Soil Compaction and Improvement

What you will Learn:

Standard Compaction Technique

Effects of Compaction on Soil

Things to Look For During Compaction

Compaction
A. Compaction is the increase in unit weight obtained by controlled densification. It occurs relatively quickly, usually immediately
but can take several days for cohesionless soils.
B. Different techniques required for coarse and fine
C. Compaction of Fine Soils (SC,CL,SM,ML, Dual Classification; not good for cohesionless or high plasticity)
1. Ralph R. Proctor
a. Worked for City of Los Angeles Water District
b. Assigned to develop a procedure to insure that levels of compaction could be adequately specified.
c. In 1933, defined a standard compaction test in Engineering News Record
1. Article 1 - Fundamental Principles of Soil Compaction (Aug. 31, 1933)
2. Article 2 - Description of Field and Laboratory Methods (Sept. 7, 1933)
3. Article 3 - Field and Laboratory Verification of Soil Suitability (Sept. 21, 1933)
4. Article 4 - New Principles Applied to Actual Dam-Building (Sept. 28, 1933)
2. AASHTO T-99, ASTM D-698, Standard Test Method for Moisture-Density Relationships (procedures are comparable but
different)
a. Uses a Standardized Hammer-
b. A Standardized Compaction Mold-
c. Basic Procedure -
d. Determine the dry unit weight and water content of the soil.
e. Add water to the soil and repeat the test.
f. Continue adding water and retesting until the total unit weight of the soil begins to decrease (due to replacement of
soil by water.)
g. Standard amount of energy given to soil by the test.

h. A typical curve is shown below.

i. The peak dry unit weight is called the "maximum dry density", or . It is a maximum only for this
particular test energy. The soil can be compacted to a denser state with more energy.
j. The Optimum water content, wopt, is the water content at maximum dry density.
k. A limiting upper curve is usually shown, called the "zero air void" curve. It is the maximum dry density that would
occur if all the void space were filled with water.

l. Standard Limits-
1. The ratio between the field density and the peak of the curve is the
 Relative Compaction =

A contract will typically specify that a soil should be compacted to, say, 95%. Different soil types and
different uses usually have different Relative compactions.

2. It is difficult for a contractor (or a researcher in the lab) to get the soil water content right on the optimum
or any other specific point. A range is usually given depending on purpose of the backfill. A typical range
is 3% below and 2% above optimum. For example, if optimum water content is 16%, the acceptable range
would be from 13% to 18%.

3. Soil Structure and its Effects

a. Structure at various water contents

b. Strength

c. Ductility
d. Conductivity

e. Overcompaction

f. Varying Energies and Compaction Techniques

i. Effects on Curve

ii. Modified Proctor Test

Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil

 ASTM D698

ASTM D1557

D698 - 5.5#, 12" D1557 - 10#, 18"

Method Mold Blows Layers Gradation Particle Mold Blows Layers Gradation Particle Size
Size

A 4 in 25 3 <=20% -#4 4 in 25 5 <=20% -#4

Retained#4 Retained#4

B 4 25 3 +20% -3/8" 4 in 25 5 +20% -3/8"

in. Retained #4 Retained #4
and –20% on and –20% on
3/8" 3/8"

C 6 56 3 +20% -3/4" 6 in 56 5 +20% -3/4"

in. Retained on Retained on
3/8" and – 3/8" and –
30% Retained 30% Retained
on ¾" on ¾"

D4718 Other Other

D4718 – Standard Practice for Correction of Unit Weight and Water Content for Soils Containing
Oversized Particles

4. (Note: An interesting site about compaction is a Senior Project by Séamus Clandillon at Napier University, Edinburgh,
Scotland. It has a British perspective on compaction, like stating that some types of compactors aren't common because of
the wet conditions in Britain.)

D. Sand and Gravel Require (should have) Relative Density - Dr

1. Determine Maximum e
2. Determine Minimum e
3. Relative Density is:

4. Example:

emin = 0.504 emax= 0.755 efield = 0.546

-max = 112 pcf -min= 96 pcf -field = 109 pcf

5. Compaction of Coarse Soil

a. Vibratory
b. Grid
E. Compaction Equipment and Techniques
a. There are four basic ways of compacting soils
1. Static Weight
. Smooth Steel Wheel
i. Pneumatic-tired
2. Kneading Action
. Sheepsfoot
i. Padfoot (Buffalo-foot)
3. Impact
. Wacker Packer
i. Jumping Jack
ii. Grid Roller
4. Vibration
. Drum Roller
i. Plate Compactor
b. Steel Wheel Rollers

Both two wheeled (as shown) and three wheeled (I couldn't find any
pictures, I think they are pretty out of date), are very slow (<
4mph). They are useful on granular soils where they perform
crushing of the grains. They are "top down" or "surface"
compactors, meaning they compact the surface well but are less
efficient down into the profile. Not very effective in plastic or
granular-plastic soils. They are good for final seal and finish rolling
after other compactors. Because they seal the surface so tightly,
 water runs off it quickly and there is very little infiltration. Also reduced evapotranspiration.

c. Pneumatic-Tired Rollers

These are also surface compactors, but in addition to static load,

they also provide some kneading action. The tires are arranged so
that the rear tires follow in the space between the front tires,
hopefully so it leaves no ruts. Typically, the wheels are individually
sprung or tandom sprung, so that the tires follow uniformly on the
surface. Their boxy shape is to provide room for ballast, i.e., rocks
and/or water, but too much can cause excessive wear on the tires.
The pressure provided on the soil surface can be altered by either
changing the weight of ballast or by changing the tire pressure. The
wheels are often set at a small angle off the axle, so that the tires
"wobble". Small tired rollers must run on prepared surfaces or else their wheels will sink in. Larger wheel compactors
work with a wider range of soil types, having a larger footprint and more "bearing capacity" than smaller tired rollers.

d. Sheepsfoot Roller

Sheepsfoot Roller Padfoot (or Buffalofoot) Roller

(Towed) (Self-propelled)

e. Grid Roller
 f.
g. Caterpillar Compaction Manual This is in a webpage for "Nutra-Bond-Plus":
h. "...a complex non-bacterial concentrated multi-enzymatic formulation that alters the properties of
earth materials, providing one of the most cost-effective methods to stabilize roads and seal ponds
and landfills."
i. Ingersoll-Rand - Compaction Data Handbook
j. Caterpillar
k. Svedala Dynapac
l. Hypac
m. Bomag
n. Hamm Compactors (Germany)
o. Compac Equipment (Canada)
p. SuperPac
q. ECEL
r. Pictures of Equipment for Sale
F. Field Density (Discuss in Lab)
0. Several, Destructive-
. Sand Cone
a. Balloon
b. Drive Sampler
1. Nondestructive
. Look, Feel
a. Nuclear
G. Making Compaction
0. Adjust Water Content
1. More Passes
2. Thinner Lifts
3. Bigger Rollers
4. Right Compactor
H. Other Compaction Techniques
0. Vibro-densification (General Procedure)
. Many different kinds with many variants
0. Vibrocompaction (Including Vibroflotation) for clean sands with less than 15% fines
1. Vibroreplacement (Including Stone Columns) for Silty sands and silts with some clay.
2. Vibroconcrete Columns
a. (Some similar techniques using just water jets and/or hole punchers to create sand drains and rock columns)
b. Many potential benefits
0. Increase Bearing Capacity
1. Increase shear strength
2. Increase Young's modulus
3. Reduce settlement
4. Reduce Liquifaction Potential
5. Compact fills
6. Site Uniformity after treatment
7. Can be used close to existing buildings
8. In situ treatment, no excavate
c. First Project in Europe in 1936.
d. Total System requires
0. Vibroflot or Probe, extension tubes and lifting head
1. Crane and leads taller than required depth
2. Water pump unit up to 600-800 liters/min and hoses
3. Front-end Loader to haul backfill
e. Cylindrical or torpedo shaped probe
0. Diameter = 370 mm to 450 mm
1. Electric or Hydraulic Motor (Up to 200 HP)
2. Eccentric Weights on a Vertical Shaft
i. Rotate at 10 to 60 Hertz (600 to 3600 rpm), typically 1600-1800 rpm
ii. Free amplitude from 8 mm to 48 mm horizontally
iii. Typical Operating from 8 mm 20 mm
iv. Developes horizontal forces up to 38 Tons!
3. Water or air jets along the side built into the Stabilizer Blades of the Wear Shield
4. Pennine Specifications
f. Three Step Process
0. Insert probe with vibration and jetting with water or air
1. Probe maintained at base with water flow either at bottom of probe or at top of probe. Densification
accomplished by liquifying sand particles and by vibration into denser packing.
2. Slow withdrawal either as a continuous lift or by a lifting and dropping action on the backfill.
i. No backfill, only using natural sand
ii. Poured from ground surface around hole (Wet Top Feed)
iii. Stone fed from hopper through or along side pipe to bottom (Dry Bottom Feed)
iv. Stone feed can be blasted by jet force to help densify or Rotated
g. Depths typical to 20 m
h. Depths to 60m
i. Effects usually show up quickly
0. Proof Checks should be next day or three
 1. At one site with 12500 vibrofloat probes in 25m
i. Cone Penes increased 10 to 15% over three weeks
j. Backfill material
0. Coarse to Medium Sand
i. Can be natural sands from the project or even in the profile or can be imported to insure quality.
ii. Acts as drain
iii. May reduce potential to liquify under Earthquake by shortening drainage paths
iv. Typically reduce settlement depending on spacing
1. Gravel, Rock, Stone or Slag
i. Stone diameter typically 40-100 mm
ii. Act as rapid drain if it doesn't clog.
iii. Provides direct support for foundations
iv. Increases shear strenth of soil
v. Decreases Settlement
2. Concrete where probe acts like a giant concrete vibrator
k. Vibrocompaction/Vibroflotation
0. Best for soils with less than 15% silt or clay
1. Promotes free drainage
2. Typically has relative Density between 70% and 85%
3. Commonly develop design bearing pressures of 5 KSF up to 10 ksf.
4. Is especially good on granular backfills
5. Uses sand backfill
6. sinking rates 1 to 2 m/min
7. Withdrawal rates - 0.3 m/min
8. Overall production rate - 87.3 m/hour(=290 ft/h)
9. Water Flow rates up to 600 gpm
10. Sand often mixed with water or dumped
11. Upward flow promotes local liquifaction and washes the fines out of the sand
12. Zone of improvement 1.5 to 4 m
l. Vibro-Replacement or Stone Columns
0. Cohesive, mixed and layered soils don't densify easily under just vibration.
1. Same Vibroflot
2. Feed stone in 0.5 m lifts to compact laterally into the surrounding soil.
i. Top feed from around ground surface dumped into the hole. It is the most cost effective method, but
is messy with soft, cohesive soil.
ii. Bottom Feed through a supply tube from a hopper to the probe using air and gravity to move rock in
dry condition. Not as messy and can be used in enviromentally sensitive areas.
3. Really doesn't change soil properties much
4. Provides support through dense compaction of the backfill.
5. Typical diameter is 500-600 mm.
6. Typical Spacing is 2 to 3.5 m
7. Usually installed under the line of the strip foundation or on grid system under a slab foundation.
8. Typical Production rate - 29.1 m/hour (=100 ft/h) (Slower than Vibrocompaction because of more variable
soil)
m. Terraprobe / Vibrocompozer
0. Uses Foster Vibrodriver for Steel Sheet Piling on top
1. On 28 inch pipe pile
2. Requires crane
3. 15 feet deeper than hole
4. Vibration-15 hz and 10-25mm amp
5. 15 probes/hour at spacings of 1 to 3m
6. Not effective in upper zones
n. Effectiveness predicted by Stability Number

Stability No. vs. Potential Compaction

Potential
Stability No.-Sn
Compactability
0-10 Excellent
10-20 Good
20-30 Fair
30-50 Poor
>50 Unsuitable

Requires less than 20% fines

o. Testing may show Rd's greater than 100%

0. Increased lateral stress
 1. Ko as high as 6 measured
p. Compaction in Grid Pattern
0. Square

where

eo = initial void ratio

e = desired void ratio

d = diameter of vibroprobe hole

1. Triangle

2. Spacing 1.5 to 4m
q. Technique can loosen very dense zones
0. Break up cemented layers
1. Makes area more homogeneous wrt density
2. Relatively quiet compared to pile driving
3. Less Vibration than dynamic compaction

www.pennine-group.co.uk/index.htm
www.vibroflotation.com/
vibro.co.uk/index.html
geotechnics.com/vibro.htm
www.geopac.ca/en/
Hayward Baker

I. Heavy Tamping / Dynamic Compaction / Dynamic Consolidation /Pounding

. Depths to 30 feet
a. Developed by Menard
b. Effect same at Proctor Compaction in Part. Sat.
c. Especially good for waste and rubble fills
d. Pounders
0. Concrete Blocks
1. Steel Plates
2. Steel Sheels filled with concrete or sand
3. Weights from 1 to 100 tons
4. Drop heights of up to 40 meters
5. Has been used underwater
e. Usually 1 to 10 drops per location
0. 2 to 3 blows/m^2
1. Lots of Drops
2. May require several passes
f. May take days or weeks
0. you aren't providing drainage.
g. Can be done only at footing locations
h. Depth of influence=
0. Weight in metric tons
1. Hieght in meters
2. Coef. 1 to .5, Probable 0.65 to 0.80
3. Factors influencing
. Free drop vs. crane drop
i. Damping caused by soft layers
ii. What is depth of influence
i. Spacing on grid (2-3 blows/m2)
j. Possible Upper LImit
0. CPT = 150-180 kg/cm^2
1. SPT = 45 b/ft
2. Finer Grained coarse may be half of above
k. Effect of Vibration
 l. Compaction should extend out from foundation at least distance of one layer thickness to prevent liquifaction during EQ
J. Blasting
. Use of underground explosives
0. Set charge by jetting, vibration or boring
1. Backfilling
2. Detonation
a. Charge
0. Dynamite
1. TNT
2. Ammonium Nitrate
b. Saturated, Clean Sands
c. Greater Initial Density requires More Charge
d. Size: 1 to 12 kg
e. Depth: 0.5 to 0.75 depth of compaction
f. Spacing: 5-15m
g. Repeats: 1 to 5, 2 to 3 common
h. Total Explosive: 8-150gm/m^3, 10-30 common
i. Tests show significant lag time for strength buildup but settlement is rapid
j. Rd's about 75-80%
0. Erratic
1. Not good at surface
K. An Alternative is Hydroblasting
. Shocking with Inplace Water
0. Appears effective with loess
1. Collapsing Soil in General
a. Saturate soil and blast

Compaction and Standard Specifications

Just as we have ASTM and AASHTO available to standardize the methods to perform the compaction tests, so do we have STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS available to define uniform and consistent specs for public works. The two most important standard specifications in
Wyoming are the "Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction" from the Wyoming Highway Department and the "Wyoming
Public Works Standard Specifications" written by the Wyoming Public Works Council.

This second group is an excellent example of cooperation between a wide group of mutually concerned organizations. The Foreword to
the document list committee representation from the Wyoming Association of Municipalities, Wyoming County Commissioners
Association, Wyoming Association of Consulting Engineers and Surveyors, Wyoming Highway Department, Wyoming Department of
Environmental Quality and the Associated General Contractors of Wyoming, Inc.

The reason given for writing this document is "Over the past years it became evident to all concerned that a need existed for
standardization of specifications and design wherever possible to achieve the greatest value and saving to the public of Wyoming." A
notice states that the

"... specifications define the responsibilities of the owner/agency and the obligations of the Contractor. It is intended that they provide for
the proper exercise of competent professional engineering judgment in obtaining satisfactory complete work. The specifications were
prepared to encourage a desirable degree of uniformity of nomenclature, format, methods of measurement, basis of payment, quality of
materials, methods of tests, quality of workmanship, allowable tolerances and applied penalties for exceeding those tolerances."

An engineer is not locked into following these specifications. The notice further states:

"It would be impossible to prepare one set of specifications which would be suitable for use throughout the State of Wyoming without
modification. Use of these specifications and/or modifications made to these specifications is the responsibility of the owner/agency."

The two sections that are most applicable to compaction are SECTION 201 - TRENCH EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL FOR
PIPELINES AND APPURTENANT STRUCTURES and SECTION 601 - EARTHWORK. The first section deals with trench
excavation, backfill and time of open trenches. The second section covers clearing and grubbing, embankment, compaction control tests,
fine grading and compacting subgrade and method of measurement and basis of payment.

SECTION 201

This specification begins by referring to the OSHA Department of Labor, Safety and Health Regulations for Construction. It defines two
types of trench excavations, Type 1 for most areas and Type 2 when space limitations or other conditions dictate. Type 1 trenches are not
shored or sheathed. This means artificial side supports are not provided in the trench. The sideslopes should be designed in accordance
with at least minimum OSHA specifications shown on Table P-1. Note that these are steep in all cases and should be flattened where
possible. Type 2 trenches must be shored according to OSHA Table P-2. This shoring requirement may be fulfilled by portable trench
boxes or sliding trench shields when designed appropriately for the depth.

The width of the trench from the bottom to one foot above the pipe should be between O.D.+8" to O.D.+24" and should be wide enough
to provide adequate compaction along the sides of the trench. Bedding for the pipe should be provided depending on the soil conditions
and the manufacturer's recommendations.
Trench backfill consists of both pipe bedding material and general backfill. Type 1 bedding is minus 1- / " soil which should be free
draining. Type 2 is sand to fine gravel with minus 3/4" and PI less than 6. Bedding should be hand placed and compacted by tamping,
especially under the haunches of the pipe. It should extend 6 inches above the top of the pipe. It should be placed evenly on both sides of
the pipe and should not be water settled. Water should only be added to obtain optimum compaction moisture.

General backfill above the bedding is also divided into two types. Type A backfill is to be used in streets or paved areas while Type B is
used elsewhere. Type A should be placed in layers appropriate for the soil and compactor,

"... wetted to optimum moisture content, and compacted to at least the density of the surrounding material."
Note that this may be insufficient as written, but may be acceptable as performed. The top 8 inches
"... shall be compacted to a density of at least 90% of the maximum Modified Proctor Density, as determined by AASHTO Designation
T-180."
Compaction using water flooding will be permitted only by the Engineer. The Contractor shall provide excavation equipment to dig
compaction test holes through each layer of backfill (not to be less than one (1) per 300 foot intervals) where the layers exceed one (1)
foot in depth. Should the tests fail, the deficiencies should be corrected by the Contractor at his expense."

Type B backfill

"... shall not require special compaction. However, the material shall be placed in layers to achieve a density approximately equal to the
density of the existing soil."

"Field density tests of the compacted fill will be run at all levels. These tests will be performed by the Engineer at the Contractor's
expense to insure that the specified density is being obtained."

Some day, you should drive down Curtis Street just north of Reynolds and south of Chang's house between 18th and 20th streets to see
the effects of inadequate compaction on the street surface.

(Note: This has been corrected, at least for now. On the other hand, there are so many examples around town that you probably wouldn't notice them until
they are pointed out. One obvious sign is to look at the curbs. The curbs often crack in the water and sewer line depressions, especially in the older parts of
town.)

SECTION 601 - EARTHWORK

This section states:

"DENSITY REQUIREMENTS. The Contractor shall provide watering and rolling as required to obtain the density of 90% of maximum
dry density for all the embankment placed and no separate pay compensation shall be allowed for rolling and watering other than the
earthwork bid item or items listed on the Proposal. In the case of embankment material with Plasticity Indexes greater than zero, as
determined by ASTM D-424, the amount of water required for rolling shall be within plus two or minus four percentage points of
optimum moisture content as determined by AASHTO T-180, Modified Proctor Test."<</BLOCKQUOTE>

Several pages of the Wyoming Highway Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction are provided dealing with embankment
compaction.

HOMEWORK:

The existing ground surface along the centerline of a proposed highway is at elevation 5280.00. The surface has a 8 inches of topsoil. The
final height to base of subgrade is at 5286.00. The lane is to be 42 feet wide with 10 foot shoulders on each side. The embankment
sideslopes are at 3H:1V. Draw and describe the standard embankment described in Section 203.10 of the WHD Specifications.