .................................................................................. 142

5.9.2 Tape shield cables ................................................................................... 143
5.10 Cable admittance ................................................................................................ 143
5.11 Conductor damage curves .................................................................................. 143
5.12 MCM and circular mils ........................................................................................ 145
5.12.1 Circular mils............................................................................................. 145
5.12.2 MCM........................................................................................................ 145
5.12.3 Converting strand parameters to MCM ................................................. 146
5.13 Conversions ......................................................................................................... 146
5.13.1 Converting kilovar to admittance values ................................................ 146
5.13.2 Converting values in pF to admittance values ........................................ 147
5.13.3 Geometric mean radius .......................................................................... 147
5.13.4 Converting ohms/kFt to ohms/km.......................................................... 147
5.14 SynerGEE Data Organization ............................................................................... 148
5.14.1 Conductor data ....................................................................................... 149
5.14.2 Configuration data .................................................................................. 150
5.15 Appendix 1 – Bare conductor parameters.......................................................... 154
5.16 Numerical Examples............................................................................................ 159
5.16.1 Line impedance for an overhead line ..................................................... 159
5.16.2 Drop on a single-phase ‘simple Z’ line .................................................... 161
5.16.3 Admittance for concentric neutral cable ................................................ 162
5.17 Appendix 1 – Bare conductor parameters.......................................................... 164
6 Loads .................................................................................................... 169

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 169
6.2 Constant load models ......................................................................................... 169
6.3 Defining load types ............................................................................................. 170
6.3.1 Constant real and reactive power load model ....................................... 170
6.3.2 Constant current load model .................................................................. 170
6.3.3 Constant impedance load model ............................................................ 171
6.3.4 Current/voltage relationship .................................................................. 171
6.3.5 Power/voltage relationship .................................................................... 172
6.3.6 The combination load model .................................................................. 172
6.3.7 Example ................................................................................................... 173
8 Table of Contents
6.4 Load connection example ................................................................................... 173

6.5 Diurnal customer load curves ............................................................................. 175
6.5.1 Data organization .................................................................................... 176
6.5.2 Application of load curves ...................................................................... 178
6.6 Temperature & weather ..................................................................................... 181
6.6.1 Latency .................................................................................................... 183
6.6.2 Weather data .......................................................................................... 184
6.7 Load growth ........................................................................................................ 187
6.8 I, Z, PQ Calibration .............................................................................................. 188
6.8.1 Power mathematics ................................................................................ 188
6.8.2 Using the calibrator................................................................................. 189
6.9 Sample I, Z, PQ percentage values ...................................................................... 193
7 Transformers......................................................................................... 194
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 194
7.2 The transformer model ....................................................................................... 195
7.2.1 Distributing transformer impedance between windings ....................... 195
7.3 1Ph / 3Ph transformer impedances .................................................................... 196
7.3.1 Wye-Gnd/Wye-Gnd case ........................................................................ 197
7.3.2 Delta/Wye-Gnd case ............................................................................... 198
7.4 Inrush and damage curves .................................................................................. 199
7.4.1 Damage Curves ....................................................................................... 200
7.5 Connection models ............................................................................................. 201
7.5.1 Valid Connection Combinations ............................................................. 204
7.6 Method for handling connections ...................................................................... 204
7.6.1 Wye-Gnd connections............................................................................. 205
7.6.2 Delta connections ................................................................................... 207
7.6.3 Wye connections..................................................................................... 211
7.6.4 Open-Delta CA connections .................................................................... 214
7.6.5 Open-Delta AB connections .................................................................... 216
7.6.6 Open-Delta BC connections .................................................................... 217
7.7 Example voltage drop calculations ..................................................................... 219
7.7.1 Simplified calculations ............................................................................ 220

Table of Contents 9
7.8 Transformers in network analysis....................................................................... 222

7.9 Example secondary impedance reflection.......................................................... 224
7.10 Engineering with SynerGEE ................................................................................. 225
7.10.1 Single Phase Yg/Delta connections ......................................................... 225
8 Voltage Regulators ................................................................................ 234

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 234
8.2 Regulator conceptualization ............................................................................... 234
8.3 The regulator model ........................................................................................... 236
8.3.1 Mathematical representation ................................................................. 237
8.4 Comparison to transmission and distribution model ......................................... 239
8.5 Regulator kVA ratings ......................................................................................... 240
8.6 Regulator impedance .......................................................................................... 240
8.6.1 Impedance calculation example ............................................................. 240
8.7 The load tap changer and controller model ....................................................... 243
8.8 Current and potential transformer models ........................................................ 243
8.9 The line-drop compensator model ..................................................................... 244
8.10 Setting the line-drop compensator..................................................................... 244
8.11 Regulator example .............................................................................................. 246
8.12 Line-drop compensator values for Open-Delta and Delta banks ....................... 248
8.13 Reverse power flow modes ................................................................................ 250
8.14 Potential and current transformer connections ................................................. 251
8.15 Voltages and power for regulator connections .................................................. 251
8.16 Model details ...................................................................................................... 252
8.16.1 Wye-Gnd connected regulators.............................................................. 252
8.16.2 Wye-connected regulators (Wye ungrounded) ...................................... 253
8.16.3 Delta-connected regulators (closed Delta) ............................................. 253
8.16.4 Open-Delta CA connected regulators ..................................................... 256
8.16.5 Open-Delta BC connection...................................................................... 257
8.16.6 Open-Delta AB connection ..................................................................... 257
8.17 Tables .................................................................................................................. 258
8.17.1 Typical regulator voltage ratings ............................................................ 258
8.17.2 Typical PT ratios ...................................................................................... 259
8.17.3 Ratings for single-phase step-voltage regulators ................................... 259
10 Table of Contents
8.17.4 Ratings for three-phase step-voltage regulators .................................... 261
9 Capacitors ............................................................................................. 263

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 263
9.2 Capacitor compensation details ......................................................................... 264
9.3 The SynerGEE capacitor model ........................................................................... 266
9.4 Modeling capacitors............................................................................................ 267
9.4.1 Capacitor connections ............................................................................ 267
9.4.2 Fixed and switched units......................................................................... 268
9.4.3 Positioning relative to load ..................................................................... 269
9.4.4 kV rating .................................................................................................. 269
9.5 Controlling switched modules ............................................................................ 270
9.5.1 About module switching ......................................................................... 270
9.5.2 Tripping and closing rules ....................................................................... 271
9.5.3 Metering phase ....................................................................................... 272
9.5.4 Substation control................................................................................... 272
9.5.5 Voltage override ..................................................................................... 274
9.5.6 Line-drop compensator .......................................................................... 274
9.5.7 Manually turning on a module ............................................................... 275
9.6 Converting Wye-connected banks to a Delta equivalent ................................... 275
9.7 Motor analysis and capacitors ............................................................................ 276
9.8 Capacitor placement analysis ............................................................................. 276
9.9 Capacitors vs. Regulators .................................................................................... 277
9.10 Single bank short circuit current ......................................................................... 279
9.11 Parallel capacitor banks ...................................................................................... 280
9.12 Minimum bank size ............................................................................................. 280
9.13 Breaker rating ..................................................................................................... 282
9.14 Switching device criteria ..................................................................................... 282
9.15 Series capacitors ................................................................................................. 283
10 Motors .................................................................................................. 284

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 284
10.2 Complete motor and service .............................................................................. 284
10.3 Motor model ....................................................................................................... 285

Table of Contents 11
10.3.1 Output power.......................................................................................... 286

10.3.2 Impedance model ................................................................................... 286
10.4 Motor states........................................................................................................ 288
10.5 Motor starters ..................................................................................................... 288
10.5.1 Full voltage .............................................................................................. 288
10.5.2 Capacitor ................................................................................................. 289
10.5.3 Autotransformer ..................................................................................... 289
10.5.4 Resistance ............................................................................................... 289
10.5.5 Reactance ................................................................................................ 290
10.5.6 Part-winding............................................................................................ 291
10.5.7 Delta-Wye ............................................................................................... 291
10.5.8 Solid-state reduced voltage .................................................................... 291
10.6 Motor data .......................................................................................................... 291
10.6.1 Fundamental parameters ....................................................................... 291
10.6.2 Full load amps ......................................................................................... 292
10.6.3 Full load power factor ............................................................................. 292
10.6.4 Motor RPM.............................................................................................. 292
10.6.5 Rated torque ........................................................................................... 293
10.6.6 Motor and load inertia ............................................................................ 293
10.6.7 Motor inertia ........................................................................................... 293
10.6.8 Load inertia ............................................................................................. 294
10.6.9 Inrush current ......................................................................................... 294
11 Motor Analysis ...................................................................................... 295

11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 295
11.2 Locked rotor analysis .......................................................................................... 295
11.2.1 Motor equivalent Z ................................................................................. 296
11.2.2 Running motor model ............................................................................. 296
11.2.3 Locked rotor calculations ........................................................................ 296
11.2.4 Using source voltage ............................................................................... 297
11.2.5 Converting a motor to a load .................................................................. 298
11.2.6 Starters and service ................................................................................ 298
11.2.7 Useful expressions .................................................................................. 298
11.2.8 Data substitution .................................................................................... 299
11.2.9 Locked rotor example ............................................................................. 300

11.3 Motor start analysis ............................................................................................ 302
11.3.1 Starting, running, off ............................................................................... 302
11.3.2 Motor start calculations.......................................................................... 302
11.3.3 Motor and load inertia ............................................................................ 304
11.3.4 Full load or running state ........................................................................ 304
11.3.5 Generated amp and pf curves ................................................................ 305
11.3.6 Approximate method .............................................................................. 305
11.4 Supplemental motor data ................................................................................... 305
11.4.1 Locked rotor codes.................................................................................. 306
11.4.2 Starting power factors ............................................................................ 307
11.5 Terms .................................................................................................................. 308
11.6 NEMA codes ........................................................................................................ 309
11.7 Horsepower versus load torque ......................................................................... 310
11.8 Table starter characteristics ............................................................................... 312
11.9 NEMA designs ..................................................................................................... 313
11.10 Speed torque, current curves for NEMA codes .................................................. 314
12 Generation ............................................................................................ 316

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 316
12.2 Data ..................................................................................................................... 316
12.2.1 Equipment database (DevGenerators) ................................................... 317
12.2.2 Model database (InstGenerators)........................................................... 317
12.3 Enabling generators ............................................................................................ 318
12.4 Synchronous machines ....................................................................................... 318
12.4.1 Capability Curves..................................................................................... 320
12.5 Induction machines............................................................................................. 320
12.5.1 Machine model parameters ................................................................... 324
12.5.2 Example: Calculating R2 and X2 for an induction generator .................. 324
12.6 Constant real and reactive power models.......................................................... 326
12.7 Generators in network load-flow ....................................................................... 326
12.8 Wind Generation................................................................................................. 326
12.8.1 Wind modeling ........................................................................................ 327

12.9 Additional notes .................................................................................................. 331

12.9.1 Fault analysis ........................................................................................... 331
12.9.2 Multiple generators ................................................................................ 331
12.9.3 Delta-connected generators ................................................................... 331
13 Load-Flow ............................................................................................. 333

13.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 333
13.2 Overview of SynerGEE technology ..................................................................... 333
13.2.1 The load-flow engine .............................................................................. 333
13.2.2 The SynerGEE advantage ........................................................................ 334
13.2.3 By-phase load-flow ................................................................................. 335
13.2.4 Balanced analysis .................................................................................... 336
13.2.5 Convergence ........................................................................................... 336
13.2.6 Voltage drop calculations in balanced and by-phase analysis ............... 336
13.2.7 Line loss calculations............................................................................... 337
13.2.8 Ratings and exception flagging ............................................................... 338
13.3 Radial load-flow algorithms ................................................................................ 338
13.3.1 Load-flow outward propagation ............................................................. 339
13.3.2 Load-flow inward propagation ............................................................... 339
13.3.3 Linearization............................................................................................ 340
13.3.4 Putting the steps together ...................................................................... 340
13.4 Characteristics of detailed by-phase analysis ..................................................... 341
13.4.1 Voltage rise on lightly loaded phases ..................................................... 341
13.4.2 Negative losses on individual phases ..................................................... 343
13.4.3 The roots of I2R ....................................................................................... 344
13.4.4 Loss on a section with neutral/earth return impedance ........................ 345
13.5 Conservation voltage reduction analysis ............................................................ 346
13.5.1 Example ................................................................................................... 347
13.6 Looped load-flow analysis................................................................................... 348
13.6.1 Load-flow foundation ............................................................................. 348
13.6.2 SynerGEE load-flow and looped analysis ................................................ 349
13.6.3 Example ................................................................................................... 349
13.6.4 Benefits of SynerGEE load-flow .............................................................. 352
13.7 Wandering laterals.............................................................................................. 352
13.8 Network load-flow .............................................................................................. 354

13.8.1 The SynerGEE approach .......................................................................... 355
13.8.2 General Gauss-Seidel approach .............................................................. 355
13.8.3 By-phase Gauss-Seidel ............................................................................ 356
13.8.4 General Newton-Raphson approach ...................................................... 356
13.8.5 Newton-Raphson and large distribution systems .................................. 357
13.8.6 By-phase Newton-Raphson .................................................................... 359
13.8.7 LDU Decomposition ................................................................................ 361
13.9 Radial/looped and network modeling differences ............................................. 364
13.9.1 Switches in a network ............................................................................. 364
14 Allocation.............................................................................................. 365
14.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 365
14.1.1 Allocation steps ....................................................................................... 365
14.2 Types of allocation .............................................................................................. 366
14.3 Demands format ................................................................................................. 366
14.3.1 Allocation by specified demands ............................................................ 366
14.4 Allocation scale factors ....................................................................................... 367
14.5 Initial load estimate ............................................................................................ 369
14.5.1 Suggested approaches to load allocation ............................................... 369
14.5.2 Example ................................................................................................... 370
14.5.3 Balanced allocation example .................................................................. 371
14.5.4 By-phase allocation using by-phase demands ........................................ 372
14.5.5 Numbers for by-phase allocation using total demand ........................... 372
14.6 Allocation factors ................................................................................................ 373
14.6.1 Allocate by connected kVA ..................................................................... 373
14.6.2 Allocate by total kWh.............................................................................. 373
14.6.3 Allocate by RUS method ......................................................................... 373
14.7 Example showing convergence process ............................................................. 374
14.8 Dealing with switched capacitors ....................................................................... 375
14.9 Regulator options................................................................................................ 377
14.10 Allocating and meter adjustment ....................................................................... 378
14.10.1 Example system .......................................................................... 378

14.10.2 Allocating load ............................................................................ 379

14.10.3 Switching after peak demand allocation .................................... 380
14.10.4 The impact of connected kVA changes ....................................... 380
14.10.5 The impact of spot loads............................................................. 381
14.10.6 Allocating the switched circuit.................................................... 382
14.10.7 Anticipating new spot loads........................................................ 383
14.10.8 Anticipating switching changes................................................... 384
14.11 Customer load curves ......................................................................................... 386
14.11.1 Example ....................................................................................... 387
14.11.2 Additional notes .......................................................................... 389
14.12 Metering points .................................................................................................. 389
14.13 Other considerations .......................................................................................... 390
14.13.1 Substation transformers ............................................................. 390
14.13.2 Loops ........................................................................................... 390
14.13.3 Generators .................................................................................. 390
15 Fault...................................................................................................... 391
15.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 391
15.1.1 Line impedances ..................................................................................... 391
15.1.2 Pre-fault voltages .................................................................................... 391
15.2 Types of analysis ................................................................................................. 391
15.2.1 Fault analysis ........................................................................................... 392
15.2.2 Fault flow analysis ................................................................................... 392
15.2.3 Fault voltage analysis .............................................................................. 392
15.3 Sequence domain fault calculations ................................................................... 393
15.3.1 Equation summary .................................................................................. 393
15.3.2 Sequence network for line-to-Gnd fault ................................................. 394
15.3.3 Phase-ground faults ................................................................................ 394
15.3.4 Phase-phase faults .................................................................................. 395
15.3.5 Phase-phase-ground faults ..................................................................... 395
15.3.6 Three-phase faults .................................................................................. 396
15.3.7 Asymmetrical three-phase and line-to-ground fault current ................. 396
15.4 Phase domain calculations.................................................................................. 400
15.4.1 Fault calculations from 3 by 3 cumulative impedance matrix................ 400
15.4.2 Three-phase fault current from phase domain impedance matrix ........ 401
15.4.3 Phase domain faults on grounded sections............................................ 402
15.4.4 Phase domain faults on ungrounded sections ....................................... 406
15.5 Performing fault analysis on systems with loops ............................................... 410
15.5.1 Fault flows on looped systems................................................................ 412
15.5.2 Including generators ............................................................................... 413
15.6 Fault analysis with wandering laterals................................................................ 413
15.7 Example 1: Transformers in sequence fault analysis.......................................... 413
15.7.1 Given: ...................................................................................................... 413
15.7.2 Desired: ................................................................................................... 414
15.7.3 Calculations: ............................................................................................ 414
15.8 Example 2: Off-nominal transformers in sequence fault ................................... 415
15.8.1 Given: ...................................................................................................... 415
15.8.2 Desired: ................................................................................................... 415
15.8.3 Calculations: ............................................................................................ 415
15.9 Example 3: Faulting single phase lines................................................................ 416
15.9.1 Sequence domain process ...................................................................... 416
15.9.2 L-G fault in phase domain ....................................................................... 416
15.9.3 Example in phase domain ....................................................................... 417
15.9.4 L-G fault in sequence domain ................................................................. 418
15.9.5 Example in sequence domain ................................................................. 419
15.10 Example 4: Faulting two-phase lines .................................................................. 419
15.10.1 Phase domain impedance matrix ............................................... 420
15.10.2 L-G Fault value ............................................................................ 420
15.10.3 The wrong sequence conversion ................................................ 420
15.10.4 The right sequence conversion ................................................... 421
15.11 Example 5: Parallel / dual feed substation transformers ................................... 422
15.11.1 Given: .......................................................................................... 422
15.11.2 Desired: ....................................................................................... 422
15.11.3 Calculations: ................................................................................ 423
15.12 Fault Location Application .................................................................................. 424
15.12.1 Application approach .................................................................. 427
15.12.2 Settings........................................................................................ 428

15.12.3 Fault types................................................................................... 434
16 Protection ............................................................................................. 435

16.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 435
16.2 Protective Devices............................................................................................... 435
16.2.1 Data storage ............................................................................................ 436
16.2.2 Loading of curves .................................................................................... 436
16.2.3 Mechanical response times .................................................................... 438
16.3 Sectionalizers ...................................................................................................... 438
16.4 Fuses ................................................................................................................... 439
16.5 Reclosers ............................................................................................................. 439
16.5.1 Mechanical response times .................................................................... 439
16.5.2 Minimum response time......................................................................... 440
16.6 Breakers .............................................................................................................. 440
16.6.1 Breaker - relay terminology .................................................................... 440
16.7 Equation Based Curves in the Protection Database ........................................... 440
16.8 Check Coordination............................................................................................. 441
16.9 Application operation ......................................................................................... 442
16.10 Starting the application....................................................................................... 443
16.11 Coordination pair categories .............................................................................. 443
16.12 Margins ............................................................................................................... 444
16.13 Coordination range ............................................................................................. 445
16.14 Protection pairs................................................................................................... 446
16.15 Check coordination rules .................................................................................... 447
16.16 Cases not checked............................................................................................... 455
16.16.1 Ground curve tripping from the inrush of a 1-ph transformer .. 456
16.17 Curve shifting through transformers .................................................................. 456
16.17.1 Curve shifting example ............................................................... 457
16.18 Minimum response and instantaneous settings ................................................ 459
16.19 Ignoring load calculations ................................................................................... 462
16.20 Coordination over non-overlapped ranges ........................................................ 462
16.21 Ground fault current ........................................................................................... 463
16.22 High impedance faults ........................................................................................ 463
16.23 Appendix 1 – Equation based curve definitions ................................................. 463
16.23.1 Parameters for manufacturers ................................................... 464
17 Reliability .............................................................................................. 468

17.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 468
17.1.1 Importance of reliability ......................................................................... 468
17.1.2 The SynerGEE approach .......................................................................... 469
17.1.3 Challenges ............................................................................................... 470
17.2 Aspects of SynerGEE Reliability .......................................................................... 470
17.2.1 Supported indices ................................................................................... 470
17.2.2 Publishable results .................................................................................. 471
17.2.3 Scenario comparison............................................................................... 472
17.2.4 Switching plan models ............................................................................ 472
17.2.5 Capacity considerations .......................................................................... 472
17.2.6 Metric variance ....................................................................................... 472
17.2.7 Root-cause .............................................................................................. 473
17.2.8 Spatial mitigation .................................................................................... 473
17.2.9 Supporting applications .......................................................................... 474
17.3 Impact of by-phase switching ............................................................................. 474
17.4 Calculating reliability values on a simple by-phase model ................................. 476
17.4.1 Calculate SAIFI......................................................................................... 477
17.5 Reliability Model ................................................................................................. 477
17.5.1 Failures .................................................................................................... 477
17.5.2 Interruptions ........................................................................................... 479
17.5.3 Causes ..................................................................................................... 481
17.5.4 Devices .................................................................................................... 482
17.5.5 Exposure zones and failure rates ............................................................ 483
17.5.6 Mitigation zones ..................................................................................... 485
17.6 Analysis ............................................................................................................... 486
17.6.1 Process .................................................................................................... 486
17.6.2 Results ..................................................................................................... 487
17.6.3 Trial and study......................................................................................... 488
17.6.4 Assumptions............................................................................................ 488
17.6.5 Analysis settings ...................................................................................... 488

17.6.6 Example - MAIFI impact from settings.................................................... 490

17.7 Isolating/switching/pickup example ................................................................... 491
17.8 Thresholds for momentary & disregarded events.............................................. 492
17.9 Data management .............................................................................................. 492
17.9.1 Import tools ............................................................................................ 494
17.9.2 File and data locations ............................................................................ 495
17.9.3 Outage records ....................................................................................... 497
17.9.4 Dates ....................................................................................................... 497
17.9.5 Note on SynerGEE ‘MiddleLink’ loading process: ................................... 498
17.9.6 Data sets.................................................................................................. 498
17.9.7 The DataSets table .................................................................................. 500
17.9.8 SQL Dashboard – a key tool .................................................................... 501
17.9.9 The Event Management Wizard ............................................................. 504
17.9.10 Importing events ......................................................................... 505
17.9.11 Zone creation & processing ........................................................ 507
17.9.12 Reporting exposure zones from data set.................................... 510
17.9.13 Merging, creating, destroying data sets ..................................... 511
17.9.14 Directly loading zones ................................................................. 512
17.10 Legacy Script ....................................................................................................... 513
17.11 Data calibration................................................................................................... 517
17.12 Example calculations........................................................................................... 519
17.12.1 Variable definitions ..................................................................... 519
17.12.2 Failure probability ....................................................................... 520
17.12.3 Base factor calculations .............................................................. 520
17.12.4 Index calculation ......................................................................... 522
17.13 Example 1 ............................................................................................................ 522
17.13.1 Feeder or system level calculations ............................................ 523
17.13.2 Device indices ............................................................................. 525
17.13.3 Root cause................................................................................... 527
17.14 Example 2 ............................................................................................................ 530
17.14.1 Base factors ................................................................................. 530
17.14.2 Reliability indices ........................................................................ 532
17.15 Example 3 ............................................................................................................ 532
17.16 Example 4 ............................................................................................................ 535

17.17 Single section examples ...................................................................................... 536
17.17.1 Case 1: ......................................................................................... 537
17.17.2 Case 2: ......................................................................................... 537
17.17.3 Case 3: ......................................................................................... 538
17.18 Recloser Placement Factors ................................................................................ 539
17.19 Using the Event Management Wizard ................................................................ 543
17.20 SAIDI in a simple two feeder model.................................................................... 544
18 Design ................................................................................................... 545

18.1 Balance improvement ......................................................................................... 545
18.1.1 Overall application operation ................................................................. 545
18.1.2 Phase balancing specifics ........................................................................ 546
18.2 Capacitor placement ........................................................................................... 548
18.2.1 Application operation ............................................................................. 548
18.2.2 Application output .................................................................................. 549
18.3 Regulator setting application .............................................................................. 550
18.3.1 Example 1 ................................................................................................ 550
18.3.2 Example 2 ................................................................................................ 551
18.3.3 Loading .................................................................................................... 552
18.3.4 Regulator handling .................................................................................. 552
18.3.5 Operation ................................................................................................ 552
18.4 Performance Comparison ................................................................................... 553
18.4.1 Costs ........................................................................................................ 554
18.4.2 Secondary losses ..................................................................................... 554
18.4.3 Cost of Losses .......................................................................................... 556
18.4.4 Equipment Data ...................................................................................... 557
18.4.5 Cost calculations ..................................................................................... 561
18.5 Design Evaluation – Conductor selection ........................................................... 569
18.5.1 Partitioning to reconductor points ......................................................... 570
18.5.2 Selection Process .................................................................................... 571
18.5.3 Underground / overhead matching ........................................................ 573
18.5.4 No solution .............................................................................................. 573

18.5.5 Summary ................................................................................................. 574

18.5.6 “Earth Loop Impedance”......................................................................... 575
18.6 Conservation voltage reduction ......................................................................... 581
19 Planning and Forecasting ...................................................................... 584

19.1 Load Forecasting ................................................................................................. 584
19.1.1 Regional Peak .......................................................................................... 585
19.1.2 Areas ....................................................................................................... 585
19.1.3 Customer Classes .................................................................................... 586
19.2 SynerGEE Forecasting ......................................................................................... 589
19.2.1 Agents ..................................................................................................... 592
19.3 Settings for load growth ..................................................................................... 594
19.3.1 Forecast period ....................................................................................... 594
19.3.2 Agent selection ....................................................................................... 594
19.3.3 Hitting growth targets............................................................................. 595
19.3.4 Block reduction in load ........................................................................... 596
19.3.5 Forecast method ..................................................................................... 596
19.3.6 Beginning, middle, end of year loads ..................................................... 596
19.3.7 Load initialization .................................................................................... 600
19.3.8 New load agents ..................................................................................... 602
19.4 Mixed load types ................................................................................................. 605
19.5 Multi-year Studies ............................................................................................... 606
19.6 Various tools ....................................................................................................... 606
19.6.1 Ten year growth studies ......................................................................... 606
19.7 Time & Time Range Analysis ............................................................................... 606
19.8 Real-time data interface ..................................................................................... 607
19.8.1 Interfacing with PI Historian ................................................................... 607
19.8.2 The messaging script............................................................................... 607
19.8.3 Automating scripts .................................................................................. 609
19.9 All feeders at peak study .................................................................................... 609
19.10 Feeder peak study............................................................................................... 610
20 Switching Analysis ................................................................................. 611

20.1 Contingency analysis ........................................................................................... 611

20.1.2 Protective devices ................................................................................... 614
20.1.3 Automatic and auto-transfer switches ................................................... 614
20.1.4 Switch position files ................................................................................ 615
20.2 Optimal switching ............................................................................................... 615
20.2.2 Application output .................................................................................. 617
20.2.3 Application speed ................................................................................... 618
20.3 Auto-transfer switch analysis.............................................................................. 618
21 Power Quality ....................................................................................... 620

21.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 620
21.2 Example use of harmonic analysis ...................................................................... 621
21.3 Comparison to resonant harmonic from fault studies ....................................... 622
21.4 Harmonic analysis at capacitor terminals ........................................................... 624
21.4.1 Example looking at capacitor terminals.................................................. 624
21.4.2 Example looking at end of section .......................................................... 625
21.5 Triplen harmonics and Delta Transformers ........................................................ 626
21.5.1 Example 1 ................................................................................................ 630
21.5.2 Example 2 ................................................................................................ 631
21.5.3 Example 3 ................................................................................................ 632
21.6 Effect of loads on resonance point ..................................................................... 633
21.7 Device models ..................................................................................................... 634
21.7.1 Lines ........................................................................................................ 635
21.7.2 Loads ....................................................................................................... 635
21.7.3 Regulators ............................................................................................... 636
21.7.4 Capacitors ............................................................................................... 636
21.7.5 Transformers ........................................................................................... 637
21.7.6 Generators .............................................................................................. 637
21.7.7 Feeder and substation transformer source impedance ......................... 638
22 Cable Ampacity ..................................................................................... 639

22.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 639
22.1.1 A note on the thermal resistivity of soil ................................................. 640

22.2 Ampacity Calculations ......................................................................................... 641

22.2.1 Basic Equations ....................................................................................... 642
22.2.2 ∆θint - Temperature effect of other cables............................................ 645
22.3 Constraining circuit loading ................................................................................ 647
22.4 Example 1: 750 MCM_CN in duct ....................................................................... 650
22.4.1 Data ......................................................................................................... 650
22.4.2 Calculations ............................................................................................. 651
22.5 Example 2: 500 MCM direct buried .................................................................... 658
22.5.1 Given: ...................................................................................................... 658
22.5.2 Filling in SynerGEE numbers ................................................................... 659
22.5.3 Preparation ............................................................................................. 659
22.5.4 Check the area ........................................................................................ 659
22.5.5 AC Resistance .......................................................................................... 660
22.5.6 T1 - Internal thermal resistance .............................................................. 660
22.5.7 T3- Jacket thermal resistance .................................................................. 661
22.5.8 T4- External thermal resistance............................................................... 661
22.5.9 λ1 - Loss Factor ....................................................................................... 661
22.5.10 Maximum Amps .......................................................................... 662
22.5.11 Comparison to T&D Numbers ..................................................... 662
22.6 Example 3: 300 mm2 direct buried ..................................................................... 663
22.6.1 T1 - Internal thermal resistance .............................................................. 663
22.6.2 T3 - Jacket thermal resistance ................................................................. 664
22.7 Thermal Network Parameters ............................................................................ 664
22.7.1 T - Thermal resistance ............................................................................. 664
22.7.2 wc - Core conductor heat ........................................................................ 664
22.7.3 Mutual Heating Factor ............................................................................ 668
22.7.4 Concentric neutral AC resistance............................................................ 668
22.7.5 Loss Factor .............................................................................................. 669
22.7.6 Neutral Amps .......................................................................................... 669
22.7.7 External thermal resistance factors ........................................................ 672
22.7.8 T1 – Insulation thermal resistance .......................................................... 674
22.7.9 T2 - Armor Thermal Resistance ............................................................... 675
22.7.10 T3 - Jacket Thermal Resistance.................................................... 675
22.7.11 Tij - Thermal resistance between direct buried cables ............... 675
22.7.12 Tij - Thermal resistance between cables in same duct ............... 676
22.7.13 TA - Thermal resistance between cables and ambient ............... 677
22.7.14 TDij - Thermal resistance between ducts .................................... 678
22.7.15 TDA - Thermal resistance between duct and ambient ................ 679
22.7.16 Wd - Dielectric heat loss .............................................................. 680
22.7.17 - Concentric neutral loss factor................................................... 680
22.7.18 - Tape shield loss factor .............................................................. 681
22.8 Example 4: Using SynerGEE to calculate ampacity ............................................. 682
22.8.1 Case 1: One 1000MCM circuit in 1X1 bank with earth fill ...................... 684
22.8.2 Case 2: Three 1000MCM circuits in 4X4 concrete bank ......................... 686
22.8.3 Case 3: Six 1000MCM circuits in 3X2 concrete bank .............................. 687
22.9 Duct Bank Analysis .............................................................................................. 688
22.10 Categories & parameters .................................................................................... 688
22.10.1 Duct Bank Type ........................................................................... 688
22.10.2 Cable Types ................................................................................. 689
22.10.3 Conductor Material ..................................................................... 689
22.10.4 Sheath material coefficients at 20C: ........................................... 689
22.10.5 Insulation Thermal Resistances .................................................. 689
22.10.6 Jacket Thermal Resistances ........................................................ 690
22.10.7 Dielectric constants..................................................................... 690
22.10.8 AC factors: ................................................................................... 690
22.10.9 Duct thermal constants............................................................... 690
22.10.10 Duct Bank thermal constants...................................................... 691
22.10.11 Soil Resistivity ............................................................................. 691
22.10.12 Backfill Resistivity ........................................................................ 692
22.10.13 Duct installation constants ......................................................... 692
22.10.14 Study Parameters........................................................................ 692
22.10.15 Duct Parameters ......................................................................... 692
22.10.16 Cable Parameters ........................................................................ 693
22.10.17 Circuit Parameters ...................................................................... 694
22.10.18 Derived Values ............................................................................ 694
22.11 References .......................................................................................................... 694

23 Arc Flashover Analysis ........................................................................... 695

23.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 695
23.2 Disclaimer............................................................................................................ 695
23.3 Exceptions ........................................................................................................... 696
23.4 Analysis models................................................................................................... 696
23.5 Methodology....................................................................................................... 696
23.6 Model Requirements .......................................................................................... 697
23.7 Basic nomenclature ............................................................................................ 697
23.8 Arc current calculations ...................................................................................... 698
23.8.1 kVNom > 15 kV .......................................................................................... 698
23.8.2 kVNom > 1 kV ............................................................................................ 698
23.8.3 kVNom < 1 kV ............................................................................................ 699
23.9 Incident energy ................................................................................................... 699
23.9.1 Voltage less than 15 kV: .......................................................................... 699
23.9.2 Voltage higher than 15 kV: ..................................................................... 700
23.10 Flash protection boundary calculations.............................................................. 700
23.10.1 Voltage less than 15 kV ............................................................... 700
23.10.2 Voltage higher than 15 kV .......................................................... 700
23.11 Single-phase lines................................................................................................ 701
23.12 Effect of current limiting fuses............................................................................ 701
23.13 Working distances............................................................................................... 701
23.14 Selection of PPE rating for the clothing .............................................................. 701
23.15 Approach boundaries.......................................................................................... 702
23.15.1 Limited approach boundary........................................................ 702
23.15.2 Restricted approach boundary ................................................... 702
23.15.3 Prohibited approach boundary ................................................... 703
23.16 Generating TCC curves ........................................................................................ 703
23.16.1 IEEE 1584..................................................................................... 703
23.16.2 Lee Method ................................................................................. 704
23.17 Reference tables ................................................................................................. 704
23.17.1 Table 1: Gap and distance ........................................................... 704
23.17.2 Table 2: Constant K ..................................................................... 705
23.17.3 Table 3: Constant K1 .................................................................... 705
23.17.4 Table 4: Constant K2 .................................................................... 705

23.17.5 Table 5: Cf .................................................................................... 705
23.17.6 Table 6: PPE rating table (from NFPA 70E) ................................. 706
23.17.7 Table 7: Clothing required table ................................................. 706
23.17.8 Table 8: Approach boundaries to live parts for shock protection706
24 Control Systems .................................................................................... 708

24.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 708
24.2 Settings................................................................................................................ 708
24.3 Block Types ......................................................................................................... 708
24.3.1 100 – 299 Control Blocks ........................................................................ 708
24.3.2 400 – Signals from model ....................................................................... 708
24.3.3 500 – Drivers to model............................................................................ 708
24.3.4 600 – Tools .............................................................................................. 708
24.3.5 700 – Meters / Reports / Plotters ........................................................... 708
24.3.6 800 – Other ............................................................................................. 709
24.4 Block Definitions ................................................................................................. 709
24.5 Case 1: A kvar based “Voltage Controller” ......................................................... 716
24.6 Case 3: Feeder demand cap control ................................................................... 717
24.7 Case 2: Dynamic Modeling of an Induction Motor ............................................. 717
24.8 Numerical Time Series Analysis .......................................................................... 722
24.9 Derivations .......................................................................................................... 723
24.9.1 Integrator – C116 .................................................................................... 723
24.9.2 Shifter – C118 .......................................................................................... 723
24.9.3 Feedback control – C128 ........................................................................ 724
25 Customer and Distribution Transformer Management .......................... 726

25.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 726
25.2 The Process ......................................................................................................... 728
25.3 Running CMM ..................................................................................................... 731
25.3.1 Preparing CMM for first-time use ........................................................... 731
25.3.2 Launching the CMM wizard .................................................................... 732
25.3.3 Importing data from a CMM script ......................................................... 733
25.3.4 Processing a data set .............................................................................. 734

25.3.5 Update the model ................................................................................... 737

25.3.6 Data set report ........................................................................................ 738
25.4 The CMM text file format ................................................................................... 739
25.5 CMM data set tables ........................................................................................... 742
25.5.1 The DataSets table .................................................................................. 748
25.6 SQL Dashboard – a key tool ................................................................................ 749
25.7 Automating with CMM scripts ............................................................................ 753
25.7.1 Script file commands............................................................................... 753
25.7.2 Creating and executing CMM scripts ...................................................... 756
25.8 Calculations ......................................................................................................... 756
25.8.1 Nomenclature ......................................................................................... 756
25.8.2 Load Factors ............................................................................................ 757
25.8.3 About Diversity Factors/Coincidence Factor .......................................... 758
25.8.4 About Power Factors .............................................................................. 759
25.8.5 Capacity Factor Calculation..................................................................... 760
25.8.6 Transformer Utilization Calculation ........................................................ 761
25.8.7 Calculating kW from usage bills .............................................................. 764
25.8.8 Customer Zone Setup ............................................................................. 765
25.8.9 Updating Customer Class Curves ............................................................ 765
25.9 Customers fed from multiple transformers........................................................ 766
25.10 Modeling customers on delta transformers ....................................................... 767
25.11 Load location from customer data ..................................................................... 768
25.12 Useful Queries..................................................................................................... 768
25.12.1 List usage bills for customers on a particular section:................ 768
25.12.2 List demand bills for a customer:................................................ 768
25.13 Examples ............................................................................................................. 768
25.13.1 Connected kVA............................................................................ 770
25.13.2 Mixed load types ......................................................................... 771
25.13.3 Normalized loads ........................................................................ 772
25.14 Using CMM in Solver ........................................................................................... 773
25.14.1 Starting the Solver ...................................................................... 773
25.14.2 The data source........................................................................... 774
25.14.3 Creating and destroying data sets .............................................. 774
25.14.4 Importing from the CMM script.................................................. 774

25.14.5 Updating a model........................................................................ 775
25.15 SynerGEE CMM Schema ..................................................................................... 776
26 Building Models .................................................................................... 780

26.1 MiddleLink format .............................................................................................. 780
26.2 Electric Power Data Mart .................................................................................... 780
26.2.1 Table Structure........................................................................................ 782
26.3 Model Forge Commands..................................................................................... 784
26.3.1 ModelForge.DataMartQuery .................................................................. 784
26.4 CMM Data ........................................................................................................... 787
26.4.1 Flat-file schema ....................................................................................... 787
27 Tools ..................................................................................................... 788

27.1 What-Ifs............................................................................................................... 788
28 Appendices ........................................................................................... 792

28.1 SQL Dashboard Codes ......................................................................................... 792
28.2 PowerCalc functions ........................................................................................... 793
28.3 SIGED Model Build Engine .................................................................................. 794
28.3.1 Create all circuits (MFMW_2010) ........................................................... 794
28.3.2 Create nodes – MFMW_305 ................................................................... 795
28.3.3 Create overhead lines – MFMW_310 ..................................................... 795
28.3.4 Phasing .................................................................................................... 796
28.3.5 Lines with matching N1 & N2 coordinates ............................................. 796
28.3.6 Tie circuits to overhead lines – MFMW_320 .......................................... 797
28.3.7 Vertices along overhead lines – MFMW_330 ......................................... 797
28.3.8 Underground Connections...................................................................... 798
28.3.9 Create all cables – MFMW_220 .............................................................. 798
28.3.10 Phasing ........................................................................................ 799
28.3.11 Vertices along cables – MFMW_221 .......................................... 799
28.3.12 Manholes .................................................................................... 799
28.3.13 Establish manholes - MFMW_225 .............................................. 800
28.3.14 Risers, cables, and overhead lines .............................................. 800

28.3.15 Establish risers - MFMW_230 ..................................................... 800

28.3.16 Risers with missing overhead line............................................... 801
28.3.17 Risers with missing cables........................................................... 801
28.3.18 Connect risers to overhead lines MFMW_235 ........................... 801
28.3.19 Service lines to customer transformers - MFMW_240 .............. 802
28.3.20 Service lines from risers to customer transformers - MFMW_242802
28.3.21 Vertices along customer service lines - MFMW_243 ................. 803
28.3.22 Switches for overhead lines – MFMW_250 ................................ 803
28.3.23 Switches for underground lines - – MFMW_251........................ 804
28.3.24 Fuses for overhead lines - ........................................................... 804
28.3.25 Reclosers - ................................................................................... 805
28.3.26 Regulators - ................................................................................. 805
28.3.27 Capacitors - ................................................................................. 806
28.3.28 Breakers - .................................................................................... 806
28.3.29 Meters - ....................................................................................... 806
28.3.30 Substation transformer banks - .................................................. 807
28.3.31 Distributed load - MFMW_260 ................................................... 807
28.3.32 Usage on overhead transformers - MFMW_261 ........................ 808
28.3.33 Spot load - MFMW_262 .............................................................. 809
28.3.34 Load on cables - MFMW_264 ..................................................... 809
28.3.35 Capacity in manholes - MFMW_265........................................... 810
28.3.36 Usage in manholes - MFMW_266............................................... 810
28.3.37 Capacity on service lines - ........................................................... 811
28.3.38 Usage on service lines - ............................................................... 811
28.3.39 Load data summary .................................................................... 812
28.3.40 Load calculations......................................................................... 815
28.3.41 Lookups ....................................................................................... 817
28.4 DMED demand import ........................................................................................ 831
28.4.1 Read forecast kW for next 10 years ........................................................ 831
28.5 SIMOCE load profile import ................................................................................ 831
28.5.1 Read demands by month, daytype, and hour ........................................ 831
28.5.2 Get feeder names as Curve IDs ............................................................... 832

1 Introduction to SynerGEE
Electric
Power distribution systems are large and complicated. SynerGEE Electric is a software product
for modeling, simulating, and analyzing these systems. Planning, designing, and operating
decisions can be made better and faster and more confidently through the use of this software.
SynerGEE® Electric provides a modeling environment and set of powerful tools to help the
distribution engineer comprehend his system from a variety of perspectives. The engineer can
take capacity, protection, reliability, and many other aspects of a problem into consideration
when making a decision.
Modeling
Quality Planning
Economics Operations
Safety Protection
Reliability
SynerGEE Electric Technical Reference

32 Introduction to SynerGEE Electric
1.1 Distribution Characteristics

Distribution systems have unique characteristics that create diversity and complexity beyond
the transmission systems typically presented in most power engineering texts. In general,
distribution systems have:
• Unbalanced load – Different load values are on each phase of a load or loads
may be connected to only one phase. Loads are connected line-to-ground and
line-to-line.
• Unbalanced construction – Power lines are constructed non-symmetrically and
non-transposed. Different conductors are sometimes used on different phases of
a line. Some phases are sometimes bundled while others are not.
• Distributed and spot loads – Large loads for industrial customers and commercial
customers are considered loads at a particular spot in a distribution system.
Contingency plans must be established to support these loads. Loads for
residential and small commercial customers are also distributed along the
thousands of miles of distribution line in a typical utility. Depending on the utility
and the area, the total of the “distributed” loads usually match or exceed the
larger spot loads. Contingency plans are also established to address the needs of
the distributed loads. A few dozen (economically active) customers may
represent the large commercial and industrial load of a utility. Hundreds of
thousands of (economically and politically important) customers represent the
distributed load of a utility.
• Diverse equipment – Many distribution systems have been in operation for
nearly one hundred years. Over that operation time, there were changes in
service territory, power supply, utility ownership, engineers, hardware
technology, design philosophy, and suppliers. Naturally, a distribution system is
going to have a variety of new and old equipment of various types. Knowledge of
each piece of equipment and its function is important.
• Radial nature – Power distribution systems are nearly always radial in North
America. Radial construction keeps costs down, safety up, and simplifies the
operation of the distribution system. Urban underground or “downtown”
distribution systems are an exception. They are oftentimes run in a meshed
network to increase reliability and power transfer capability.
• Intangibility – The customer does not directly touch or see the commodity that
they are buying.
• Quality – Reliable and uniform power delivery is required. Voltage must be
nearly free from harmonics and within tight voltage constraints. Current must be
managed within capacity limits.
• Capacity – The utility must be able to deliver power as consumer demand grows.

Introduction to SynerGEE Electric 33
• Storage – Supply chain management is essential in the electric power industry.

There is no practical storage of electricity and so power must be generated,
transported, and delivered simultaneously with demand.
• Responsibility – Electricity is dangerous. The utility is responsible for the safe
delivery of electricity through the customer’s community and to his premises.
The utility is responsible for the public’s safety with respect to the thousands of
miles of bare conductor stretching over and under farms, towns and cities.
• Easements – The utility must negotiate and purchase easements to build the
facilities for receiving power from the transmission company and then for
routing delivery to the customer. Purchasing or arranging for use of property for
substations and distribution lines is expensive and oftentimes politically
unpopular.
• Slow turnover – Power delivery is very capital intensive. However, investment at
a utility will take many years to generate returns.
• Regulation – Distribution utilities are heavily regulated by the industry, federal,
state, and local governments. This puts heavy demands on the utility to carefully
make and justify engineering decisions.
1.2 Model Forge

The SynerGEE Model Forge is a system to interface SynerGEE to databases and utility enterprise
systems through SQL. Any open system can be tied to SynerGEE. The Model Forge engine
supports a process of data-mart identification, data exchange, and cleanup operations. Models
can be built and updated through large and complex data schemas through a simple scripts and
wizards in SynerGEE.
Here is a diagram showing the Model Forge integration of SynerGEE:
Database queries and views are used to generate database records. Information in these
records is mapped to the SynerGEE model with the Model Forge script.
Benefits of the Model Forge approach are:
• Model Forge and the use of data marts is completely open. All data based
systems are moving towards openness and data sharing. Model Forge equips
SynerGEE to operate well in the modern utility.
• The existing databases, data marts, and data warehouses at a utility can be used
for model building.

• Model Forge is expandable. It can be used to build models with GIS and asset
management systems. It can also be used to update and supplement models
with various utility enterprise business systems such as GIS, CIS, AMI/MDMS,
OMS, and SCADA.
• The value of engineering data is promoted at the utility so that it is managed and
maintained along with other corporate data stores.
• The model build process is extremely flexible and scalable.
• Building and maintaining models will be less work for GIS / IT staff.
• Larger models can be built faster. Data scrubbing and model building algorithms
will be more effective and consistent on larger models.
• Data issues can be identified and resolved through SQL instead of in a processing
black box.
• Model building will be more open and visible because the data moves through a
two-stage process of becoming data sets in a data mart and then becoming
SynerGEE models.
• The greater availability of data will promote enhancements in SynerGEE.
• Model build engine will grow in its capabilities. Model building algorithms,
components, and queries will benefit all clients.
• Integration costs will come down as the model building algorithms grow.
• A large part of the complexity of model building will shift from the application
side (which is customized for each client) to the product side (which is
maintained through normal SynerGEE maintenance)
1.2.1 The Script

The Model Forge script is composed as a SynerGEE recipe or macro. It is comprised of various
parts depending on the process that it drives.
1. Define the “data marts” or data sources where data resides. These can be
Oracle, SQL Server, My SQL, Informix, Access, CSV, etc.
2. Define the SQL statements used to retrieve data from the databases.
3. Define the mapping between the SQL
The script is written in a text file. Various scripts can be composed for different processes. The
process can be run automatically on a timer or in batch mode by SynerGEE or Solver.
The process of a single script can be adjusted by the SynerGEE user when the Model Forge
wizard is used in SynerGEE. The wizard displays all available scripts:

After selecting a script, the user may direct the Model Forge to use a different data mart or to
activate or deactivate various model build steps:
The selection of cleanup scripts or other processing applications can be made. Again, the
default selection of all of these build actions is made in the cleanup script. The user is making
run-time adjustments:
The Model Forge engine can build models at the rate of 100 feeders / minute. The result is a
model in SynerGEE:

1.3 Modeling
SynerGEE is a modeling and simulation environment where a single set of detailed by-phase
models and a variety of powerful applications support the needs of planning, protection,
reliability, and operations engineering. An extensive, detailed, by-phase, power distribution
system model makes up the core of SynerGEE Electric.
Figure 1-1. Model for a regulator bank

This framework is the basis for all simulation and analysis in SynerGEE. Applications for
planning, protection, reliability, operations, capacity management, quality, and economics are
all within the same environment and driven from the same distribution system model.
Individual phases of overhead and underground lines are considered along with a variety of
neutral and grounding configurations. Facility models for transformers, regulators, capacitors,
and generators are constructed in SynerGEE to mimic the real-world response of these devices
to unbalanced voltage and loading.
SynerGEE can model radial, looped, and meshed distribution systems. Secondary distribution
networks with distribution transformers and network protectors can be modeled. Feeders,
substations and switchgear, as well as the transmission and sub-transmission network can be
modeled as well.
SynerGEE Electric is designed to support the analytical needs of power engineers at the utility.
It is also designed to promote team working so that planners, protection engineers, reliability
engineers, operators, managers, and others can all work off of the same model and
environment. For example, an engineer making a planning decision for capacity planning based
on contingency analysis can see the effect that the proposal would have on reliability and
protection coordination.
1.3.1 Model cleanup

Data development and cleanup is the biggest challenge to modeling distribution systems.
SynerGEE can run on models with far from perfect data. It is designed to analyze systems with
data issues and let the engineer understand the issues and the impact that they might have on
analysis results.
SynerGEE’s model cleanup tools quickly and systematically resolve data inconsistencies so
engineers throughout the organization can spend more time using models instead of building,
cleaning, and fixing them. We understand that the biggest utility expense is not our software;
it’s the time and cost of data collection. SynerGEE Electric gets your team up and running with
usable models and meaningful results.
SynerGEE Electric allows you to automate data imports and exports, analysis runs, data cleanup
activities and more. The powerful macro environment is driven with easy-to-use, reusable
scripts. Repetitive processes can be easily automated. Application runs can be done in batches.
Macros can be written to manipulate the user interface or develop highly custom map coloring
schemes. Once written, the macros can be shared with other SynerGEE users.
1.3.2 Built by power engineers

SynerGEE is a product built by power distribution engineers for power distribution engineers.
The development team strives to keep the data requirements for the product to a minimum.
They also work to make the tools intuitive and easy to use. Finally, SynerGEE contains a vast
assortment of applications and tools so that many approaches can be taken to tackle studies,
simulations, and analysis.

The SynerGEE workplace is designed to be the best environment for managing utility data,
understanding the distribution system, and performing the most valuable engineering analysis.
1.3.3 Benefits of SynerGEE Electric

• Consistent modeling, simulation, and analysis framework for all distribution
engineers.
• Distribution modeling data is supported by SynerGEE and its use is promoted
beyond the planning group.
• All product users benefit because SynerGEE clients are actively engaged in
development of new applications and capabilities.
• After a decade, the SynerGEE Development team continues to listen to clients
and aggressively advance the product to meet the growing needs of the industry.
1.4 Planning
The multi-year network modeling capabilities of SynerGEE are supported by load-flow, fault,
and other planning tools. These applications are designed to run quickly and give fast and easy
access to comprehensive results in reports, charts, or on the map. Because of SynerGEE’s
modeling basis, all applications can be used to evaluate planning options. Aspects of
contingency, reliability, protection, and economics are all readily available for the engineer
considering planning alternatives.
The multi-year model in SynerGEE is a fundamental part of SynerGEE and a key tool for
distribution engineering planning.
Figure 1-2. Multi-year model
The SynerGEE model accounts for new facilities, load changes, demand changes, and
configuration changes over a ten year period. An engineer can instantly evaluate a new large
customer’s impact on the current and future years.

The evaluation year is selected with a simple drop down list. All SynerGEE analysis is performed
on that year.
Figure 1-3. Load-flow in a future year
SynerGEE has a variety of tools to analyze and summarize the performance of the system over
multiple years.
Figure 1-4. Annual performance
The charts above are generated from SynerGEE’s multi-year analysis tool. They show the
demand of a feeder in amps and the reliability for the feeder as SAIFI.
1.5 Capacity
SynerGEE supports a very powerful switching engine that helps engineers and operators
evaluate load transfers and find capacity problems. Contingency, switching optimization, and
load transfer tools are available. Many engineers using SynerGEE bring real-time loads and
demands into the product and then simply operate switches to review the impacts.

Figure 1-5. A switch plan
Switching alternatives and switching plans can be maintained in separate areas outside of the
normal SynerGEE model. Engineers can switch their model to create unfed areas, islands, loops,
meshes, and single-phase wandering lateral loops. Auto-transfer schemes and protective device
switching is supported.
Load capacity issues are highlighted on the map. The engineer can investigate ways to transfer
load or use the many tools in SynerGEE to find suggestions. SynerGEE can evaluate capacity
issues throughout the load fluctuations of a year. It can even run the system over the next ten
simulation years to pinpoint load capacity problems. Line limits, equipment ratings, and cable
thermal ampacity limits are all factors.
Figure 1-6. Capacity issues around a substation
SynerGEE’s Contingency Planning and Analysis is a comprehensive tool that helps you develop
and validate contingency switching plans. Outage simulation enables you to evaluate your

model and identify a switching recovery plan according to your utility’s objectives. The tool’s
flexibility enables you to:
• Run single or multiple contingencies, including individual scenarios one at a time
in a batch mode.
• Select the service restoration pickup objective along with voltage and loading
constraints.
• Specify how SynerGEE treats different types of devices, including normal
switches, automatic switches and protective devices.
• Simulate a sustained fault condition by initially opening switches necessary to
isolate an outage.
Contingency reporting provides you with a clear view of the order in which devices should be
operated and enables you to examine the effect that device operations will have on system
voltages and loading, step by step.
Figure 1-7. Contingency run summary
The Contingency report is a dynamic interface that provides quick zooming and editing tools.
You can operate each device presented in a report without having to return to your map;
SynerGEE can zoom directly to the switch in question with a simple mouse click.
SynerGEE’s Optimal Switching Analysis allows you to find the best switching configuration for
your system, using the three-phase switches in your model. Select any combination of feeders
or substations and SynerGEE will search for switching actions to meet your objective. Optimal
Switching offers powerful options to customize your analysis, allowing you to:
• Select an optimization objective such as improving losses or lowest voltage
• Set voltage or loading constraints so switching operations do not violate system
standards
• Save the suggested switching plan as an external switch position file that you can
load into your model later for further analysis.

Figure 1-8. Instructions from optimal switching
By using a local optimization technique rather than a global approach, Optimal Switching
provides realistic switching plans. Global methods, which open every switch and attempt to
close them in an optimal topology, produce infeasible plans that require dozens of switching
operations. SynerGEE assumes the system is already close to an optimal state and works to
fine-tune based on available switching pairs.
Depending on your requirements, objectives such as ‘minimize substation transformer loading’
and ‘equate loading’ may be useful when balancing loads among feeders and transformers.
Figure 1-9. Switching improvements
The Optimal Switching report presents a comprehensive view of the proposed switching plan
and clearly presents any progress toward your objective with each switching operation. You can
also monitor other system parameters with each step.
1.6 SynerGEE Protection

SynerGEE contains a fully integrated protection package. Engineers don’t have to learn about
and export data to a separate product. SynerGEE’s 15,000 curve library allows engineers to deal
with device settings and coordination issues just as fluidly as load-flow and fault results.
Furthermore, ‘Check Coordination Analysis’ and TCC cutoff values are driven from the same
model in the same state as other engineering analysis.

Figure 1-10. Time-coordination curves in SynerGEE
SynerGEE Electric offers the industry the most advanced modeling environment for over-
current protective devices. It allows engineers to quickly evaluate and manage the extensive
and complex protection schemes for hundreds or thousands of radial distribution feeders.
Coordination can be checked for a series of devices, a feeder, or an entire model. It can be
checked for particular loading levels, at a particular time of day, or over a period of months or
years. Load growth, customer behavior, switching configurations, and changing facilities are all
a part of the environment in SynerGEE and important to protection studies.
Figure 1-11. Time-coordination curves in SynerGEE
SynerGEE Protection offers an advanced environment for modeling over-current protection

characteristics and coordination issues for distribution system devices. It uses a rule-based
system to simplify the labor-intensive tasks of coordinating protection devices. SynerGEE
Protection can be run as a stand-alone protection package or used with the other valuable
capabilities of SynerGEE like Contingency and Reliability.

Figure 1-12. Protection blends into the many other engineering disciplines supported by
SynerGEE
1.6.1 Large-scale device coordination

Check Coordination is a comprehensive analysis tool and is available to evaluate device
coordination on a large scale. With this tool, SynerGEE can check an entire feeder or system for
device coordination. This evaluation is based on an internal rule base and a detailed set of user-
defined margins.
Figure 1-13. Check summary for a multi-feeder model
Check Coordination automatically divides a feeder into protective device pairs. These
combinations of devices to form pairs are based on the switched state of the model. Switching
could be based on normal or emergency switch plans, real-time updates from a SCADA system,
the result of an engineering analysis like Optimal Switching, or from manual switching. Fault
ranges are determined and the necessary rules are used to check coordination.

Figure 1-14. Rules and fault ranges from a report
1.6.2 Protection Modeling

SynerGEE Protection is not a ‘light-table’ application. Models for breakers, reclosers, fuses, and
other devices are core to the detailed distribution model used by SynerGEE for contingency,
reliability, arc-flashover, and other analysis. The protection tools show the control and response
curves for various device models on standard log-log graphs. Devices plotted on the graph
come directly from the model, not a curve list. This allows engineers to evaluate the many
facets of protection equipment performance. The placement and settings of equipment used to
evaluate coordination are also used to predict reliability metrics, evaluate switching capacity
and determine incident energy from arc-flashover.
SynerGEE includes over 15,000 curves in its open-database library.
1.6.3 Detailed models

• Breakers and reclosers
• Electronic, electromechanical, hydraulic relays
• Expulsion and current limiting fuses
• Sectionalizers
• Transformer connections and current shifting
• Transformer inrush, and damage
• Conductor damage & flash-over energy
SynerGEE ships with 15,000 protective device curves that are stored in an open Access
database.

Figure 1-15. Tool to view and edit curve library
1.6.4 Built to grow

The Check Coordination rule base is extensive with over 80 validation criteria. It is also built to
be extended with new rules as they are requested by our clients.
SynerGEE Protection is designed to exceed the needs of protection, planning, operations,
reliability, and other engineers at the distribution utility. Powerful tools and applications in the
product can be used to set up coordination and evaluate the performance of the system.
1.7 Load Modeling

The purpose of the distribution system is to serve customer loads. Therefore, the primary focus
of SynerGEE is on modeling the vast number of loads in the distribution system model.
How many loads are on your distribution system? Are there thousands, hundreds of thousands,
or over a million? SynerGEE has the load models, tools, and analytical capabilities to represent
these loads and the way that they respond to voltage changes, switching, time of day, weather,
and more.
Every line section in the model has the potential to manage by-phase load information for
customers distributed along the line and metered commercial customers. Values for these
loads are tracked on a multi-year and by-phase basis.

Figure 1-16. Loads in the section editor
Loads can vary over 24 hours for three day types over twelve months. As a result, time of day
modeling can deal with nearly 900 different load points throughout the year.
Figure 1-17. Hourly load variation for a customer
Every section in SynerGEE can hold a 10-year load profile for residential, spot, and distributed
loads.

Figure 1-18. Yearly load variation on the section
1.7.1 Load Types

There are five types of load in the SynerGEE model. These models are designed to be intuitive
tools for representing the various types of customer loads in the distribution system.
• Distributed Loads—Residential and small commercial customers
• Spot Loads—Commercial and industrial loads where demand is known
• Large Customers — Very large and significant loads that need map symbols,
cogeneration, scheduling, and harmonic components.
• Projects — Customers that are scheduled to be connected in the coming months
or years.
• Speculative Loads—Geographic regions that are identified for development.
Figure 1-19. List of various commercial loads
1.7.2 Data Development

SynerGEE has a variety of tools and systems to help setup and mold load values. In one of these
tools, data from billing systems can be used by SynerGEE to construct loads for the model.

Figure 1-20. View of customer load values
1.8 SynerGEE Reliability

Outage events from OMS or other systems are brought into SynerGEE where they are
correlated into zones. At that point, the SynerGEE model is setup with the probability, based on
historical data, that failures will be caused by trees, storms, squirrels, or other utility defined
causes. The engineer can mitigate problems with tree trimming or animal guards. The reliability
impact of reclosers and fuses can be evaluated. The effect on customer SAIFI, SAIDI, and MAIFI
from switching changes can be predicted from the historical data used to feed the model.
Reliability is an integral part of SynerGEE. As an engineer works through a decision or proposal,
reliability is as easily accessible as fault, loading and voltage values. Because reliability uses the
same model and engine as all other SynerGEE applications, results and the impact of switching
and protection are consistent.
Figure 1-21. Reliability indices on feeders
SynerGEE Reliability performs all calculations on the unique SynerGEE distribution system
model that is used for load-flow, fault, protection, and all other analysis.

Figure 1-22. Comprehensive switching modeling
This sharing of the model, constraints, and analytical tools allows reliability to be a fundamental
part of the engineering product.
Figure 1-23. Breakdown of SAIFI contributions
Figure 1-24. Root cause details
1.8.1 Predictive metrics historical events

Reliability metrics indicate the quality of energy supply from a utility to its customers. They are
indicators of the value that customers realize through their current service. Since quality of
service is basic to the long-term health of any utility, reliability metrics are a fundamental
concern of engineers, managers, and executives alike. These metrics often affect financial

decisions related to long-range and business planning. Reliability results are and calculations
are weaved throughout SynerGEE to aid in those decisions.
Figure 1-25. Map colored by SAIFI values
1.8.2 Multi-year modeling

SynerGEE is built to deal with a 10-year model. This allows engineers to evaluate the impact of
facility changes and load growth over the next decade.
Figure 1-26. Predicted SAIDI values
1.8.3 Actual outage events

Outage events from OMS or other systems are brought into SynerGEE where they are
correlated into zones. At that point, the SynerGEE model is setup with the probabilities, based
on historical data, that failures will be caused by trees, squirrels, accidents, or other utility
defined causes. The engineer can calibrate the model with indices calculated for feeders or
substations. He can then review the model so see where root causes are having the largest
impact on reliability. He can also mitigate the problems with tree trimming or animal guards.
The reliability impact from new or relocated reclosers and switches can be evaluated. The affect

of normal and hypothetical reconfigurations on customer SAIFI, SAIDI, and MAIFI can be
predicted from the model.
Figure 1-27. Failure rates calculated by SynerGEE
1.8.4 Designed for all engineering teams

Reliability scenario evaluations should not be independent studies. As such, SynerGEE provides
reliability simulation based on the same data model as other engineering simulations and
applications. SynerGEE considers security, capacity, efficiency, and power quality using the
comprehensive by-phase model and engineering applications like load-flow, contingency,
protection coordination, and other analyses. In this manner, all SynerGEE analyses are
consistent and based on the same facility and loading model. All engineers at the utility can
take advantage of the reliability results. Changes in protection, switching, and loading will all
have an impact on reliability. With SynerGEE, engineers can see this impact even though they
are not focused directly on reliability engineering.
1.9 SynerGEE Cable

SynerGEE Cable focuses on the ampacity limits of cables in duct banks. It also calculates the
temperature that cables will reach based on their loading in the SynerGEE model. SynerGEE
Cable helps the engineer determine the affect of burial configuration, soil makeup, and demand
on the loading limits of cables in a duct bank.

Figure 1-28. Load-flow and thermal analysis work together
Cables should be loaded so that their operating temperature is well below levels that would
damage their insulation. The SynerGEE model supports the analysis of direct buried cables in
and out of ducts and cables within encased duct banks. Analysis is based on a detailed by-phase
thermal network. Cable loading can be specified or set to the values determined from load-flow
analysis. SynerGEE calculates the available capacity remaining in each circuit to avoid a thermal
overloading of any cable in the duct bank.
Figure 1-29. Available capacity on cables
1.9.1 Reports
Electro-thermal results are displayed in easy to understand reports. Calculated values for the
duct bank or thermal network parameters are available in the many sub-chapters.
Figure 1-30. Temperature details from thermal network
1.9.2 All of the details

Cables buried directly or in ducts produce heat. As the cable serves more load, it produces
drastically more heat. Insulation, dielectrics, sheaths, concentric strands, and other cable
components keep the heat insulated within the cable. Air, metal ducts, concrete, and soil
provide the route for heat to travel among the cables of a circuit and cables of different circuits.
Electromagnetic fields, neutral current, and current within the sheath and concentric strands

also generate heat. All of these details and many others result in a very complex system of heat
sources and thermal barriers. SynerGEE handles these complexities and presents values like
available current capacity, cable temperature, and amp limits in simple reports and diagrams.
Figure 1-31. Excerpt from technical reference
1.9.3 Easy model building

Constructing a duct bank is easy in SynerGEE. The engineer selects the bank size from a list in
SynerGEE. Next, the ducts can be sized and moved around the bank with the mouse. The bank
can be raised or lowered with a simple drag-and-drop.
Figure 1-32. Graphical representation of cables
Information about duct bank material, duct material, etc can all be entered through the duct
bank properties dialog. Cables for the bank are added with a drag-and-drop from the
warehouse. The cables used duct banks come from the warehouse of cables used in all analysis.
Cables in the duct bank can also be matched with actual cables in the model so that model
loading can drive the heat generation of the cable in the bank.

Figure 1-33. Cable ampacity values
1.10 Load Forecasting

There are two reasons for forecasting loads at the distribution utility. First, the utility must
determine if it has the capacity to provide or buy and deliver the power and energy that
customers will be demanding in future years. Transmission infrastructure must be built to
support future demands. Contracts need to be put into place for future bulk load transfers.
Finally, regulating bodies need to be informed about the utilities plans to support its customers
in upcoming years.
Second, the utility needs to evaluate its future revenue to ensure the solvency of the company
and financial performance to its stake or stock holders. Investor owned utilities may look for
ways to attract load. If forecasts look bad then the utility may more aggressively look for new
load. If load projections are not showing adequate growth then the utility may need to reduce
planned expenses.
Figure 1-34. Load growth forecasted
Engineers at the utility must ensure that the distribution infrastructure can support future load.
For them, the loading along critical paths during the upcoming years is important. Forecasting
individual load growth within an engineering model is important to doing this. The above two

reasons for forecasting do not typically involved detailed feeder analysis. Engineering analysis is
needed for evaluating the ability of the distribution system to deal with future loads.
SynerGEE forecasting is a tool to apply expected growth trends to the distribution model. The
goal is to go from growth rates categorized in various ways to actual kW and kvar values in the
model. Forecasting is specifically applied to the five load models in SynerGEE:
• Distributed
• Spot
• Large customer
• Project
• Speculative
Growth expectations can be applied to these load types or combinations of these load types in
a spatial or logical fashion.
SynerGEE utilizes growth percentages that have been determined from land use, regression, or
other types of analysis. These analyses are generated from trends in historic and expected
metrics and demographics.
1.11 Power Quality

The SynerGEE model has detailed line, source, and load models that are used for load-flow,
fault analysis, and other applications in the product. SynerGEE also has an advanced by-phase
harmonic load-flow engine. The only data requirement for analyzing harmonics on a
distribution system is the harmonic profile of the loads. That information is entered by
dragging, up and down, the bars of a histogram.
Figure 1-35. Simple interface for entering harmonic data
The resulting ‘harmonic profiles’ are then associated with various large loads in the model. At
that point, the harmonic load-flow is run in SynerGEE and the map can be colored by Total

Harmonic Distortion and other metrics. The map below is colored by the THD percentage. Most
of the harmonic disturbance is emanating from a large customer fed by an auto-transfer switch
near the center of the map.
Figure 1-36. Map colored by THD
This plot of % distortion reflects the fact that all analysis in SynerGEE is by-phase and
distribution system oriented.
1.11.1 Comprehensive and easy to use

Our first goal is to make harmonic modeling accurate. The by-phase distribution model of
SynerGEE supports this accuracy along with the consistency between harmonic analysis and all
other modeling in SynerGEE. The analysis of flow through a delta-wye transformer, for example,
is the same in load-flow, harmonics, reliability, protection, and other functional areas of the
product. The single transformer model supports all of these areas of analysis.
Figure 1-37. By-phase voltage distortion
Shown below is a tool that can help engineers visualize and understand the propagation and
filtering of harmonic current through a transformer bank:

Figure 1-38. Harmonic filtering through a transformer bank
A harmonic impedance scan near the customer. It shows resonance points near the
seventeenth harmonic.
Neutral current is on the primary service to the large customer.
Line current is serving the large customer. Severe distortion is evident.

1.12 CMM
The Customer Management Module (CMM) assigns customers to distribution transformers and
sections in the model, calculates transformer utilization, capacity factor, and load values, and
creates customer zones and classes. This information is stored in a CMM database so that
engineers can use it to update SynerGEE models.
Using this data in a SynerGEE model allows a variety of analyses, such as:
• Calculating the demand on specific distribution transformers to prevent overload
damage or inefficient operation
• Determining the customer makeup of a poorly performing area
• Testing the feasibility of system changes, based on the number/type of
customers affected
• Validating the accuracy of your current load models and load allocation methods
• Generate customer and transformer reports and find customers within SynerGEE
network analysis environment to enhance model effectiveness and system
knowledge.
CMM is a mechanism to use customer level load information to set up and maintain loads in
the SynerGEE model. Customer information systems typically have detailed information about
customer kWh consumption, kW demand, and customer class. This information can be brought
into the SynerGEE environment and used to establish load values. Customer level data can be
used to build model loading from the bottom-up or it can be used along with metered values
and SynerGEE’s Load Allocation to calculate load values that are consistent with customer
billing data and with SCADA metered demands.

Figure 1-39. Transformer Utilization
The customer information system (CIS) is the source for customer data used by SynerGEE.
Billing and other customer data can be moved from that system into the CMM database used
by SynerGEE. The application used to move this data can be developed by the utility using tools
within the CIS, Visual Basic, or database tools.
CMM can process four categories of customer information:
• Customers
• Distribution Transformers
• Billing Records (kWh consumption and kW demand)
• Customer class profiles (Diversity curves, load factors, power factors)
1.13 Arc Flashover

Electric Arc Flashover is the passage of current between two electrodes through ionized gases
and vapors. The electrical energy supplied to the arc is converted into other forms of energy
and results in intense heat. The extremely high temperatures of these arcs can cause fatal
burns at about five feet and major burns at up to a ten feet distance from the arc. The intensity
of the arc depends on voltage, fault current, clearing time of the protective device, enclosure
space, etc. Arc Flashover is a greater risk in circuits with the operating voltage of 208V and
higher in commercial and industrial facilities.
Electric arc burns make up a major portion of injuries related to electric malfunctions. Arc
Flashover standards are issued by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and
the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA). These are a result of the industry efforts to protect
employees from Arc Flashover hazards. Most incidents are preventable or less intense if the
employees wear the proper protective gear and are aware of safety hazards. IEEE and NFPA
standards now require switchboards, panel boards, and motor control centers to be individually
field marked with Arc Flashover warning labels that specify the protective clothing and
boundary distance. IEEE and NFPA standards specify that flash-protection boundary, working

distance, and incident energy should be prominently displayed on every piece of electrical
equipment where an Arc Flashover hazard exists.
Arc Flashover calculations form the basis to develop strategies to minimize burn injuries. These
strategies can include specifying the rating of personal protective equipment (PPE), working de-
energized, using arc-resistant switchgear, or applying other engineering techniques and work
practices.
The calculations for Arc Flashover in SynerGEE are based on IEEE standard 1584-2002 and NFPA
70E-2004. They are completely integrated into SynerGEE Electric and are available as an
analysis tool. All sections and devices in the selection set perform Arc fault calculations.
SynerGEE can generate labels can generate for the devices.
Figure 1-40. Map colored by incident energy
1.14 Solver
The data management, modeling engine, and engineering applications of SynerGEE can be
directly incorporated into utility systems with the Solver. The Solver is the non-graphical
portions of SynerGEE made available through COM to programming languages like Visual Basic,
C#, and C++. Many utilities licensed to use SynerGEE take the Solver and build custom
applications that directly fit into their business processes.
The Solver is a comprehensive software component built for the detailed modeling of power
distribution systems and the management of associated data. The Solver supports over 1000
data attributes, settings, analyses, and functions in a clear object-oriented interface.
Solver is an in-process server. A client application is required to build a functional solution.
There are four general approaches to deploying the Solver in this fashion.

1.14.1 Scenario 1: Custom Applications

An engineer with Excel, MathCad, Visual Basic, or other environment can write programs to use
the Solver in innovative ways. Here are some examples:
Fault Location
Finder
Stoner TCC Viewer
Solver
Stoner
Solver
Work plan
in Excel
Stoner Custom Report
Solver Generator
Stoner
Solver
Figure 1-41. Custom applications
These applications can be stand alone tools or they can be built to supplement features
provided in the SynerGEE product.
1.14.2 Scenario 2: GIS Extraction

Solver can directly integrate into an open architecture GIS. Traces and objects in the GIS tie to
objects in the Solver model. Data from the GIS is used to build a model in the Solver. The Solver
can save the electric distribution model to a database:
GIS Stoner Stoner

DB GIS
Solver DB
Figure 1-42. Model building from GIS
A GIS rarely has sufficient data for the analytical modeling of a distribution system. Therefore,
Solver is rich in features for defaulting missing data and validating data that are passed into it.
1.14.3 Scenario 3: Engineering Analysis in GIS

Solver integrated into a GIS as described by Scenario 3 can save models to databases. It can also
perform engineering analysis, data checking, and topology checking in memory without ever
creating a database:

GIS GIS
Stoner
DB Alerts Solver Analysis
Results Reports
Figure 1-43. EA in GIS
This powerful capability allows information about overloading, low voltages, contingency, and
other problems to be calculated and displayed right in the GIS. There are applications in design,
contingency, optimal switching, and other areas where the GIS would provide a suitable
decision making environment. The Solver can also provide valuable information that could lead
to GIS data and topology corrections. The GIS can directly utilize Solver results for thematic
mapping on numerical display. The Solver can also generate formal reports that can be
displayed with a browser like Internet Explorer.
1.14.4 Scenario 4: Information hub

The Solver design and rules maintain a consistent power distribution system model. This type of
tool can be an essential focal point for the gathering of data from a variety of sources.
SCADA Stoner
DB
Billing Stoner
DB Customer
Solver
DB
Central
DB
Figure 1-44. Yearly load variation on the section
Utility information systems are driven by a significant amount of custom software. If

distribution model data is a part of these systems then the Solver can play an important role.
1.14.5 COM Solver

COM or the “Component Object Model” is a specification for building open software and is a
standard for defining interfaces for programs. Solver has a COM interface. Other programs like
a GIS are able to attach to our interface if they are built to COM standards. By standardizing the
way that interfaces are constructed, different applications built by different companies can
tightly integrate with little or no collaboration.

When COM products are upgraded, they always support their previous interface. Thus, if you
upgrade your GIS, all of your COM components will still work. If you install an upgrade to the
Solver, it will still work properly in the GIS.
1.14.6 Solver Interface & Object Model

SynerGEE provides comprehensive tools and detailed analysis to the engineer on the desktop.
The Solver was developed to provide the same analytical functionality to the GIS, the
operations center, or the data processing server. It is also a tool that can further extend the
engineers desktop by allowing him to drive distribution analysis through a spreadsheet or Visual
Basic.
There are five parts to the Electric Solver.
• Distribution System Object Model
• Data Management Methods
• Data Checking and Validation Methods
• Engineering Analysis
• Reporting Features
Let’s look at these parts in more detail.
1.14.7 Object Model

Every device, equipment type, and attribute of the SynerGEE distribution model is exposed in
the Solver object model. The object model has been built to closely resemble the GUI in the
SynerGEE sister product. Furthermore, attribute names in the object model very closely match
the field names in the SynerGEE Electric database. In fact, the Solver and SynerGEE share this
database schema.
The Solver implements the complete electric model set. This includes very detailed models for:
• Lines with Carson’s theory
• Fuses, reclosers, sectionalizers, relays
• Switches
• Regulators with LDC controllers
• Switched capacitors
• Motors with service and starters
• Transformer banks with connections
• Synchronous and induction generators
• Substations, feeders
• … and more
These models have been designed to emulate real world devices.

1.14.8 Data Management

Solver is equipped to create new databases and read and write data to existing ones. The Solver
supports five sets of database tables:
• Model instances
• Warehouse (model equipment)
• Protection curves
• Defaults and limits
• Customers and distribution transformers
These sets can be read from and written to a single database or multiple databases. For
example, model instance and customer data can be kept in one database while warehouse data
is kept in another.
The Solver can compare a model in memory to a model stored in a database. Differences and
conflicts can be reported. Also, the Solver is capable of merging feeders and substation
transformers from multiple databases. Incremental updates can be made from other databases
or directly from the Solver interface.
1.14.9 Data Validation

Attribute values and engineering data that may be invalid can be reported to the user with the
Solver. The integrator or user can define limits for particular data. Data falling outside of user-
defined limits generates warnings. The Solver also supplies default information to missing data.
The integrator or the end user can specify values for many of these defaults.
1.14.10 Engineering Analysis

An extensive set of analysis is available for distribution system simulation. Some of the
applications supported by the solver are:
• Looped & radial by-phase load flow
• Looped & radial by-phase fault
• Fault voltage and fault flow
• Load allocation
• Load balancing
• Phase balancing
• Check coordination
• Line & feeder contingency
• Capacitor placement
• Harmonic analysis
• Motor start & locked rotor analysis

• Conservation voltage reduction

• Reliability analysis
• Optimal switching
• Node reduction
Results from these applications can be obtained through the Solver object model, saves to the
database, or web reports rendered in a viewer like Internet Explorer.
1.14.11 Reporting Features

The Solver produces web reports, charts, maps, results databases and XML output datasets.
Many of the web reports are enabled with HTML frames, links, and jumps to help the end user
find information quickly.
The Solver is also equipped to generate image files. Charts and graphs showing analysis results
can be generated. Here are some examples:
• TCC for protective device coordination
• Pie chart showing losses
• Harmonic impedance scan
• Motor starting curve
These charts can be generated as ‘.tif’, ‘.bmp’, or ‘.jpg’ files. They can be displayed in the host
application, a browser, or a more comprehensive report.
1.14.12 Complete solution:

SynerGEE Electric is power distribution simulation environment for the engineer’s desktop. It is
an extensive graphical environment to help the engineer get to the problem and solution
quickly. It provides graphical tools for building models and analyzing results. Planning,
protection, and operations engineers needing to solve complicated problems turn to SynerGEE.
Its flexibility and realistic models and analysis are acclaimed worldwide.
The Solver provides the raw power of SynerGEE’s modeling, data management, and analysis
capabilities to your company in a single component. The Solver can provide great value in
handling the complicated issues associated with simulating a modern power distribution
system.
SynerGEE and the Solver provide an ideal solution. The Solver can play a key role in GIS and
information system data management. It can also provide analytical solutions in the GIS or
within custom applications written to address specific issues. SynerGEE is a tool to sit on the
engineer’s desktop. Its streamlined interface and outstanding tools allow the engineer to solve
the problem at hand.
SynerGEE and the Solver share the same electric database, power system models, and analysis
engine. They also produce very similar reports and graphs. The consistency between the Solver
and SynerGEE was of primary importance during development of these products. It is our hope

that this consistency along with the capabilities of the products will be a great benefit to your
company.

68 Modeling Your System
2.1 The SynerGEE Vision
Data
Quality Planning
Model &
Economics Operations
Simulation
Safety Protection
Reliability
Figure 2-1 Product functional areas

Modeling Your System 69
2.2 Feeders and Substations

In SynerGEE, sources are swing busses or voltage / degree busses. There are two types of
sources in SynerGEE: feeders and substations. In both cases, the voltage is specified in nominal
kV and volts. Values can be single values resulting in a balanced 120 degree rotation, or they
can be specified by phase. Feeders and substations also have source impedance values that
become important during fault, motor start, and harmonic studies.
Oftentimes, feeders are the only source modeled in SynerGEE due to the unavailability of
substation data. Feeders are usually setup to represent some point near the secondary of the
substation transformer.
Substations have gone through several changes throughout the life of SynerGEE. Initially they
were called “substation transformers”. They held information about the source to the
substation transformer, and also about the transformer itself. In the current version of
SynerGEE, the transformer information has been removed from the “substation transformer”.
The data held by the substation and the data held by the feeder are nearly identical. Now the
transformer in the substation is represented by a primary transformer with a pad mounted
transformer type.
A real substation oftentimes has multiple transmission feeds. In SynerGEE, that substation
would be represented by multiple “substation transformer” facilities.
An advantage to substation modeling is that the effects from the substation transformers to
harmonics, faults, flicker, and voltage drop can be simulated. Transfer options are available in
contingency studies when the substation is modeled. Also, whenever a substation is analyzed,
all connected feeders are also analyzed; even if they are not selected.
2.3 Sources
The fixed voltage “sources” in a model can either be feeders or substation transformers. If the
model loaded into SynerGEE has substations, then a feeder will only be energized if it is fed by a
substation. A model loaded into SynerGEE will either have:
• Only feeders – feeders act like sources
• Only subs – subs act like sources
• Feeders and subs – feeders must be fed by a sub to be energized
Note that these rules are for feeders and subs loaded into SynerGEE. A model database may
contain subs and feeders. If only feeders are loaded into SynerGEE then the substation is not
needed to energize them.
Here is an example: If only these feeders were loaded into SynerGEE then each feeder would be
energized:

Figure 2-2 A feeder only model
Furthermore, if one or more substation models are loaded, the feeders will only be energized
when fed by a substation:
Figure 2-3 Feeders fed by substations
If we disconnect a feeder by breaking a tie-line or operating a switch then the feeder will be de-
energized. In the image below, the Western feeder is de-energized when we open the switch in
the substation:

Figure 2-4 De-energizing a feeder
If a model has substations then a new feeder that is added to that model will be de-energized
until it is tied to a substation. That concept makes sense in the substation model like the one
above. Obviously a new feeder (oftentimes called ‘circuit’) in the sub above will need to tie into
one of the substation transformers. However, this idea may be confusing when locating
planned, new, feeders out away from the current substation model.
If a model has substations and a node is converted to a feeder, there would be no visible effect.
The image below shows the feeder that we added to the model above. Since the feeder has no
substation feeding it, it remains unfed:

Figure 2-5 Adding a feeder to a model with subs
Now, if we build a sub to feed the feeder then the southwestern part of the model becomes
energized:
Figure 2-6 Feeder needs to be fed by a substation in this model

2.4 Switches and Switchable Devices

SynerGEE allows you to model switches within your feeder models. These switches can be used
to reconfigure your feeder connectivity. The following rules apply for placing switches on
sections:
• There can be only one switch per section.
• A switch is located at either the source or load end of the section.
• With the exception of network models, a switch cannot be closed to form a loop.
A tie switch, which is an open switch with tie calculation capability, must be used
instead.
In SynerGEE, network topology is governed solely with nodes and sections. Topology as well as
the position and status of switches govern connectivity, or electrical flow.
When building radial feeders, the drawing and model manipulation tools within SynerGEE
should prevent the creation of loops. The tie switch model should be used in cases where a
looped analysis is needed.
Switches are placed on sections like other devices such as regulators and transformers and
always remain on the outside. When closed, a switch has no effect on the electrical connectivity
of a section. When the switch is opened, the switch prevents power flow through the source or
load end of a section. The following diagram presents a high-level view of an entire section
within SynerGEE. It shows the locations for device placement on the section.
Figure 2-7 Section broken into areas where switchable devices may be placed
This diagram represents some important concepts related to sections and switches.
• A section always lies between two nodes. Switches have no effect on the
relationship between a section and its nodes.
• A switch either allows or prevents current flow into or out of a section.
• With respect to other devices, switches are always located closest to nodes.

2.5 Switch types and functions

Switches can perform several different functions in a SynerGEE model. All are initially modeled
using a switch type from the equipment database (drag and drop from the Warehouse tab).
Once on the model, you can configure a switch into any of the functional types outlined in the
following sections.
2.5.1 Basic switch

This is a "normal" switch. Opening a switch creates an island. Closing a switch restores
connectivity and typically picks up load.
2.5.2 Loop tie switch

This switch can be used to model loops in a radial network. It resides on the model as an open
switch, but you can set SynerGEE to treat it as closed during analysis in your model and analysis
options (Use Loops). Typically, you would place one on the last section that connects to create a
loop, breaking connectivity for topology purposes. Lightly meshed systems can be built and
analyzed with these switches. See the following section, Switch details.
2.5.3 Wandering lateral tie switch

This switch can be used to reconnect branching single-phase lines back to a three-phase trunk,
serving three-phase loads downstream. It resides on the model as an open switch, but you can
set SynerGEE to treat it as closed during analysis in your model and analysis options (Use
Wandering Lateral). Typically, you would place one on the last section of a lateral before it
reconnects to the three-phase line, breaking connectivity for topology purposes. When you set
SynerGEE to close these switches for analysis, the phases into the switch feed all sections
connected to the associated downstream node.
2.5.4 Automatic switch

These switches simulate real devices which automatically close to pick up load in the event of
an outage or a drop in voltage. You can set your contingency analysis options to Prefer Auto
Switches, where automatic switches are operated first, regardless of the switching objective.
Also, automatic switches may have a reduced operation time in reliability analysis.
2.5.5 Auto-transfer switches

These switches simulate real devices which automatically transfer a critical load to an alternate
feed path, in the event of an outage. In SynerGEE, these switches are modeled as a pair of
regular switches marked as Auto-Transfer, and located on either side of the node that serves a
critical load. To create a valid auto-transfer switch pair, one must be open and the other closed,
such that the node only receives power from one source (the load can be placed on a third
section connected to that node). Once modeled, you can toggle the switches as a pair to
alternate the feed source. Contingency analysis operates the switches together and reliability

analysis may use the switches to reduce a sustained interruption to a momentary one for load
served by the auto-transfer switch pair.
Figure 2-8 Auto-transfer switch pair in SynerGEE
2.6 Switch details
2.6.1 Phasing
Switches only connect those phases that are present on both sides of the switch. This is the
case for balanced and by-phase looped analyses.
2.6.2 Exception handling

During balanced or by-phase analysis, the current through a switch is compared with the amp
rating listed in the database for that switch. If the current is too high, the value of current in the
Results tab of the Section editor will be appropriately colored.
2.6.3 Switch results

Current (in amps) through switches is displayed on reports, along with the name of the switch
type. Sections with switches have a special area in the Results tab of the Section editor that has
either the balanced or by-phase current flow displayed. The color of the switch numbers in the
listing may reflect an overloaded switch.
2.6.4 Radial feeders with loops

Balanced and by-phase analyses can handle radial feeders with loops formed by special
switches, known as tie switches. A tie switch is an open switch that SynerGEE recognizes as a tie
point for forming a loop, treating it as closed during analysis. For normal building of radial
models, loop creation is prohibited without tie switches. There is no limit to the number of tie
switches or loops that can be created.
With tie switches, you can also model ring buses, parallel substation transformers, and
networks. A tie switch is created from a normal switch by selecting the Tie Switch option in the
switch editor. In addition, to analyze loops, you should set the Loops option in your Model
options, otherwise tie switches are ignored. When tie switches are recognized, SynerGEE
analyzes the system and determines the current flow through the tie switches such that the

voltage on both sides of the switch is the same. When this flow has been determined, the
solution of the radial analysis matches the solution of the network.
2.6.5 Invalid tie switches

A tie switch will be ignored during balanced or by-phase loop analysis if:
• The connected sections have no phases in common (for example, switching from
a section with phasing AB to a section with phasing C).
• An ungrounded section is tied to a grounded section.
As you would expect, only those phases common to the connected sections will be tied during
by-phase looped analysis.
2.7 Visual switch modeling

SynerGEE is designed so that the electrical connectivity governed by switches can be
represented visually in the display. This section discusses some of the configurations that may
be created. SynerGEE allows one switch to be placed on either end of every section. Complex
switch gears can be effectively modeled by placing and operating these switches as shown in
the switch gear installation guides.
2.7.1 Example 1
The open switch on the end of Section 1 leaves Section 2 and Section 3 as unfed islands. The
sections may be fed if another feed path can be established to those sections or to the node at
the outward end of Section 1. All of the devices and load on Section 1 are fed.
Section 2
Section 1
F
Section 3
Figure 2-9 Open switch on outward end of section
2.7.2 Example 2
Here, the switch is on the inward end of Section 1. Since the switch is open, no loads or devices
on Section 1, Section 2, or Section 3 will be included in the analysis. All sections are completely
unfed.

Section 2
Section 1
F
Section 3
Figure 2-10 Switch on inward end of section
Section 1, Section 2, and Section 3 would all be fed if the outward end of Section 3 or Section 2
were connected to a fed section. In this case, all sections are fed. However, device feed
directions and the load-flow reference directions on Section 1 and Section 2 are reversed. Other
than voltage level changes, devices on Section 2 would see no change in the modified feed
direction. For example:
Section 2
Section 1
F
F
Section 3
Section 4
Figure 2-11 Connecting a new feed path
2.7.3 Example 3
In this case, the switch on Section 3 isolates the section while allowing Section 1 to feed Section
2. No devices on Section 3 receive power.
Section 2
Section 1
F
Section 3
Figure 2-12 Inward switch isolating a branch
2.7.4 Example 4
The switch at the end of Section 2 has no effect on the model. The switch opens the section at
its outward end, and there are no loads or devices past that point. All loads and devices on all
sections receive power.

Section 2
Section 1
F
Section 3
Figure 2-13 Open switch at isolated outward end
2.8 Rules for transformer network protector operation

Protectors will open and close under the following conditions if they are set in automatic mode:
Open when feeder breaker When primary of transformer is no longer fed from the
opens feeder breaker. If the protector is fed from its secondary then
the protector will open. This operation can occur from model
manipulation or from analysis being performed that would
operate a feeder breaker.
Open on reverse S If the protector sees reverse power flow during a load-flow
run, it will open.
Close on voltage If the voltage and angle difference across the open protector
is within limits, then it will close.
2.9 Switching in DPA/G and other systems

Switch models in SynerGEE are significantly different than those in DPA/G (Distribution Primary
Analysis/Graphics, SynerGEE's predecessor). The models in the latter product were used to
connect and disconnect a section from a node. As you have seen previously in this chapter,
SynerGEE switches are used to break a section's connectivity at either end without affecting the
section's node connection.
For the benefit of those upgrading from DPA/G, this section describing the DPA/G switch mode
is included for reference.
It is helpful to see a brief description of what a switch does before explaining how to enter
switch information. It is probably easier to picture DPA/G switches as ways to connect (close) or
disconnect (open) sections to each other. The following figure represents this concept:

Sect B Sect D
Sect A Sect E
Feeder 1 Feeder 2
Sect C
Figure 2-14 Switch example using two feeders
You are going to look at methods for placing a switch between sections B and D of the two
feeders shown above. There are four possible configurations for a single switch to connect
these sections. All four configurations are shown in the following figure:
Sect B Sect D
2
3
Sect A 4 Sect E
Feeder 1 Feeder 2
Sect C
Figure 2-15 Feeders showing possible switch configurations for sections B and D
The table below describes the four configuration possibilities for placing a switch on section B
and connecting it to section D:
Configuration From To
1 Load End of "B" Load End of "D"
2 Load End of "B" Load End of "E"
Load End of "B" Source End of "D"
3 Load End of "A" Load End of "D"
Source End of "B" Load End of "D"
4 Load End of "A" Source End of "D"
Load End of "A" Load end of "E"
Source End of "B" Source End of "D"
Source End of "B" Load end of "E"
Although this example is based on switches placed between two feeders, switching can be
performed on a single feeder or between substation transformers in a substation model.
This section describes how switching works and how this affects the way that you should set up
switches within DPA/G. The software operation is a bit different from a real-world switch
operation because not all the ties and jumpers are displayed with the switches. When a switch

is toggled in DPA/G, the end of the section with the switch to be opened is disconnected from
all the sections connected to it.
Consider the following switch scenario.
Figure 2-16 Switch scenario
SW 1 SW 2 SW 3
State Open Open Open
Closes to Sect 3 - Load Sect 1 Load Sect 2 Load
The operations that can cause a looping problem are as follows:

• Close SW 2
• Open SW 2
• Close SW 3
After operation 3, a loop error occurs.
The figure below shows the action when SW 3 is closed from the previous figure.
Figure 2-17 Closed SW 3

As you can see, Sect 2 and Sect 3 are now connected even though SW 2 is an open symbol.
Since SW 2 closes to Sect 1, SW 2 is indeed open (open to Sect 1). Since SW 3 closes to Sect 2
and it is closed, it is connected to Sect 2.
Given the previous scenario based on open and closed operations, the loop problem can be
corrected. The following figure shows a solution based on the insertion of three small sections.
Figure 2-18 Insertion of small sections
SW 1 SW 2 SW 3
Closes to Sect 1a Load Sect 2a Source Sect 3a Load
In this scenario, when SW 3 is closed, a loop is not created. The three connected sections will
appear if all the switches are open. This also works with four-way switches (a plus sign
represents four switches). The extra sections represent the jumpers, ties, or bus bar present in
the field.
2.10 Section phases fed from different directions

The 4038 model cleanup command will expand sections with multiple phases into multiple
sections with single phases. This command should be used to correct the inconsistency of
section based topology and phase based topology. Consider this example:

AB A
F
Figure 2-19 Model with single-phase cables
This diagram shows the manner in which single-phase (cables usually) will feed loads. This is a
very simple example. In real cases, the configurations are more complex and have open and
closed points setup with switches. Modeling this case with single-phase sections is very direct.
However, the data may be brought in with the phase A and B cables at the bottom of the model
combined into a single section:
AB A
F
B
AB
Figure 2-20 Model with forced-unfed area
When a single-section holds the two single-phase cables then a forced-unfed situation results.
The southern section is forced-unfed because there is no way to simultaneously feed both
terminals of either end of the section. A section must be energized from one end or the other
(or both at the same time if there are loops). A section cannot have one phase fed from one
end and another phase fed from the other end.
Use the 4038 cleanup command to expand sections that are forced unfed and have multiple
conductors. Here is a client model with a forced unfed area and is actually a single-phase URD
with switches in the field:

Figure 2-21 URD with opposing fed phases
Here is the model after running the 4038 command:
Figure 2-22 Single-phase sections created

Here is another example with a more complex URD area:
Figure 2-23 Model with forced unfed area
The 4038 is run to correct the model:

Figure 2-24 Model after break-out of single-phase sections
The 4038 only has the reporting option. A script would look like this:
4038, 1
Running the script will result in a report listing the sections that were expanded.

Figure 2-25 Report from a 4038
SynerGEE creates new sections for every phase on a line. Data is copied to the new sections as
well as loads and devices. The old sections and related information are discarded.

Power Distribution 87
3 Power Distribution
Power distribution companies are interesting and complex businesses. Growth and mergers
have established a landscape of utilities ranging from very small to huge. Government
regulations encourage consistency, quash competitive practices, and promote slow and steady
innovation. Deregulation kindles ambitious growth, customer focus, and healthy competition
for service quality.
The distribution industry delivers a product that is manufactured and transported from far
away. The product is oftentimes misunderstood by the consumer because of its intangibility.
When a customer buys food, he consumes the food. When he buys water or gas, he consumes
the water or gas. A customer may think that he buys electricity. He does not. He buys energy.
Electricity is a mechanism to transport energy; like a conveyer belt or a stream serving a water
wheel. Electricity is not consumed by the consumer. The customer is consuming energy. The
consumer is also consuming coal or natural gas unless this power is extracted from wind, water
flow, the earth’s heat or sunshine.
Distribution companies deliver a product that is intangible and not well understood. The
product is also a commodity because it is essential to the customer but not valued. Electric
power is a fundamental part of our lives. We use it continuously and hardly think about our
consumption until the lights unexpectedly go out or the power bill arrives in our mailbox.
The quality of electric power is critical. Frequency must be tightly managed for system stability
and the safe operation of appliances and equipment. Voltage and current waveforms must be
nearly free from distortion. Service must be reliable with better than 99% availability.
Nearly 4 terawatt hours are distributed annually in the United States. This huge industry began
over 125 years ago in New York City. It was begun by Thomas Edison and called the Pearl Street
Station. In 1882, this start-up supplied lights for 59 customers over a territory of one square
mile. The company grew to serve over 400 customers by the end of the year but still operated
at a loss of about $6,000. After the second year, the company had grown substantially and had
a profit of nearly $30,000.
Edison issued licenses to private entrepreneurs to establish and operate lighting companies
similar to his. Five years later, in 1887, there were over sixty of these private companies in
operation.
Today, most power companies in the United States continue to be privately owned. Over 80
percent of the country’s power comes is delivered by these companies. There are still many
cooperatives, public power districts, public utility districts, cooperatives, and municipals. These

businesses are chartered and structured differently but they all have the mission of delivering
reliable electrical energy to their customers.
3.1 Distribution System Characteristics

Distribution systems have unique characteristics that create diversity and complexity beyond
the transmission systems typically presented in most power engineering texts. In general,
distribution systems have:
• Unbalanced load – Different load values are on each phase of a load or loads
may be connected to only one phase. Loads are connected line-to-ground and
line-to-line.
• Unbalanced construction – Power lines are constructed non-symmetrically and
non-transposed. Different conductors are sometimes used on different phases of
a line. Some phases are sometimes bundled while others are not.
• Distributed and spot loads – Large loads for industrial customers and commercial
customers are considered loads at a particular spot in a distribution system.
Contingency plans must be established to support these loads. Loads for
residential and small commercial customers are also distributed along the
thousands of miles of distribution line in a typical utility. Depending on the utility
and the area, the total of the “distributed” loads usually match or exceed the
larger spot loads. Contingency plans are also established to address the needs of
the distributed loads. A few dozen (economically active) customers may
represent the large commercial and industrial load of a utility. Hundreds of
thousands of (economically and politically important) customers represent the
distributed load of a utility.
• Diverse equipment – Many distribution systems have been in operation for
nearly one hundred years. Over that operation time, there were changes in
service territory, power supply, utility ownership, engineers, hardware
technology, design philosophy, and suppliers. Naturally, a distribution system is
going to have a variety of new and old equipment of various types. Knowledge of
each piece of equipment and its function is important.
• Radial nature – Power distribution systems are nearly always radial in North
America. Radial construction keeps costs down, safety up, and simplifies the
operation of the distribution system. Urban underground or “downtown”
distribution systems are an exception. They are oftentimes run in a meshed
network to increase reliability and power transfer capability.
• Intangibility – The customer does not directly touch or see the commodity that
they are buying.
• Quality – Reliable and uniform power delivery is required. Voltage must be
nearly free from harmonics and within tight voltage constraints. Current must be
managed within capacity limits.

• Capacity – The utility must be able to deliver power as consumer demand grows.
• Storage – Supply chain management is essential in the electric power industry.
There is no practical storage of electricity and so power must be generated,
transported, and delivered simultaneously with demand.
• Responsibility – Electricity is dangerous. The utility is responsible for the safe
delivery of electricity through the customer’s community and to his premises.
The utility is responsible for the public’s safety with respect to the thousands of
miles of bare conductor stretching over and under farms, towns and cities.
• Easements – The utility must negotiate and purchase easements to build the
facilities for receiving power from the transmission company and then for
routing delivery to the customer. Purchasing or arranging for use of property for
substations and distribution lines is expensive and oftentimes politically
unpopular.
• Slow turnover – Power delivery is very capital intensive. However, investment at
a utility will take many years to generate returns.
• Regulation – Distribution utilities are heavily regulated by the industry, federal,
state, and local governments. This puts heavy demands on the utility to carefully
make and justify engineering decisions.
3.2 Voltage Level

In 2004, the United States consumed 4,000,000,000,000 kWh of energy1 (representing around
$200 billion at a nickel / kWh). This number averages out to about 13 MWh / person and 1.5
kW / person for every hour of the year.
At the same time, there are 17,302 generation plants in the U.S. How can the energy from
these plants be collected and dispersed to the millions of American consumers? Electric power
cannot be directly stored. So energy is generated, combined and pooled, transferred, and
dispersed out to power networks that eventually lead to the consumer. The mechanics of
energy generation typically require lower voltage and consumption typically requires low
voltage for safety, convenience, and mechanical reasons.
However, delivering power directly from the point of generation to the point of consumption is
impossible because there are millions of consumers and thousands of generators scatted across
the nation. Power is therefore generated and combined to form a pool of energy capacity.
Power transmission companies transfer or ship the power around so that demand is met and
balanced with the available generation. Distribution companies tap into the available energy
capacitors and distribute it to their customers.
1 World Bank

This system is efficient and manageable (of course it is the role of SynerGEE Electric to help
make it more efficient and more manageable). Power transformers are the key technology to
the operation of this system. They provide the voltage platform for power injection and
demand. Here is a table generalizing various voltage platforms:
Platform kV Amps Typical Power Use
Generation 2 – 15 Thousands 300 MW Generation to grid
High Voltage 500 – 795 Hundreds GW Interstate or international
Transmission 230 - 500 Hundreds 500 MW Regional or inter-utility
Sub- 69 – 115 Hundreds 50 MW Intra-utility
transmission
Substation 34 – 69 Hundreds 10 MW Feeding distribution
Distribution 4 – 34 Hundreds 2 MW Distributing to customers
Primary Cust 0.5 – 4 Tens 1 MW Industrial consumption
Secondary 0.5 – 4 Tens 500 kW Commercial consumption
Secondary 0.12 – 0.24 Hundreds 1 – 5kW Residential consumption
3.3 Common power system relationships

If only the kW value of a load is known, the kvar value can be determined from the kW and an
estimated power factor angle:
(3-1)
kvar = kW * tan(θ PF )
3.4 The per-unit system

Although the per-unit (PU) system is not directly used in the radial load-flow analysis methods
described herein, it is essential for a number of reasons:
• Some data is represented in PU on equipment nameplates and is required in
actual values within SynerGEE.
• Voltages are always displayed on your voltage base within SynerGEE. This value
is the PU voltage times the specified user-base (typically 120V).
It should be stressed that all calculations within SynerGEE are performed with actual values
such as kV, amps, and kW. The PU values and your voltage base settings are interface
conveniences.

3.4.1 Three-Phase per-unit values

In a three-phase system, voltages are given as line-line values and power is specified as the
total three-phase value. Power, current, and voltage are related by this equation:
(3-2)
V
S Base = 3 ⋅ Base I Base
3
= 3 ⋅ VBase I Base
(3-3)
Given: MVABase
kVLLBase
(3-4)
kVLL2Base
Z Base =
MVABase
(3-5)
1000 MVABase
I Base =
3kVLLBase
An impedance value can be changed from one base to another with the following:
2 (3-6)
 kVLLOld   MVANew 
Zpu New = ZpuOld    
 kVLLNew   MVAOld 
Admittance can similarly be shifted across bases using the following equation:
2 (3-7)
 kVLLNew   MVAOld 
Ypu New = YpuOld    
 kVLLOld   MVANew 
3.4.2 Single-Phase per-unit values

In a single-phase system, we have:
(3-8)
S Base = VBase I Base
(3-9)
kVLL2Base
Z Base =
MVABase

(3-10)
1000 MVABase
I Base =
kVLLBase
3.5 Symmetrical components

The method of symmetrical components is used for representing a three-phase power system
that is assumed to be balanced or symmetrical up to a particular point of imbalance.
Symmetrical components are based on a three-phase linear transformation that transforms a
coupled three-phase model into three decoupled, single-phase models. The transformation is
based on a 120-degree phase shifter:
(3-11)
a = 1∠120
From this, the following identity can be formed.
(3-12)
a 2 + a +1 = 0
This forms the basis for a transformation matrix as follows:
(3-13)
1 1 1  1 1 1
= 
A =1 a 2
a  A −1 1
a 2 
3 1 a
1 a a 2  1 a 2 a 
These relationships between phase-and sequence-domain quantities are generated as follows:

(3-14)
V0  I 0  V A  I A 
       
VS = V1  I S =  I 1  VP = VB  I P =  I B 
V  I  V  I 
 2  2  C  C
(3-15)
VS = A −1VP VP = AVS
I S = A −1 I P I P = AI S
(3-16)
Z P = AZ S A −1 Z S = A −1 Z P A
(3-17)
YP = AYS A −1 YS = A −1YP A
If you have a line described with zero sequence and positive sequence values:

(3-18)
1 1 1   Z 0 0 0  1 1 1  ZS ZM ZM 
1
ZP = 1 a 2 a   Z1 0  1 a a 2   Z S Z M 
3 
1 a a 2   Z1  1 a 2 a   Z S 
Z=
S ( Z 0 + 2Z1 ) / 3
Z=
M ( Z 0 − Z1 ) / 3
If you have a completely balanced impedance line with equal self and mutual impedance
values:
(3-19)
1 1 1   Z S Z M Z M  1 1 1   Z0 0 0 
1
ZS = 1 a a 2   Z S Z M  1 a 2 a   Z1 0 
3 
1 a 2 a   Z S  1 a a 2   Z1 
Z= 0 Z S + 2Z M
= ZS − ZM
Z1,2
3.6 Transformer impedances

Often, it is necessary to switch between forms of representing transformer or regulator
impedance. If impedances are given as %Z and X/R Ratio, then the following is true:
% Z * ( X/R Ratio )
(3-20)
%Z
=R = X
100* 1 + ( X/R Ratio ) 100* 1 + ( X/R Ratio )
2 2
3.7 Nominal voltage & volts

It can be tricky to understand the meaning of the voltage on a line or facility when the value is
expressed in ‘volts’. Here is an example where we have our voltage base set to 120V:
Figure 3-1 Voltage base is set in the preferences
We also have set a low voltage exception threshold of 105V:

Figure 3-2 Exceptions thresholds
Our feeder voltage is 13.2 kV:
Figure 3-3 Feeder voltage
Here we have a capacitor that is rated at 13.8 kV:
Figure 3-4 Capacitor voltage rating
After running load-flow, we note that there are voltage exceptions for the capacitor results:

Figure 3-5 Voltage exceptions on capacitors
If the low voltage threshold is 105V then why is 109.1 resulting in an exception on the
capacitor? Let’s work backward. If our exception threshold is 105V then the capacitor will have
an exception at:
(3-21)
105
Cap Except kV = 13.8 ⋅ = 12.075kV
120
What is 12.075kV in volts for our model? Since we are using a base of 13.2 it is:
(3-22)
12.075
Cap Except Volts = ⋅120V = 109.7V
13.2
So a capacitor voltage below 109.7 will result in an exception flag. A voltage on the capacitor’s
section needs to be below 105 to cause an exception since the section has a 13.2kV nominal
voltage.
3.8 Delta / Wye transformations

The following diagram shows a load connected in a delta and a wye configuration.

A
ZAB B
ZA ZB
ZCA ZBC
ZC
Figure 3-6 Wye and delta forms of load
Values for the wye can be determined from the delta values with these equations:
(3-23)
Z AC Z AB
ZA =
Z AB + Z BC + Z AC
Z AB Z BC
ZB =
Z AB + Z BC + Z AC
Z AC Z BC
ZC =
Z AB + Z BC + Z AC
The values for the delta can be determined from wye impedances:
(3-24)
Z Z + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z AB = A B
ZC
Z A Z B + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z BC =
ZA
Z A Z B + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z AC =
ZB
If the impedances are balanced then:

(3-25)
Z∆
ZY =
3
And
(3-26)
Z ∆ = 3Z Y

3.8.1 Current, voltage, power

Power is calculated as follows:
(3-27)
S Into = VS I Into
*
We can deliver a given level of power by raising the voltage and lowering the current by the
same factor.
3.8.2 Voltage drop needs to be contained

The current into a non-tapped power line must match the current out:
(3-28)
I Into = I Out
Line impedance will cause a voltage drop along the line:

(3-29)
= I Into ⋅ Z Line
VDrop
Use the source end voltage to calculate the power into the line:
(3-30)
S Into = VS I Into
*
Next, we can account for the voltage drop to determine the power out of the line:
(VS − I Into Z Line ) I Into

(3-31)
=
SOut *
This can be simplified to:

(3-32)
= − I Into Z Line
* 2
SOut VS I Into
3.8.3 Different voltage levels

Voltage drop is a directly affected by current flow and line impedance:
(3-33)
VDrop = I ⋅ Z
Electrical power cannot be directly stored. Therefore, the power entering a system must match
the total of the power leaving the system, the power emitted as losses, and the power
consumed. This is quite important because voltage levels and current levels will change but
power must always be conserved.
3.9 Graph theory definitions
3.9.1 Non-directed graphs

Vertex – a point in space
Edge – unordered pair of vertices (a, b)

Graph – a set of vertices and edges
3.9.2 Directed graphs

Non-directed graphs are of little use in power system analysis. Power networks are analyzed to
determine amps, kVA, customers, or other flow values. Voltage values cannot be determined
without designating a reference direction for current flow along lines.
Arc – ordered pair of vertices {f, t}. An arc is incident to two vertices. The preceding arc is
adjacent from ‘f’ and adjacent to ‘t’.
Digraph – a finite set of vertices and arcs
3.9.3 Relationships
If arcs of a digraph are treated as edges, the non-directed graph is called the underlying graph.
The arcs distinguishing the digraph from that graph are called the orientation of the digraph.

Economics 99
4 Economics
4.1 Financial Worksheets

Time range analysis includes a special worksheet for handling engineering economics. You can
have SynerGEE generate a worksheet based on the model in memory, or you can create a blank
worksheet and work with it as needed.
The worksheet displays present worth, future worth, and uniform amount values based on
costs incurred with various models and a cost of money interest rate.
The following cost models are supported.
Model Description
Present cost Cost occurring once at the beginning of the project
Fixed cost Cost occurring at some specified period in a project.
Recurring cost Fixed costs occurring at regular intervals.
Future cost Cost occurring at the end of the project.
Interval cost Fixed cost occurring at regular intervals between a starting and ending
period.
Growing cost Cost growing from zero at the starting period to the specified amount at
the ending period.
Declining cost Cost declining from the specified amount at the starting period to zero at
the ending period.
The present worth is determined in all cost models. Once the present worth is known, the
future worth and uniform amounts are found.
The "Net APR" in the financial worksheets represents the combination of interest rates,
inflation rates, and other factors affecting the cost of money. It is an annual percentage rate.
The number of periods in the study, N, is given. The number of periods per year is m. Therefore:
APR Net APR
N Number of periods in study
m Number of periods per year
If you were to compound the periodic rate into an annual percentage rate, you would see:

100 Economics
m (4-1)
 rnom 
APR =
1 +  −1
 m 
Therefore, the periodic interest rate is:

(4-2)
( APR + 1)
1
rp = m
−1
Again, the input into the worksheet is the APR and m.

The following are some of the fundamental equations used by the worksheet.
(4-3)
1
PW / FW =
(1 + r )
N
p
(4-4)
(1 + i ) −1
N
PW / UA =
rp (1 + rp )
N
If an application generates a financial worksheet, you can manually add new cost items or
modify existing cost items.

Lines and Cables 101
5 Lines and Cables
5.1 Introduction
SynerGEE is designed to provide an outstanding line model without complicated data
requirements. It captures the effects of electric and magnetic field coupling by using the full set
of Carson's equations. Its methods incorporate the work of Carson, Wagner and Evans, and
Kersting.
SynerGEE's by-phase impedance and admittance calculations and reduction techniques can
handle coupling between conductors, and between conductors and the earth. SynerGEE
considers one-, two-, and three-phase lines with and without a neutral return, and can handle
bare overhead lines as well as cables.
Like most device models in SynerGEE, the spatial characteristics of a line model are defined in a
section instance contained in the model database (InstSection table). Each section record
should also reference a conductor type in the equipment database, which defines its electrical
characteristics (DevConductors table). In addition, if a section is configured to use detailed
spacing, it also references a configuration type in the equipment database (DevConfig table). A
visual diagram of data flow to build a section is as follows.
DevConductors table DevConfig table

Equipment database Equipment database
(conductor data) (spacing data)
InstSection table
Model database
(spatial data)
Line Model
for a
Section
Figure 5-1 Tables used to specify the line model for a section

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SynerGEE Electric 4.0.

Restricted rights, warranties, and liabilities

1 Introduction to SynerGEE Electric ............................................................ 31

1.9.3 Easy model building .................................................................................. 54

2 Modeling Your System ............................................................................ 68

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

2.6.2 Exception handling.................................................................................... 75

3 Power Distribution .................................................................................. 87

5 Lines and Cables .................................................................................... 101

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

5.9.1 Concentric neutral .................................................................................. 142

6 Loads .................................................................................................... 169

6.4 Load connection example ................................................................................... 173

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

7.8 Transformers in network analysis....................................................................... 222

8 Voltage Regulators ................................................................................ 234

8.17.4 Ratings for three-phase step-voltage regulators .................................... 261

9 Capacitors ............................................................................................. 263

10 Motors .................................................................................................. 284

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

10.3.1 Output power.......................................................................................... 286

11 Motor Analysis ...................................................................................... 295

11.2.9 Locked rotor example ............................................................................. 300

12 Generation ............................................................................................ 316

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

12.9 Additional notes .................................................................................................. 331

13 Load-Flow ............................................................................................. 333

13.8 Network load-flow .............................................................................................. 354

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

14.10.2 Allocating load ............................................................................ 379

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

15.12.3 Fault types................................................................................... 434

16 Protection ............................................................................................. 435

16.23.1 Parameters for manufacturers ................................................... 464

17 Reliability .............................................................................................. 468

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

17.6.6 Example - MAIFI impact from settings.................................................... 490

17.16 Example 4 ............................................................................................................ 535

18 Design ................................................................................................... 545

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

18.5.5 Summary ................................................................................................. 574

19 Planning and Forecasting ...................................................................... 584

20 Switching Analysis ................................................................................. 611

20.1.1 Application operation ............................................................................. 611

21 Power Quality ....................................................................................... 620

22 Cable Ampacity ..................................................................................... 639

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

22.2 Ampacity Calculations ......................................................................................... 641

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

23 Arc Flashover Analysis ........................................................................... 695

23.17.4 Table 4: Constant K2 .................................................................... 705

24 Control Systems .................................................................................... 708

25 Customer and Distribution Transformer Management .......................... 726

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

25.3.5 Update the model ................................................................................... 737

25.14.4 Importing from the CMM script.................................................. 774

26 Building Models .................................................................................... 780

27 Tools ..................................................................................................... 788

28 Appendices ........................................................................................... 792

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

28.3.15 Establish risers - MFMW_230 ..................................................... 800

Technical Reference SynerGEE Electric

SynerGEE Electric Technical Reference