MSA – BIOLOGY

1. In a hypertonic environment, the cell has a lower concentration of solutes, and therefore it also has a higher water
potential than the surrounding extracellular fluid. Osmosis (the diffusion of water) causes a net movement of water
out of the cell, causing the cytoplasm to decrease in volume. As a result, the cell shrinks (crenates) and forms abnormal
notches around its edges. The effects of crenation are especially visible in red blood cells, or erythrocytes, as they
become distorted in shape rather than maintaining the usual disc-like, dimpled shape that the red blood cell normally
has.

Hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solute than the concentration inside the cell which causes the cell to
swell. Isotonic solution has a concentration equal to the concentration inside the cell.

2. (Process of In Vitro Fertilization, IVF) In order for fertilization to take place in the glass, a sperm cell must be introduced.
The embryo is now ready to be removed from the petri dish for implantation into the uterus of the female. The woman
is usually required to lie down for several hours to prevent miscarriage.

3. Membrane proteins act as enzymes and receptor sites. They also function for chemical transport, intercellular
communication, cell-to-cell recognition, and attachment to the cytoskeleton and extra cellular matrix.

Formation and transport of vesicles happen with the following processes:

1. Secretory proteins are assembled by ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum (which extrude them across the
ER into its channels).
2. Some proteins are chemically modified by enzymes embedded within the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
3. Protein pass through more channels to a Golgi body (which is the end of the channel).
4. Proteins are encapsulated within the vesicles formed by the pinching together of membranes at the end of the
Golgi body.
5. Vesicles then pass through the cytoplasm to the interior surface of the plasma membrane, with which they sure,
releasing their contents to the exterior.

4. B-lymphocytes is a kind of lymphocyte that secretes antibodies for humoral immune response, where it binds to the
antigen and eventually destroys it. Non-specific defenses are made in the body such as surface barriers and defensive
chemical cells. Cellular and chemical defenses consist of non-specific defenses (e.g. neutrophils, interferons) that affect
its actions once pathogens invade the tissues. A cell-mediated response is accomplished by T-lymphocytes and it
involves attacking the virally infected cells and cancer cells.

T-lymphocyte is a kind of lymphocyte processed in the thymus that initiates the attack on foreign bodies.

5. In a frameshift mutation, the whole frame of the genetic sequence is changed, while in a point mutation only one
nucleotide is modified to become another nucleotide.

There are three types of point mutation:

a. Silent mutation – causes no change in the activity of the protein.
b. Missense mutation – results in a change of the activity of the protein.
c. Nonsense mutation – results to a protein shorter than usual or most likely non-functional.

6. As population size increases, the competition becomes more intense, and growth rate declines in proportion to the
intensity of competition. A density-dependent factor is one that intensifies as the population increases in size, while
density-independent factor is one that is not related to population size. As population density increases, the
probability of catching the disease will be higher than if the individual had been living farther apart.
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7. Adaptation is a structural modification in organisms that enables them to adjust to a changing environment. Growth
is an irreversible increase in number, size, and/or number of cells.

8. Protoderm develops into surface or dermal tissues. Ground meristem produces fundamental or ground tissues
(parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma). Cork cambium produces the protective layer of bark called cork.

9. Organisms are classified into hierarchies which are based on their relativity with one another. The Kingdom is the
highest level in the classification of living things. There are five kingdoms namely: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and
Animalia. The yeast and the mushroom belong to Kingdom Fungi. The shark and the milkfish belong to Kingdom
Animalia and Phylum Chordata. The turtle and the snake are classified under Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, and
Class Reptilia. Bread mold and water mold are not related since they belong to different kingdoms, Fungi and Protista,
respectively.

Classification of organisms is hierarchical, from the most general to the most specific. It is divided into different Kingdoms,
followed by Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.
Mnemonic: King Play Chess On Fine Grain Sand

10. Dihybrid cross is a cross between two traits.

Genotype is defined as the genetic makeup or genes of an individual. An allele is one of the alternative pairs of genes.
It may be in two forms:
a. Dominant – masks the effect of the recessive allele and represented by a capital letter
b. Recessive – allele that is masked by the dominant allele and is represented by a small letter

Phenotype shows the physical appearance of an individual dictated by the genotype.

11. Human blood types:

Blood type A – has antigen A and antibody against B
Blood type B – has antigen B and antibody against A
Blood type AB – also known as “universal recipient” because it can receive all blood types, has antigen A and B and
no antibody
Blood type O – also known as “universal donor” because it can be donated to all blood types, has no antigen but has
antibody against A and B

Blood type O is known as “universal donor”. A person with a blood type O can donate to a person that has blood type A,
B, AB, or O.

12. Kingdom Monera, such as bacteria and blue-green algae, are prokaryotes. Prokaryotes do not have a nuclear
membrane; thus, its DNA is exposed to the cytoplasmic environment.

13. The process of development of a new individual starts before the fertilization of the egg. The egg and the sperm are
produced during gamete formation, followed by penetration of the sperm into the egg (fertilization), forming the zygote.
To form a multicellular organism, the zygote undergoes a sequence of cell division (cleavage). The formation of germ
layers (gastrulation) follows. The cells of the germ layer will develop into different tissues and organs (organogenesis).
Further, the cells of each organ begin to grow and differentiate from other cells until the cell acquire the structure and
function needed to execute the task of the organ (growth and differentiation).
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14. Tropical rainforests are found in areas near the equator where rainfall is abundant and the dry season last no more
than a few months. It is considered the richest biome in terms of the number of species, probably containing at least
half of earth’s species of terrestrial organisms. The great plant diversity allows great animal diversity.

Taiga is characterized by heavy snowfall and is composed of conifer forests.

Desert is sandy and receives less rainfall.
Savannah has grassland regions and seasonal rain.
Tundra is cold, which results to a frozen undersoil.
Estuary is the part of a river (freshwater) which is joined with the sea (saltwater).

15. Ferns, pine trees, and common weeds have a dominant diploid sporophyte. The mosses, however, have dominant
haploid gametophyte generation. Haploid gametophyte is the part of the life cycle of plants having haploid nuclei,
which give rise to the sex cells that, on fusing, produce a diploid stage, sporophyte.

16. Meiosis is a special type of cell division responsible for the formation of gametes or sex cells. The result is four cells
with half the ploidy number of the mother cell. During Prophase I, synapsis and crossing over occur. The number of
chromosomes will be reduced to half at the end of Meiosis I (to be exact, Telophase I).

In mitosis, a somatic cell divides to form two identical diploid (2n) daughter cells. Its phases are:
a. Prophase – condensation of chromosomes (coiling)
b. Metaphase – alignment of chromosomes along the equatorial plate
c. Anaphase – separation of sister chromatids
d. Telophase – mitotic apparatus during prophase is disassembled

In meiosis, a gamete-producing cell divides to produce four daughter cells with only half the number of chromosomes as
the parent cell. It is part of the reproduction process as gametes (sperm and egg cells) have only half the chromosomes
as diploid individuals. Meiosis is further divided into two stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II where the phases have the same
name as those of Mitosis.

17. The sinoatrial node is found at the right atrium it sends impulses through the atria resulting in atrial systole; it is also
considered as the pacemaker of the heart. The atrioventricular node is the heart’s electrical system where it is
activated by impulses caused by SA node; it passes impulses down to the bundle of His resulting in ventricular systole.

Cardiac cycle stars when deoxygenated blood travels through the vena cava. It will flow through the right atrium, right
ventricle, and lungs. The blood then becomes oxygenated. It will travel through the left atrium, left ventricle, aorta, and
then to all the cells in the body. The sound of pumping of the heart is caused by the valves.

18. The correct order from the outside to the inside of a woody eudicot (true cotyledon) stem is: cortex – primary phloem
– secondary phloem – vascular cambium – secondary xylem – primary xylem – pith.

19. Both plan and animal cells have cell membranes and nucleus. The centriole can be found only in animal cells and the
cell wall is exclusive to plant cells.

20. Ethylene is a plant hormone that promotes ripening. The beaker with an ethylene-releasing chemical in a plastic bag
will supply more ethylene than ethylene-releasing banana enclosed in a bag. An apple often flushed with carbon dioxide
will inhibit the action of ethylene by preventing ethylene from accumulating.

21. After cell differentiation, it is metabolically active to perform its function for a specific organ.
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22. –

23. The cycle is divided into two parts: the interphase and the M-phase or the dividing phase. The interphase is further
divided into three periods of growth: Gap 1 (G1) phase, Synthesis (S) phase, and the Gap 2 (G2) phase. There is
a specific checkpoint in Gap 1 phase that decides whether or not to begin replication. If the condition prior to the
restriction point is not ideal, cells enter the G0 phase where they are maintained for prolonged period in a non-diving
state.

Growth, increase in the number of organelles, and production of substances need inside and outside the cell take place
during the G1 phase. DNA replication and formation of proteins in DNA happen during the S phase. Organization of
specialized structures required for chromosomes movement and cell replication occur during G2 phase.

24. The scientific name of an organism is made up of two names: the genus or generic name and the species or
specific epithet. The genus name should start with a capital letter and specific epithet with a small letter. Both names
should be italicized or underlined.

25. Magnification occurs because the biomass at any given trophic level is produced from a much larger biomass ingested
from the level below. Thus, top-level carnivores tend to be the organisms most severely affected by the toxic compounds
that have been released into the environment.

26. –

27. Traffic of molecules across the membrane:

i. Small polar uncharged molecules such as water and carbon dioxide will easily pass
ii. Hydrophobic molecules such as hydrocarbons and oxygen can cross with ease because they can dissolve in the
lipid bilayer
iii. Large polar uncharged molecules such as proteins and sugars will not pass
iv. Ions such as H+, Na+, Cl-, K+ will not readily pass, they need transport proteins or channels

One of the important means of transport of molecules across cell membranes is the sodium-potassium pump.

Its important characteristics are the following:

1. It is an active transport process that uses up energy in the form of ATP.
2. It is responsible for establishing the charge difference maintaining the nerve cell membrane resting potential.
3. The pump works through a series of conformational changes in the transmembrane protein.

28. Corpus luteum comes from a ruptured follicle that is repaired and turned yellowish. It secretes a hormone called
progesterone, which inhibits the follicle-stimulating hormone, thus preparing the uterus for pregnancy. Infundibulum
is a funnel-shaped distal end of each uterine tube (fallopian tube). Graafian follicle is a mature ovarian follicle.
Seminiferous tubule is the site of spermatogenesis.

29. Charles Darwin’s “Natural Selection” states that as the condition of nature change, individuals that are fittest and can
adapt will survive and evolve. Genetic drift is described as chance events that results a change of allele frequencies. In
migration, population exchange members to converge toward one another. The Theory of Use and Disuse states that
as the organism continues to use a certain part of its body, it enlarges or elongates.

30. The development of the neural crest happens after the formation of the three germ layers. It is actually derived from
the ectoderm.
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31. Cellular respiration is a catabolic process in which organic compounds breakdown into simpler substances through
the transfer of electrons during redox reactions. Anabolic processes, on the other hand, consume energy to build
complex molecules from simpler ones.

32. A unicellular organism is made up of only one cell. When its cell divides, it undergoes reproduction. On the other
hand, multicellular organism undergoes growth when its cell divides. Development refers to the transformation from
an immature to mature functional form.

33. Turner syndrome shows the appearance of only one X chromosomes due to non-disjunction. Sex chromosomes fail
to separate during the formation of the egg. When an abnormal sex cell unites with a normal sex cell to form an embryo
the embryo will develop with incomplete sex chromosome (XO rather than XX). Having incomplete sex chromosomes
will cause the person to have underdeveloped secondary sex characteristics.

Other common chromosomal abnormalities that may occur during meiosis or mitosis are as follows:

In term of numerical chromosomal abnormalities, there are two types: aneuploidy and polyploidy. Aneuploidy refers to
an extra or missing chromosome such as in Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) or Monosomy X (Turner Syndrome),
respectively. Polyploidy results when there is an addition of an entire complement of haploid chromosomes such as
triploids in which 3 haploids sets occur (69) like XXX, XXY, or XYY. These abnormalities may involve either autosomes or
sex chromosomes. Some of the common trisomy are as follows:
1. Trisomy 13 – also called Patau syndrome, is characterized by gross multiple structural defects involving polydactyly
and cleft lip or palate.
2. Trisomy 18 – also called Edwards syndrome, is characterized by severe psychomotor and growth retardation.
3. Trisomy 21 – most common viable autosomal trisomy. Majority of individuals with Down syndrome have Trisomy 21.
Common physical findings include depressed nasal bridge, shortened extremities, and mental retardation.

34. The position of organisms in an energy pyramid would suggest the amount of energy available. Producers are placed
on the base of the energy pyramid because they have the large quantity of energy available by being the organism that
can convert light energy into chemical energy.

35. The pituitary gland is divided into anterior and posterior pituitary. Antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin is the
hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland, which targets the kidneys, increases the reabsorption of water during
urine production, which results to less urine. Oxytocin is another hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland,
causing the contraction of the uterus and ejection of milk. Growth hormone is secreted by the anterior pituitary
gland, which targets body cells, and stimulates growth and repair while adrenocorticotropic hormone is secreted
by the anterior pituitary gland which targets the cortex of adrenal glans, helps in metabolism regulation and body stress
release. Prolactin stimulates milk production and secretion.

The pituitary gland is divided into two: posterior and anterior.

The posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis produces the oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones.

The anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis produces growth hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone,
adrenocorticotropic hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone.

36. The complementary bases are A-T (Adenine and Thymine) and G-C (Guanine and Cytosine). The percentage of each
of the nitrogen-containing base is equal to the percentage of their complementary.

37. The amniotic fluid bathes the embryo, serving as a barrier of the embryo against mechanical injury.
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38. Three kinds of muscles are present in our body. The table below shows the three kinds of muscles with their distinctive
characteristics.
Kind of Muscle Characteristics Example
Elongated, multinucleated, straited,
Skeletal nucleus found at the periphery of Muscles of the arm
the cell
Spindle-shaped, uninucleate, non- Muscles in the stomach and blood
Smooth
striated, nucleus found at the center vessels
Straited, uninucleate, nucleus found
Cardiac at the center, presence of Muscles of the heart
intercalated disks

Myofibrils are rod-like bundles in each muscle fiber containing a thin protein called actin and a thicker protein called
myosin.

39. Arthropods belonging to Class Crustacea are characterized by various leg pairs and two pairs of antennae.
Representative organisms are crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. Scorpions belong to Class Arachnida. Centipedes belong to
Class Chilopoda and grasshoppers belong to Class Insecta.

40. Macronutrients include oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sulfur.

41. Escherichia coli is an example of bacteria. Bacteria reproduce in the process of binary fission in which the daughter cells
are reproduced from a single parent cell. Since the plasmid with insulin is inserted into the bacteria, the bacterial cell
produces multiple copies of the genes that code for insulin. S. cerevisiae is a species of yeast which belongs to Kingdom
Fungi. Tobacco mosaic virus and Corona virus are at the acellular level.

42. Primary ecological succession begins in an essentially lifeless area where soil has not yet formed, such as on a new
volcanic island or on the rubble left behind by retreating glacier. In the case of glaciers, which are still shrinking in
places like Glacier Bay, Alaska, the barren ground is first occupied by mosses and lichens, and then by dwarf willows.
About 50 years, alders form dense stands. These eventually give way to Sitka spruce, which are later joined by hemlock,
forming the relatively stable spruce-hemlock forest that we recognize today as taiga.

43. Short-day (long-night) plants require a light period shorter than the critical night length to flower. A flash of red light
shortens then dark period while a succeeding flash of far-red light terminates the effect of the red flash.

44. During the process of Meiosis I and Meiosis II, the primary oogonium divides its cytoplasm unevenly, producing a polar
body (since meiosis occurs twice, one polar body is produced from the first meiosis, another polar body is produced
from meiosis two), thus only one active cell is formed. Therefore, if 3 oogonia enters oogenesis, 3 egg cells are formed.
To illustrate, an oogonium undergoes oogenesis as follows:
Oogonium
↓
Primary Oocyte

Secondary Oocyte 1st Polar body

Mature Ovum (egg cell) Secondary Polar Bodies

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45. The autonomic nervous system is the section of the nervous system which controls involuntary function. It has two
divisions:
Sympathetic division – prepares the body for emergency responses; has effects such as the widening of the trachea,
the increasing of the heart rate, and the liver stimulation for glucose release.
Parasympathetic division – rests the body and produces calm response, has effects such as the increasing of
stomach contractions to promote digestion, the narrowing of the pupil of the yes, and the constriction of the trachea.

The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. Parts of the neuron are the:
a. Dendrite – receives the message
b. Axon – sends the message to another dendrite
c. Soma – cell body where nucleus is located

46. The mesoderm is the middle layer between the exoderm and the endoderm. The mesoderm is further divided into two
layers: dorsal mesoderm and lateral mesoderm. The dorsal mesoderm has three regions: myotome, sclerotome,
and dermatome. Myotomal cells form the muscles, the sclerotome cells form the vertebra and other bones (except
facial bone), while the dermatome cells form the dermis of the skin of the lower back.

47. With trial and error, using the Punnett square, the cross between a normal male and female carrier will result in 50%
chance of having a normal child, 25% chance of having a normal carrier daughter, and 25% chance of having a
hemophilic child.
XH Xh
XH XH XH Xh
XH
(normal female) (normal female carrier)
XH Y Xh Y
Y
(normal male) (hemophilic male)

X-linked recessive disorders usually occur in males who have inherited a recessive X-linked mutation from their mother.
Usually, the mother is a carrier and is unaffected.

A male child of a female carrier has a 50% chance of inheriting the disease while a female child of a female carrier has
a 50% chance of inheriting the gene mutation and become a carrier herself.

An affected male will pass on the gene mutation to all his daughter and hence called obligated carriers. The affected
male never passes the disease to a son.

48. Symbiosis is defined as an interaction between two different organisms. In mutualism, both the host and the symbiont
benefit from each other. Commensalism is a relationship in which the symbiont benefits, but the host is neither helped
nor harmed. In parasitism, the symbiont (parasite) benefits at the expense of the host by living either within the host
(endoparasite) or outside the host (ectoparasite).

49. Oxytocin stimulates the uterine contraction of the smooth muscle cells of the uterus. Commercialized oxytocin is
provided under acceptable conditions to help out during childbirth and to constrict the blood vessels in the uterus before
delivery.

50. Comparative embryology provides some evidences of evolution.