BINARY

Brief History of Computers:

The computer as we know it today had its beginning with a 19th century
English mathematics professor name Charles Babbage. ... Other
developments continued until in 1946 the first general– purpose digital
computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was
built.

Internet

The Internet is a global network connecting millions of computers.

More than 190 countries are linked into exchanges of data, news and
opinions.

A. LAN

A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a

relatively small area. Most often, a LAN is confined to a single
room, building or group of buildings, however, one LAN can be
connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and
radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a
wide-area network (WAN).
 B. WAN

A computer network that spans a relatively large geographical

area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-area
networks (LANs).

Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected

through public networks, such as the telephone system. They can
also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest
WAN in existence is the Internet.

C. MAN

Short for Metropolitan Area Network, a data network designed for

a town or city. In terms of geographic breadth, MANs are larger
than local-area networks (LANs), but smaller than wide-area
networks (WANs). MANs are usually characterized by very high-
speed connections using fiber optical cable or other digital
media.

Bit (Binary Digits)

A bit (short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in a

computer. A bit has a single binary value, either 0 or 1. Although
computers usually provide instructions that can test and manipulate
bits, they generally are designed to store data and execute
instructions in bit multiples called bytes. In most computer systems,
there are eight bits in a byte. The value of a bit is usually stored
as either above or below a designated level of electrical charge in a
single capacitor within a memory device.

Binary to Digital Conversion

Conversion from Binary to Decimal

Conversion of Integer Numbers

Expand the number given in binary form in the power of 2 and sum the
values, the result which we will get will be in the decimal form.
For example-

Convert Binary Number to Decimal Number

Conversion of Decimal Point Number to Decimal

This can also be done in the same way, however after the decimal
point the number should be multiplied with 2-1, 2-2 etc.

For example,
Conversion from Decimal to Binary

Integer Numbers

Divide the number by 2 and take only the remainder, if division

is completed than take only the remainder which gives the binary
number.

Example

So, the binary equivalent of (14)10 is (1110)2

After the dash (-) remainder is written.
Suppose we are converting the decimal number (87)10. Now the
conversion is shown below
 ∴ (87)10 = (1110101)2

For Fractional Numbers

In this case, the successive multiplication is done. The number

which is to be converted is multiplied with base or radix of binary
number which is 2. The integer part or the carry of the product is
taken out and the same process is repeated until we get an integer.
For example-
The binary equivalent of (.95)10 is evaluated as follows-

Seven OSI Layers

A. Physical (Layer 1)

OSI Model, Layer 1 conveys the bit stream - electrical

impulse, light or radio signal — through the network at the
electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware
means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including
defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet,
RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.

B. Data Link (Layer 2)

At OSI Model, Layer 2, data packets are encoded and decoded

into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and
management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow
control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is
divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC)
layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub
layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to
the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls
frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.

C. Network (Layer 3)

Layer 3 provides switching and routing technologies, creating

logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting
data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions
of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error
handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.

D. Transport (Layer 4)

OSI Model, Layer 4, provides transparent transfer of data

between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-
end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data
transfer.

E. Session (Layer 5)
 This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections
between applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates,
and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between
the applications at each end. It deals with session and
connection coordination.

F. Presentation (Layer 6)

This layer provides independence from differences in data

representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from
application to network format, and vice versa. The
presentation layer works to transform data into the form that
the application layer can accept. This layer formats and
encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom
from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax
layer.

G. Application (Layer 7)

OSI Model, Layer 7, supports application and end-user

processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of
service is identified, user authentication and privacy are
considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified.
Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer
provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and
other network software services. Telnet and FTP are
applications that exist entirely in the application level.
Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

Internet of Things

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of interrelated computing

devices, mechanical and digital machines, objects, animals or people
that are provided with unique identifiers and the ability to transfer
data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-
computer interaction.

Activity
Convert the following binary digits to decimal
1. 1001 - 9
2. 11100101 - 229
Decimal to binary
1. 54 - 00110110
2. 192.168.1.0 - 00000000

SOURCES:

- http://people.bu.edu/baws/brief%20computer%20history.html
- http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/L/local_area_network_LAN.html
- http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/Internet.html
- http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/W/wide_area_network_WAN.html
- http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/MAN.html
- http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/bit-binary-digit
- http://www.electrical4u.com/binary-to-decimal-and-decimal-to-binary-conversion/
- http://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/OSI_Layers.asp
- http://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/Internet-of-Things-IoT
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