Chapter 1

Introduction to
characteristics of soils
 Sub-chapter 1
1. Composition and Design
Characteristic of soils
2. Analysis of Microstructure and
Mineralogy of Soils
3. Stress-strain Behaviour in
Triaxial Tests
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
• The composition soils is quite different from other civil
engineering materials, such as steel, concrete or wood.

• These differences are:-

1. Soils are natural materials, not manufactured products.
Their engineering properties can vary significantly from place to
place
2. Soil is a particulate material.
It is not continuous mass
3. Soil can contain all three phases of matter (solid, liquid,
gas) simultaneously.
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
 Soils are not homogenous, not elastic.
 If the soil is not elastic, why we have to study elastic methods
of analysis?
 Elastic analysis of an isotropic materials involves only two
constants:-
 Young Modulus, E
 Poisson’s ratio, 
 If we assume that soils are isotropic elastic materials, than we
have a powerful, but simple, analytical tool to predict a soil’s
response under loading.
 For example, in designing foundation on coarse grained soils,
we normally assume that the settlement is elastic, then we
use elastic analysis to calculate the settlement.
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils

 A geotechnical engineer have to determine the stresses and

strains that are imposed on a soil mass by external loads.
 For a realistic description of soils, elastic analysis is not
satisfactory.
 We need soil models that can duplicate the complexity of soil
behavior.
 However, even for complex soil models, an elastic analysis is a
first step.
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Stresses and Strains Their relationship is called constitutive relationship

Pz Px Py
Normal stresses -  z  , x  , y 
xy yz xz

Strains - z x y
z  ,x  , y 
z x y
Volumetric Strains -  p  x  y  z
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Shear Stresses and Shear Strains

F
Shear stresses - 
xy
x
Shear Strains - γzx  tan 1
z
x
For small strain, shear strain becomes γzx 
z
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Material Responses to normal loading and unloading
If we apply vertical load, P to a deformable
cyclinder of cross-sectional area, A, the cyclinder
will compress by z and the radius increase by r.
The loading condition here is uniaxial loading.
P
The change in vertical stress, z =
A
The vertical and radial strain are:-
z
(i) z =
F
 Ho (+) compression
xy (-) expansion
(ii) r = r
ro
 r
The Poisson’s ratio ,  =
 z
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Material Responses to normal loading and unloading
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Material Responses to normal loading and unloading

Linearly elastic material – when the load

was applied, we will get a straight line
and when we unload, it returns to its
original configuration.

Nonlinearly elastic material – when the

stress-strain is curve but when unload, it
returns to its original configuration.
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Material Responses to normal loading and unloading
Elastic modulus or initial tangent elastic
modulus or Young’s modulus (E) – the
slope of the stress-strain line for linear
isotropic material.

Tangent elastic modulus– the slope of

the tangent to the stress-strain point
under consideration.

Secant elastic modulus, E50– the slope of the

line joining the origin (0,0) to some desired
stress-strain point.
- Based on half of the maximum stress
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Material Responses to normal loading and unloading
Soil is the material that do not return to
their original configurations after
unloading

The strains that occur during loading

OA consist of two parts – an elastic &
plastic

This behavior is called elastoplastic

Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Material Responses to shear forces

Shear forces will distort materials.

From the graph shear stress versus shear

strain, the shear modulus can be
determine.
Composition and Design Characteristic of soils
Material Responses to shear forces
 Stress-strain behaviour, stiffness,
strength
• Material maybe stiff or soft and they maybe strong and
weak.
• Steel – stiff & strong
• Margarine – soft & weak
• Blackboard chalk – relatively stiff & weak
• Rubber – relatively soft & strong
 Choice of parameters for stress & strain

Material Testing & Parameters required

Steel Uniaxial extension test
(Young Modulus, E and Poisson’s ratio, 
Concrete Uniaxial compression test

Soil Triaxial test, Direct shear test

Choice of parameters for stress & strain
Direct shear • The sample could be loaded or
unloaded by increasing or
decreasing the effective normal
stress, n.

• The sample would compress or

swell with normal strains, n
Choice of parameters for stress & strain
Triaxial test

• The sample could be tested by

increasing or decreasing either
a or r
• There would be axial and
radial strains a and r.
Choice of parameters for stress & strain
Triaxial test

• This test can be describe by

special stress and strain parameters
as:
Maximum shear stress, q’ = a - r
Average stress, p’ = 1/3 (a + 2r)
Shear strain, s = 2/3 (a - r)
Volumetric strain, v = a +2r
 Soil strength

• The ultimate state of stress that it can sustain before

it fails.
Soil strength
Soil strength
 Soil strength

A material that cannot sustain a slope, like stationary

water has no strength
 Soil strength
• The failure criteria can be divided into three different
types:

 '   ' tan  '

 '  c' ' tan  '

 Stiffness parameters (In triaxial test)
• The gradient of the stress strain curve, maybe
tangent or secant.
• For isotropic loading:- (radial load)
- if q’ remains constant we can define a bulk modulus
K’
dp'
- K '
d v
• For triaxial loading:- (axial load)
- if p’ constant we can define a shear modulus G’
dq'
3G ' 
d s
Stiffness parameters (Direct shear test)

• For loading with zero or constant shear stress we

can define a one-dimensional modulus M’
d n '
M '
d v

• For shearing with constant normal stress we can

define the shear modulus G’
d '
G'
d
 Stiffness

•Alternative stiffness parameters are Young

Modulus E’ and Poisson’s ratio, 
• It can be obtained directly from a uniaxial
compression or extension test in which the radial
stress r’ is constant (or zero)

d a '
E '
d a

d r '
v'  
d a
 Stiffness

•For isotropic material and elastic parameters, the

shear modulus and bulk modulus can be define as:

E'
Shear modulus G' 
2(1  ' )

E'
Bulk modulus K'
3(1  2 ' )
 Example 1

•In a triaxial compression test on a sample of soil the

pore pressure is zero. The radial stress is held constant
at r’ = 200 kPa and the axial stress is changed from a’
= 350 kPa to 360 kPa. The strains for this increment
were a = 0.05% and r = -0.01% .

• Calculate the shear and bulk modulus if the soil is

isotropic and elastic.
 Example 1 (solution)

•At start of the increment,

q’ = a - r =350-200 = 150 kPa

p’ = 1/3 (a + 2r) = 1/3 (350+400) = 250 kPa

• During the increment a’ = 10 kPa, r’ = 0

q’ = (a - r) = 10 kPa

p’ = 1/3(a +2r) = 1/3 (10) = 3.3 kPa
s= 2/3(a - r) = 2/3 (0.05+0.01) = 0.04%
v= (a +2r) = (0.05-0.02) = 0.03%
 Example 1 (solution)

q' 10
•Shear modulus G’ = 
3 s 3  0.04 / 100 1000
 8.3MPa

p' 3.3
•Bulk modulus K’ = 
 v 0.03 / 100 1000
 11.1MPa
 Example 1 (solution)

The shear and bulk modulus also can be determine

using E’ and ’ :
 a ' 10
•Young Modulus E’ = 
 a 0.05 / 100 1000
 20 MPa

 r '  0.01
•Poisson’s ratio, ’ = 
 a

0.05
 0.2

E' 20
G'    8.3MPa
2(1  ' ) 2(1  0.2)

E' 20
K'   11.1MPa
3(1  2 ' ) 3(1  0.4)
Mild steel
•The initial portion up to
proportional limit or yield point
is linearly elastic
•It will return to its original
shape when the stress is
released as long as the applied
stress is below the yield point.
Nonlinear elastic
• The material have a nonlinear stress-
strain curve and still be elastic

•If time is variable, the material is

called visco-elastic

• Most soils and polymers are visco-

elastic

• But we don’t use visco-elastic

theory to describe the soil behaviour
because no only a mathematically
well developed theory for linear visco-
elasticity is available
 The behaviour of real materials
• It can be idealized by several plastic-strain
relationships:

i) perfectly plastic @ rigid-plastic

ii) elasto-plastic
iii) work-hardening and work softening
Perfectly plastic

• Relatively easily mathematically

• Popular subjects of study by
mechanicians and mathematicians
Elasto-plastic
• A more realistic stress-strain
relationship

• It is linearly elastic up to yield

point, then it becomes perfectly
plastic

•The strain of the material keep

increasing even without any
additional stress applied
Brittle

• Sometimes materials such as cast

iron, concrete and rocks are brittle

• When the stress applied, the

material suddenly collapse at some
point.
Work hardening and work softening

• more complexs and realistic for

-Compacted clays
-Loose sand many materials

• Work-hardening materials
becomes stiffer (higher modulus)
as they are strained or “worked”.

• Work-softening materials show a

decrease in stress as they are
strained beyond a peak stress.
-sensitive clays
-Dense sand
Microstructure & Mineralogy of soils
Microstructure & Mineralogy of soils
Determination of microstructure
Microstructure & Mineralogy of soils
Determination of mineralogy
Microstructure & Mineralogy of soils
Determination of mineralogy
Stress-Strain behavior in Triaxial test
 Mohr-coulomb failure criteria


 f  c   tan 

friction angle

f
cohesion c




f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure, under
normal stress of .
45
Characteristics of the failure plane

Shear stress, f
Strength Envelope

180-2θ
θ

c 2θ
θ
A
B 3 C Normal stress, 

1
Characteristics of the failure plane

(180-2θ) + 90 +  = 180 Large Triangle

Therefore, θ = 45 + (/2)
Sin  = DC/AC
1   3
DC 
2
1  3
AC  AB  BC  c cot  
2
sin  
1  3 / 2
c cot   1  3  / 2
1  sin   
 tan 2  45 o  
 1  sin    cos   1  sin   2
1   3    2c  
 1  sin    1  sin   cos   
 tan 45 o  
1  sin   2

2  o  o 
1   3 tan  45    2c tan 45  
 2  2
Triaxial Apparatus

48
 Triaxial shear test

• most reliable methods for determining the shear strength parameters (c’,
’)
• provides stress-strain behaviour
• uniform stress condition
• more flexibility in loading path

A soil specimen – 38mm in diameter and 76 mm long

- 50mm in diameter and 100 mm long
- 100mm in diameter and 200 mm long

Compression medium – water or air

49
 Types of Triaxial Tests
Depending on whether drainage is allowed or not during shearing

 initial isotropic cell pressure application, and

 shearing,
there are three special types of triaxial tests that have
practical significances. They are:

Consolidated Drained (CD) test

Consolidated Undrained (CU) test
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) test

50
 Types of Triaxial Tests
deviatoric stress ()

Under all-around Shearing (loading)

cell pressure c

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading

51
 CD, CU and UU Triaxial Tests
Consolidated Drained (CD) Test

 no excess pore pressure throughout the test

 very slow shearing to avoid build-up of pore

pressure
Can be days!
 not desirable
 gives c’ and ’

Use c’ and ’ for analysing fully drained

situations (e.g., long term stability,
very slow loading)

52
 CD, CU and UU Triaxial Tests
Consolidated Undrained (CU) Test

 pore pressure develops during shear

Measure  ’

 gives c’ and ’

 faster than CD (preferred way to find c’ and ’)

53
 Consolidated Drained Test
Loose sand and normally consolidated clay Dense sand and over consolidated clay

Deviator stress
Deviator stress

54
 Consolidated undrained test
Deviator stress

Loose sand
and normally
consolidated
clay

Dense sand
and over
consolidated
clay

55
Consolidated undrained test

56
Consolidated undrained test

57
Unconsolidated undrained test

58