Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Kinematic relationships are used to

help us determine the trajectory of a
golf ball, the orbital speed of a
satellite, and the accelerations
during acrobatic flying.

-2
Introduction
• Dynamics includes:
Kinematics: study of the geometry of motion.
Relates displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time without reference
to the cause of motion.
Fthrust

Fdrag

Flift

Kinetics: study of the relations existing between the forces acting on

a body, the mass of the body, and the motion of the body. Kinetics is
used to predict the motion caused by given forces or to determine the
forces required to produce a given motion.
1-3
Introduction
• Particle kinetics includes:

• Rectilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a

particle as it moves along a straight line.

• Curvilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a

particle as it moves along a curved line in two or three
dimensions.
1-4
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity &
Acceleration • Rectilinear motion: particle moving
along a straight line
• Position coordinate: defined by
positive or negative distance from a
fixed origin on the line.

• The motion of a particle is known if

the position coordinate for particle is
known for every value of time t.
• May be expressed in the form of a
function, e.g., 2 3
x = 6t − t
or in the form of a graph x vs. t.
1-5
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity &
Acceleration • Consider particle which occupies position P
at time t and P’ at t+∆t,
∆x
Average velocity =
∆t
∆x
Instantaneous velocity = v = lim
∆t →0 ∆t

• Instantaneous velocity may be positive or

negative. Magnitude of velocity is referred
to as particle speed.
• From the definition of a derivative,
∆x dx
v = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt
e.g., x = 6t 2 − t 3
dx
v= = 12t − 3t 2
dt
1-6
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity &
• Consider particle with velocity v at time t and
Acceleration v’ at t+∆t,
∆v
Instantaneous acceleration = a = lim
∆t →0 ∆t

• Instantaneous acceleration may be:

- positive: increasing positive velocity
or decreasing negative velocity
- negative: decreasing positive velocity
or increasing negative velocity.
• From the definition of a derivative,
∆v dv d 2 x
a = lim = = 2
∆t →0 ∆t dt dt
e.g. v = 12t − 3t 2
dv
a= = 12 − 6t
dt
1-7
Concept Quiz
What is true about the kinematics of a particle?

a) The velocity of a particle is always positive

b) The velocity of a particle is equal to the slope of
the position-time graph
c) If the position of a particle is zero, then the
velocity must zero
d) If the velocity of a particle is zero, then its
acceleration must be zero

-8
Rectilinear Motion: Position, Velocity &
Acceleration • From our example,
x = 6t 2 − t 3
dx
v= = 12t − 3t 2
dt
dv d 2 x
a= = = 12 − 6t
dt dt 2

• What are x, v, and a at t = 2 s ?

- at t = 2 s, x = 16 m, v = vmax = 12 m/s, a = 0

• Note that vmax occurs when a=0, and that the

slope of the velocity curve is zero at this point.
• What are x, v, and a at t = 4 s ?

- at t = 4 s, x = xmax = 32 m, v = 0, a = -12 m/s2

1-9
Determination of the Motion of a Particle
• We often determine accelerations from the forces applied
(kinetics will be covered later)
• Generally have three classes of motion
- acceleration given as a function of time, a = f(t)
- acceleration given as a function of position, a = f(x)
- acceleration given as a function of velocity, a = f(v)

• Can you think of a physical example of when force is a

function of position? When force is a function of velocity?

1 - 10 a spring drag
Acceleration as a function of time,
position,
If…. orKinematic
velocityrelationship Integrate
v t
dv
a = a (t )
dt
= a (t ) ∫ dv = ∫ a ( t ) dt
v0 0

dx dv
dt = and a = v x

∫ v dv = ∫ a ( x ) dx
v dt
a = a ( x)
v0 x0
v dv = a ( x ) dx

v t
dv dv
dt
= a (v ) ∫v a ( v ) = ∫0 dt
a = a (v)
0

x v
dv v dv
v = a (v) ∫x dx = v∫ a ( v )
dx
0 0
- 11
 Sample Problem
SOLUTION:
• Integrate twice to find v(t) and y(t).

• Solve for t when velocity equals zero

(time for maximum elevation) and
evaluate corresponding altitude.

• Solve for t when altitude equals zero

Ball tossed with 10 m/s vertical velocity (time for ground impact) and evaluate
from window 20 m above ground. corresponding velocity.
Determine:
• velocity and elevation above ground at
time t,
• highest elevation reached by ball and
corresponding time, and
• time when ball will hit the ground and
1 - 12
corresponding velocity.
Sample Problem SOLUTION:
• Integrate twice to find v(t) and y(t).

dv
= a = − 9 . 81 m s 2
dt
v (t ) t
∫ dv = − ∫ 9 . 81 dt v (t ) − v 0 = − 9 . 81 t
v0 0

m  m 
v (t ) = 10 −  9 . 81 2  t
s  s 
dy
= v = 10 − 9.81t
dt
y (t ) t
∫ dy = ∫ (10 − 9.81t )dt y (t ) − y0 = 10t − 12 9.81t 2
y0 0

 m  m
y (t ) = 20 m + 10 t −  4.905 2 t 2
 s  s 
1 - 13
Sample Problem
• Solve for t when velocity equals zero and evaluate
corresponding altitude.
m  m
v (t ) = 10 −  9 .81 2  t = 0
s  s 
t = 1 .019 s

• Solve for t when altitude equals zero and evaluate

corresponding velocity.

 m  m
y (t ) = 20 m + 10 t −  4.905 2 t 2
 s  s 
 m  m
y = 20 m + 10 (1.019 s ) −  4.905 2 (1.019 s )2
 s  s 
y = 25.1 m

1 - 14
Sample Problem
• Solve for t when altitude equals zero and evaluate
corresponding velocity.
 m  m
y (t ) = 20 m +  10  t −  4 . 905 2  t 2 = 0
 s   s 
t = − 1 . 243 s (meaningles s )
t = 3 .28 s

m  m
v(t ) = 10 −  9.81 2  t
s  s 
m  m
v(3.28 s ) = 10 −  9.81 2  (3.28 s )
s  s 

m
v = −22.2
s

1 - 15
Sample Problem SOLUTION:

a = − kv • Integrate a = dv/dt = -kv to find v(t).

• Integrate v(t) = dx/dt to find x(t).
• Integrate a = v dv/dx = -kv to find
v(x).
Brake mechanism used to reduce gun
recoil consists of piston attached to barrel
moving in fixed cylinder filled with oil.
As barrel recoils with initial velocity v0,
piston moves and oil is forced through
orifices in piston, causing piston and
cylinder to decelerate at rate proportional
to their velocity.
Determine v(t), x(t), and v(x).

1 - 16
Sample ProblemSOLUTION:
• Integrate a = dv/dt = -kv to find v(t).

dv
v
dv
t
v (t )
a=
dt
= − kv ∫v v = −k ∫0 dt ln
v0
= −kt
0

v(t ) = v0 e − kt

• Integrate v(t) = dx/dt to find x(t).

dx
v (t ) = = v0 e − kt
dt
x t t
 1 
∫ dx = v0 ∫ dt
e − kt
x ( t ) = v0  − e − kt 
0 0  k 0

v
(
x(t ) = 0 1 − e − kt
k
)
1 - 17
Sample Problem
• Integrate a = v dv/dx = -kv to find v(x).
v x
dv
a = v = − kv dv = − k dx ∫ dv = −k ∫ dx
dx v0 0
v − v0 = − kx
v = v0 − kx

• Alternatively,

with
v
(
x(t ) = 0 1 − e − kt
k
)
v(t )
and v(t ) = v0 e − kt or e − kt =
v0
v  v(t ) 
then x(t ) = 0 1 − 
k  v0 
v = v0 − kx
1 - 18
Group Problem Solving
A bowling ball is dropped from a boat so that it
strikes the surface of a lake with a speed of 15 ft/s.
+y Assuming the ball experiences a downward
acceleration of a =10 - 0.01v2 when in the water,
determine the velocity of the ball when it strikes the
bottom of the lake.

Which integral should you choose?

v t v x
(a) ∫ dv = ∫ a ( t ) dt
v0 0
(c) ∫ v dv = ∫ a ( x ) dx
v0 x0

v t
x v dv
(b)
v dv
∫x dx = v∫ a ( v ) (d) ∫v a ( v ) = ∫0 dt
0
0 0
- 19
Concept Question
When will the bowling ball start slowing down?

A bowling ball is dropped from a boat so that it

strikes the surface of a lake with a speed of 15 ft/s.
+y Assuming the ball experiences a downward
acceleration of a =10 - 0.01v2 when in the water,
determine the velocity of the ball when it strikes the
bottom of the lake.

The velocity would have to be high

enough for the 0.01 v2 term to be bigger
than 10
- 20
Group Problem Solving
SOLUTION:
• Determine the proper kinematic
relationship to apply (is acceleration
a function of time, velocity, or
position?
• Determine the total distance the car
The car starts from rest and accelerates travels in one-half lap
according to the relationship
• Integrate to determine the velocity
a = 3 − 0.001v 2
after one-half lap

It travels around a circular track that has

a radius of 200 meters. Calculate the
velocity of the car after it has travelled
halfway around the track. What is the
car’s maximum possible speed?

1 - 21
Group Problem Solving
Given: a = 3 − 0.001v 2 Find: v after ½ lap
vo = 0, r = 200 m Maximum speed
Choose the proper kinematic relationship
Acceleration is a function of velocity, and we
also can determine distance. Time is not
involved in the problem, so we choose:

x v
dv v dv
v = a (v) ∫x dx = v∫ a ( v )
dx
0 0

Determine total distance travelled

x = π r = 3.14(200) = 628.32 m

- 22
Group Problem Solving
Determine the full integral, including limits

x v 628.32
v dv v
v
∫x dx = ∫v a ( v ) ∫ dx = ∫
3 − 0.001v 2
dv
0 0 0 0

Evaluate the interval and solve for v

1 2 v
628.32 = − ln 3 − 0.001v 
0.002 0

628.32(−0.002) = ln 3 − 0.001v 2  − ln [3 − 0.001(0) ]

ln 3 − 0.001v 2  = −1.2566 + 1.0986= − 0.15802

Take the exponential of each side 3 − 0.001v 2 = e −0.15802

- 23
Group Problem Solving
Solve for v 3 − 0.001v 2 = e −0.15802

3 − e−0.15802
v =
2
= 2146.2 v = 46.3268 m/s
0.001

How do you determine the maximum speed the car can reach?
Velocity is a maximum when
acceleration is zero
a = 3 − 0.001v 2

This occurs when 0.001v 2 = 3

vmax = 3
0.001 vmax = 54.772 m/s

- 24
Uniform Rectilinear
During free-fall, a parachutist
Motion
For a particle in uniform
reaches terminal velocity when
rectilinear motion, the
her weight equals the drag
acceleration is zero and
force. If motion is in a straight
the velocity is constant.
line, this is uniform rectilinear
motion. dx
= v = constant
dt
x t
∫ dx = v ∫ dt
x0 0
x − x0 = vt
x = x0 + vt

Careful – these only apply to

uniform rectilinear motion!
1 - 25
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
If forces applied to a body
are constant (and in a
constant direction), then
you have uniformly
accelerated rectilinear
motion.

Another example is free-

fall when drag is negligible

1 - 26
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
For a particle in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the
acceleration of the particle is constant. You may recognize these
constant acceleration equations from your physics courses.
v t
dv
dt
= a = constant ∫ dv = a ∫ dt
v0 0
v = v0 + at

x t
dx
dt
= v0 + at ∫ dx = ∫ ( v0 + at ) dt
x0 0
x = x0 + v0t + 12 at 2

v x
dv
v = a = constant ∫ v dv = a ∫ dx v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x − x0 )
dx v0 x0

Careful – these only apply to uniformly

accelerated rectilinear motion!
1 - 27
Motion of Several Particles
We may be interested in the motion of several different particles,
whose motion may be independent or linked together.

- 28
Motion of Several Particles: Relative
Motion • For particles moving along the same line, time
should be recorded from the same starting
instant and displacements should be measured
from the same origin in the same direction.

x B A = x B − x A = relative position of B
with respect to A
xB = x A + xB A

v B A = v B − v A = relative velocity of B
with respect to A
vB = v A + vB A

a B A = a B − a A = relative acceleration of B
with respect to A
aB = a A + aB A
1 - 29
 Sample Problem
Ball thrown vertically from 12 m level
in elevator shaft with initial velocity of
18 m/s. At same instant, open-platform
elevator passes 5 m level moving
upward at 2 m/s.
Determine (a) when and where ball hits
elevator and (b) relative velocity of ball
and elevator at contact.
1 - 30
SOLUTION:
• Substitute initial position and velocity
and constant acceleration of ball into
general equations for uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion.
• Substitute initial position and constant
velocity of elevator into equation for
uniform rectilinear motion.
• Write equation for relative position of
ball with respect to elevator and solve
for zero relative position, i.e., impact.
• Substitute impact time into equation
for position of elevator and relative
velocity of ball with respect to
elevator.
Sample ProblemSOLUTION:
• Substitute initial position and velocity and constant
acceleration of ball into general equations for
uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.
m  m
v B = v0 + at = 18 −  9.81 2 t
s  s 
 m  m
y B = y0 + v0t + 12 at 2 = 12 m + 18 t −  4.905 2 t 2
 s  s 

• Substitute initial position and constant velocity of

elevator into equation for uniform rectilinear motion.
m
vE = 2
s
 m
y E = y0 + v E t = 5 m +  2 t
 s
1 - 31
Sample Problem
• Write equation for relative position of ball with respect to
elevator and solve for zero relative position, i.e., impact.

( )
y B E = 12 + 18t − 4.905t 2 − (5 + 2t ) = 0
t = −0.39 s (meaningless )
t = 3.65 s

• Substitute impact time into equations for position of elevator

and relative velocity of ball with respect to elevator.
y E = 5 + 2(3.65)
y E = 12.3 m

v B E = (18 − 9.81t ) − 2
= 16 − 9.81(3.65)
m
v B E = −19.81
s
1 - 32
Motion of Several Particles: Dependent
Motion • Position of a particle may depend on position of one
or more other particles.
• Position of block B depends on position of block A.
Since rope is of constant length, it follows that sum of
lengths of segments must be constant.
x A + 2 x B = constant (one degree of freedom)
• Positions of three blocks are dependent.
2 x A + 2 x B + xC = constant (two degrees of freedom)

• For linearly related positions, similar relations hold

between velocities and accelerations.
dx A dx B dxC
2 +2 + = 0 or 2v A + 2v B + vC = 0
dt dt dt
dv dv dv
2 A + 2 B + C = 0 or 2a A + 2a B + aC = 0
dt dt dt
1 - 33
 Sample Problem
SOLUTION:
• Define origin at upper horizontal surface
with positive displacement downward.
• Collar A has uniformly accelerated
rectilinear motion. Solve for acceleration
and time t to reach L.
• Pulley D has uniform rectilinear motion.
Pulley D is attached to a collar which Calculate change of position at time t.
is pulled down at 3 in./s. At t = 0,
collar A starts moving down from K • Block B motion is dependent on motions
with constant acceleration and zero of collar A and pulley D. Write motion
initial velocity. Knowing that velocity relationship and solve for change of block
of collar A is 12 in./s as it passes L, B position at time t.
determine the change in elevation, • Differentiate motion relation twice to
velocity, and acceleration of block B develop equations for velocity and
when block A is at L. acceleration of block B.
1 - 34
 Sample Problem
SOLUTION:
• Define origin at upper horizontal surface with
positive displacement downward.

• Collar A has uniformly accelerated rectilinear

motion. Solve for acceleration and time t to reach L.

v 2A = (v A )02 + 2a A [x A − ( x A )0 ]
2
 in.  in.
12  = 2a A (8 in.) aA = 9 2
 s  s

v A = (v A )0 + a At
in. in.
12 =9 2t t = 1.333 s
s s

1 - 35
 Sample Problem
• Pulley D has uniform rectilinear motion. Calculate
change of position at time t.
x D = ( x D )0 + v D t
 in. 
x D − ( x D )0 =  3 (1.333 s ) = 4 in.
 s 
• Block B motion is dependent on motions of collar
A and pulley D. Write motion relationship and
solve for change of block B position at time t.
Total length of cable remains constant,
x A + 2 x D + x B = ( x A )0 + 2( x D )0 + ( x B )0

[x A − ( x A )0 ]+ 2[x D − ( x D )0 ]+ [x B − (x B )0 ] = 0
(8 in.) + 2(4 in.) + [x B − ( x B )0 ] = 0
x B − ( x B )0 = −16 in.
1 - 36
Sample Problem• Differentiate motion relation twice to develop
equations for velocity and acceleration of block B.
x A + 2 x D + x B = constant

v A + 2v D + v B = 0

 in.   in.  in.

12  + 2 3  + v B = 0 v B = 18
 s   s  s

a A + 2a D + a B = 0

 in.  in.
a B = −9 2
 9 2  + vB = 0
 s  s

1 - 37
Group Problem Solving
Slider block A moves to the left with a
constant velocity of 6 m/s. Determine the
velocity of block B.

Solution steps

• Sketch your system and choose

coordinate system
• Write out constraint equation
• Differentiate the constraint equation to
get velocity

- 38
Group Problem Solving
Given: v = 6 m/s left Find: vB
A

xA This length is constant no

matter how the blocks move

Sketch your system and choose coordinates

yB
Define your constraint equation(s)
x A + 3 y B + constants = L

Differentiate the constraint equation to

get velocity

6 m/s + 3vB = 0
v B = 2 m/s ↑

- 39 Note that as xA gets bigger, yB gets smaller.

N.JAYASEELAN
Introduction to Mechanical Vibrations
VOCABULARY

Period: Time taken for one complete cycle
 Variable: T
 Unit: seconds

Frequency: Cycles per second

 Variable: f
 Unit: Hertz (Hz)

1 Hz = 1/second

Period and frequency are inverses of each
other
T = 1/f and f = 1/T

Crest: High point of wave

Trough: Low point of wave

Amplitude: Distance from midpoint to

crest
 Variable: A

 Units: meters

Wavelength: Distance from crest to crest

 Variable: λ

 Units: meters

Transverse: Motion of
medium is perpendicular
to direction wave travels

• Longitudinal: Medium
moves in the same
direction as the wave
travels

Transverse: Motion of
medium is perpendicular
to direction wave travels

• Longitudinal: Medium
moves in the same
direction as the wave
travels


The Origin of Sound
Produced by the vibration of material objects

Pitch: Our impression of the frequency of a
sound
 A high pitched sound has a high frequency

Young people hear pitches with frequencies
ranging from 20-20,000 Hz
 Infrasonic: Sound waves with frequencies below
20 Hz
 Ultrasonic: Sound waves with frequencies above
20,000 Hz


Sound in Air
Sound travels in the form of longitudinal
waves

A pulse vibrates through the air as a series
of compressions and rarefactions
 When molecules compress, they leave areas of
low pressure behind them
 Other molecules will move into these regions
 Sound Transmission

Sounds can travel through solids, liquids,
and gases
 Sound travels faster and more efficiently through
solids than liquids or gases

The speed of sound is different in different
materials
 At room temperature (20oC), the speed of sound
is 340 m/s

Sound cannot travel in a vacuum
 No molecules to compress or expand
ell Ringer

What is the relationship

between pitch and
frequency?

Speed depends on the medium
(material) through which it travels

wave speed = wavelength x frequency

v= λf
.


Loudness
The intensity of a sound is related to the
amplitude
 Measured by instruments such as an

oscilloscope
 Unit: decibel (dB)

Loudness is how our brain senses the

sound (a.k.a. “volume”)
 Source of Sound Level (dB)
Normal Breathing 10
Close Whisper 20
Library 40
Normal Speech 60
Busy Street Traffic 70
Subway Train 100
Loud Rock Music 115
Threshold of Pain 120
Jet Engine at 30 m 140

More than one wave can exist in the
same place at the same time

Wave effects may be increased,
decreased, or cancelled

Constructive Interference: Crest of one
wave overlaps the crest of another
 Results in increased amplitude
• Destructive Interference: Crest of one
wave overlaps the trough of another
– Results in cancellation of amplitude
 Interference and Beats

A receiver may hear two sound waves at
the same time:
 In phase: Compressions and
rarefactions overlap each other
 Out of phase: Compressions and
rarefactions of each wave are offset

If the crest of one wave overlaps the trough
of another, they will cancel

Beats: The periodic variation in the
loudness of a sound
 Produced from two sounds of slightly
different frequencies
Interference and Beats
Interference and Beats

Created when a wave reflects on itself

Nodes: Parts of a standing wave which
remain stationary

Antinodes: Positions on a standing wave
with the largest amplitudes
Node

Antinodes
STANDING WAVES
Harmonics
 To determine the harmonic of a standing
wave, count the antinodes.
1st Harmonic:

2nd Harmonic:

3rd Harmonic:

4th Harmonic:

Wave shape produced when an
object moves faster than the speed of
the wave surrounding it
 Two-dimensional

Similar
to a bow wave, except three-
dimensional
 Cone shaped

An object exceeding the speed of
sound will produce a shock wave

When the compressed air at the
edges of the shock wave reach the
ground, a sonic boom is heard
 The object does not have to initially
make any sound in order to produce a
sonic boom
 i.e.) The cracking of a whip is actually a
mini sonic boom!


Forced Vibrations
Sounds will be more intense if additional
material is made to vibrate
 i.e. A guitar would not be audible if the sound
was not transmitted through its wooden body


Natural Frequency
Frequency at which the smallest amount
of energy is required to produce forced
vibrations

Any object made of elastic material will
vibrate at its own frequency when
disturbed
 Natural frequency depends on the elasticity
and the shape of the object


Resonance
When the frequency of a forced vibration
matches the object’s natural frequency
 Dramatically increases the amplitude of the
sound wave

i.e.) Pumping a swing
What is vibration?

Vibrations are oscillations of a system about
an equilbrium position.
ibration…

It is also an
everyday
phenomenon we
meet on everyday
life
 Vibration …
Useful Vibration Harmful vibration
Compressor
Noise
Testing

Destruction

Wear
Ultrasonic
cleaning

Fatigue
Vibration parameters
All mechanical systems
can be modeled by
containing three basic
components:
spring, damper, mass

When these components are subjected to constant force,

they react with a constant
displacement, velocity and acceleration
ree vibration

When a system is initially disturbed by a displacement,
velocity or acceleration, the system begins to vibrate with
a constant amplitude and frequency depend on its
stiffness and mass.

This frequency is called as natural frequency, and the
form of the vibration is called as mode shapes

Equilibrium pos.
Forced Vibration
If an external force applied to a
system, the system will follow the
force with the same frequency.
However, when the force
frequency is increased to the
’ system’s natural frequency,
amplitudes will dangerously
increase in this region. This
phenomenon is known as
“Resonance”
 Modelling of vibrating systems
Lumped (Rigid) Modelling Numerical Modelling

Element-based
methods
(FEM, BEM)

Statistical and Energy-

based methods
Degree of Freedom (DOF)
• Mathematical modeling of a physical system requires the
selection of a set of variables that describes the behavior
of the system.

• The number of degrees of freedom for a system is the

number of kinematically independent variables necessary
to completely describe the motion of every particle in the
system
DOF=1 DOF=2
Single degree of freedom (SDOF) Multi degree of freedom (MDOF)
Equivalent model of systems
Example 1: Example 2:

SDOF MDOF
DOF=1 DOF=2
Equivalent model of systems
MDOF
Example 3:
DOF= 3 if body 1 has no rotation
SDOF DOF=2 DOF= 4 if body 1 has rotation

body 1
What are their DOFs?
SDOF systems

Helical springs Shear stress:

Stiffness coefficient:

F: Force, D: Diameter, G: Shear modulus of the rod,

N: Number of turns, r : Radius

Springs in combinations:
Parallel combination Series combination
lastic elements as springs
Moment of Inertia
What are the equivalent stiffnesses?
xample

A 200-kg machine is attached to the end of a cantilever beam of length L=
2.5 m, elastic modulus E= 200x109 N/m2, and cross-sectional moment of
inertia I = 1.8x10–6 m4. Assuming the mass of the beam is small compared to
the mass of the machine, what is the stiffness of the beam?
Damping
 Viscous Damping
Because running in the International Space Station
might cause unwanted vibrations, they have installed a
Treadmill Vibration Isolation System.
Notes
• Mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or body which
oscillates about a position of equilibrium. Most vibrations in
machines and structures are undesirable due to increased stresses
and energy losses.
• Time interval required for a system to complete a full cycle of the
motion is the period of the vibration.
• Number of cycles per unit time defines the frequency of the vibrations.
• Maximum displacement of the system from the equilibrium position is
the amplitude of the vibration.
• When the motion is maintained by the restoring forces only, the
vibration is described as free vibration. When a periodic force is applied
to the system, the motion is described as forced vibration.
• When the frictional dissipation of energy is neglected, the motion
is said to be undamped. Actually, all vibrations are damped to
some degree.
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oncept Question
8

-2

-4

-6

-8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

The graph above represents an oscillation that is…

a) Heavily damped b) critically damped c) lightly damped

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oncept Question
8

-2

-4

-6

-8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

The period for the oscillation above is approximately…

a) 1.25 seconds b) 2.5 Hz c) 0.6 seconds

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Forced vibrations can be caused by a test machine, by rocks on a trail, by
rotating machinery, and by earthquakes. Suspension systems, shock
absorbers, and other energy-dissipating devices can help to dampen the
resulting vibrations.

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