+)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))),

* MCP Application Notes: *

* *
* 1. Character(s) preceded & followed by these symbols (. -) or (+ ,) *
* are super- or subscripted, respectively. *
* EXAMPLES: 42m.3- = 42 cubic meters *
* CO+2, = carbon dioxide *
* *
* 2. All table notes (letters and numbers) have been enclosed in square*
* brackets in both the table and below the table. The same is *
* true for footnotes. *
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 ACI 303R-91

Guide to Cast-In-Place Architectural

Concrete Practice

Reported by ACI Committee 303

Joseph A. Dobrowolski
Chairman

Rodolfo C. Avitia Donald E. Hoeffel Herman G. Protze

Robert C. Bates Allan R. Kenney Thomas J. Reading
Eugene H. Boeke, Jr. Albert Litvin James E. Stanners
Knox R. Burchett J.R. Moran Claude B. Trusty
R. Duane Conner Austin H. Morgan, Jr. William F. Wescott
Sidney Freedman

Members of the committee voting on the 1991 changes were:

Joseph A. Dobrowolski
Chairman

George Baty Jerome Ford John R. Smith

Eugene H. Boeke, Jr. Allan R. Kenney Richard T. Stack
Muriel Burns Albert Litvin Louis Tallarico
Charles M. Dabney David O. Lower Claude B. Trusty, Jr.
Bryce A. Ehmke Michael Miller

This report presents recommendations for the production of

cast-in-place architectural concrete. The importance of specified
materials, forming, concrete placement, curing, additional treatment,
and inspection, and their effect on the finished product is discussed.
The report deals primarily with requirements for architectural
concrete over and above normal requirements outlined in existing ACI
standards.

Keywords: abrasive blasting; admixtures; aggregates; architectural

concrete; architecture; beams (supports); bushhammering; cements;
coatings; colored concrete; colors (materials); columns (supports);
concrete construction; concrete finishes (hardened concrete);
consolidation; cracking (fracturing); curing; deflection; exposed
aggregate concrete; finishes; formwork (construction); inspection;
joints (junctions); joint sealers; mix proportioning; pigments;
placing; quality control; repairs; retardants; sealers; structural
design; surface defects; texture; walls; white portland cements.

ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Commentaries

are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing, or
inspecting construction and in preparing specifications. Reference to
these documents shall not be made in the Project Documents. If items
found in these documents are desired to be part of the Project
Documents they should be phrased in mandatory language and
incorporated into the Project Documents.
 ACI 303R-91 supersedes ACI 303R-74 (Revised 1982), effective Nov. 1,
1991. The revision has significantly updated this document to reflect
the latest technological advances in concreting methods, materials,
and accessory products that facilitate concrete construction.

Copyright (c) 1991, American Concrete Institute.

All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any

form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photo
process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written
or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction for use in any
knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing
is obtained from the copyright proprietors.

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Architectural design

2.1--Architectural features
2.2--Architectural design
2.3--Coatings and sealers
2.4--Joint sealants
2.5--Specifications

Chapter 3 Structural considerations

3.1--Spalling
3.2--Deflections
3.3--Cracking
3.4--Joints
3.5--Beams and slabs
3.6--Columns
3.7--Walls

Chapter 4 Forms
4.1--General
4.2--Materials
4.3--Economics
4.4--Formwork accuracy
4.5--Form joints
4.6--Textures and patterns
4.7--Formwork accessories
4.8--Form coatings and sealers
4.9--Form release agents
4.10--Form removal

Chapter 5 Reinforcement
5.1--General
5.2--Clear space
5.3--Reinforcement supports and spacers
5.4--Tie wire
5.5--Zinc-coated (galvanized) steel reinforcement
5.6--Epoxy-coated reinforcement

Chapter 6 Concrete materials and mixture proportioning

6.1--General
6.2--Materials
6.3--Proportioning, mixing, and temperature control
 Chapter 7 Placing and consolidation
7.1--Conveying and placing
7.2--Consolidation

Chapter 8 Curing
8.1--General
8.2--Curing in forms
8.3--Moist curing
8.4--Membrane curing
8.5--Hot weather curing

Chapter 9 Treated architectural surfaces

9.1--Surface retarders
9.2--High-pressure water jet
9.3--Acid wash
9.4--Sandblasting
9.5--Tooling or other mechanical treatments

Chapter 10 Finishing and final cleanup

10.1--General
10.2--Tie holes
10.3--Blemish repair
10.4--Stain removal
10.5--Sealers and coatings

Chapter 11 Inspection and quality control

11.1--General
11.2--The qualification of the inspector and the laboratory
11.3--Quality control
11.4--Materials
11.5--Final acceptance

Chapter 12 References
12.1--Selected references
12.2--Cited references

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This guide presents recommendations for cast-in-place architectural

concrete based on information available to the committee. It is
recognized that further research is needed to provide additional
information on bugholes and other construction problems. Various
procedures are recommended for determining initial requirements of the
architect, contractor, concrete producer, and inspector. Critical
areas are indicated for special attention, and means for prevention or
correction of defects are discussed. Specific surface treatments and
special forming techniques are presented. The report does not address
all the problems associated with architectural concrete. Applicable
codes, specifications, and recommendations are cited throughout the
text and listed in the concluding chapter. General information is
found in References [1] and [2].

Architectural concrete as discussed here is concrete which is

exposed as an interior or exterior surface in the completed structure,
which contributes to its visual character, and which is specifically
designated as such in the contract drawings and specifications (see
Fig. 1).
 CHAPTER 2 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

2.1 Architectural features

2.1.1 General acceptance criteria -- Architecturally acceptable

concrete surfaces should have a pleasing appearance with minimal color
and texture variations and minimal surface defects when viewed at a
distance of 20 ft (6 m) or as otherwise specified.

2.1.2 Measurement -- It is beyond the scope of this guide to

establish precise or definitive rules of measurement. However, within
any discrete building element or series of like elements, a high
degree of visual uniformity is generally expected and required.

2.1.3 Variations in color and shading. These are minimized by the

following:

a) Quality control of ingredients, concrete mixtures, and

consistency. See Sections 6.2, 6.3.
b) Uniform concrete delivery schedules. See Section 7.1.1.
c) Uniformity in application of recommended form surface
preparation, and in formwork erection and removal. See Sections
4.8 through 4.10.4.
d) Uniform rates and consistent methods of placement and
consolidation of concrete. See Chapter 7.
e) Placement schedules to eliminate extreme variations of ambient
conditions. See Section 7.1.1.
f) Adequate and uniform methods and procedures of curing. See
Chapter 8.
g) Properly timed or executed finishing operations. See Chapter 10.

2.1.4 Finishes -- Surfaces or textures are grouped into two general

classes:

a) Untreated surfaces on which the mortar is the principal visible

constituent, and the texture is that which is imparted by the
formwork surface.
b) Surfaces which are treated in place by removal of surface mortar
to expose the underlying aggregate, thus wholly or partially
obscuring the form texture. Heavy-bodied coatings and plasters
which obscure both color and texture are not included in this
report.
2.2 Architectural design

2.2.1 General criteria -- Architectural design criteria, for readily

obtainable and acceptable results, should include:

a) Isolation or division of concrete surfaces into manageable areas

by the incorporation of rustication or joint patterns, or the
employment of a paneled effect.
b) Systematic planning to integrate construction joints with
structural requirements and practicable segments of concrete
placement.
c) Use of textured form surfaces, textured concrete finishes, or
other relief features.
d) Avoidance of large, smooth uninterrupted expanses of concrete
surface.

2.2.2 Details of architectural design

2.2.2.1 Acute angle and right angle architectural corners can be

obtained, but forms should be detailed to facilitate form removal
without damage to the concrete and to protect against damage during
and after construction.

2.2.2.2 Where esthetic considerations permit, external corners

should be protected by insertion of chamfer strips at internal form
corners. These strips should be spliced only at concrete joints. Wood
chamfers should have a minimum face width of 1 in. (25 mm). Plastic
and metal types are also available. Chamfer strips should be tight,
have straight alignment, be securely fastened to forms at uniformly
close intervals, and be treated to prevent mortar leakage.

2.2.2.3 Area isolation joints may be recessed into the concrete

surface by the application of insert strips on form surfaces.

2.2.2.3.1 Recommended joint depths are:

a) Small rustication or pattern grooves: 3/4 in. (20 mm).

b) Control joints and panel divisions: 1-1/2 in. (40 mm).

2.2.2.3.2 Form insert strips should have draft not less that 15
deg to facilitate removal. Wooden strips should be deeply saw cut on
the back (form) side to prevent binding due to expansion from absorbed
water. (Draft is defined as a small angle or taper in the formwork for
reentrant formed surfaces which facilitates release when the form is
stripped, Fig. 2.2.2.3.2.)
 2.2.2.3.3 Splicing and fastening criteria for joint strips
require neat fits, all joints pointed for mortar tightness, material
that will not swell due to moisture absorption, and all nail holes
pointed.

2.2.2.3.4 Cross section of rustication strips should be uniform

and of sufficient strength to maintain alignment during forming and
concreting operations.

a) Metal strips and others of similar stiffness should have a

minimum width of 3/4 in. (20 mm).
b) Widths of wooden rustication strips should be at least equal to
their depths.

2.2.2.3.5 Intersections of insert strips should be mitered or

coped and snugly fitted.

2.2.2.3.6 Insert strips may be placed so as to cover form

joints.

2.2.2.4 Downward movement of water on vertical faces should be

interrupted at each horizontal or angular offset, and encouraged to
break away by providing drip molds at soffit edges. These should be
placed as near to the external face as practicable, but not closer
than 1 in. (25 mm) from the finished surface (Fig. 2.2.2.4).

2.2.2.5 Joints in vertical and sloping walls may require

waterstops to prevent water intrusion and staining of the
architectural surface (Fig. 2.2.2.3.2). Sills should have a slight
downward slope, and upper surfaces of recesses should have an upward
slope from the horizontal. Slopes may vary from 1:12 for smooth
surfaces to 1:1 for textured surfaces [Fig. 2.2.2.5(a), 2.2.2.5(b),
2.2.2.5(c)].
 2.2.2.6 Accumulation of airborne solids on horizontal surfaces can
be minimized by sloping such surfaces. The architectural designer
should provide slopes on top or other surfaces of projecting details
to be self cleaning. On parapets the slope should be away from the
face. Horizontal offsets in vertical recesses and the use of textures
on horizontal surfaces should be avoided.

2.2.3 Combination with precast concrete -- Cast-in-place

architectural concrete and precast elements may be successfully
combined in either of two ways, both of which require detailed effort
on the part of the owner, architect, contractor, and inspector.

a) Color and texture may be reasonably matched by on-site

precasting at the same time cast-in-place work is done, using
the same materials, formwork techniques, and curing for both
types of concrete.
b) Design should provide for contrasting colors and textures
between off-site precast concrete and cast-in-place
architectural elements.

2.3 Coatings and sealers

2.3.1 Purpose -- Retention of original color and texture may be

prolonged by surface application of liquid clear coatings or sealers
which reduce surface moisture absorption and consequent
weatherstaining. Recommendations for use can be found in Reference [3]
and ACI 515.1R.

Pigmented coatings other than paints and stains may also be applied
where it is desired to alter the natural color of the concrete but to
retain its texture. Pigmented coatings should be guaranteed by
manufacturer against changing color after exposure.

2.4 Joint sealants

Passage of moisture through joints must be effectively prevented by

filling with joint sealants as recommended in ACI 504R. For
architectural reasons, color and shape of the sealant should be
harmonious with the adjacent concrete surface, and nonstaining. Any
clear coatings used should be compatible with the joint sealant.

2.5 Specifications

2.5.1 General -- Specifications are customarily prepared as one of

the following types or a combination of both.

a) Performance: The quality of the end product is specified. In

this case full responsibility is placed on the contractor.
Recommended methods may be suggested.
b) Prescription: Detailed methods, materials, and procedures are
specified.

Most exposed aggregate projects are a combination of performance and

prescription types where aggregate proportions, cement source, and
minimum vibration frequency are specified to reasonably insure success
without specifying actual methods of construction.

2.5.2 Design reference sample -- Surface quality and appearance

requirements should be referenced for bidding purposes to an actual
sample or samples exhibiting desired surfaces, color, and texture,
prepared under the architect's direction and labeled as the design
reference samples. A minimum size of 18 x 18 x 2 in. (460 x 460 water
x 50 mm) provides sufficient area for display and thickness for
surface tooling and yet can easily be handled. The sample should be
cast vertically or horizontally similar to the position in which the
final concrete will be cast.

Design reference samples of walls or other representative building

elements should be available for inspection and examination by
prospective bidders. Mixture proportions, method of placement and
sources of materials should also be provided. The samples should be
validated in writing by both owner and architect or engineer so as to
have equal legal status with the contract documents.

In special cases, such as building additions or additional

structures within a preexisting group or complex, it may be acceptable
to utilize for reference an existing building which contains elements
of the desired quality and appearance.

2.5.3 Prebid conference -- A prebid conference should be held

between the architect, engineer, and the prospective bidding
contractors. At this conference the special expectations and
requirements can be explained and clarified. At the same time the
contractors will have an opportunity to point out any aspects of the
specifications that make it difficult or impossible to achieve the
desired effect.

2.5.4 Preconstruction mockup -- The preconstruction mockup [Fig.

2.5.4(a)] is a full scale sample of architectural concrete constructed
on site by the contractor with proposed equipment, materials, and
construction procedures. Written approval of the finished product by
the specifying agency prior to commencing the main structure should be
obtained.

The preconstruction mockup is normally constructed on the jobsite by

the successful contractor prior to commencing the architectural
portion of the major work. On exceptionally large projects, an extra
mockup may be constructed under a special contract to determine the
feasibility of various materials, treatments, and procedures which are
to be included in the architectural specifications for the project
[Fig. 2.5.4(b)].
 The overall height and width of the mockup are such as to allow the
demonstration of floor, column, and wall construction to be completely
visible. To incorporate joints, specified reinforcement, and
accessories, the unit dimensions of the mockup members are full scale.
All construction materials for the mockup are those planned for use
during the actual construction of the project. The mockup includes a
repaired area to determine ahead of time an acceptable color and
texture match for use if remedial work is needed. In evaluating this
experimentally repaired area, remember that the repair must be aged to
give a true indication of its color. Repairs to the mockup should be
at least 1 month old before acceptability is judged. To expedite
construction of the project, a minimum of five variations of mixture
color should be made for selection of the best match. Perfecting a
repair procedure can save both time and money in the final outcome of
the project.

Where feasible, architectural concrete placement, treatment, and

procedures may be evaluated on portions of the structure eventually
hidden from view, such as basement walls.

CHAPTER 3 STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

The structural and architectural design must function in harmony to

produce a structure capable of withstanding service loads and stresses
without excessive cracking, spalling or deflection that may detract
from the architectural appearance of the structure.

3.1 Spalling

Structural spalling is caused by high point loads, usually at joints

that have been inadequately designed or constructed to permit normal
lineal and rotational movements.

3.2 Deflections

The use of strength design requires strict investigation for

undesirable deflections in beams or spandrels that are exposed as
architectural concrete. Desired camber should be specified to
compensate for deflection of the completed structure. Consideration
should also be given to additional long-term deflection due to creep
of concrete under permanent loads. Architectural requirements may
demand that the engineer design for deflections less than normally
acceptable. They may also require additional camber to avoid the
impression of sagging in long spans. However, over-camber can in some
cases be as objectionable as sag.

3.3 Cracking

Factors which influence concrete cracking are:

a) Loads (gravity or lateral) producing tension, shear, or torsion

in members
b) Restraint of drying shrinkage
c) Creep
d) Thermal stresses (axial or bending)
e) Foundation settlement

Cracking may be reduced by:

a) Post-tensioning (the resulting axial shortening and perhaps

rotation may require attention at bearings or slip joints).
Added reinforcing, closure strips and other methods may be
required
b) Providing joints to relieve stress
c) Limiting the flexural tension stress in reinforcement. [The
resulting deformations may require a maximum Z = 145, Eq.
(10-4), ACI 318.]
d) Appropriate distribution of flexural reinforcement (ACI 318R)
e) Using special materials such as shrinkage-compensating cements
and aggregates with low shrinkage characteristics, or selected
proportions of these materials. (ACI 223)

3.4 Joints

Construction joints divide the structure into segments that can be

constructed in a logical and efficient manner. Details should be shown
in the project drawings.

Contraction joints are used in walls and floors to control cracking.

Isolation joints are used in floors to separate them from walls,
columns, or other structural elements that offer restraint to
movement.

Rustication strips (Fig. 3.4) are the simplest and most practical
method of architecturally treating these joints where surfaces in the
same plane are joined. (However, they reduce both the effective size
of the members and the cover over reinforcing steel. Additional
compensating cover should be provided, Fig. 2.2.2.3.2).
 A large structure containing drastic changes in section size or
exposure should be designed with either isolation or contraction
joints to control cracking. Construction joints, contraction joints,
rustication locations, and isolation or expansion joints should be
shown on the project drawings.

3.5 Beams and slabs

The structural and architectural design of beams and slabs requires

careful consideration since all of the factors that produce tension in
concrete may be additive over portions of the member.

Rustication depths should be kept to the minimum recommended size at

the top and bottom of beams in regions of flexural tension. When the
typical concrete cover on the steel is increased excessively by the
depth of the rustication strip, any cracks that occur in the flexural
tension zone will also be increased in width.

Sandblasting accentuates the width of such cracks due to rounding of

the crack edge especially at soffits of beams and slabs.

Connections which are intended to allow substantial rotation or

displacement should be designed and detailed to prevent spalling, and
leakage if exposed to weather.

3.6 Columns

Architectural concrete columns normally do not have the high tensile

stresses present in beams. The lateral dimensions are usually small,
and there is less tendency for vertical cracking. The small lateral
dimensions also permit rapid concrete placement which tends to
eliminate some of the problems associated with slow concrete
placement.

3.7 Walls

The typical wall is long and thin and may be high. It normally is in
compression vertically and horizontal cracking is usually not a
problem. The most common cracking in walls is generally vertical or
nearly vertical. Since walls normally have minor axial or bending
stresses, reinforcement percentage is low vertically and horizontally.
The prime cause of vertical cracks in walls is axial tension due to
restrained drying shrinkage and/or temperature stresses.

In addition to providing construction joints in walls at the bottom

of beams and top of floors, other joints should be provided at
locations necessary for construction as coordinated between contractor
and architect/engineer. Conceal, rusticate, or emphasize such joints.
Consideration should be given to possible horizontal contraction
joints at the bottom and top of openings in walls and at intermediate
heights of tall walls. Vertical construction joints may be necessary
in walls at midspan of bays of large building areas.

A safe approach is to provide for vertical rustication

in walls at midspan of all bays. This provides the contractor
additional freedom in planning the construction operation. Vertical
construction joints with rustication strips can be detailed as joints
to accommodate volume change movements and to reduce the horizontal
extent of the casting operation. This accelerates the vertical rate of
casting which, particularly in hot weather, will eliminate or make
manageable the problems associated with form spatter, cold joints,
free fall, and lift lines. (Form spatter is mortar splashed on forms,
and allowed to dry prior to covering with concrete, which causes a
nonuniform surface and affects the architectural appearance.)
Consideration should be given by the architect/engineer to formwork
panel size in planning joint location.

An effective method for the control of vertical cracking is to

provide contraction joints in addition to construction joints at not
more than 20 ft (6 m) on center or by placing deep (1.5 times maximum
aggregate size) narrow rustication strips on both wall faces to induce
a crack at the desired location. The maximum reinforcement crossing
either type joint should be not greater than one-half of the
horizontal reinforcement elsewhere in the wall. Horizontal
reinforcement in architectural concrete walls should be at least one
and one-half times the minimum required by ACI 318 to minimize the
widths of cracks that may occur.

Openings in walls induce cracks from the corners of the openings. In

many cases, it is possible to place a contraction joint at top and
bottom of window openings and spandrel beams. When horizontal steel is
interrupted by openings, additional steel equivalent to that
interrupted should be placed one-half above and below the opening,
with a minimum steel extension one and one-half times the development
length beyond the opening.

CHAPTER 4 FORMS

4.1 General

Through drawings, specifications, samples and mock-ups the architect

defines the structure and the desired appearance of the architectural
concrete. These design conditions impose limitations on selection of
forms and forming materials. Satisfactory results are more likely when
the architect understands the capabilities and limitations of the
forming materials, because any specified forms and surface treatment
are vitally important to the success of the project (Fig. 4.1).

Another necessary ingredient is the ingenuity, know-how, and ability

of the contractor to interpret the specifications and select the
system which will best accomplish the desired result within the
owners' budget.

More detailed information on forms may be found in References [4]

and [5].

4.2 Materials

A great variety of materials has been used for forms, form liners,
and sheathing. The list includes lumber and plywood; metals such as
steel, aluminum, and magnesium; reinforced and nonreinforced plastics;
plaster waste molds; and liners of both elastomeric plastics and rigid
plastics such as ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene). Each of the
materials has advantages and limitations.

4.2.1 Lumber -- Lumber is a readily available forming material which

may have a smooth surface, or be rough sawn or sandblasted to transfer
distinctive textures to the concrete surface.

The stripping characteristics of lumber will depend on the wood

species, time and exposure condition while in storage, and other
factors.

Lumber forms can affect the color of the stripped concrete surface
through variations in absorption of different portions of the board,
particularly between the springwood and summerwood rings. The more
pervious portions will absorb more water from the fresh concrete, and
lower the water-cement ratio which causes a darker surface color.
Organic substances in the wood can result in a dark colored concrete
surface, and sometimes cause dusting. Release agents cannot correct
for these conditions.

With each reuse of the form, the darkening effect of the lumber on
the concrete surface becomes less. When forms are reused several
times, considerable variation in concrete surface color may be
expected from the first use to the last.

For uniform surface color, it is advisable to obtain all form lumber

from the same source, and use a form coating or sealer (Section
4.8.2). If controlled variations in color are desired, this may be
achieved by lumber from different sources.

4.2.2 Plywood -- Plywoods can be purchased with surface treatments

that provide a nearly impervious and smooth surface. Mixing of
different brands or differing surface treatments should be avoided as
this will result in variations in color due to different amounts of
water absorption. If grain raise is desirable for transfer to the
concrete, the impervious coatings should be avoided. Sandblasting of
the plywood surface will provide a rough grain texture to the
concrete.

4.2.3 Steel -- Steel surfaces are impervious and provide uniform

color to the concrete if cleaned of all reactive or potential staining
materials prior to reuse. The steel skin should be thick enough to
support the load between its support members to keep deflections
within acceptable limits. Release agents which contain a rust
inhibitor to reduce the possibility of staining are recommended. The
steel skin should be pickled to remove mill scale when casting with
white or light colored portland cement to prevent stain. Bluing over
welded material has been beneficial to avoid staining from different
surface characteristics. Galvanized steel forms may cause sticking of
the concrete and should be avoided. If galvanized steel forms are
used, sticking of the concrete may be minimized by treating the form
with a 5 percent solution of chromic trioxide.
 4.2.4 Aluminum and magnesium -- Aluminum and magnesium alloys may be
used successfully if compatible with concrete. There is no standard
method of testing to determine compatibility. Past history of use with
the same concrete mixture, forms, and curing conditions is the best
known indicator.

4.2.5 Plastics -- Plastics both reinforced and unreinforced, have an

important role in architectural concrete forming because of an
impervious surface, and the ability to be molded into any pattern or
texture. They do not cause discoloration that is common with many
absorptive type forming materials. The use of smooth forming materials
may lead to the nonuniform coloring known as aggregate transparency.
Forming materials such as plastic are used to obtain glossy concrete
surfaces which should be used with caution as such surfaces exposed to
the weather will soon lose some of their gloss due to the effects of
wetting and drying, and freezing and thawing. Repairs may be difficult
to match when the as-cast surface is glossy.

a) Reinforced plastics contain glass fibers in various forms to

increase the flexural strength of the resin materials. Such
plastics have found considerable acceptance in custom forms for
architectural concrete. The appropriate resin must be used on
the surface to assure good performance through a reasonable
number of uses.
Unless alkali-resistant glass fibers are used, deterioration
can be expected when in contact with the concrete. Maintenance
of the resin cover is mandatory for surface uniformity. It can
be accomplished by careful cleaning, use of parting compounds,
or occasional touch-up of the surface.
b) Unreinforced plastics can be obtained in sheet form with smooth
or textured surfaces. Light textured patterns transfer to the
concrete and change the characteristics of a smooth surface.
Sheet plastics need appropriate backup to resist the concrete
pressure. Unreinforced plastics are normally used as liners with
a form system designed to meet all the structural requirements
of concrete containment. The plastic is used only to change the
characteristic of the surface. Plastic coatings and plastic form
liners may grow and change dimensions due to direct sunlight.
c) Preformed foam plastics can be used as forms for recesses. The
preformed foam planks are easily cut to size, easily attached to
the form, and are inexpensive enough not to require salvaging.
Foam plastic is also used in backing for thick, vacuum-formed,
plastic form liners where the concrete pressure would cause
deformation of otherwise unsupported recess forms.

4.2.6 Impervious or absorptive form surfaces -- The

architect/engineer should give consideration to the effect of
impervious and absorptive form surfaces. Each leaves its own
particular characteristics. The impervious form surface will usually
result in a lighter color and more uniform appearance. Examples of
impervious form surfaces are steel, plastics, high density overlaid
plywood, and other materials with applied coatings. Forms and liners
which have a moisture content below their saturation point will absorb
water from the plastic concrete, resulting in a darker concrete color.
The color will vary with the absorptive capacity of the form. For
example, concrete placed against wood will be darker along the spring
growth grains and lighter where cast against the summer growth grains.
Parting agents will not solve this problem. The most effective method
of preventing problems of this type is to seal the surface of the
lumber (see Section 4.8).
 4.2.7 Plaster waste molds -- For custom design of sophisticated and
detailed nature, molds can be made of plaster. The concrete is cast
against these molds, and the plaster is then broken away from the
finished concrete wall. Obviously, one-use forms are relatively
expensive, and should only be used for nonrepetitive forming or where
intricate shapes cannot be formed by more conventional methods.

An effective bond breaker must be used with plaster waste molds.

4.3 Economics

In an analysis of formwork cost, eight factors must be considered:

1. Crane, hammerhead, boom or hoist equipment available for moving

formwork
2. Formwork materials, fabrication, and rental expense
3. Formwork erection labor
4. Formwork stripping and reconditioning
5. Reuse capability
6. Effect of forming method on construction speed, influencing
overall project cost
7. Salvage value at completion of use
8. Occupational Safety and Health Administration safety and other
requirements

The number of reuses of formwork is a significant factor in the

total cost of formwork. Normally, factory manufactured system type
formwork is increasingly cost effective after five uses.

4.4 Formwork accuracy

In general, formwork for architectural use should be designed,

constructed, and maintained in accordance with the recommendations of
ACI 347R and the additional requirements outlined below. As placing
and consolidating requirements are more demanding than for structural
concrete, architectural concrete requires particular care in formwork
design to eliminate bulges, offsets, and mortar leakage.

4.4.1 Bracing and walers -- In most cases, form deflections will

govern design. The form face should be designed as a stable envelope
to contain the plastic concrete. Extra backup members beyond usual
structural requirements should be provided to maintain the required
alignment, whether straight or curved, and the desired architectural
appearance when form stresses become unusually high due to external
vibration. These conditions could require more ties and walers than
required by ACI 347R.

Deflections of sheathing, studs, and wales not greater than 1/400

times the span are satisfactory for most architectural concrete
formwork. Where architectural considerations, adjacent work, or
special effects are critical, smaller form deflections may be
required. As form deflections may increase with each use, deflection
criteria may govern number of allowable reuses. Where deflections are
to be limited, locations and deflection criteria should be included in
the project specifications or noted on the project drawings so that
the contractor knows in advance what is required.

4.4.2 Tolerances -- The dimension and position tolerances required

in ACI 117 are generally satisfactory for architectural concrete, and
should be maintained unless the architect/engineer specifically calls
for closer tolerances for particular work items. In these cases,
tolerances of one-half those called for in ACI 117 are the most
restrictive that are possible to obtain in the field using extreme
care in placement and form design.

4.5 Form joints

4.5.1 Prevention of leakage -- A surface blemish will result when

mortar is allowed to leak from the form. The resulting blemish is
characterized by a color change and an aggregate-rich surface,
inconsistent with the normal, dense, adjacent surfaces. There may be
streaking, mottling, or a darker appearance as a result of less water
available for hydration. This aggregate-rich condition penetrates the
concrete mass to a considerable depth, and it has been found that the
discoloration may still be noticeable after additional surface
treatment. Leakage should be eliminated where uniform color and
texture are critical. Low slump concrete will reduce the tendency for
mortar to escape through fine openings in the formwork. More
precautions against leakage will be needed if superplasticizers are
used. Form joints can be made relatively grout-tight by:

1. Wetting wood forms several hours prior to casting to expand the

wood
2. Lining forms with a separate facing material and staggering the
joints with those of the structural form
3. Using pressure-sensitive compressible gaskets between forms
4. Face caulking with lumber batten backing

To insure against form leakage, specifications should require form

joints to be sealed. (Chamfer and rustication strips should be sealed
at the edges to prevent leakage behind the strips.

Pressure-sensitive tape may be used on the inside of forms when

significant removal (such as medium sand-blast) of the surface is
planned. Care must be taken to prevent displacement of the tape or
gaskets during concrete operations as this results in blemishes
difficult to remove. Brush-applied gum adhesive over the tape has
successfully stabilized it against movement. Taped joints should be
inspected prior to casting to be sure the tape has not moved.

4.5.2 Fins -- Fins are thin projections of hardened concrete

extending from the wall face. Although they can be knocked off and
stoned smooth, they are generally considered undesirable because this
results in a non-uniform appearance of the finished surface and
possible staining due to efflorescence from the fins. In some cases,
fins are desired by the designer for a specific effect. This effect
can be accomplished by lining the form with planks, boards, or plywood
kept specific distances apart or randomly placed. Such fins can be
left as stripped or broken back. Provisions should be made to prevent
mortar leakage between the liner and structural form to prevent color
and texture variation.

4.6 Textures and patterns

4.6.1 Form marks -- All forms will have some characteristics that
may be transferred as texture or pattern to the finished surface.

These include:

a) Size of the unit of forming material or pre-fabricated panel

b) Plank widths
c) Variations in absorptive characteristics of the face which
 change the water-cement ratio of the con-crete on the surface
and consequently change the color of the concrete
d) Special perimeter configurations found in proprietary type
panels
e) Wood grain
f) Wood grain rise due to moisture
g) Number and size markings
h) Plywood patches
i) Hairline checks in high-density overlay forming not protected
from sunlight.

4.6.2 Form liners -- Textures and patterns can be obtained by

specific design through the use of form liners. The use of liners is a
practical approach to many desired results in the finished wall
because the facing can be designed separately and thus allow a choice
of backup forming system. The method of attaching form liners should
be studied for resulting visual effect.

a) Wood liners can be used to feature planks, grain, rustication

strips, or in a checkerboard fashion by changing direction of
grain or planks in adjacent panels. Striated liners of various
materials may also be used.
b) Solid or foamed plastic liners provide a wide choice of surface
textures and designs with smooth or slightly grained finishes.
Certain plastics can be heat-formed into a wide variety of
designs. Plastic liners should be rigidly secured to backup
forms. Wide portions of plastic liners used for deep
indentations in the concrete must be supported between the
backup form and the liner.
c) Elastomeric liners may be considered for relatively shallow
textures, and can be obtained and used in either sheet form or
solid, extruded shapes. The elastomer should be checked for
resistance to deterioration by oils commonly used as release
agents and rigidity sufficient to resist wrinkling. The
elastomer should also be checked for the possibility of staining
the concrete.
d) Metal liners are available in various textures that can be
combined with different types of fasteners to achieve an
architectural effect. Make liner joints at rustication strips or
form corners since leakage is difficult to prevent at butt
joints. Investigation should be made to determine whether
staining may occur from the liner material or its fastenings.
e) Thin, 0.50-0.60 in., (1.25-1.50 mm.), vinyl plastic form liners
have been used successfully for gang forms. The vinyl liner
manufactured in rolls 3-6 ft (0.9-1.8 m) wide and 50-60 ft
(15.2-18.3 m) long, is fastened to the form backing which is
coated fully with rubber cement. The liner joints will self seal
as the form liner is applied to the backing.

4.7 Formwork accessories

4.7.1 Ties

a) Recommended form ties should leave no corrosive metal closer

than 1-1/2 in. (40 mm) to the finish surface, and fall generally
into one of the following groups:

1. Continuous single member ties for specific wall thickness

and positive breakback characteristics
2. She-bolt ties where an inner male threaded unit is left in
the wall and the outer fastening devices are removed and
 reused
3. He-bolt ties where the outer fastening devices are reusable
with an expendable female threaded unit left in the wall
b) Early stripping and finishing requirements may dictate the
system of form ties.
c) Spacing of ties will normally be dictated by the strength of the
ties, the strength of the form, the concrete placing rates,
allowable deflection, and architectural requirements.
d) Ties are available in various strength categories. The strengths
are chosen to match the form design, architectural spacing
desired, and concrete placing rates.
e) Each type of tie leaves a characteristic hole. Wire snap ties
leave small holes, about 1/4 in. (6 mm) in diameter and having a
nominal depth of 1 in. (25 mm). Wood or tapered plastic cones or
sleeves are often provided for architectural expression or when
deeper breakbacks up to 2 in. (50 mm) are required. The cones
increase the size of the hole to a 1 in. (25 mm) diameter, and
are used to reduce grout leakage where the tie passes through
the form. Proper tightening is essential. The characteristic
hole of she-bolts depends on the strength category of the ties,
which have diameters in the range of 3/4 to 1-1/2 in. (20 to 40
mm). He-bolts require a cone so that there is adequate concrete
cover when left in the wall. These cones can be from 1 to 2 in.
(25 to 50 mm) in diameter. Pull ties can be from 1/2 to 1-1/2
in. (10 to 40 mm) in diameter, leaving a hole of similar size to
the rod diameter passing completely through the wall. All the
above-mentioned ties leave round and relatively clean holes that
may be subsequently patched flush or with a slight recess for an
architectural shadow effect (Fig. 4.7.1). Snap ties (without
cones or other special seals) are questionable for architectural
concrete unless a rustic, crude look is desired.

4.7.2 Tie removal

a) Ties should be removed as soon as possible after the formwork

has been removed. After forms are removed, uncoated ties or ties
that possess staining tendencies should be properly broken off
as soon as practical, and the ends treated to prevent rust
stains.
b) Stainless steel snap ties present the least trouble with
staining and are broken off at least 1 in. back of the finished
surface.
c) Plastic coated ties should be broken off and ends treated to
prevent staining from rust.
 d) Twisted wire ties should not be allowed as it is nearly
impossible to obtain a long-time, stain-free surface without
cutting into the wall, and cutting back tie ends and then
patching a rather large non-uniform area.
e) To reduce spalling, removal of cones should be delayed until the
concrete has adequate strength. When the cones are pulled, the
tip of the tie should be immediately coated with dry tamped
mortar or plugged with standard plugs.

4.8 Form coatings and sealers

4.8.1 Function -- Form coatings and sealers are usually applied in

liquid form to contact surfaces either during manufacture or in the
field to serve one or more of the following purposes:

a) To primarily protect and prolong the useful life of the portion

of a lumber or plywood form that will be in contact with the
concrete
b) To prevent color variations and dusting of the concrete surface
c) To alter the texture of the contact surfaces (e.g., prevent
transfer of grain patterns that may not be desired)
d) To facilitate release from concrete during stripping. (Despite
careful application of release agent, some of it may be removed
accidentally before or during concreting)
e) To aid in obtaining a uniform depth of surface retardation when
surface retarder is used
f) To prevent corrosion on steel faced forms

4.8.2 Types of coatings and sealers -- The selection of a form

coating will depend on the form material, concrete surface
characteristics required, number of form reuses, and the environment
of use. Prior experience is the most valuable standard for evaluation
and selection. Pretesting is used to develop guidelines for specifying
materials and procedures (Section 2.5.3).

4.8.2.1 Mill-sealed form panels

a) High density overlaid plywood is coated with a paper impregnated

with phenol-formaldehyde resin bonded to the plywood by high
temperature and pressure. The resulting surface completely hides
the timber grain of the plywood, and requires only a light
application of oil or other release agents between uses. The
plywood manufacturer's directions for treating the form should
be followed for best results. During use the color of the veneer
may turn to a reddish mahogany, which is occasionally
transferred to the concrete surface during the first few form
uses. This discoloration is called concrete "pinking" and is
more apparent on white concrete. Any substance or coating which
will form an alkali-resistant film between the concrete and the
overlaid surface will significantly reduce or eliminate pinking.
Some form release agents are effective barriers.
b) Proprietary coatings or treatments such as glass fiber
reinforced plastic bonded to plywood and epoxy resin
formulations that exude oil are available. Coated forms of the
same quality and from the same manufacturer should be used
throughout to prevent a difference in concrete color.

4.8.2.2 Field applied coatings

a)Solvent based coatings, such as lacquers and enamels, are not

recommended because they degrade in the presence of alkalies in
concrete bleed water and ultraviolet light, and because of a tendency
to chip and peel.
b)Catalyzed resin systems should be of types that cure to a hard
surface, but retain a degree of flexibility.
c)Chlorinated rubber paint in several coats has been used as a
coating, but is not suitable for curing with steam or elevated
temperatures.
d)Polyurethane coatings are the most common field applied coating.

4.9 Form release agents

4.9.1 General -- Release agents are materials applied to the part of

the form that is eventually wetted by fresh concrete. They help
prevent forms and form liners from sticking to the concrete,
cementitious materials from building up on the form facing, and assist
the successful production of high quality architectural surfaces.

4.9.2 Selection -- As the release agent is selected to assist

production of a concrete surface specified in the contract documents,
or shown in the design reference sample or the mockup, the following
criteria should be included in any valuation:

a) Compatibility of the release agent with the form or form liner,

admixtures in the concrete mixture and, if used, the form sealer
or coating
b) Possible interference with the adhesion of other materials such
as sealants, architectural coatings, and curing compounds to the
hardened concrete surface
c) Amount of any discoloration or staining, and size and number of
bugholes on the concrete surface
d) Effect on stripping time, ease of stripping, and cementitious
buildup on the form
e) Effect of seasonal temperature extremes on application
procedures to produce a consistent appearance on the concrete
surface
f) Effect with accelerated curing procedures (especially steam) on
stripping and the concrete surface
g) Uniformity of appearance. (The same release agent should be used
for all the architectural concrete surfaces)
h) Local environmental regulations

The safest approach to evaluate several different release agents is

under actual use conditions on a test panel or a nonarchitectural
portion of the project concrete. Information should also be obtained
from the release agent manufacturer as to the kind of form surface for
which the product is intended as well as the proper method of
application to produce the desired surface appearance.

4.9.3 Types of release agents -- Release agents fall into two main
classes. The chemically active ones are the most popular type. The
others are barrier types.

Barrier types include the various kinds of fuel oil, paraffin wax in
a carrier oil (solvent) and some chemical compounds containing
silicone. Typically, this type results in more surface blemishes,
difficulty with releasing the form from the concrete and may cause
problems with adhesion between other construction materials and the
hardened concrete. Barrier types are not recommended for architectural
concrete.

Chemically active release agents have, as an active ingredient, a

fatty acid. These fatty acids are derived from animal fat, fish and
plants. The fatty acid chemically combines with calcium from the fresh
concrete to form a grease or calcium soap. This calcium soap provides
the form release. A petroleum-based oil added to the chemically active
release agent acts as a carrier solvent to uniformly distribute the
more expensive fatty acids.

There are two categories of chemically active release agents:

neutralized and nonneutralized. Some non-neutralized release agents
have a tendency to settle out at temperatures of 50 F (10 C) and
lower. As a rule, neutralized release agents do not settle out.

Even though a fatty acid has been neutralized it is considered

chemically active, since it still reacts with the calcium in the
cement paste. Most water based release agents, including emulsions,
are chemically active.

4.9.4 Influence of form materials -- Release agent performance is

influenced by the form facing. Non-porous forms tend to produce fewer
stains. Consequently, both the form type and release agent should be
chosen early to allow sufficient testing.

Nonporous forms and form liners include: plastics such as PVC

(polyvinyl chloride) and ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene); glass-
fiber-reinforced plastics; high-density overlaid plywood; elastomeric
plastics; steel; and rubber. Several layers, at least four, of
urethane or epoxy coatings on wood, plywood, and concrete will produce
a nonporous coating.

Though aluminum is nonporous, it often reacts chemically with fresh

concrete to produce a gas resulting in a possible bughole problem.

Steel forms give a more uniform performance if coated twice with the
chosen release agent prior to making architectural concrete for the
project. A rust-preventing release agent is recommended for steel
forms.

Form liners exuding their own release agent may give a different
appearance to the concrete surface when a release agent is finally
used. Consideration should be made to using the chosen release agent
from the start.

Expanded polystyrene (foam) form liners are dissolved by petroleum

based oils. Natural rubber form liners are softened by petroleum-based
oils. Water-based or emulsion-type release agents which will not
affect the foam or rubber are available. Many urethane elastomeric
form liners are not adversely affected by applying release agents in
thin films. Testing is suggested.

4.9.5 Site storage

Release agents should have a reasonably long and stable storage

life, without being susceptible to damage from extreme temperature
changes, and from repeated or rough handling when stored in accordance
with manufacturer's recommendations. If solids settle out, periodic
stirring may be necessary to maintain uniformity. Dilution at the
jobsite must be prohibited unless specifically permitted by the
manufacturer and contamination during dilution is prevented.

4.9.6 Application of release agents -- Some release agents may be

applied up to 4 days before placing concrete, if the treated form
surface is protected from precipitation, dust, and debris. Others must
be applied just before use. A check should be made with each form
release manufacturer.

Generally speaking, the thinner the film of release agent applied to

the form, the fewer bugholes and stains on the hardened concrete. Some
release agents release as well in thin films as thick, others do not.
Test before using.

Release agent application should be in accordance with

manufacturers' recommendations on rate of coverage and method to
achieve the desired concrete surface appearance. Best results are
obtained with a sprayer having a flat spray tip. Optimum coverage
depends on the type of release agent, form texture, and desired
concrete surface appearance. Apply only to thoroughly cleaned form
surfaces prior to erection. The form surface should be allowed to dry
prior to reinforcement placement. Some release agents are adversely
affected by prolonged exposure to sunlight and precipitation.

4.10 Form removal

4.10.1 Protection of concrete

General formwork should be removed without damage or shock to the

concrete. Prying against the face of any concrete for any reason,
including the release of formwork, should be prohibited. Once formwork
is removed concrete must be protected to prevent damage from any means
including the normal construction operations.

Corners and sharp edge lines -- Chamfered corners instead of sharp

corners should be used if at all possible. If sharp corners are
required, they will require a considerable amount of special
attention. It must be recognized that a requirement of sharp corners
will also increase the cost. Sharp edge lines and corners require
special care in form removal as they are vulnerable to chipping at
early ages.

Thermal shock -- Care must be exercised during form removal to

prevent sudden drops of concrete temperature. This is especially true
when surface retarders have been used on large sections, and cool
hydrant water under pressure is used to accomplish aggregate exposure.
When concrete is being protected from extremely low temperatures, the
rate of cooling should be gradual and should not exceed 40 F (22 C)
per 24 hr following the cessation of heat application (ACI 306R).
Loosening forms slightly, without complete removal, aids in gradual
cooling and will minimize the occurrence of map cracking caused by
thermal shock.

4.10.2 Procedures for form removal -- Procedures for formwork

removal should follow ACI 347R. Different concrete color hues may be
expected between two surfaces where adjacent formwork is removed at
different times from concrete having the same age. Uniformity in all
operations is required for best results.

4.10.3 Protection and care of forms -- Careful cleaning and

maintenance of forms is necessary to attain uniform architectural
concrete. Resealing of the form surfaces and application of form
release agents must be uniform in quantity and type to insure a
uniform appearance on the final surface. Store plastic coated forms
and plastic form liners away from direct sunlight to prevent
deterioration of form surface.
 CHAPTER 5 REINFORCEMENT

5.1 General

Reinforcement should be detailed to provide adequate space between

horizontal layers of steel and adjacent bars to permit satisfactory
placement and consolidation of the concrete, accurately tied and
located to prevent displacement and to provide proper cover from the
final architectural surface.

Where practical, architectural concrete face forms should be erected

after installation of reinforcement. Special care should be taken to
prevent formwork damage during erection and from weld spatter and
smoke when reinforcement is welded after form erection.

ACI 318 provisions for bar spacing and cover apply except as
modified in Section 5.2. Where structural design requirements create
steel congestion and desired clearances are not possible, mixtures
with small coarse aggregate may be used; however, every effort should
be made to minimize congestion of steel.

5.2 Clear space

In walls and columns a 5 in. (125 mm) minimum space between vertical
mats of reinforcement is recommended to allow concrete placement and
consolidation. At least a 4-in. (100-mm) space should be provided
between one form face and the reinforcement in a wall containing a
single mat of reinforcement. When practical, the single mat of
reinforcement should be located 2 in. (50 mm) of the architectural
face so that the concrete may be vibrated between the reinforcement
and the back form.

5.2.1 Clear spacing between bars -- To facilitate placement of

concrete and lessen the possibility of rust stains, the minimum clear
distance between bars and the minimum cover for beams as permitted by
ACI 318 should be increased to the following values:

a) The horizontal clear distance between bars should be 2 in. (50

mm), 1.25 times bar diameter, or 1.75 times maximum aggregate
size, whichever is largest.
b) The horizontal clear distance between bar and form should be 2
in. (50 mm), 1.25 times bar size or 1.5 times maximum aggregate
size, whichever is largest. Where rustication strips are used,
ACI 318 minimum cover is in addition to the depth of the strip
(Fig. 2.2.2.3.2). If part of the surface is to be removed by
further treatment after form removal, additional cover should be
provided (Section 9.5.1, Bushhammering).

5.3 Reinforcement supports and spacers

Supporting chairs, spacers, sideform spacers, or bolsters should

preferably be all plastic or stainless steel to insure absence of
surface rust staining, particularly where the concrete member is to be
sandblasted, as current practices in detailing are considered
inadequate to achieve total concealment of accessory feet. The
reinforcing steel project specifications should indicate the need to
increase the number of chairs to compensate for loads which cannot be
tolerated either by the plastic tip or the form materials. Any plastic
coating should be investigated for durability if left to be exposed to
weather or sunlight.
 Concrete block are not recommended for spacers between the
reinforcement and architectural face due to differences in texture and
color.

5.4 Tie wire

Wire for tieing reinforcement should preferably be comprised of soft

stainless steel to avoid staining exposed surfaces. All tie wires
should be bent back away from formed surfaces. Tie wire clipping must
be removed from horizontal surfaces (such as beam soffits) to be
exposed to view, particularly if the concrete is to be sandblasted to
any degree or is to be exposed to the weather.

5.5 Zinc-coated (galvanized) steel reinforcement

When galvanized reinforcing steel conforming to ASTM A 767 is placed

close to nongalvanized metal forms, the concrete may have a tendency
to stick to the forms. This may also happen if nongalvanized
reinforcement is used close to galvanized forms or form liners. A 2
percent solution of sodium dichromate or a 5 percent solution of
chromic acid (chromium trioxide) solution applied as a wash to the
galvanized surface has satisfactorily passivated the metal to prevent
reaction between the zinc and alkaline fresh concrete.

5.6 Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars

Reinforcement, epoxy-coated in accordance with ASTM A 775 has been

used in structural concrete where corrosion may be expected due to
intrusion of chloride ions. Its use for architectural concrete exposed
to chlorides should be considered.

CHAPTER 6 CONCRETE MATERIALS AND MIX PROPORTIONING

6.1 General

The properties of materials used in architectural concrete should

not be determined only by strength and proportioning requirements, but
also by color or texture as outlined in this chapter.

6.2 Materials

6.2.1 Portland cements and special cements -- The portland cements

or special cements used for architectural concrete should meet the
requirements of the specified type in ASTM C 150, ASTM C 595, or ASTM
C 845.

Cements have different inherent and added color characteristics that

could affect the desired concrete color. To minimize color variations,
cement of the same type and brand, from the same mill and raw
material, should be used for all the concrete on a given structure.
However, these precautions alone will not automatically assure color
uniformity. Variables in concrete manufacture and handling and
delivery equipment may also have marked effects on color.

Cement and concrete samples provided to architects should be marked

to show the type, brand, and source of cement used.

White cement is often used in architectural concrete, both precast

and cast-in-place. It is readily available, and may be considered as a
standard concrete material. White cement is a portland cement
manufactured to conform to the specifications of ASTM C 150 for Type I
and Type III cements.

White cements are made of selected raw materials containing

negligible amounts of iron and manganese oxides. All white cements
have low alkali content. Variation in uniformity of shade for each
brand of white cement is small although there may be differences
between brands or mill sources. White cement used with mineral
pigments will provide good color intensity and uniformity.

Buff, tan, or light brown cements have been used in architectural

concrete when available. These cements will meet ASTM C 150 or ASTM C
595.

Shrinkage-compensating cements are available from some producers.

These cements have been used successfully in architectural concrete.
Detailed information on these cements is available in ACI 223.

The availability of special cements should be established prior to

completion of job specifications and design for the architectural
concrete.

6.2.2 Aggregates -- Normal weight or lightweight aggregates meeting

ASTM C 33 or ASTM C 330, may be used in exposed aggregate finishes to
provide countless combinations of color and texture. Included are
natural gravel, crushed gravel, and crushed stone aggregates of many
different colors. Artificial aggregates include expanded shales,
clays, slates, and blast furnace slags; nonreactive glass; and ceramic
materials. All facing and concrete aggregates for a given structure
should come from the same source to provide quality and color similar
to the approved sample. Any combination may be used for contrast
provided specified levels of strength, durability, and workability are
met. Materials, colors, gradations, size of aggregate, and depth of
reveal compatible with aggregate size may be varied for architectural
effect.

All facing aggregates should have proven service records or

satisfactory results from laboratory testing. Soft, nondurable
aggregates including some limestone, marbles, and other known
high-calcium materials are not suitable for exterior exposed aggregate
surfaces. Occasionally, coarse aggregates may contain minerals
(generally iron-based) which react on exposure to the atmosphere and
cause staining. Such staining may not be acceptable for architectural
concrete. Normally, aggregates selected for architectural purposes are
specified in the project specifications as to source, size, and color.

The choice of aggregates is more critical with concrete containing

white cements. Dark aggregates tend to create shadows where the
thinner sections of white mortar cannot completely mask the aggregate.
Intensity of color may be diminished when dirty aggregate is used from
contaminated stockpiles. Fine aggregates have a major effect on the
color of white and light colored concrete, and can be used to vary the
particular color desired.

Special requirements such as gap grading (Reference [6]) or a single

size of aggregate may be established for exposed aggregate finishes to
provide an optimum surface exposure of aggregate (Fig. 6.2.2). Maximum
aggregate sizes may vary from 1/8 to 1-1/2 in. (3 to 40 mm) depending
on the desired architectural effect. Gap gradings may include coarse
aggregate in a short size range such as 1-1/2 to 3/4 in., 1 to 1/2
in., 3/4 to 3/8 in. (40 to 20 mm, 25 to 10 mm, 20 to 9 mm) or others.

Note preponderance of one size material

6.2.3 Admixtures -- When using white or light colored cements,

special tests are needed to determine effect of admixtures on concrete
color. Color compatibility may be established by casting jobsite
panels prior to actual use in construction. Detailed information on
admixtures is given in ACI 212.3R.

a) Air-entraining agents -- Air entrainment, as presented in Table

3.4.1 of ACI 301, is generally recommended for architectural
concretes in severe weather zones. As high air contents tend to
make concrete sticky so that air bubbles at the form face become
difficult to bring to the surface by vibration, the lower limit
of entrained air found in Table 3.4.1 (ACI 301) is recommended
when durability is mandated. In mild climates, small percentages
of entrained air may be required for workability in special
harsh mixes.
Other newly developed accelerators may be used if found not to
affect color and placement properties adversely.
b) Accelerating admixtures -- The use of calcium chloride may
contribute to the corrosion of metals and darkening and mottling
of the concrete. Its use is not recommended for architectural
concrete.
c) Water-reducing and set-retarding admixtures -- Water-reducing
and set-retarding admixtures are normally used in architectural
concrete to reduce the amount of mixing water, or to increase
the workability of the concrete, particularly with harsh
concrete mixtures.
Retarding admixtures may be used in architectural concrete to
retard the initial set of the concrete so as to minimize cold
joints. High dosages may cause setting, cracking, or
discoloration problems, particularly with white or buff cements.
When the setting of concrete is retarded, the effect of
additional form pressure may need to be considered in the design
of formwork.
d) Mineral admixtures and pozzolans -- Mineral admixtures or
 pozzolans meeting ASTM C 618 can be used to increase
workability. Before their use, trial batches should be prepared
to determine any detrimental changes in the architectural
appearance. The use of flyash in a concrete mixture may darken
the color and improve workability.
e) High-range water-reducing admixtures (super-plasticizers) can be
used to greatly reduce the water content of a concrete mixture
without adversely affecting setting time, and increase
workability for placement. The admixture should be checked for
adverse side effects on concrete properties and formwork
deflections.

6.2.4 Pigments and pigmented admixtures -- To augment color tone of

architectural concrete, pigments meeting ASTM C 979 or pigmented
admixtures may be used. Pigments commonly used for this purpose are
finely ground natural or synthetic mineral oxides. Synthetic oxides
are usually more satisfactory since they have more attractive shades,
greater permanence, and better performance. However, they may react
chemically with other products used on the surface, such as surface
retarders or muriatic acid, and should be tested prior to use. Various
iron oxides produce shades of yellow, buff, tan, brown, maroon, red,
and black. Chromium oxide produces shades of green, and cobalt oxide
is used to obtain shades of blue. The color shade depends on the
amount of these materials used. The quantity of pigment is expressed
as a percentage of the cement content by weight. Amounts of pigment in
excess of 5 percent seldom produce further color intensity while
amounts greater than 10 percent may be harmful to concrete quality.
Pigments will produce more intense colors when used with white cement
than with gray cement.

Organic phthalocyanine dyes have been used successfully to produce

light to dark shades of blue and green in concrete. The dyes are used
in quantities of less than 1 percent by weight of cement, and can be
dispersed in the mix water, thus eliminating the need for preblending.

For any coloring agent, it is important to have tests or performance

records that indicate color stability in concrete. Carbon black is
difficult to handle, and may cause various shades of black due to
leaching of the surface. Common lampblack should not be used due to a
detrimental effect on entrained air. It is recognized that concrete
colored by pigments may show varying degrees of weathering. The effect
on air content and water requirements should be determined.

A wet patch method has been successfully used to check the color
uniformity of concrete being discharged from a ready-mixed concrete
truck. The procedure compares a wet patch of colored mortar formulated
dry by the color supplier and a sample from the truck mixer.

6.2.5 Water -- Although most waters are suitable for regular

concretes, those containing iron or rust may cause staining in light
or white concretes.

6.3 Proportioning, mixing, and temperature control

Mixture proportions for architectural concrete should provide a

mixture of proper workability and strength. The water-cement ratio
should not exceed 0.46 by weight.

The slump should be as low as possible, consistent with the

particular type of concrete and the methods of placing and
consolidation. In general, the consistency for any placement should be
constant from batch to batch to provide uniformity of color in the end
product. There is a tendency for darkening and an increase in bugholes
near the top of lifts due to greater water gain. Gradually using less
water to provide dryer concrete for lifts toward the top would effect
a more uniform appearance. Experimentation on basement walls with the
architectural concrete mixture would determine procedures and
proportions to be used.

6.3.1 Gap grading -- Gradation for gap-graded mixtures varies

widely. The use of a one-sieve size or a narrow size range of coarse
aggregate, with a small percentage of concrete or masonry sand for
workability, will help to produce a uniform distribution of exposed
aggregate.

The ratio of fine to coarse aggregate by weight should be 1:2.5 to

1:3 in gap graded mixtures. Masonry sand is normally used when a high
concentration of coarse aggregate is desired for uniform color and
texture at the face.

6.3.2 Temperature -- The concrete temperature should be kept

consistent; concrete temperatures between 65 and 85 F (18 and 29 C)
will normally produce concrete uniform in color. Concrete temperatures
higher than 80 F (27 C) may result in a faster setting rate, visible
flow lines, and cold joints if proper scheduling of the concrete
placement is not coordinated with the concrete producer.

CHAPTER 7 PLACING AND CONSOLIDATION

7.1 Conveying and placing

7.1.1 General -- Methods of conveying and placing architectural

concrete should conform with the requirements of ACI 304R, except as
modified here. Description of methods and sequence of placement to be
used for the structure should be submitted in writing to the
architect, engineer, and inspector for review. These should be the
same as used in fabricating the approved preconstruction field mockup
sample.

Concrete trucks should be scheduled and dispatched to arrive at the

jobsite just before the concrete is needed. This will avoid excessive
mixing while waiting or delays in placement which may cause
nonuniformities of appearance or cold joints.

7.1.2 Conveying -- Care should be taken with any conveying equipment

to prevent contamination of architectural concrete by other mixes. If
methods of conveyance are varied during placement of architectural
concrete, the uniformity of color may be affected.

7.1.3 Depositing in the form -- With proper proportioning, and

depending on the width of the forms and the amount of reinforcement,
lifts can be up to 36 in. deep. High-range water-reducers can be
helpful. Deeper lifts reduce the number of lift lines and can reduce
the number of bugholes. The surface of each layer should be fairly
level so that the vibrator does not move the concrete laterally (since
this might cause segregation). This can be accomplished by depositing
the concrete in the form at close intervals.

Spattering of the form face with high-cement-content mortar which is

allowed to stiffen prior to being covered by the concrete may cause
mortar streaks in exposed aggregate finishes. Metal or polyethylene
sheets placed against the form face and raised with the height of
concrete will protect the form face against spatter.

7.2 Consolidation

7.2.1 General -- Good consolidation to eliminate entrapped air

throughout the mass and to minimize surface voids is particularly
important to architectural concrete. Today most concrete is
consolidated by vibration, which is especially required by the stiffer
consistencies associated with high-quality concrete.

An explanation of consolidation, and detailed recommendations on the

selection of vibrators and vibration procedures, may be found in ACI
309R. Elimination of surface voids is discussed further in ACI 309.2R.

7.2.2 Internal vibration -- Internal vibration is recommended for

all usual sections. The vibrator should be inserted vertically at
uniform spacing over the entire area. The distance between insertions
should depend on the properties of the mixture and vibrator being
used. The area visibly affected by the vibrator should overlap the
adjacent just-vibrated area by a few inches. There should be a row of
insertions within 6 in. (150 mm) of the form. The vibrator should not
be inserted within 2 ft (610 mm) of any leading (unconfined) edge.

The vibrator should penetrate rapidly to the bottom of the layer,

and at least 6 in. (150 mm) into the preceding layer if there is one.
It should be held stationary, generally from 10-30 sec (dependent on
the stiffness of the mixture and effectiveness of the vibrator) until
consolidation is judged complete. The vibrator should then be
withdrawn slowly, at the rate of about 3 in. (75 mm) per sec. The
concrete should move back into the space vacated by the vibrator. For
dry mixtures, where the hole does not close during the withdrawal,
reinserting the vibrator a few inches away may solve the problem.
While stiff mixtures are to be encouraged, overly dry mixtures may
result in poor consolidation (honeycomb or excessive entrapped air)
and should be avoided.

Where air voids in formed surfaces are excessive, the distance

between vibrator insertions should be reduced 20-30 percent from the
normal one and one-half times the radius of action and the time of
each insertion increased. There should be a row of insertions 3 to 6
in. (75 to 150 mm) from the form, usually just inside the reinforcing
steel (on the side of the steel away from the form).

Sometimes it is practical to insert a small vibrator between the

reinforcement and form. In such cases the vibrator should be rubber
tipped; even so, any contact with the form should be avoided if at all
possible because this might mar the form and disfigure the surface.
Insertions closer to the form than about 3 in. (75 mm) may result in a
darker color of the surface opposite these locations.

Sometimes very harsh mixtures, such as those with gap grading, are
used to produce special architectural effects. They generally require
more powerful vibrators and longer vibration times. The vibration
should be terminated when the mortar level reaches the top of the
aggregate, to prevent mortar lines between layers.

7.2.3 Form vibration -- Form vibration is recommended in areas

inaccessible to internal vibration. Forms for external vibration must
stand up under the repeated, reversing stresses induced by vibrators
attached to the forms. Furthermore, they must be capable of
transmitting the vibration more or less uniformly over a considerable
area. The form should have adequate skin thickness and suitable
stiffeners. The vibrators should be rigidly attached to the form.
Special attention should be given to form tightness to prevent grout
leakage. Trials should be made with form vibrators prior to large
scale use. These trials should simulate the forming conditions to be
encountered on the structure.

7.2.4 Revibration -- Revibration, after bleeding is substantially

complete but before initial set, can sometimes be used to further
densify the concrete and reduce air and water pockets against the
form. Revibration is of particular benefit for the top few feet of a
placement where air and water pockets are most prevalent. Revibration
should not be used where harsh, gap-graded mixtures are used to
produce exposed aggregate surfaces due to a possible danger of
dispersing the aggregate at the surface.

Revibration more than a few feet below the top of placement may
damage well consolidated concrete.[7]

7.2.5 Spading -- Spading may be employed in conjunction with

internal vibration, to improve formed surfaces. A flat, spade-like
tool which will not damage the form, such as a long flat ruler or sail
batten, is repeatedly inserted and withdrawn adjacent to the form.
This forces the coarse particles away from the form, and assists the
air bubbles in their upward movement toward the top surface. Although
a laborious operation, the results can be worthwhile if properly
pursued.

CHAPTER 8 CURING

8.1 General

Method and period of curing should be consistent to produce a

uniform color. Proposed methods should be tried on the site-cast
mockup to determine any possible adverse effects. Standard curing
procedures are described in ACI 308.

8.2 Curing in forms

Nearly all beams, columns, and undersides of slabs receive their

curing by being left in the forms. To prevent staining caused by the
type of form material, the forms should be sealed with a liquid
sealer, following the manufacturer's instructions. Color variations
due to rapid surface drying and extreme thermal changes should be
minimized by following the recommendations of ACI 305R and ACI 306R
and in Sections 4.8 and 4.10.2 of this report.

8.3 Moist curing

Extreme care should be taken to insure that the material used to

cover the concrete surface does not cause discoloration. Plastic
sheets may be useful for covering complex shapes, but color
differences will occur between areas where the plastic sheet contacts
the concrete and areas where it does not.

Detailed information on this color variation known as "greenhouse

effect" is covered in Reference [8]. Curing water should be
nonstaining.
8.4 Membrane curing

Liquid membrane curing compounds may cause discoloration or

staining, and prevent bonding of repair concrete or a permanent
coating that may be needed. Manufacturers should be consulted
concerning characteristics of their products and warranties. Curing
practices and materials should be thoroughly evaluated on the
preconstruction field mockup sample.

8.5 Hot weather curing

Freshly placed architectural concrete can be adversely affected by

high temperature, low humidity, and winds. To prevent variations in
color due to nonuniform drying and to prevent plastic shrinkage
cracking, curing should commence as soon as practical, perhaps even
before completion of concrete placement (see also ACI 305R).

CHAPTER 9 TREATED ARCHITECTURAL SURFACES

Architectural surfaces may be treated after casting and form removal

to expose fine or coarse aggregate in the finished product by brushing
and washing at an early age, surface retardation, high-pressure water
jet, acid wash, sandblasting, bushhammering, or other mechanical
tooling. Each of the methods may impose additional requirements for
aggregates in shape, size, texture, or color. As more of the aggregate
is exposed, the importance of the cement color diminishes. The total
area and the expected distance to the viewer will usually determine
the size of the aggregate. Since treated surfaces are more susceptible
to atmospheric pollution, consideration must be given to aggregate
shape which may change due to weathering and alter the original
appearance. Round aggregates have less tendency to collect airborne
dust on the matrix portion than the rough aggregate. In areas subject
to air pollution, a matrix darker than the exposed aggregate may be
preferable.

Hand broadcasting of architectural aggregate slab surfaces allows

economical use of the costly aggregate and insures uniform coverage.
For slabs, brushing and washing with water at an early age is commonly
used to expose the aggregate.

9.1 Surface retarders

Personnel using surface retarders should become familiar with their

characteristics prior to use. They are used to delay the set of the
surface cement paste so that the aggregate can be exposed easily. The
use of accelerators or heating during cold weather concreting may
shorten the delay of set at the surface. Prolonged exposure of the
forms coated with retarder prior to placing concrete may also affect
the action of the retarder. A sample panel should be made to determine
any adverse effects from the form or concrete materials. Further
experimentation to determine the effect of heights of placement, form
stripping times, and method of exposure should be done in areas of
minor importance, such as basement walls. The recommended minimum
concrete strength prior to removal of the retarded surface is from
1000 to 1500 psi (6.9 to 10.3 MPa). To insure uniform results on
vertical surfaces requires preplanning and more supervision than for
structural concrete. Due to the numerous factors affecting the action
of surface retarders applied to form faces for vertical casting, their
use should be carefully evaluated for each project.
9.2 High-pressure water jet

High-pressure water jets are used in combination with air to expose

aggregate. Proper time of application must be determined for each
concrete and its curing conditions to obtain the desired amount of
reveal without loosening the aggregate. The minimum compressive
strength of the concrete for high-pressure water jetting should be
1500 psi (10.34 MPa). This method can be used with or without surface
retarders, and requires an operator pretrained on a test area.
Exposure should be started immediately after forms are stripped when
retarders are not used. Reference [9] describes typical equipment.

9.3 Acid wash

Washing with solutions of muriatic acid can be used to etch the

surface of the concrete, and to bring out the full color of an exposed
aggregate surface. The exposed aggregate should be one such as quartz
or granite that is acid resistant. Limestones, dolomites, and marbles
will discolor or be dissolved by muriatic acid due to their high
calcium content. Such treatment should not be initiated until the
concrete has reached a compressive strength of 4500 psi (31.0 MPa) or
an age of 14 days.

Acid washing is not recommended for vertical cast-in-place concrete

due to the hazards of such application. All personnel must have
protective clothing and covering to prevent injury from spattering.
Uniform application of the acid solution is difficult due to runoff.
Complete neutralization of the runoff is also difficult which may
create problems at ground level.

9.4 Sandblasting

Sand- or abrasive-blasting is used to dull the formed surface, make

the color uniform, or expose the aggregate of architectural concrete.
The depth of treatment is usually defined in consultation with the
architect, contractor, and inspector when texturing the
preconstruction mock-up. Degrees of sandblasted or surface retarded
finish (Fig. 9.4) may be described and defined as:

a) Brush -- Sufficient to remove the surface sheen, but may not

make the color uniform--no reveal. (Reveal is defined as the
projection of the coarse aggregate from the matrix after
exposure)
b) Light -- Sufficient to expose fine aggregate with occasional
exposure of coarse aggregate, and to make the color
uniform--maximum reveal 1/16 in. (1.5 mm)
c) Medium -- Sufficient to generally expose coarse aggregate with
slight reveal. Maximum reveal 1/4 in. (6 mm)
d) Heavy -- Sufficient to generally expose and reveal the coarse
aggregate to a maximum projection of one-third of the diameter.
Reveal 1/4 - 1/2 in. (6-12 mm). The surface is rugged and uneven
 The lighter the sandblasting, the more critical the skill of the
operator, as defects from forming and placing, such as bugholes,
leakage lines, and lift lines, tend to be accentuated by such
treatment. Additional thickness of concrete should be provided to
maintain proper cover for reinforcement.

The time when sandblasting should take place is determined by

scheduling, economics, visual appearance desired, and hardness of the
aggregate. Softer aggregates tend to abrade more when concrete
strengths are high. Surface retarders (see Section 9.1) may be used in
conjunction with medium and heavy texture to reduce blasting time and
lessen the abrasion on softer aggregate. If a more pronounced reveal
is desired, sandblasting is usually done during the first 24-72 hr,
and after concrete strengths have reached a minimum of 2000 psi (13.8
MPa). Once the time is determined through testing on the
preconstruction mockup, all subsequent blasting should be done at the
same concrete age for uniformity of appearance.

Materials used for sandblasting are silica sand, aluminum carbide,

black slag particles, and walnut shells. The type and grading of the
abrasive determines the surface treatment and should remain the same
throughout the entire project. Since some aggregates change color
after exposure by sandblasting, trials of different abrasive materials
with sample panels are desirable to define the textured design
reference sample. White cement concretes require abrasive materials
that are stainproof. When wet sandblasting is required by air
pollution standards, abraded mortar should be continually washed from
previously sandblasted areas to prevent staining.

There is a variety of sandblasting equipment and techniques,

detailed in Reference [10].

9.5 Tooling or other mechanical treatments

Tooling and other mechanical treatments for the exposure of

aggregates or other surface modification may be done by any of several
processes, including chipping and spalling of the surface by a method
called bush-hammering, grinding to produce a smooth exposed aggregate
surface, or the breaking off of the projections of fluted surfaces to
produce alternate rough and smooth areas. Orientation of equipment for
tooling, blasting, or fracturing should be kept uniform throughout the
architectural work. To maintain uniformity, it is often desirable to
have the same individual perform this work throughout the project or
at least on adjacent portions of a structure.[11]

9.5.1 Bushhammering -- Bushhammered surfaces are produced by

pneumatic tools fitted with a bushhammer, comb, chisel, or multiple
pointed attachments. The type of tool will be determined by the
surface effect desired. Since most bushhammering will remove
approximately 3/16 in. (5 mm) of material, additional concrete cover
is provided. To prevent loosening of the aggregate, a concrete
strength of 4000 psi (27.6 MPa) in compression, and a minimum age of
14 days is required. In many cases, better uniformity is found when
the concrete is allowed to age for 21 days and the surface to dry.
Bush-hammering at corners tends to cause jagged edges. If sharp
corners are desired, bushhammering is held back from the corner a
distance of 1 to 2 in. (25 to 50 mm). Chamfered corners are best with
this type of treatment.

9.5.2 Grinding -- Grinding of concrete surfaces is more laborious

than the other treatments, especially on vertical and overhead
surfaces. Final costs are determined by the hardness of the aggregate
and the desired exposure. To define the final product, treatment is
accomplished on the preconstruction mockup or a trial area of minor
importance. Small samples may not be capable of field reproduction.
This type of treatment produces a result similar to terrazzo work.

9.5.3 Manual treatment -- Vertical surfaces of structures may be

formed to produce projections of concrete of triangular or rectangular
shape. These may be broken off either by removing the form, or by hand
at a concrete age sufficient to also fracture the aggregate. Prior
testing should be done on the preconstruction mockup to determine the
optimum procedures.

CHAPTER 10 FINISHING AND FINAL CLEANUP

10.1 General

Even with good workmanship and positive effort to produce excellent

architectural concrete, an occasional blemish will need to be repaired
and variations in color and texture can occur. Limits to their
acceptance should be determined during review of the field mockup
sample.

10.2 Tie holes

Tie holes should be plugged to prevent corrosion of the tie and

possible staining of the surface, except where stainless steel form
ties are used. The holes left in the surface of the concrete as the
result of the form tie may be small or large, depending on the type
used. In a rough textured surface, small holes can be plugged flush
with the surface and concealed. With smooth surface concrete, the tie
holes will be more apparent, and it is better to only partially fill
the holes, leaving the holes as a part of the planned appearance.
 Care must be exercised to avoid smearing the fill material on the
surface of the concrete. Materials used for plugging tie holes include
portland cement mortar, epoxy mortar, plastic plugs, precast mortar
plugs, and lead plugs. They should be carefully selected from among
those which have shown no staining or discoloration tendencies in use.
Mortar materials of a dry-tamp consistency, densely tamped into the
hole will be less likely to smear on the surface than those of wet
consistency. When portland cement mortar is used, the tie hole should
first be prewet with clean water, and then a neat cement slurry bond
coat should be applied to the hole surfaces before filling with
mortar. If epoxy mortar is used, it should be applied in accordance
with the manufacturer's instructions, and a caulking gun used to
inject it into the tie hole to prevent smearing it on the surface.
Cleaning is difficult and will usually leave a stain on the surface.
Plastic inserts are provided by cone tie manufacturers and should be
wedged into the tie hole leaving a standard predetermined recess.
Alternatively, lead plugs can be wedged into the hole by hammering.
Sometimes the removable cone becomes embedded in the concrete due to
form movement or leakage around the cone. It can be removed to produce
a neat appearance by drilling out the cone with a diamond bit tool
conforming to the hole size produced by the cone. It may be economical
to remove all cones in this manner to insure neat uniform holes.

10.3 Blemish repair

Blemishes that are beyond the limits of variations as established by

the quality of the preconstruction mockup must be repaired. The repair
work should proceed as soon as possible after form removal using the
materials and methods already accepted on the approved mockup. Then
the repair and the surrounding concrete will age together, and the
chance of color variation will be minimized. The importance of
establishing a repair method before the need arises cannot be
overstressed. Once proven acceptable on the mockup, immediate repairs
can be made without delay and with confidence of the final outcome.
Where adjacent sandblasting or bush-hammering treatments must be
matched, prior experimentation should be performed on unimportant
areas. Ingenuity may sometimes be used to establish methods and
techniques that are as satisfactory as those in standard use. Light
sandblasting sometimes greatly emphasizes cracks as well as blemishes
or bugholes caused by forming or placing. When their appearance is
unacceptable, it may be desirable to decide to accept a heavily
sandblasted surface because additional sand-blasting may diminish the
effect of the cracks and other defects after they have been repaired.
Filling the cracks with epoxy before blasting has prevented rounding
of the crack edges during blasting. After blasting, the resulting
epoxy fin is broken off manually at the face of the concrete.
Remaining is a fine line unnoticeable to the eye at normal viewing
distances.

A needle gun, developed for removing scale from steel girders prior
to painting, has been successfully used to diminish the contrast of
dark leakage lines at form joints, tie cone holes, and to remove
ragged lift lines. These lines are stronger than the adjacent
concrete matrix and cannot be sandblasted away without greatly eroding
the surrounding softer mortar.

Removal is accomplished by lightly applying the needle gun (see Fig.

10.3) containing 16-20 chisel pointed rods to chip away the dark,
hard, and contrasting cement rich lines. The chisel points must be
maintained to prevent a bushhammered appearance. To prevent shadows
from oblique sun rays, the removal should not be deeper than the
adjacent mortar surface.

10.4 Stain removal

Rust is the most common stain on architectural concrete surfaces. It

is usually caused by water washing the rust from reinforcing bars
(extending out of an element for connection to the next concrete
element), by ferrous material (nails, formwork hardware, or other
reinforcing steel accessories) carelessly left on top of a surface, or
both. Loose ferrous materials should be picked up. Reinforcing steel
exposed and likely to cause rust stains should be coated with a neat
slurry of portland cement and water to temporarily protect from
rusting.

Stains from various causes may be removed by commercial stain

removers, but some alteration of the concrete surface may occur. This
affected area may be blended in by the method described for the entire
wall or element. Suggested methods for stain removal are in Reference
[12].

Objectionable efflorescence and surface deposits may be removed by

dilute concentrations of muriatic acid (5-10 percent solutions). The
concrete should be sprayed with water first to minimize etching.
Following application of acid, thorough flushing with water is
required to prevent formation of scum. Further treatment may be use of
detergents or a light sandblast if the muriatic acid is not effective.

10.5 Sealers and coatings

Sealers are defined as penetrants which are absorbed when applied,

are clear in color and leave little or nothing visible on the surface.
Coatings penetrate slightly and leave a visible film on the surface.
The film can be clear or pigmented.

Sealers and coatings are not recommended unless needed for

protection from atmospheric contaminants. Sealers may be used for the
following purposes:

a) To reduce attack of the concrete surface by industrial airborne

chemicals
b) To inhibit soiling of the surface; however some sealers have an
affinity for airborne contaminants
 c) To facilitate cleaning of the surface
d) To avoid darkening of the surface when wetted

Many commercial sealers and coatings vary in chemical composition

and in effectiveness as reported in Reference [3]. The methyl
methacrylate form of acrylic resin coating and the silane or siloxane
type of sealer offer the best protection for architectural concrete
surfaces.

Any proposed sealer or coating should be checked for compliance with

local EPA restrictions.

Sealers or coatings based on polyurethanes, epoxies, polyesters, and

their combinations have a glossy appearance and tend to yellow or
darken the surface of the concrete. Where waterborne dirt stains
vertical surfaces, a clear sealer or coating will prevent the dirt
from penetrating the surface, and make cleaning easier or unnecessary.
Sealers or coatings can also protect concrete surfaces that would
otherwise become stained by the initial runoff of rust from
intentionally exposed special steel which forms its own protective
oxidized rust colored coating. Where sealers or coatings are used,
they may change the color of the original concrete, and this should be
taken into account. Some sealers or coatings have an affinity for
airborne contaminants as well as incompatibility with caulking
compounds. Some silicone sealers or coatings have an affinity for
hydrocarbon contaminants.

Joints should be caulked before application of sealers or coatings

so as not to affect the bond of the caulking compound. Care should be
exercised that the caulking compound does not smear the exposed face
and prevent adhesion of the sealers or coatings.

CHAPTER 11 INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL

11.1 General

Architectural concrete as defined in Chapter 1 has had many

interpretations by the design architect, by the specification writer,
by the contractor, and by the job inspector. These interpretations may
vary during the progress of the work when expectations become
impossible to achieve with current practices of construction and
materials. As the results depend partly on the inspector's evaluation,
the specifications must be reviewed ahead of time by the inspector and
the design architect so that they can agree on how to evaluate the
final product. This chapter will concern only those points not covered
generally in Reference [13].

11.2 The qualification of the inspector and the laboratory

The inspector should have previous experience in the inspection of

architectural concrete of equivalent complexity and scope. The extent
of his or her responsibility is determined by whether the
specifications are prescription, performance, or a combination of
both. Confirmation of this extent is developed at the prebid and
postbid conferences with contractors. The architect and inspector
should hold periodic conferences to discuss progress and quality of
the work.

The laboratory should meet the requirements of ASTM C 1077.

 11.2.1 Prebid conference -- Inspectors should be thoroughly familiar
with the specifications and the prebid sample panel. They should make
a thorough review of the specifications to establish the intent and
possibly uncover specifications that need changes because they are
ambiguous, or because they make it virtually impossible to produce the
desired results. At this time the final acceptable architectural
finish should be clearly spelled out. Inspection of the prebid sample
and preferably personal participation in its manufacture will
familiarize the inspector with the materials to be used and the
expected results. The opportunity of viewing the actual mixture during
this stage provides invaluable experience for the inspector regarding
the mixture, slump, color, and placing characteristics. During the
contract period that follows, any variation would immediately become
apparent. Any corrective procedure for defects could be reviewed in
the inspector's presence when the prebid sample is made. He or she
would then be able to effectively review the procedure for the
contractor's personnel if repairs should be needed during the latter
portion of the contract. Attendance at the prebid conference will
enable the inspector to determine the areas of the contract plans and
specifications concerning architectural concrete that generate most
questions. He or she can then assist in clarifying their intent. This
will provide confidence in the inspector's decisions during
construction.

11.2.2 Postbid conference -- The inspector's final indoctrination

should be accomplished and duties established as the successful
contractor constructs the preconstruction mockup. As the contractor
uses the proposed materials, procedures, forming, and joinery, the
inspector can evaluate and observe the technique and materials which
are used to produce the panel. When the mockup is approved, it becomes
the reference standard for construction, and should be maintained in
its original approved condition for the duration of construction. Any
later variations in materials or techniques should require a new
sample for approval. The mockup should be used for demonstration of
repair techniques. On completion of these preliminaries, the inspector
is ready to evaluate the quality of the project architectural concrete
under the general direction of the architect/engineer.

11.3 Quality control

The control of the quality of the architectural concrete requires

the continual evaluation of the material used for forming or
texturing, the form release agents and their application, the placing
of reinforcing steel relative to the exposed face, the alignment of
the forms, tightness of the form joints, rustication fastening, the
curing prior and subsequent to the form stripping, required repairs,
and final clean down. Each of these contributes to the appearance of
the finished surface of the architectural concrete.

11.3.1 Form surfaces -- In most cases the form surface defines the
texture of the finished architectural concrete. The amount of change
that the form surface may undergo in each use determines the care
necessary to preserve the original form surface so that subsequent
placements look similar. The inspector should be alert to any change
which could affect the finished concrete surface. Where the final
surface is to be achieved by additional treatment after the concrete
has reached sufficient strength, the form texture change would not be
as critical.

11.3.2 Form release agents -- Much of the blotchiness of concrete

and surface air holes is thought to be caused by the improper use of
form release agents. Where one agent has been found successful for the
sample panel, the manufacturer's instructions for thickness of
application and required agitation must be continually followed. All
the forms should have similar exposure to the elements, as large
differences have been found to affect the operation of the form
release agent. Agents containing volatile solvents must be stored in
airtight containers to prevent a change in concentration. One brand or
batch of form release agent should be used throughout the project.

11.3.3 Form and steel alignment -- Much of the inspection

accomplished during the formwork construction portion of the operation
is common to most concreting operations. However, the alignment of
reveal forming, the form joint and the ties now become a portion of
the architectural design and require closer tolerances than normal.
The reveal forming should be checked for strength to prevent movement
during concrete placement, the form joints for tightness, and the ties
for architectural alignment. Reinforcing steel alignment also should
be more closely controlled to allow sufficient clearance for later
treatment such as bushhammering and to avoid staining of the finished
surface. During forming, discrepancies caused by reveal forming strips
that conflict with reinforcement should be corrected. Where form ties
are accurately placed for architectural reasons, slight shifts of the
reinforcement may be made for clearance. On major projects where
different operations are proceeding concurrently, additional
inspectors may be required to adequately inspect the work.

11.3.4 Curing -- The curing required for structural concrete is also

required for architectural concrete, but for architectural concrete,
normal curing procedures may have to be revised. In some instances
membrane curing has been allowed subsequent to a period of water
curing. For these, prior investigation must be made to determine the
probability of staining. If retarding agents are to be used, water
curing should be delayed until the surface treatment has been
accomplished. Sufficient strength should be achieved in concrete
surfaces where reveals are formed to allow stripping without chipping
of corners and edges. Water curing has been found to lighten dark
blotchiness and create better uniformity of color. Uniformity of water
application is important in achieving uniformity of color.

11.3.5 Repair -- If the procedures are followed as determined by the

approved preconstruction mockup, the quality control of repairs will
be simplified. Additional experimentation may be necessary to achieve
a satisfactory repair as the architectural concrete in the finished
structure may differ slightly from the original mockup but still be
within the tolerance allowed. Where colored concrete is to be matched,
assistance from the color manufacturer and extreme care in blending
should produce a patch or fill that, with drying and aging, will
approximate the original concrete surface. Gluing agents such as
epoxies, polyesters, and water-resistant polymers should not be used
integrally with the patching material, as a different mortar texture
and color will be apparent which will not fade with time (or may even
change to an objectionable color). The glue should only be applied to
the surface of the area to be covered, and will appear as a fine line
around the patch. Repairs should have the same texture as the
surrounding concrete. When post-treatment is required, such as
sandblasting or acid etching, the time for application should have
been determined when the preconstruction mockup was manufactured
(Section 2.5.3). The same procedure would be followed with the repairs
(ACI 546.1R and ACI 548.1R).
11.4 Materials

With architectural concrete, any change in materials or proportions

may affect the surface appearance. The inspector must continually
observe and check for this change in materials. A large change in
aggregate color and gradation would affect the uniformity of the
treated texture particularly where the aggregate is exposed. Changes
in color of materials and changes in proportions also affect the
uniformity of untreated surfaces.

11.5 Final acceptance

If the procedures determined by the approved on-site mockup were

continued throughout the project, final acceptance should not be a
problem. Due to inevitable nonuniformity or construction practices,
some repairs will normally be required. Their final acceptability will
depend on the blending capability and the contractor's skill. Periodic
review by the inspector and the design architect to allow partial
acceptances creates good will and confidence with all concerned. After
final acceptance, the inspector's records should be completed and
filed. If later additions are made or adjoining buildings constructed,
these records will be needed for construction.

CHAPTER 12 REFERENCES

12.1 Selected references

The standards of the various standards-producing organizations and

ACI documents referred to in this document are listed below with their
serial designation.

12.1.1 ACI standards and reports

117 Standard Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials

212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete 223Standard Practice for Use
of Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing
Concrete
305R Hot Weather Concreting
306R Cold Weather Concreting
308 Standard Practice for Curing Concret
309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
309.2R Identification and Control of Consolidation-Related Surface
Defects in Formed Concrete
318 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
318R Commentary on Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete
347R Guide to Formwork for Concrete
504R Guide for Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures
515.1R Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing, Protective,
and Decorative Barrier Systems for Concrete
546.1R Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge Superstructures
548.1R Guide for the Use of Polymers in Concrete

12.1.2 ASTM Standards

A 767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for

Concrete Reinforcement
A 775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars
C 33 Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates
C 330 Standard Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for
Structural Concrete
C 150 Specification for Portland Cement
C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
C 618 Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan
For Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
C 845 Specification for Expansive Hydraulic Cement
C 979 Standard Specification for Pigments for Integrally Colored
Concrete
C 989 Standard Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace
Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars
C 1077 Standard Practice for Laboratories Testing Concrete and
Concrete Aggregates for Use in Construction and Criteria for
Laboratory Evaluation

ACI publications are available from the American Concrete Institute,

P.O. Box 19150, Detroit, Mich. 48219. ASTM Standards may be obtained
from ASTM, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103.

12.1.3 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

EM 1110-1-2009 Architectural Concrete, 1987

12.2 Cited references

[1] Nine papers on Architectural Concrete, Concrete International,

V. 6, No.1, Jan. 1984.

[2] Eight papers on Concrete and Architecture, Concrete

International, V. 10, No. 9, Sept. 1988.

[3] Litvin, Albert, "Clear Coatings for Exposed Architectural

Concrete," Journal, PCA Research and Development Laboratories, V. 10,
No. 2, May 1968, pp. 49-57. Also, Development Department Bulletin
DX137, Portland Cement Association.

[4] Hurd, M. K., Formwork for Concrete, SP-4, American Concrete

Institute, Detroit, 5th Edition, 1989, 472 pp.

[5] Forming Economical Concrete Buildings, Proceedings, 2nd

International Conference, SP-90, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1986, 280 pp.

[6] Litvin, Albert, and Pfeifer, Donald W., "Gap-Graded Mixes for
Cast-in-Place Exposed Aggregate Concrete" ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings, V.
62, No. 5, May 1965, pp. 521-538. Also, Development Department
Bulletin DX90, Portland Cement Association.

[7] Brettman, Barie B.; Darwin, David; and Donahey, Rex C., "Bond of
Reinforcement to Superplasticized Concrete," ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings,
V. 83, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 1986, pp. 98-107.

[8] Greening, N. R., and Landgren, R., "Surface Discoloration of

Concrete Flatwork," Journal, PCA Research and Development
Laboratories, V.8, No. 3, Sept. 1966, pp. 34-50. Research Bulletin
203, Portland Cement Association.

[9] Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,

Denver, 1981, 627 pp.
 [10] Panarese, William, and Freedman, Sidney, "Exposed Aggregate
Concrete," Modern Concrete, V. 33, No. 7, Nov. 1969; No. 8, Dec. 1969;
and No. 9, Jan. 1970, 16 pp.

[11] "Bushhammering of Concrete Surfaces," IS051, Portland Cement

Association, Skokie, 1987, 4 pp.

[12] "Removing Stains and Cleaning Concrete Surfaces," IS214,

Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1988, 16 pp.

[13] ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection, SP-2, American Concrete

Institute, Detroit, 7th Edition, 1981, 508 pp.

This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was
approved according to Institute procedures.