Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
One-dimensional motion
A. Displacement
Displacement is the difference between the final and initial positions
∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 [1]
D. Acceleration
Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by change in time.
𝑣 − 𝑣0 ∆𝑣
𝑎̅ = = [4]
𝑡 ∆𝑡
E. Motion with constant Acceleration
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 [5]
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 [6]
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎∆𝑥 [7]
1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣 + 𝑣)𝑡 [8]
2 0
where 𝑥0 is the initial position, 𝑥 is the final position, 𝑡 is the time interval, 𝑣0 is the initial
velocity, 𝑣 is the final velocity, and 𝑎 is the acceleration.
F. Freefall
Freefall is a special case of motion with constant acceleration, because acceleration due
𝑚
to gravity (𝑔 = 9.81 𝑠3 ) is always constant and downward.
This is true even when an object is thrown upward or has zero velocity.
II. Two-dimensional motion
A. Vector
Vector addition - to add vectors we can use the head to tail method.
Vector subtraction - subtraction of a vector is the same as adding the vector with the
opposite direction.
Perpendicular vector components - to find the horizontal and vertical components, we
draw a right triangle with the vector as the hypotenuse
∑ 𝐹⃑ 𝐹⃑𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑎⃑ = = [17]
𝑚 𝑚
D. Newton's third law
Newton’s third law of motion says whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the
second body exerts a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.
E. Angled forces
An angled force can be broken down to horizontal and vertical components. This allows us to
apply Newton’s second law to the forces in the horizontal and vertical directions separately. The
components of the applied force 𝐹 are:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 [18]
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃 [19]
F. Inclined planes
Draw a free body diagram for the object
Write the Newton’s second law statement for the direction of interest
Substitute the sum of all the forces acting in the direction of interest (┴ or║) for ∑ 𝐹.
G. Friction
Kinetic friction magnitude is directly proportional to the normal force magnitude and the
roughness between the sliding surfaces.
|𝐹⃑𝑓,𝑘 | = 𝜇𝑘 |𝐹⃑𝑁 | [20]
Static friction magnitude is directly proportional to the normal force magnitude and the
roughness between the sliding surfaces.
|𝐹⃑𝑓,𝑠 | ≤ 𝜇𝑠 |𝐹⃑𝑁 | [21]
The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the magnitude of frictional force divided by the
normal force magnitude.
|𝐹⃑𝑓 |
𝜇= [22]
|𝐹⃑𝑁 |
C. Centripetal forces
Net radial force is directly proportional to the product of the object's mass and centripetal
acceleration.
∑ 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐 [29]
D. Gravitation
The gravitational force between point-like masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 is directly proportional to
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝑔 = [30]
𝑟2
The gravitational field strength is directly proportional to mass creating the field and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
𝐹𝑔 𝐺𝑚1
𝑔= = 2 [31]
𝑚2 𝑟
B. Kinetic energy
Translational kinetic energy is directly proportional to mass and the square of the
magnitude of velocity.
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 [34]
2
Change in kinetic energy is the difference between the final and initial kinetic energy.
1
∆𝐾 = 𝑚(𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 ) [35]
2
C. Work-energy theorem
The net work on an object is equal to the object’s final kinetic energy minus the initial kinetic
energy.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐾 − 𝐾0 = ∆𝐾 [36]
G. Power
Power is the change in energy over the change in time.
∆𝐸
𝑃= [43]
∆𝑡
Power is the work done over the change in time.
𝑊
𝑃= [44]
∆𝑡
B. Elastic collisions
The total initial momentum equals the total final momentum for a closed system. Commonly
called the conservation of momentum.
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 [47]
C. Inelastic collisions
If objects stick together, then a collision is perfectly inelastic.
If the kinetic energy is the same, then the collision is elastic.
If the kinetic energy changes, then the collision is inelastic regardless of whether the
objects stick together or not.
In either case, for collisions with no external forces, momentum is conserved.
D. Center of mass
Center of mass is the sum of each mass times its position, divided by total mass.
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = [48]
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯
B. Angular kinematics
ω = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡 [51]
1
𝜃 = 𝜃0 + 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2 [52]
2
𝜔2 = 𝜔02 + 2𝛼∆𝜃 [53]
1
𝜃 − 𝜃0 = (𝜔 + 𝜔)𝑡 [54]
2 0
where 𝜃0 is the initial position, 𝜃 is the final position, 𝑡 is the time interval, 𝜔0 is the initial
velocity, 𝜔 is the final velocity, and 𝛼 is the acceleration.
C. Torque
Torque is proportional to both the lever arm and the force component perpendicular to the lever
arm.
𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟┴ 𝐹 [55]
𝑙
𝑇𝑝 = 2𝜋√ [65]
𝑔
D. Energy of simple harmonic oscillator
𝑈𝑠, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs when the system is at the maximum displacement of A and – A.
𝑈𝑠 = 0 occurs when the system is at 𝑥 = 0.
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs when the system is at the maximum speeds |𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 | and |−𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 |
𝐾 = 0 occurs when the system is at 𝑣 = 0.
𝑈𝑠, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs when 𝐾 = 0. This happens at the endpoints of the oscillation where the
system momentarily stops (𝑣 = 0) at the maximum displacement
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs at 𝑈𝑠 = 0. This is when the system is moving through the equilibrium position
(𝑥 = 0) and has its maximum speed.
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 is constant, so 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑈𝑠, 𝑚𝑎𝑥
B. Wave characteristics
Wavelength is wave speed divided by frequency
𝑣
𝜆= [66]
𝑓
C. Wave interference
We get constructive interference when pulses have the same direction of displacement from
equilibrium at the same position.
We get destructive interference when pulses have displacements from equilibrium that are
in opposite directions.
D. Standing waves
If the end of the rope is free, then the wave returns right side up. If the end of the rope is
fixed, then the wave will be inverted.
For all standing wave frequencies, the nodes and antinodes alternate with equal spacing.
The lowest frequency (which corresponds with the longest wavelength) that will produce a
𝜆
standing wave is called the fundamental frequency, with 𝐿 = 2, and there are two nodes
and one antinode.
E. Sound
Sound waves are longitudinal waves in a medium such as air.
In an open tube, the medium (ex. air) at the open ends vibrates horizontally parallel to the
tube length.
In a closed tube, the air molecules are not free to vibrate back and forth parallel to the tube,
so the displacement standing wave has is a node at the closed end.
G. Doppler Effect
If the observer and source are moving toward each other, then the frequency increases and
the wavelength decreases.
If the observer and source are moving away from each other, then the observed frequency
decreases and the wavelength increases.
B. Conservation of charge
A neutral object can become negatively charged when electrons get transferred from
another object
A neutral object can become positively charged when electrons get transferred to another
object
∑ ∆𝑉 = 0 [73]
𝑅𝑠 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ [74]
𝑖
The reciprocal of the equivalent parallel resistance is the sum of all the individual
resistance reciprocals.
1 1 1 1 1
= ∑ 𝑜𝑟 = + + ⋯ [75]
𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑖