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energies

Article
Energy Modelling and Automated Calibrations of
Ancient Building Simulations: A Case Study of
a School in the Northwest of Spain
Ana Ogando, Natalia Cid and Marta Fernández *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Heat Engines and Fluid Mechanics, School of Industrial Engineering,
University of Vigo, Vigo 36310, Spain; ana.ogamar@gmail.com (A.O.); nataliacr@uvigo.es (N.C.)
* Correspondence: marta.fernandez@uvigo.es; Tel.: +34-986-818-624

Academic Editor: Francesco Calise


Received: 1 June 2017; Accepted: 12 June 2017; Published: 14 June 2017

Abstract: In the present paper, the energy performance of buildings forming a school centre in the
northwest of Spain was analyzed using a transient simulation of the energy model of the school,
which was developed with TRNSYS, a software of proven reliability in the field of thermal simulations.
A deterministic calibration approach was applied to the initial building model to adjust the predictions
to the actual performance of the school, data acquired during the temperature measurement campaign.
The buildings under study were in deteriorated conditions due to poor maintenance over the years,
presenting a big challenge for modelling and simulating it in a reliable way. The results showed that
the proposed methodology is successful for obtaining calibrated thermal models of these types of
damaged buildings, as the metrics employed to verify the final error showed a reduced normalized
mean bias error (NMBE) of 2.73%. It was verified that a decrease of approximately 60% in NMBE and
17% in the coefficient of variation of the root mean square error (CV(RMSE)) was achieved due to
the calibration process. Subsequent steps were performed with the aid of new software, which was
developed under a European project that enabled the automated calibration of the simulations.

Keywords: energy demand; building; calibrated simulation; TRNSYS; GenOpt

1. Introduction
In recent decades, energy efficiency in buildings has taken a significant role in energy savings, both
at the national and European level. In fact, energy certification of buildings is currently a requirement
derived from European directives [1,2] regarding the energy efficiency of buildings in which their
objective is to promote energy audits to facilitate the implementation of energy-saving measures.
It is known that more than 40% of the total energy consumption in the European Union (EU) is
due to buildings [1]. Regarding old buildings, whose facilities have deteriorated over time, these
buildings pose an especially high energy cost. Currently, approximately 35% of the EU's buildings
are over 50 years old [3]. In Spain, most educational centres are considered old buildings because
they were built at the beginning of the 20th century with a similar typology [4]. The school sector in
Europe accounts for approximately 20% of all of the non-residential buildings [5]. These educational
buildings consume an average of 13% of total energy in the USA, 4% in Spain and 10% in the UK [6].
For these reasons, it is particularly important to perform a survey of their energy situation through
which it is possible to propose energy saving measures in a reliable way [7,8]. This is a subject that
is gaining interest in recent years, since many authors are studying the possibility of energy savings
in schools [9–11].
Under these circumstances, building energy performance simulation (BEPS) software programs
have lately become essential tools because they provide an evaluation of the behavior of a building

Energies 2017, 10, 807; doi:10.3390/en10060807 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies


Energies 2017, 10, 807 2 of 17

with a high degree of accuracy. BEPS tools, such as Energy Plus, DOE-2, TRNSYS or ESP-r, are being
widely used currently by other authors [12,13], and more specifically TRNSYS [14] has been verified to
achieve results with a high accuracy [15–18].
While it is true that BEPS software has the ability to provide simulations according to the actual
installation, the modeller (while developing the model) has to make assumptions based on his previous
experience, which sometimes causes a high degree of uncertainty [19]. This is when calibration becomes
important, particularly for ancient buildings [20]. Through a calibration process, the model simulated
is fine-tuned to yield predicted results that are more adjusted to the observed data that was registered
from the actual system (namely, energy demand or inside air conditions, such as temperature or
humidity). There are currently different calibration methodologies, and there is still no agreement on
which is the most appropriate for each problem [21], although most of these calibration efforts are
built upon the recommendations provided by ASHRAE Guideline 14 [22], which provides metrics and
acceptable tolerances to establish whether the computer model of an entire building can be considered
calibrated. This paper introduces a procedure to model, simulate and calibrate the thermal behavior of
buildings so a high degree of reliability and accuracy can be obtained when validating the results of
the simulation with the data obtained by monitoring the real system.
The simulating engine employed was TRNSYS, while the calibration was executed with GenOpt,
which is an optimization tool that is an effective calibration software for buildings, according to
prior studies [23]. The methodology is applied to the case study of an elementary school, which is
considered a particularly complex case, because despite the plethora of information coming from
an audit performed in the school centre, it is an old building with poor maintenance. This work
has been conducted with BCORE, a ground-breaking tool developed under the European project
ENGINENCY [24], that simplifies the automated implementation of the methodology with which to
obtain accurate thermally calibrated simulations of buildings, thus decreasing the costs of deployment
to the expert simulator.

2. Description of the Experimental System


This work has been developed in an elementary school located in Galicia in the northwest of
Spain. The school is considered as a representative public building because it is one of more than
30 schools of the same typology built throughout Galicia around the 1970s, and this design constitutes
the majority of the public schools in the region.
The research presented in this article was performed together with an exhaustive energy audit.
Because that audit is beyond the scope of this article, only the data required for modelling the school
and the subsequent calibration that were obtained from the audit is described below.

2.1. Building Description


The educational centre is composed of two principal buildings: the Lecture Building and the
Administrative Building. In addition to these, there are other auxiliary buildings—sports centre,
gymnasium and concierge—which were not considered in this study, since their thermal consumption
is considered to be negligible.
The Lecture Building, which is shown in Figure 1, is composed of a ground and first floor
laid out in a comb-shaped plan with two bodies communicated by three corridors that delimit two
interior courtyards. The ground floor (inside area of 1209.06 m2 ) is intended for children's education
(southern half) and common services (northern half), such as the dining room, kitchen, library, boiler
room, etc. The upper floor (inside area of 1189.61 m2 ) is entirely dedicated to primary education.
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Figure 1. West façade of the Lecture Building.


Figure1.1.West
Figure Westfaçade
façade of the
the Lecture
LectureBuilding.
Building.
In Figure 2, the Administrative Building is depicted. It faces the east façade of the Lecture
In Figure 2, the Administrative Building is depicted. It faces the east façade of the Lecture
In Figure
Building. 2, theinside
The Administrative
area of thisBuilding
building isisdepicted.
292.84 m2It faces
. It the east
houses façade
offices that of
arethe Lecture Building.
predominantly
Building. The inside area of this building 2 is 292.84 m2. It houses offices that are predominantly
individually
The inside area ofused
thisas well as is
building rooms form
292.84 multiple use. It
. It houses is primarily
offices that areused in the mornings,
predominantly accordingused
individually
individually used as well as rooms for multiple use. It is primarily used in the mornings, according
to
as well the schedule of the centre.
as rooms for multiple use. It is primarily used in the mornings, according to the schedule of
to the schedule of the centre.
the centre.

Figure 2. East façade of the Administrative Building.


Figure 2. East façade of the Administrative Building.
Figure 2. East façade of the Administrative Building.
The heating system common to both buildings is a fuel boiler, model Roca NTD 165, which is
The heating system common to both buildings is a fuel boiler, model Roca NTD 165, which is
located in the Lecture Building, and steel plate radiators. The regular use of the centre, which receives
Thestudents,
heating
located system
in the Lecture common
Building,
in the to bothplate
and steel buildings
between is
radiators.aThe
9:25 fuel
and boiler,
regular use
14:25. Itmodel
of the Roca
centre,NTD
which165, which is
receives
400 takes place morning, has a canteen service from
400 in
located students,
the takesBuilding,
Lecture place in and
the morning,
steel platebetween 9:25The
radiators. andregular
14:25. Ituse
hasofathe
canteen service
centre, whichfrom
receives
14:30 to 15:30 and extracurricular activities from 16:00 to 17:00.
14:30 to 15:30
400 students, and extracurricular activities from 16:00 to 17:00.
Both the Lecture and Administrative buildings are considerably old. They were built during 14:30
takes place in the morning, between 9:25 and 14:25. It has a canteen service from the to
15:301970s,Both the Lecture
and extracurricular and Administrative
activitiesand
from buildings
16:00theto fact are
17:00. considerably old. They were built during the
as mentioned previously, despite that some specific reforms have been undertaken
1970s, as mentioned previously, and despite the fact that some specific reforms have been undertaken
Both the
during thisLecture andare
time, they Administrative buildings
generally in a very are considerably
deteriorated condition. The old. They
most wereproblems
serious built during
that the
during this time, they are generally in a very deteriorated condition. The most serious problems that
affect the majority of the energy consumption are due to poor insulation of both
1970s, as mentioned previously, and despite the fact that some specific reforms have been undertakenthe windows, which
affect the majority of the energy consumption are due to poor insulation of both the windows, which
have
during simple
this metal
time,metal woodwork
theywoodwork without
are generally thermal
in a very breaks, and blind boxes.The most serious problems that
deteriorated
have simple without thermal breaks, andcondition.
blind boxes.
affect the majority of the energy consumption are due to poor insulation of both the windows, which
2.2. Temperature Monitoring
have2.2.
simple metal woodwork
Temperature Monitoring without thermal breaks, and blind boxes.
During the energy audit conducted during the 2014–2015 academic term, the buildings under
During the energy audit conducted during the 2014–2015 academic term, the buildings under
2.2. Temperature Monitoring
study were monitored every ten minutes, with special prevalence during the cold season. For comfort
study were monitored every ten minutes, with special prevalence during the cold season. For comfort
requirements as well as the number of users, the Lecture Building analysis was prioritized.
During the energy
requirements as well audit
as the conducted
number of during
users, thetheLecture
2014–2015 academic
Building analysisterm, the buildings
was prioritized.
Thermohygrometers were used for recording indoor temperature and humidity data of the thermal
underThermohygrometers
study were used for recording indoor temperature and humidity data of the thermal
zones, andwere monitored everycharacteristics
the thermohygrometer ten minutes,are with
givenspecial prevalence
in Table 1. during the cold season.
zones, and
For comfort the thermohygrometer
requirements characteristics
as well as the number ofare given
users, theinLecture
Table 1.Building analysis was prioritized.
Thermohygrometers were used for recording indoor temperature and humidity data of the thermal
zones, and the thermohygrometer characteristics are given in Table 1.
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Energies 2017, 10, 807 4 of 17


Table 1. Thermohygrometer characteristics.
Table 1. Thermohygrometer characteristics.
Characteristics
Characteristics Temperature
TemperatureSensor
Sensor HumiditySensor
Humidity Sensor
Resolution 0.1 ◦ C 0.1%RH
RH(relative
(relative humidity)
humidity)
Resolution 0.1 °C 0.1%
Accuracy
Accuracy 0.5 ◦°C
±±0.5 C ± 2.5%RH
±2.5% RH(+5%
(+5%toto+95%
+95%RH)
RH)
Manufacturer: Testo; Model: 625
Manufacturer: Testo; Model: 625

Initially, a first assessment of the interior conditions was made with point measurements in
Initially, a first assessment of the interior conditions was made with point measurements in
classrooms and other rooms. The selection of monitoring locations was made based on the
classrooms and other rooms. The selection of monitoring locations was made based on the conclusions
conclusions obtained from the analysis of the point measurements and with the aim of covering the
obtained from the analysis of the point measurements and with the aim of covering the greatest
greatest typological diversity of spaces. That is why classrooms with a variety of position and
typological diversity of spaces. That is why classrooms with a variety of position and window
window orientations, different floors and locations in the building were chosen. Likewise, characteristic
orientations, different floors and locations in the building were chosen. Likewise, characteristic spaces
spaces with special regimes of use, such as the canteen or the library, were studied. Conditions were
with special regimes of use, such as the canteen or the library, were studied. Conditions were analyzed
analyzed in more open spaces, such as distributors, and sensors were placed in unheated areas, such
in more open spaces, such as distributors, and sensors were placed in unheated areas, such as in false
as in false ceilings and below deck.
ceilings and below deck.
During the first month of the audit, between 15 October and 13 November, 19 registration points
During the first month of the audit, between 15 October and 13 November, 19 registration points
were taken, 18 of them in the classroom and one in the administrative building. From 13 November
were taken, 18 of them in the classroom and one in the administrative building. From 13 November to
to 17 December, 10 points were monitored from those in the Lecture building. The planes in Figure 3
17 December, 10 points were monitored from those in the Lecture building. The planes in Figure 3
show the spaces where the data loggers (DL) were installed, which were placed centred in each room
show the spaces where the data loggers (DL) were installed, which were placed centred in each room
and close to the ceiling.
and close to the ceiling.

(a)

Figure 3. Cont.
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(b)

Figure 3. Location of sensors (DL-1 to DL-19) in the Lecture and Administrative Buildings: (a) Ground
Figure 3. Location of sensors (DL-1 to DL-19) in the Lecture and Administrative Buildings: (a) Ground
floor and (b) First floor.
floor and (b) First floor.
3. Simulation Methodology (b)
3. Simulation Methodology
Figure 3. Location of sensors (DL-1 to DL-19) in the Lecture and Administrative Buildings: (a) Ground
3.1. Simulation Software
floor and (b) First floor.
3.1. Simulation Software
The simulation software employed in this work was BCORE, a BEPS tool that was
3. Simulation Methodology
self-developed.
The simulationItsoftware
is an advanced
employed technological
in this work solution that enables
was BCORE, the automated
a BEPS tool that was calibration of
self-developed.
simulations.
It is an 3.1.
advanced The new
technologicaltool is powerful and facilitates the introduction of data
solution that enables the automated calibration of simulations. The new and the fulfilment of
Simulation Software
the building model, decreasing the costs of deployment for the modeller. Using a holistic approach,
tool is powerful and facilitates the introduction of data and the fulfilment of the building model,
The simulation
this software integrates software
into a singleemployed in this
tool multiple work and
utilities wasapplications
BCORE, a that BEPS were tool that wasnot
previously
decreasing the costs ofIt deployment
self-developed. is an advanced
fortechnological
the modeller. Usingthat a holistic approach, this software integrates
commercially combined: modelling, simulation,solution
calibration, enables
and the theimplementation
automated calibration of
of energy
into aconservation
single tool multiple
simulations. The new utilities
measures tool and
is powerful
(ECMs) in applications
and facilitates
buildings. that
thewere
In addition, previously
introduction
BCORE hasofa datanotand
friendlycommercially
the fulfilment
framework combined:
of is
that
modelling,
easily simulation,
the building
usable by any calibration,
model, decreasing
end-user who and
themay the
costs ofimplementation
not deploymentbe
necessarily foran of
the energy conservation
modeller.
information Using a holistic
technologies measures
approach,(ECMs)
expert.
this
in buildings. software integrates
In addition,
The calculation into
BCORE
engine a single
has with
chosen tool multiple
a friendly utilities
which framework
BCORE works andthatapplications that
is easily usable
is TRNSYS, were
which was previously
by any notby who
end-user
developed
may the commercially
not University
necessarily combined:
ofbe modelling,
an information
Wisconsin, Madison, simulation,
technologies
WI, USA. The calibration,
expert. and the implementation
software operation is based on introducing a of energy
conservation
building model, measures (ECMs) in buildings.
its geometry In addition, BCORE has a friendly framework that
in istheby the
The calculation engine chosenand with enclosures,
which BCORE as well as
works itsis thermal
TRNSYS, loads,
which as discussed
was developed
easily usable by any end-user who may not necessarily be an information technologies expert.
following
University of section. These
Wisconsin, building
Madison, WI,dataUSA.as well
Theas weatheroperation
software data are necessary
is based on to run the simulation.
introducing a building
The calculation engine chosen with which BCORE works is TRNSYS, which was developed by
However,
model,the the
its Universityfirst
geometry of andsimulations do not usually generate realistic results. At this point, this software
Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA. The software operation is based on introducing a section.
enclosures, as well as its thermal loads, as discussed in the following
provides its main contribution, which is the ability to calibrate the simulation to obtain a solution that
These building
building model, itswell
data as as weather
geometry data are necessary
and enclosures, as well as its to run the loads,
thermal simulation. However,
as discussed in thethe first
is as close to reality as possible. Monitoring data are necessary to implement this calibration. Another
following
simulations do section.
not usuallyThese generate
building data as wellresults.
realistic as weather data point,
At this are necessary to run theprovides
this software simulation. its main
strength of the program is the capability to define different ECMs and to compare them with the base
However,
contribution, the first
which is simulations
the ability do
to not usuallythe
calibrate generate realisticto
simulation results.
obtain Atathis point, this
solution thatsoftware
is as close to
project. The BCORE operational diagram is shown in Figure 4.
provides its main contribution, which is the ability to calibrate the simulation to obtain a solution that
reality as possible. Monitoring data are necessary to implement this calibration. Another strength of
is as close to reality as possible. Monitoring data are necessary to implement this calibration. Another
the program is the capability to define different ECMs and to compare them with the base project.
strength of the program is the capability to define different ECMs and to compare them with the base
The BCORE
project. The BCORE diagram
operational operationalisdiagram
shown is
inshown
Figurein4.
Figure 4.

Figure 4. BCORE operational diagram.

Figure 4. BCORE operational diagram.


Figure 4. BCORE operational diagram.
Energies 2017, 10, 807 6 of 17

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3.2. Model Description


3.2. Model Description
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The model of the
The model school
of the was
school wascreated
createdusing
using the SketchUpsoftware,
the SketchUp software, in conjunction
in conjunction with the
with the
OpenStudio-Plugin,
3.2. Model Descriptionwhich allows the generation of a building geometry from scratch as well as the as the
OpenStudio-Plugin,which allows the generation of a building geometry from scratch as well
introduction of extra
introduction information
of extra informationthat
thatisisused
usedlater in the
later in thesimulation.
simulation. AnAnosmosm file with
file with the generated
the generated
The model of the school was created using the SketchUp software, in conjunction with the
geometry
geometry was was produced
produced and andimported
then then imported
into into BCORE,
BCORE, which, which,
once once
the the construction
construction and and
operational
OpenStudio-Plugin, which allows the generation of a building geometry from scratch as well as the
operational
properties have properties
been have will
entered, beenbe
entered, will be transformed
transformed into the into thenecessary
format format necessary
for for TRNSYS
TRNSYS to execute
introduction of extra information that is used later in the simulation. An osm file with the generated
to execute the dynamic simulation. Figure 5 shows the developed thermal model. As shown, the
the dynamic
geometry simulation. Figureand
was produced 5 shows the developed
then imported thermalwhich,
into BCORE, model.onceAs shown, the administrative
the construction and
administrative building is facing east, and the overhanging roof and cornices were designed as
building is facingproperties
operational east, andhave
the been
overhanging roof
entered, will beand cornicesinto
transformed werethedesigned as solarforshadings.
format necessary TRNSYS
solar shadings.
to execute the dynamic simulation. Figure 5 shows the developed thermal model. As shown, the
administrative building is facing east, and the overhanging roof and cornices were designed as
solar shadings.

Figure 5. Thermal model of the school in SketchUp.


Figure 5. Thermal model of the school in SketchUp.
To simplify the model without impairing the precision required for the thermal simulation,
Figure 5. Thermal model of the school in SketchUp.
similar
To simplifyrooms
theand classrooms
model without were combined
impairing thetoprecision
minimize required
the number forofthe
thermal
thermal zones, neglectingsimilar
simulation,
the thermal
rooms andToclassrooms inertia of the interior walls between combined spaces. Likewise, the spaces between the the
simplify theweremodel combined to minimize
without impairing the number
the precision of thermal
required zones,simulation,
for the thermal neglecting
upper floor and the roof, despite being non-inhabited areas, were considered as additional non-
thermal inertia
similar of the
rooms andinterior walls
classrooms between
were combinedcombined spaces.
to minimize the Likewise,
number of the spaces
thermal between
zones, the upper
neglecting
conditioned thermal zones. Thus, the total number of thermal zones is 38 zones: 31 in the Lecture
the
floor and thermal inertia of the interior walls between combined spaces. Likewise, the spaces
the roof, despite being non-inhabited areas, were considered as additional non-conditioned between the
Building and 7 in the Administrative Building. In the model presented in Figure 6, a section of the
thermalupper floor
zones. and
Thus, the roof,
the total despite
number being non-inhabited
of thermal areas,
zonescan
is 38 were considered as additional non-
zones: 31 in the Lecture Building and
ground floor is shown, where the thermal zones defined be distinguished.
conditioned thermal zones. Thus, the total number of thermal zones is 38 zones: 31 in the Lecture
7 in the Administrative Building. In the model presented in Figure 6, a section of the ground floor is
Building and 7 in the Administrative Building. In the model presented in Figure 6, a section of the
shown, where the thermal zones defined can be distinguished.
ground floor is shown, where the thermal zones defined can be distinguished.

Figure 6. Section of the building model of the ground floor.

Figure 6. Section of the building model of the ground floor.


Figure 6. Section of the building model of the ground floor.
Energies 2017, 10, 807 7 of 17

Energies 2017, 10, 807 7 of 17


To define a constructive model of the school, visual inspections of the buildings were
conducted Toand measurements
define of thermal
a constructive model transmittance
of the school, were taken
visual inspections in those were
of the buildings elements where it
conducted
was possible. The thermal
and measurements transmittance
of thermal measures
transmittance were in
were taken made
thoseduring
elementsthewhere
audit,it using specialized
was possible.
equipment: a multifunction
The thermal transmittance meter—model
measures weretestomade435—together withusing
during the audit, a temperature
specializedprobe for U-value
equipment: a
multifunction meter—model
calculation—model testo
testo 635. The 435—together
different with a temperature
constructive elements ofprobe for U-value
the building werecalculation—
defined in the
BCORE model
tooltesto
from635. The
the different
layer constructive
composition of elements of the building
each construction typewere defined
to the in thecharacteristics
thermal BCORE tool of
each layer, i.e., heat capacity (J/kg·K), conductivity (W/m·K) and density (kg/m ) oflayer,
from the layer composition of each construction type to the thermal characteristics of each
3 i.e.,
the material.
heat capacity (J/kg·K), conductivity (W/m·K) and density (kg/m3) of the material. In Figure 7, these
In Figure 7, these constructions can be differentiated, and their properties are summarised in Table 2
constructions can be differentiated, and their properties are summarised in Table 2 for the walls and
for the walls and in Table 3 for the openings.
in Table 3 for the openings.

Figure
Figure 7. Constructiveelements
7. Constructive elements employed
employedininthe
theschool model.
school model.

Table 2. Constructive characteristics of the building.


Table 2. Constructive characteristics of the building.
Total Total Thermal
Thickness Conductivity
Construction Thickness Total
Total U-Value Material Resistance
Thermal
[m]Thickness[W/m·K]
Conductivity[m2·K/W]
Construction [m]
Thickness [W/m2·K]
U-Value Material Resistance
[m] [W/m·K]
[m] [W/m2 ·K] Brick fired clay [m2 ·K/W]
0.10 0.667 -
½ foot
Brick fired clay 21 foot 0.10 0.667 -
Façade 0.21 3.18 Air chamber - - 0.035
Façade 0.21 3.18 Airfired
Brick chamber
clay - - 0.035
1
0.10 0.667 -
½ foot
Brick fired clay 2 foot 0.10 0.667 -
Blind box 0.04 4.45 Plywood 0.04 0.178 -
Blind box 0.04 4.45 Plywood 0.04 0.178 -
Brick fired clay
Brick
Brick lintel
lintel 0.220.22 3.033.03 Brick ½
fired 1 0.22 0.22 0.667 0.667 - -
footclay 2 foot
Concrete
Concrete Reinforced
0.620.62 3.713.71 Reinforced concrete 0.62 0.62 2.300 2.300 - -
lintel
lintel concrete
Asbestos
Asbestos cement board 0.01 0.01
Roof 0.080.08 6.736.73 0.470 0.470 - -
Roof cement board
Metal sheet 0.07 0.55 -
Metal sheet 0.07 0.55 -
Mortar light aggregate
Mortar light 0.03 0.410 -
Horizontal 0.03 0.410 -
Horizontal 0.28 2.87 aggregate
Unidirectional slab
partition 0.28 2.87 0.25 0.908 -
partition Unidirectional
ceramic
0.25 0.908 -
slab ceramic
Vertical 1
Vertical 0.10 6.67 Brick
Brickfired
firedclay
clay2 foot 0.10 0.667 -
partition 0.10 6.67 0.10 0.667 -
partition ½ foot
Mortar light aggregate 0.03 0.410 -
Mortar light
Slab 0.28 2.87 0.03 0.410 -
Unidirectional
aggregate slab
Slab 0.28 2.87 0.25 0.908 -
ceramic
Unidirectional
0.25 0.908 -
slab ceramic
Table 3. Characteristics of the openings of the building.

Buildings Layers (-) U-Value (W/m2 ·K) g-Value (%) Area Frame/Window (%)
Window glass Simple (6 mm) 5.96 0.850 -
Window frame - 5.70 - 15
Table 3. Characteristics of the openings of the building.

Buildings Layers (-) U-Value (W/m2·K) g-Value (%) Area Frame/Window (%)
Window glass Simple (6 mm) 5.96 0.850 -
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Window frame - 5.70 - 15

3.3.
3.3. Weather
Weather File
File
The
The weather
weather data
data used
used in
in this
this study
study were
were taken
taken from
from the
the MeteoGalicia
MeteoGalicia [25][25] database
database for
for the
the
location
location of the educational centre and were adjusted by interpolation of meteorological stations near
of the educational centre and were adjusted by interpolation of meteorological stations near
the
the school
school with
with data
data from
from the
the last
last 10
10 years,
years, so
so it
it was
was possible
possible to
to generate
generate aa representative
representative typical
typical
meteorological
meteorological year (TMY). The data were converted to the energy plus weather (EPW)
year (TMY). The data were converted to the energy plus weather (EPW) data
data format
format
required
required by
by the
the meteorological
meteorological data
data processor
processor of of TRNSYS.
TRNSYS. Previously,
Previously, for
for the
the calibration
calibration phase,
phase,
actual
actual data from the meteorological stations of MeteoGalicia were used for the days in which the
data from the meteorological stations of MeteoGalicia were used for the days in which the
measurements
measurements of of indoor
indoor humidity
humidity andand temperature
temperature was
was performed,
performed, since
since actual
actual meteorological
meteorological data
data
was
was required
required to
to validate the simulation.
validate the simulation.

3.4.
3.4. Simulation
Simulation
Figure
Figure 8 shows
shows aa diagram
diagram ofof the
the model
model simulation
simulation in in the
the graphical
graphical interface
interface of
of TRNYS.
TRNYS. The The main
main
part of the diagram is the type 56 (BUILDING in the figure), which represents the building
diagram is the type 56 (BUILDING in the figure), which represents the building geometry geometry
and
and construction
construction elements.
elements. ItIt also
also includes
includes the
the components
components thatthat process
process the
the meteorological
meteorological data data
(Type 15, MeteoData), and all of the internal
internal loads
loads that
that must
must be
be taken
taken into
into account
account inin the
thesimulation:
simulation:
occupancy,
occupancy, lighting, infiltrations, etc. The building was simulated for an entire year (2014), since since that
that
was when the measurement campaign was undertaken, and there was a simulation simulation step
step of
of 11 h.
h.

Figure 8.
Figure Building simulation
8. Building simulation diagram
diagram developed
developed in
in TRNSYS
TRNSYS simulation
simulation studio.
studio.

Considering
Considering that
that BCORE
BCORE automatically
automatically generates
generates this
this simulation
simulation scheme,
scheme, the
the program’s
program’s useruser
does
does not
not need
need to
to generate
generate itit or
or work
work with
with ititlater
laterbecause,
because, as
asmentioned,
mentioned, the
the advantage
advantage of
of the
the software
software
is
is that
that it allows the use of a powerful calculation engine, such as TRNSYS, without without the necessity
necessity of
an
an expert user.

Operational Conditions
Operational Conditions
As mentioned
As mentioned previously,
previously, there
there is
is some
some information
information that
that was
was introduced
introduced automatically
automatically into
into the
the
BCORE software with external files, such as the geometry or the weather data. However,
BCORE software with external files, such as the geometry or the weather data. However, there is there is much
information
much that was
information introduced
that internallyinternally
was introduced in the software
in theusing its interface,
software using itssuch as the constructions
interface, such as the
previously exposed and the thermal loads and, in particular, the infiltrations, occupancy, lighting
and equipment.
To determine the occupancy loads, according to ISO 7730:2005 [26], the activities of the people
at the centre was considered for the teachers standing and light work activity, corresponding to
Energies 2017, 10, 807 9 of 17

a metabolic rate level of 90 W/person of sensible heat and 95 W/person of latent heat. For students,
it was considered to be light activity with sitting and writing, corresponding to a metabolic rate of
65 W/person of sensible heat and 55 W/person of latent heat. Several authors studied thermal comfort
parameters for children in classrooms [27–29], coming to the conclusion that the metabolic rate for
children must be adjusted from that determined for adults. Children’s age is very important for the
metabolic rate, as it depends on the children’s body surface area. Havenith [30] analyzed that area in
children aged between 9 and 18, ranging from 1.23 m2 to 1.96 m2 , with the body surface area for adults
being 1.7 m2 . Since the studied buildings are a primary and elementary school, where the students are
6–12 year old children, in this work a reduction coefficient of 0.5 was applied for children´s metabolic
rate [31].
The overall schedule of the centre is from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. from Monday to Friday. Lessons
are delivered according to the school calendar all year except on Christmas, Easter and during summer
holidays (from mid-June to mid-September).
Practically, the entire centre is lighted with the same type of fluorescent luminaires, both in the
form of conventional tubes and in the form of compact equipment. In this work, it was considered
that 40% of the lamp power of the fluorescent tubes corresponded to the convective part and
60% corresponded to the radiant part.
For an estimation of the thermal load due to existing equipment, an average of approximately
1500 W was considered in each classroom during school days. Thus, 300 W of continuous load was
taken during 5 h of lessons. In some classrooms, the power from an additional 1700 W heater was
added for the winter months.
The infiltration values of the thermal zones were calculated in accordance with the empirical
method proposed by the ASHRAE [32] K1 , K2 , K3 model, which imply an accurate method for
obtaining quick infiltration computations. Hence, the infiltration calculation—air changes per hour
(ACH)—in each thermal zone was performed for each simulation step according to the Equation (1):

ACH = K1 + K2 ·( TZone − Tambient ) + K3 ·Ws , (1)

where K1 is the constant coefficient, K2 is the temperature coefficient, K3 is the wind speed coefficient
and Ws is the wind speed. These coefficients were determined based on the construction level
of the zone where the infiltration was calculated. Taking into account the previously mentioned
poor insulation conditions of both buildings, the coefficients employed in this work were those
recommended by ASHRAE for “Evidence of poor construction on older buildings where joints have
separated”. In addition, to consider the entrance and exit of air due to the aperture of doors during the
use of the school centre, a schedule from 9:00 to 17:00 hours was applied to the calculated infiltrations,
which matches to the daytime hours when the buildings are inhabited. The calculated values for the
infiltrations ranged from 0.19 ACH (obtained in classroom 6), to 0.83 ACH (obtained in the canteen).
Since the objective of this work is focused on the process of simulation and calibration of a building,
(mainly its thermal envelope and operating conditions, and not so much the energy production and
distribution facilities), to calculate the heating demands, an ideal heating system was established that
ensures compliance with the internal comfort conditions for the users, i.e., students and teachers.
An ideal system was defined that maintains the indoor temperature at 20 ◦ C in the classrooms and at
18 ◦ C in the corridors, halls and administrative areas during school hours, starting from 8:00 a.m. and
ending at 12:00 a.m. This was established for the period between 1 November and 31 March, except
for the Christmas holidays.

3.5. Calibration
Although the calculation engine has been proved to give successful results for building
simulations, the model must be adjusted in accordance with the actual behavior of the building.
With this aim, a calibration of the simulation was performed to achieve the requirements established by
Energies 2017, 10, 807 10 of 17

ASHRAE Guideline 14 [22] to consider the buildings calibrated. The methodology employed during
this process is described in this section.
A deterministic methodology was applied in the calibration process. This method works by
changing a number of parameters, which can be continuous or discrete, and by searching for the
minimization of an objective function that measures the differences between the model predictions
and the measured data. The cost function, which was considered to be minimized in this work,
was the coefficient of variation of the root mean square error, CV(RMSE), as defined in Equation (2).
Later, in regard to the validation of the obtained results, another metric proposed by ASHRAE
Guideline 14 was used, which is the normalized mean bias error (NMBE), as defined in Equation (3):
q
2
∑in=1 ( Tsim − Treal ) /n
CV(RMSE) = , (2)
Treal

∑in=1 ( Tsim − Treal )/n


NMBE = (3)
Treal
where:

• Tsim is the simulated indoor air temperature of the zone;


• Treal is the registered real temperature;
• Treal is the average registered real temperature;
• n is the number of data.

As explained in Section 2.2, measurement campaigns were performed. Temperature data


from 15 October to 24 December were used in this work to calibrate the model by comparing this
experimental data (Treal in Equation (2)) with the indoor temperature predicted by the simulation
software, or Tsim , in the same thermal zone. The registered data were acquired in ten-minute intervals,
and the simulation step was one hour; hence, the temperature data were previously pre-processed
so that they could be properly compared. The temperature data used correspond to data-loggers
positioned in 19 different zones in the buildings, as shown in Figure 3. The cost function was calculated
as the mean CV(RMSE) value, as defined above, in each zone, as shown in Equation (4). Similarly,
the NMBE total for the building was calculated according to Equation (5):
n
∑k=
z
1 CV(RMSE)Zk
CV(RMSE)total = (4)
nZ
n
∑k=
z
1 NMBEZk
NMBEtotal = (5)
nz
The optimization software selected to perform the calibration was GenOpt 3.0.1. [33], which
executes the Hooke-Jeeves implementation of the generalized pattern search (GPS) algorithm, a hybrid
algorithm for global optimization. Using this algorithm, the parameters that are calibrated are varied
within pre-set limits, during a series of iterations.
Thus, the developed software is an innovation in the field of energy simulation because it allows
for the automated calibration of the model. Because of the BCORE tool, this calibration software
is executed in a simple and semi-automated way. The first steps are performed manually since the
user needs to define which parameters should be calibrated (parameters selected for this work will
be discussed below) and provide the program with the available monitoring data, which are either
the thermal demand or hygrometric conditions (temperature or humidity) within the thermal zones.
Once these parameters have been defined, BCORE autonomously and automatically executes the
two programs involved in the calibration process. For each GenOpt iteration, TRNSYS performs
a new simulation with the set values for each variable. Then, the objective function is calculated to
check if it decreased in comparison with the previous step. The optimum result is considered to have
Energies 2017, 10, 807 11 of 17

Energies 2017, 10, 807 11 of 17


it decreased in comparison with the previous step. The optimum result is considered to have been
achieved when equal values are found during five consecutive iterations. Figure 9 shows the
interaction
been diagram
achieved whenbetween TRNSYS
equal values and GenOpt
are found duringduring the calibration
five consecutive process.
iterations. Figure 9 shows the
interaction diagram between TRNSYS and GenOpt during the calibration process.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Interaction
Interaction diagram
diagram for
for calibration
calibration with
with GenOpt
GenOpt and
and TRNSYS.
TRNSYS.

As previously stated, the buildings are in poorly maintained conditions, with defective
As previously stated, the buildings are in poorly maintained conditions, with defective insulation
insulation at both the window frames and blind boxes. This makes infiltrations an important focus of
at both the window frames and blind boxes. This makes infiltrations an important focus of thermal
thermal energy loss, which are difficult to quantify. Hence, the parameters that were taken into
energy loss, which are difficult to quantify. Hence, the parameters that were taken into account
account for calibration were those corresponding to the infiltrations, which were the part of the model
for calibration were those corresponding to the infiltrations, which were the part of the model that
that was defined with less precision, since the audit that was performed provided much information
was defined with less precision, since the audit that was performed provided much information on
on the construction and operation characteristics of the buildings. Thus, the parameters proposed for
the construction and operation characteristics of the buildings. Thus, the parameters proposed for
calibration are those indicated in Table 4 which are dimensionless multipliers applied to the
calibration are those indicated in Table 4 which are dimensionless multipliers applied to the infiltrations
infiltrations calculated according to Equation (1) at each simulation step. The 38 thermal zones were
calculated according to Equation (1) at each simulation step. The 38 thermal zones were put into
put into 5 different infiltrations groups, so 5 infiltration multipliers (one common for each group)
5 different infiltrations groups, so 5 infiltration multipliers (one common for each group) needed to
needed to be calibrated, as shown in Table 4, decreasing the need for computations by reducing the
be calibrated, as shown in Table 4, decreasing the need for computations by reducing the degrees of
degrees of freedom without significantly decreasing the optimization capacity.
freedom without significantly decreasing the optimization capacity.
Table 4. Calibration parameters.
Table 4. Calibration parameters.
Parameter Description
Infiltration
Parameter 1 Infiltrations below deck in both buildings
Description
Infiltration12
Infiltration Infiltrations in
Infiltrations below deckthe false ceilings
in both buildings
Infiltration23
Infiltration Infiltrationsin
Infiltrations inthe
thefalse
classrooms
ceilings
Infiltration34
Infiltration InfiltrationsInfiltrations
in zones in inthethe
Administrative
classrooms Building
Infiltration45
Infiltration Infiltrations
Infiltrations in the
in zones halls
in the of both buildings
Administrative Building
Infiltration 5 Infiltrations in the halls of both buildings
To calibrate these parameters, it is necessary to delimit the ranges between which they can be
varied.
To Since the these
calibrate parameters are multipliers
parameters, of the to
it is necessary instantaneous infiltration
delimit the ranges values,
between the initial
which they canvalue
be
for each parameter is 1, and the lower and upper limits for all of them are 0.2 and 10, respectively.
varied. Since the parameters are multipliers of the instantaneous infiltration values, the initial value
for each parameter is 1, and the lower and upper limits for all of them are 0.2 and 10, respectively.
4. Results and Discussion
4. Results and Discussion
The results obtained during the study described in this paper are introduced in this section. First,
the outcomes
The resultsofobtained
the calibration
during process and
the study the accuracy
described in thisof the model
paper are presented,
are introduced and thenFirst,
in this section. the
behavior
the of theofmodel
outcomes is shown process
the calibration in graphs that
and compare
the accuracytheofcalibrated
the model and
areuncalibrated simulations.
presented, and then the
behavior of the model is shown in graphs that compare the calibrated and uncalibrated simulations.
4.1. Calibration Results
4.1. Calibration Results
After 125 iterations and 2 computer hours on a PC with an INTEL CORE I7 processor and 16
After
gigabytes of125 iterations
random and
access 2 computer
memory (RAM),hours on a PC
the applied with an
method INTELthe
achieved CORE I7 processor
minimum value ofand
the
16 gigabytes
defined cost of randomAs
function. access memory (RAM),
demonstrated in the the applied of
validation method achieved
the model the minimum
described value of
in the following
the defined cost function. As demonstrated in the validation of the model described in the following
Energies 2017, 10, 807 12 of 17

section, the starting simulation was a correct model, and it was difficult to optimize due to its high
initial accuracy.
However, according to the calibration results obtained, the infiltration model K1 , K2 , K3 defined by
Energies 2017, 10, 807 12 of 17
the ASHRAE, which takes into account difference in pressures, densities and temperatures between the
external air the
section, andstarting
the interior, is awas
simulation model thatmodel,
a correct can beandused
it wasfor this simulation,
difficult since
to optimize due the
to its obtained
high
initial accuracy.
multipliers are within a range of values that can be considered acceptable. Table 5 shows the
However,
dimensionless according
multipliers to the calibration
obtained through theresults obtained,process
calibration the infiltration
that weremodel K1, K2to
applied , Kthe
3 defined
infiltrations
by the ASHRAE, which takes into account difference in pressures, densities and temperatures
of each group of zones that were calculated according to K1 , K2 , K3 .
between the external air and the interior, is a model that can be used for this simulation, since the
obtained multipliers are within a range of values that can be considered acceptable. Table 5 shows
Table 5. Calibrated values of the selected variables.
the dimensionless multipliers obtained through the calibration process that were applied to the
infiltrations of each group of zones that were calculated according to K1, K2, K3.
Parameter Calibrated Value
Table 5.Infiltration 1
Calibrated values 0.2 variables.
of the selected
Infiltration 2 0.2
Parameter Calibrated Value
Infiltration 3 10
Infiltration 1 0.2
Infiltration 4 9.3
Infiltration 2 0.2
Infiltration 5 5
Infiltration 3 10
Infiltration 4 9.3
4.2. Model Validation Infiltration 5 5

To
4.2.assess the accuracy of the simulation, the ASHRAE Guideline 14 criteria was followed, which
Model Validation
states thatToanassess
entire building can be considered calibrated when the computer model has a NMBE of
the accuracy of the simulation, the ASHRAE Guideline 14 criteria was followed, which
10% and a CV(RMSE) of 30% when
states that an entire building can be the data sampling
considered calibratedperiod
when the is computer
hourly, as in the
model hassimulation
a NMBE of in this
work.10%These metrics of the simulation were calculated using Equations (2)–(5).
and a CV(RMSE) of 30% when the data sampling period is hourly, as in the simulation in this
Figures
work. These10 and 11 represent
metrics the NMBE
of the simulation wereand CV(RMSE),
calculated usingrespectively, before and after the calibration
Equations (2)–(5).
for each ofFigures 10 andzones
the thermal 11 represent
that weretheconsidered
NMBE and in CV(RMSE), respectively,
the calibration before
process for and after
a period of twothemonths.
calibration
As shown in theforplots,
each the
of the thermal zones
simulation thatafter
errors werecalibration
considered were
in the highly
calibration processThe
reduced. for aNMBE
periodranged
of two months. As shown in the plots, the simulation errors after calibration were highly reduced.
from −7.21% to 18.29% for the initial simulation, and it decreased to the range of −9.02% to 11.92%
The NMBE ranged from −7.21% to 18.29% for the initial simulation, and it decreased to the range of
in the−9.02%
calibration model. On the other hand, CV(RMSE) decreased from an initial range of 6.06% to
to 11.92% in the calibration model. On the other hand, CV(RMSE) decreased from an initial
24.75%, to of
range a range of24.75%,
6.06% to 5.81% toto a17.45%.
range ofThe
5.81%x-axis in both
to 17.45%. Thefigures
x-axis incorrespond
both figures to the sensor
correspond identifier
to the
previously
sensor defined
identifierin Figure 3defined
previously in Section 2.2. 3 in Section 2.2.
in Figure

Figure 10. Normalized mean bias error (NMBE) for indoor temperature in each thermal zone with
Figure 10. Normalized mean bias error (NMBE) for indoor temperature in each thermal zone with
registered data.
registered data.
Energies2017,
Energies 2017,10,
10,807
807 13 of13
17of 17

Figure 11. CV(RMSE) for indoor temperature in each thermal zone with registered data.
Figure 11. CV(RMSE) for indoor temperature in each thermal zone with registered data.

In Table 6, the performance metrics that were calculated as the mean in each zone are presented,
andInagain
Tablewe6, the performance
compared metrics thatsimulation
the uncalibrated were calculated as the
with the mean inone.
calibrated eachThe
zone are presented,
uncalibrated
and again we compared the uncalibrated simulation with the calibrated
simulation already presents a reasonable level of accuracy, meaning that the initial model one. The uncalibrated
was a
simulation already presents
suitable representation of thea reasonable levelHowever,
actual building. of accuracy, meaning
after thatof
the process the initial model
calibration, was a suitable
the simulation
error decreasedofby
representation approximately
the 60%However,
actual building. in NMBE and afterbythe
approximately 17% in CV(RMSE).
process of calibration, the simulation error
decreased by approximately 60% in NMBE and by approximately 17% in CV(RMSE).
Table 6. Statistical error indices before and after calibration of the simulation.
Table 6. Statistical
Error error
Initial indices before
Simulation and after calibration
Calibrated Simulation of the simulation.
Reduction
NMBE 6.82% 2.73% 59.97%
Error Initial Simulation Calibrated Simulation Reduction
CV(RMSE) 13.93% 11.52% 17.27%
NMBE 6.82% 2.73% 59.97%
CV(RMSE) 13.93% 11.52% 17.27%
As an example of the accuracy of the model, the plots in Figure 12 show the values of the three
indoor air temperatures, namely, the registered experimental value, T_experimental, the initial
uncalibrated simulation
As an example value
of the obtained,
accuracy T_initial,
of the model,and the the
plotsvalue of the12calibrated
in Figure show thesimulation,
values of the
T_calibrated. They are graphed for a short period of time (3 days) from the 4th
three indoor air temperatures, namely, the registered experimental value, T_experimental, to the 6th of November
the initial
so the differences
uncalibrated betweenvalue
simulation the three curves can
obtained, be clearlyand
T_initial, seen.the
Upon analyzing
value of thethe graphs presented,
calibrated simulation,
it is verifiedThey
T_calibrated. that the
are calibrated
graphed for model certainly
a short periodhas
of atime
high(3degree
days) of accuracy,
from the 4thimproving
to the 6th the results
of November
of the indoor air temperature predicted by the initial simulation. As shown in the three
so the differences between the three curves can be clearly seen. Upon analyzing the graphs presented, plots, the
initial simulation reached temperatures that were approximately 2 °C above the experimental,
it is verified that the calibrated model certainly has a high degree of accuracy, improving the results of
whereas the maximum temperature of the calibrated model was near the actual value. However,
the indoor air temperature predicted by the initial simulation. As shown in the three plots, the initial
during the period in which the indoor temperature decreased when the building was not in use, the
simulation reached temperatures that were approximately 2 ◦ C above the experimental, whereas the
lower values in the three curves are reasonably similar.
maximum temperature of the calibrated model was near the actual value. However, during the period
in which the indoor temperature decreased when the building was not in use, the lower values in the
three curves are reasonably similar.
Energies 2017, 10, 807 14 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 807 14 of 17

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 12. Indoor air temperature with uncalibrated and calibrated simulation versus the
Figure 12. Indoor airdata
experimental temperature with zones
for three thermal uncalibrated and calibrated
of the building: simulation
(a) comparison versus
in Classroom 11the experimental
where data
data forlogger
three thermal zones of the building: (a) comparison in Classroom 11 where data
9 was placed, (b) comparison in Classroom 14 with data logger 13 and (c) comparison logger
in 9 was
placed, (b) comparison
Classroom 21 withindata
Classroom
logger 18.14 with data logger 13 and (c) comparison in Classroom 21 with
data logger 18.

Figure 13 represents the monthly temperature profile predicted with the simulation program
for the year of 2014. The uncalibrated model produced outcomes that were slightly higher than the
calibrated simulation. The plots show that January and December are the months with the lower
Energies 2017, 10, 807 15 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 807 15 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 807
Figure 13 represents the monthly temperature profile predicted with the simulation program for 15 of 17
Figure
the year of 13 represents
2014. the monthlymodel
The uncalibrated temperature
producedprofile predicted
outcomes thatwithweretheslightly
simulation program
higher for
than the
the year ofsimulation.
calibrated 2014. The The uncalibrated model
plots show that produced
January andoutcomes thatare
December were
theslightly
monthshigher than
with the the
lower
temperatures,
calibrated which
temperatures,
is consistent
simulation.
which isThe plotswith
consistent show reality since they
that January
with reality and are
since they
are the coldest
December themonths
are months
the coldest months inregion
thethe
with
in the
region
lowerwhere
where
the school centre
temperatures, is located.
which is Furthermore,
consistent with there
reality was
since a
they decrease
are the in
coldest the temperature
months in
the school centre is located. Furthermore, there was a decrease in the temperature during August the during
region whereAugust
the
compared school
compared centre
withwith
JulyJulyis located.
or September, Furthermore,
or September, which there was
whichisisexplained a decrease
because
explained because in
this
this the temperature
is aismonth
a month during
without
without August
teaching
teaching hours hours
compared
in which
in which with
neither July
building
neither or September,
building is occupied. which is explained because this is a month without teaching hours
is occupied.
in which neither building is occupied.

Figure 13. Simulated average monthly indoor temperatures.


Figure 13. Simulated average monthly indoor temperatures.
Figure 13. Simulated average monthly indoor temperatures.
In this case study, energy consumption data from invoices were not available, and the only
In thisIncase
accessiblethis case
study,
data wasstudy,
energy energy
the value consumption
consumption
of litres data
of fuel data
fromfrom
consumed invoices
invoices
annuallywereinwere not available,
notschool,
the available,
whichand and the only
thepractically
was only accessible
accessible
data was data
the value
unchanged overwas
ofthe the
litres value
of fuel
years, of litres of fuel consumed
consumedanannually
approximately average of annually
in 5000 in
the school, the school,
L. Withwhich which was
was practically
this average practically
annual fuelunchanged
data
unchanged
and overaccount,
the years,
takingapproximately
into approximately an average
as previously ofhad
5000a L. With this average annual fuel data
over the years, an averagedefined,
of 5000that they
L. With fuel
this averageboiler with
annual a 0.87% efficiency
fuel data and into
and taking
and
the taking
fuel low into account,
heating valueas previously
(LHV) was defined,
9.98 kWh/L that they
the had
average a fuel
annual boiler with a
consumption 0.87%
of efficiency
the school and
was
account, as previously defined, that they had a fuel boiler with a 0.87% efficiency and the fuel low
the fuel low heating value (LHV) was 9.98 kWh/L the average annual consumption
43,413 kWh. In Figure 14, the monthly thermal demand profiles calculated in the simulation, both of the school was
heating value
43,413 (LHV)
kWh. was 9.98
In and
Figure kWh/L thethermal
averagedemand
annualprofiles
consumption of in
thethe
school was 43,413 kWh.
with the initial the 14, the
calibratedmonthly
model, can be graphically calculated
compared. The total simulation,
energy demand bothis
In Figure
with14,
also thethe monthly
initial
represented and thermal
the
in the
demand
calibrated
last column model, profiles
of thecan
calculated
be graphically
figure,
in thequantifying
compared.
including labels
simulation,
The total both with
theenergy
theerror
demand
percentage
initial
is and
the calibrated
with regard to the actual demand value that, as shown, improves with the calibration from 48% lower in the
also model,
represented can
in be
the graphically
last column of compared.
the figure, The total
including energy
labels demand
quantifying is
thealso represented
percentage error
with
last column
to 10%regard
of theto the
higher. actual
figure, demand value
including labelsthat, as shown, improves
quantifying with the error
the percentage calibration
withfrom
regard48%to lower
the actual
to 10% higher.
demand value that, as shown, improves with the calibration from 48% lower to 10% higher.

Figure 14. Monthly energy demand of the simulated building. Error in total energy demand in labels.
Figure 14. Monthly energy demand of the simulated building. Error in total energy demand in labels.
Figure 14. Monthly energy demand of the simulated building. Error in total energy demand in labels.

5. Conclusions
In this research, the energy performances of buildings forming a school centre in the northwest of
Spain were analyzed, which were considered a particularly complex case since they are old buildings
in a poor state of maintenance, turning into a big challenge to model and simulate it in a reliable way.
Energies 2017, 10, 807 16 of 17

For this purpose, a transient simulation of the building energy model of the school was conducted using
TRNSYS, which is a commercial software with proven reliability in the field of thermal simulations.
Calibration of the computer model plays a crucial role. A deterministic calibration approach was
applied to the initial model of the building. The results showed that a trustworthy calibration process
was performed since the metrics employed to verify the error showed a reduction of approximately
60% in NMBE and 17% in the CV(RMSE).
The procedure proposed was proven to be successful because the outcomes of the calibrated
simulation produced a narrow error. The final NMBE was 2.73% and the CV(RMSE) was 11.52%
for the tested period, proving that an accurate model of the actual school was achieved. Therefore,
the joint use of TRNSYS and the deterministic calibration method that GenOpt executes constitutes
a useful methodology for the assessment (using calibrated thermal simulations) of buildings in
deteriorated conditions.
The methodology described was implemented using our ground-breaking tool, BCORE, which
combines the calculation engine, TRNSYS, to run the simulations with GenOpt to execute the algorithm
employed in the calibration process. As confirmed in this work, it is suitable software for acquiring
calibrated building simulations.

Acknowledgments: This project received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation programme under grant agreement No. 720661. The authors acknowledge financial support
from project ENE2015-65999-C2-1-R, from the Spanish Government (Economy and Competitiveness Ministry).
The authors acknowledge financial support from the Competitive Reference Group ED431C 2016-032, from the
Xunta de Galicia.
Author Contributions: Ana Ogando contributed by compiling and analyzing the school information and
performing the modelling of the buildings. Natalia Cid prepare the figures and wrote the paper. Marta Fernández
carried out the simulations of the buildings and calibrated the simulation model.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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