Research 1 Intro

What is Psychological Research

1. Scientific investigation of a topic of interest
2. Maybe described in terms of its:
a. Form: an elegant process
b. Key Principles

Elegant Process of Research

1) Ask a question
2) Test it objectively
3) Look and find answers
4) Repeat the process

Note: a. Chapter 3 is very important and proofread.

b. Replicate Thesis – different population and cultural problems.

Key Principles of Research

1. Objectivity: Free from Bias (interscorer – to avoid bias) and Personal Values.
2. Rigour: Design is thorough and accurate.
3. Logical: Based on clear, sound and reasoning.
4. Ethical: Integrity, Responsibility. Note: Most important of all.
5. Significance: Important Contribution or Implication.

How to Begin?
1. Select a topic
a. Ideally, out of interest or curiosity.
b. Consider the time frame.
c. Consider your resources: Network, Skills, Cost or Budget.
2. Identify the following:
a. Unit of Analysis: objects or events under study (who or what to know)
b. Variables: Characteristics of the units that vary
c. Measurement: assigned number or labels to unit of analysis to represent variable categories

Example: Topic Generation

What do you want to know (ask
a question)
Are older people more afraid of
crime than younger people?
What objects or events do you What specific characteristics do
need to describe (unit of units have? (variables)
analysis)
Individuals Age, Fear of Crime

On Measurement
- Assign Numbers (e.g. 15%) or Labels (e.g. Excellent) to Unit of Analysis to “represent” variable
categories.
- Purpose: a. To make the concepts/variables empirically observable
b. Objectively test the research questions.
- Process: Abstract → Concrete
How to move from Abstract to Concrete Measures?
- Provide a definition of
a. Conceptualization b. Operational

Conceptualization
- “Formulate or Clarify” the use of the concepts or variables in research
- Where did the concept or variable derived from?
- Example: Conceptual definition of “Fortitude”

Example: Fortitude (Conceptualization)

- Oxford dictionary “Courage” in pain and adversity
- FEU core values – ability to persevere etc.
- Seligman’s character strength persistence
- Synonymous concepts of courage etc.
Note: Variable has identified but lacking how exactly how to measure it or tell how to observe the
variable

Operationalization
- Describe the Research Operations that Specify the Value or Category.
- Derived from Conceptual
- Importance: Must be Precise and Exact
Note: Important for Replication

Example: Fortitude (Operational)

- Seligman’s character strength persistence etc.

Level of Measurement
1) Nominal
2) Ordinal
3) Interval (Ordered, Equal Difference)
4) Ratio (With Zero)

Brief Review about Measurement

- Levels of Measurement
- Reliability (Stability and Consistency of Operational Definition)
- Validity (Congruence between Operational and Conceptual Definition, It purports to measure)

Types of Measure
1) Survey Research
2) Scaling Research
3) Qualitative Research (Narrative)

On Measurement: Take Note of the Error

- Systematic Measurement Error
- Reactive Measurement Effects
- Social Desirability Bias
- Random Measurement Error
Decide or Determine your Research Design
Possible Designs: Quantitive Qualitative Quantitative +
Qualitative
Purpose: - Seek Consensus - Dig “essense” - Addresses limitation of
- Generalize to Large - Generalize to Small both designs
Sample Sample
What should guide Adequately answer the research questions.
Decision?
Descriptive
Strategy of Inquiry Explanatory Exploratory
- Structured, Controlled - Open, Flexible
- Restrictive, Rigid - Emergent
Variable - Isolated - Not Explicitly Stated
- Related - Needing Discovery
Methods - Survey - Case Study
- Observation - Ethnography
- Archival - Phenomenology
- Correlational - Narrative/Biography
- Experiment

Ethics in Research – Integrity and Responsibility

Basic Ethic Principles:
1. Principle of Respect for persons: Rights and Dignity
2. Principle of Beneficence (In PAP: Competent, Caring of Participants)
3. Principle of Justice (Fairness: Procedure and Making Reports) Must not be ignorant in Literature
4. Principle of Integrity (Honesty, Truthful, Communicate Accurately in Research)
5. Professional and Scientific “Responsibilities” to society. [Significant to Whom] (Contribute to
Knowledge that would improve human condition)

On Research Participants (APA GUIDELINES)

1. No harm made to participants:
a. risk should be minimized or remove
b. forms of harm: Physical or Psychology
Note: if it’s unavoidable = Informed Consent
2. Informed Consent (Benefit outweighs the cost) (Offset or correct the harm by “debriefing”)
Components:
a. Information: About research, roles, possible potential risks
- Possible issue will be “demand characteristics”
b. Understanding: What about those with limited understanding?
- “Assent” from participants and Consent from Guardians
c. Voluntary Participation: Freedom to participate, decline, leave

How do you give Informed Consent?

1) “Formal” through written consent: ICF (English and Tagalog)
2) Ask consent or recording (Audio and Video)
3) Deception:
 a. Passive Deception (Omission)
b. Active Deception (Commission) may involve “Confederates”
This violate IC, But why is this sometimes necessary?
a. Potential Scientific Value
b. No Reasonable Effective, Alternate Method
c. Involves Minimal Risks (No need to control demand characteristics)

3. Important Considerations
a. Should be “Justified”
b. “Don’t Conceal” possible physical pain or severe emotional distress
c. Perform Debriefing: to counteract or minimize harmful effects
c1. Delivery: sooner the better, whenever possible
c2. Particulars: correct information, either false or incomplete information given
c3. If Debriefing will cause more danger then it is important in debriefing to be clear
4. Confidentiality
- Anonymity: “Name” is not directly associated and not too detailed with participant

5. Inducement
- Compensate the participants from borrowing their time

6. How to call people who participate in your study?

1. Subject – Traditional Experiments
2. Participants – Commonly used in Qualitative
3. Respondents

Reporting your Research: “Must not do” (APA Ethic Standard, 2002)
1. Fabrication
a. Psychologist do not fabricate data – avoidance of false/deceptive statements
b. Do not make false, deceptive or fraudulent statements
c. If significant errors are discovered, take reasonable steps to correct errors
2. Plagiarism
- Psychologist do not present portions of another’s work or data as their own, even if the other’s work
or data source is cited occasionally.

Errors and Fraud

1. Errors
a. Honest Mistakes
b. Why and When does it happen?
2. Fraud
a. Explicit efforts to falsify or misrepresent data
b. Safeguards in academic community
b1.Do replication, repetition of the research study
- Methodology? Similar procedure
- Purpose? Support or Cast Doubt
- Benefit? Guard against Fraud and “Gain Confidence”
b2. Peer Review, Criticizes/Scrutinize aspect of research
- Purpose? Evaluate Quality of Research and Contribution
- Benefits? Guard on Fraud and Gain Truth worthiness
Plagiarism – is an academic “crime” and is “punishable”.
a. Do not cut and paste statements
b. Take complete notes and complete citations of the source
c. Always check your draft, identify those that are yours and not yours
d. Properly cite your sources and provide a complete list of reference
e. In-text citation is different from reference list of source materials
f. If necessary to be verbatim, follow correct citations of direct quotes, use sparingly
g. Follow APA Manual 6th Edition for crediting sources (pp.169-215)

Ways of Discussing Original Source Materials

a. Direct Quotations: Identical to the source material
b. Summarize: Putting main idea, main points only
c. Paraphrase: Putting a passage from source materials

When to use Quotations, Paraphrases and Summaries

a. Refer to work that leads up to your study
b. Provide support for claims or add credibility to writing
c. Give example of several points of view on a subject (Come from different sources, multiple
citations. Separated by semicolon, arrange accordingly)