Genchem Module - Final 2019

Rev.0.
Indonesia International Institute for Life Science

General Chemistry Laboratory
Laboratory Protocol Developer and Supervisor(s) Information

Protocol Developer: Katherine, Pietradewi Hartrianti, Agnes Anania
Email: katherine.k@i3l.ac.id, pietradewi.hartrianti@i3l.ac.id, agnes.sahamastuti@i3l.ac.id
Supervisor(s) Email
Pietra Dewi Hartrianti pietradewi.hartrianti@i3l.ac.id
Agnes Anania Triavika S. agnes.sahamastuti@i3l.ac.id
Safety Notice
Everyone working in i3L laboratories is potentially exposed to chemicals. Some of these chemicals
are potentially very harmful. Please review the “Code of Good Laboratory Practice” and the following
to ensure that all work can be conducted without significant risk.
● Do not embark on a new unfamiliar procedure until you have been fully trained.
● While working in i3L laboratories, laboratory coats must be worn and fastened at all times.
● Remove your laboratory coat and any other protective equipment, and wash your hands before
leaving the laboratory.
● Only authorized staff, students and visitors are allowed in the laboratories. Students are not allowed
in the laboratories except at scheduled class times without prior permission. Undergraduate work
must be supervised at all times by a member of academic staff.
Fundamental of Laboratory Practice I consists of the following session:

Session Topic
1 Introduction to Laboratory Practice and Safety
2 Laboratory Measurement and Mathematics
3 Micropipette, Solution Preparation and Serial Dilution
4 Inorganic Nomenclature: Binary Compound and Oxidation Number
5 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reaction
6 The Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
7 Mid exam
8 pH and Buffer Solutions
9 Acid Base Titration
10 Paper Chromatography – Separation of Color Pigments
11 Density and Specific Gravity
12 Calorimetry
13 Solubility and Boiling point
14 Final exam
Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

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Introduction to Laboratory Practice and Safety
Session 1
Aim Familiarize with laboratory facilities, understand the basic safety guidelines in the laboratory and
the basic of chemical safety
Overview
In this session, the students will be introduced to laboratory facilities in i3L. In general, this session
provides general rules in general chemistry laboratory together with the safety rules.
At the end of the presentation, the students will be given a tour to the laboratory.
Below are some important points of laboratory safety:
1. Lab Access
- Students do not have access to storage or chemical cabinet. Only lab personals have the access.
- Unauthorized visitors should not come to the lab, including other i3L students.
- Students are not allowed to take chemicals out of the cabinet. Please contact lab personals for
this
2. Lab coat
- Put the lab coat inside plastic bag after use
- Students must wear lab coat inside the laboratories, exception: Food Technology Lab
3. Proper attire in the laboratory
- Wear clothes that cover all exposed skin to protect from chemical spills, for example: covered
footwear and ankle-length pants
- Long hair must be tied to prevent it to get caught in lab machinery
- Rings, bracelets, and watches need to be removed for experiments that requires sterility and/or
if such materials may be contaminated by hazardous materials
- Only bring necessary items to minimize exposure of chemicals/microorganisms from the lab
4. Lab attitude
- No eating and drinking
- No smoking
- Do not work alone, there should be someone to help you in case something happens
- Wash hands with soap before exiting laboratory to clean any contamination
- Unruly behavior will not be tolerated in the laboratories (horseplay, pranks). No
running/excessive noise inside the lab premises
- No sitting on the floor/lab bench/mobile cabinets
- Turn off/keep the phone in silent mode. Electronic devices can only be used under the following
circumstances: dry lab session, taking pictures of samples, emergency calls. Protocols should
be printed and not accessed via electronic device. No social media, browsing, playing games
- No earphone. You should be able to hear everything that happen inside the lab
5. Personal Protection Equipment (PPE)
- Proper PPE inside the lab: lab coat + proper attire + gloves + safety glasses/goggles.
- Do not wear PPE (lab coats, gloves) outside the lab area (elevators, toilets, staircases).
- Wear gloves when instructed and remove gloves before the following actions: touching door
handles; pens; phones, and leaving the lab premises
- When using hazardous chemicals, use safety glasses
- Use fume hoods when using toxic volatile chemicals

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- When diluting concentrated acids or bases: always add acid or base to water. Not the other
way around
- If you are splashed with huge amount of hazardous chemicals, immediately go to the nearest
safety shower. Pull the handle and the water will start spraying from the top. Locations of
showers: 308; in front of 305; teaching lab at level 6
- For chemical spills or eye irritations, use eye wash. In case of urgent need, wash the eye
immediately with copious amount of water from nearby sink
6. Bench organization
- Final condition should be the same with initial condition. Return things to their original place
(see lab layout)
- Throw away used consumables (see disposal guidelines)
- Put wet glass wares at drying rack
- Check integrity of glass wares/equipment. Report to lab instructors for any suspected faults
- Clean glass wares thoroughly. Always clean the flask after making agar (or agarose)
- Sterilize microbiological waste with bleach. Never autoclave bleached materials
7. Handling samples/aliquots
- Clean the weighing area with soaked tissue
- Never return used/excess chemical into the original container
8. Waste disposal
- Contaminated things must be thrown to the large biohazard bin
- Benchtop biohazard bin are only for disposing tips, tubes, etc (no gloves or tissue)
a) Chemical disposal
Throw chemical waste to the appropriate containers. There are different containers for different
types of chemicals, i.e organic solvents; heavy metals; dyes & stains; etc.
b) Sharps disposal
Benchtop bin: for needles (must be capped); microscope slides; cover slips; scalpels; small
glasswares
- Large yellow cardboard boxes: for broken glasswares
- Always report any incidents, including broken glasswares or equipment
9. Types of chemical hazard labels:
10. How to operate an extinguisher in case of fire:

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Laboratory Measurement and Mathematics
Session 2
Aim Demonstrate and report the accuracy and precision of different measuring device and able to apply
basic laboratory mathematics.
Overview
In this lab, you will be familiarized to some common measuring devices, learn how to use them to
obtain correct measurements, and to calculate right concentration of samples or reagents that will
determine the success of your laboratory experiments.
A. Laboratory Measurement
Note: Please study the commonly used laboratory equipment as depicted in appendix 1.
Recording your measurement
Students will record all the digits of the measurement using the markings that we know exactly and one
additional digit that we estimate and call uncertain. These digits are collectively referred to as significant
figures. Note, the electronic balance is designed to register these values and the student should only
record the value displayed.
Determining the accuracy and precision of your measuring device
All measuring equipment are subject to error, making it difficult to get exact measurements. The
question is how good one measuring device is. A way to describe it is by their accuracy and precision.
Figure 1 illustrates what is accuracy and precision.
Figure 1: an illustration of precision and accuracy.

(Source: Garcia, et al. 2016. Experimental Organic Chemistry)

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Accuracy is a measure of how close your measured value is to the true value or other standard. The
quantitative measure of accuracy is called percent error. The lower the percent error is, the more
accurate the measuring device is.
Precision is a measure of how close repeated measurements are to each other. A high precision
measuring device will have low standard deviation. We want a good measuring device with a high
accuracy and high precision. Therefore, we will want a measuring device with small percent error and
small standard deviation. The standard deviation is defined as:
In which N is the number of measurement, xi is the value of each measurement and is the mean of
the measurement.
Example:
A cylinder standard has a known weight of 10.235 g. You weigh the cylinder using three measuring
devices (A, B, and C). You obtain the following data. Which device is the most precise and accurate?
Table 1. weigh of cylinder measured with device A, B and C (in g)

Trial Device A Device B Device C
1 10.200 10.200 10.235
2 10.205 10.235 10.240
3 10.210 10.275 10.234
Step 1. Find the mean value of from multiple trials using the same device. The mean value is obtained
by adding all value divided by the number of trial.
e.g. Mean value of weigh calculated using device A would be:
10.200+10.205+10.210
3
=10.2050 or 10.205 (based on significant figures)
Using the same formula, we calculate the mean from other measuring devices
Device Device Device

A B C
Mean 10.205 10.237 10.236
Step 2. Calculate the percent error of each measuring device

e.g. % error from device A would be:
10.2050 − 10.235
| | 𝑥100% = 0.293%
10.235
Note that when calculating % error, we used some extra significant figures from our calculation of the
mean. This is done to minimize rounding errors; errors that come from rounding and then using a
rounded number in the next calculation. Remember it’s always best to round only when you need to
report a number, as in a table. If you need to use a calculated number in another calculation, use the
unrounded number.

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Using the same formula, we calculate the % error from other measuring devices
Device A Device B Device C

% error 0.293 0.0163 0.0130
From the % error calculation, it can be concluded that device C is the most accurate.
Step 3. Calculate standard deviation of each measurement

Device A Device B Device C
Standard deviation 0.005 0.0375 0.0032
From the calculation, we can see that device C is the most precise.
B. Laboratory Mathematics
Laboratory math is fundamental to any laboratory activities as laboratory math allows you to make the
right concentration of samples or reagents that will determine the success of your laboratory
experiments. Concentration is defined as the amount of substance that is present in a unit of solution or
mixture. Concentration can be expressed as different units, such as molarity (M), percent composition
(w/v, v/v, w/w), weight per volume (i.e. g/L , mg/mL), parts per million (ppm), and parts per billion
(ppb).
Note: Although mass is the more accurate term, the term weight is commonly used in its place. To avoid
confusion, we use the term weight throughout the protocol to be consistent with common convention
Molarity
Molarity (Molar Concentration) can be described as the number of moles of the solute present in 1 liter
of a solution. Hence the unit of molarity is mol/L or commonly written as M.
Calculating the Required Mass

To know how much of the solute is needed to make a certain solution (with the desired molarity and
volume, the molecular weight (Mw) of the solute must be checked. Since mass is the product of
molecular weight multiplied by the number of moles:
Example: To make 100 mL of 0.2 M solution of NaCl (Mw = 58.44), 1.1688 grams of NaCl must be
weighed and dissolved in 100 mL of water [m NaCl = 58.44 x 0.2 x 0.1 = 1.1688 g]

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Note: Some chemicals come as a hydrate or salt forms (i.e. Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate, EDTA
Sodium Salt). Please check the total molecular weight of these forms and not use the molecular
weight of the pure form.
Volume/Volume (v/v)
Ratio of volume of a solute (in liquid) to the total volume of the solution, multiplied by 100.
Not all liquids have additives volume: when mixing miscible liquids (i.e. ethanol with water), the final
volume is not equal to the sum of the individual volumes. Therefore it is a good practice to dissolve the
solute with solvent and bring the total volume of the solution to the desired final volume.
Example: To make 70% ethanol, 70 mL of ethanol is diluted with water to a total volume of 100 mL.
Weight/Volume (w/v)
Ratio of the weight of solute to the total volume of the solution, multiplied by 100.
This percentage is commonly used in biological experiments, even though the units of the numerator
and denominator are different.
Example: To make 100 mL of 25% (w/v) solution of NaCl, weigh 25 grams of NaCl and add water up
to 100 mL.
It is also known as weight percent (symbolized as w.t.). Aqueous concentrated acids and bases are
normally expressed in % (w/w) (i.e Hydrochloric Acid 37%)
Example: To make 100 ml of 25% (w/w) solution of NaCl, weight 25 grams of NaCl and add 75 grams
of Water (as specific density of water is 1). [Caution: 100 mL doesn’t always correlate with 100 grams
if the solvent is not water].
If the solvent is water, w/v and w/w is almost identical*. However, w/v and w/w can’t be used
interchangeably if water is not used.
While it is important to write down the type of percentage, many protocols in the laboratory doesn’t
accurately state that information and it may lead to confusion. However, in many biological laboratories
if the solute is known to be in solid form, the % usually refers to % (w/v).
Example: 10% SDS usually refers to 10% (w/v).
*Density is correlated with temperature. Therefore, different temperature points may result in slightly
different weight measurement, although in many instances it can be omitted.
Ppm (part per million)

Ppm represents a part of a whole numbers in units of 1/1,000,000, that is:
1
1 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 1,000,000
= 1 𝑥 10-6 = 0.001%
Making (Simple) Dilutions

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There are many times in which it is better to create a stock solution at a much higher concentration
compared to the actual working concentration.
For example, to create 100 mL of 2 mM solution of NaCl, 11.688 mg of NaCl must be weighed. This
small amount of solute may not be accurately weighed especially if there’s no appropriate analytical
balance. While the volume of the solution can be increased so that the mass of NaCl can be reasonably
weighed, a significant amount of the solution may need to be discarded and it is not feasible if the solute
itself is of limited quantity. Instead, a stock solution can be made (i.e. make 20 mM NaCl) and diluted
to the working stock with the same solvent if needed.
Such dilutions are commonly expressed as dilution factor, which is equal to the total volume of
working solution (V2) divided by volume of stock solution (V1).
Example: To dilute an ampicillin solution 1:200, 1 unit volume of ampicillin solution is mixed with 199
unit volume of the solvent (not 200 unit volume of the solvent)
Note: Simple dilutions as expressed by dilution factor should not be confused with mixing parts or
volume: Carnoy Solution (3:1 Acetic Acid: Ethanol Solution). In this case, usually the components of
each parts are specifically mentioned while in the dilutions it is assumed that the solvent makes up for
the remaining parts.
The dilution factor is also inversely related to the ‘strength’ of the stock solution (C1) compared to the
working solution (C2)
Example: 50x TAE buffer TAE refers the strength of the stock solution relative to the 1x working
concentration (1/50 Dilution Factor).
Since,
Simple (Parallel) Dilutions are usually calculated with the following equation:
𝐶1 𝑥 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 𝑥 𝑉2
Given that: V2 > V1 and C2 <C1.
Example: To measure how much 50X TAE stock is needed to make 500 mL of TAE buffer (1x),
10 mL of TAE (50X) is diluted by 490 mL of water, resulting in 500 mL of TAE Buffer (1X)
Note: Taking 1 mL aliquots of 10 mL 50X TAE stock doesn’t increase the concentration of the aliquots
into 10-fold. The concentration remains the same just as a drop of blood has a similar composition of
the whole blood (assuming perfect mixture).
While in theory, thousands-fold dilutions can be made using simple dilutions, it is highly inaccurate in
practice and a proper mixture may not be achieved. A multi-step dilution is preferable. One of the
commonly used multi-step dilution is called serial dilution and will be a topic of session 18.
Making More Complicated Solutions

To make a solution which contains more one solute, the solutes can be prepared either directly from
their solid forms or from the stock solutions.

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AE Buffer consists of 50 mM Sodium Acetate (pH 5.2) and 10 mM EDTA (pH 8.0). How to make 100
mL of AE Buffer?
Option 1: Weigh each components individually from their solid forms
The molecular weight of Sodium Acetate and EDTA are 82.03 g/mol and 292.24 g/mol respectively.
To make 100 mL of AE Buffer, weigh 0.41015 grams of Sodium Acetate and 2.9224 grams of EDTA,
dissolve in water to a final volume of 100 mL.
Calculations: m NaOAc = 0.05 M x 0.1 L x 82.03 g/mol = 0.41015 g
m EDTA = 0.1 M x 0.1 L x 292.24 g/mol = 2.9224 g
Option 2: Make stock solutions and dilute from these stocks. From 0.1 M Sodium Acetate solution and
0.1 M EDTA solution: Take 50 mL of 0.1 M Sodium Acetate and 10 mL of 0.1 M EDTA, dilute with
water up to the final volume of 100 mL.
Calculations: 0.1 M x V1 NaOAc = 0.05 M x 100 mL V1 NaOAc = 50 mL
0.1 M x V1 EDTA = 0.01 M x 100 mL V1 EDTA = 10 mL
In practice, there might be a need to adjust the pH of each components and therefore making from
individual stock solutions (Option 2) is needed. In the example above, each component has a different
pH adjustment (pH 5.2 Sodium Acetate and pH 8.0 EDTA). Furthermore, a combination between
weighing from solid stock and using stock solution is also possible.
Note on solubility and pH – please do check the solubility of each chemicals (and the appropriate
solvent). Furthermore, some chemicals (i.e. EDTA) can only dissolve in basic pH (pH > 8).
Materials and equipment
EQUIPMENT USED AMOU

CHEMICAL USED
NT
water 250 mL beaker 1
ice 50 mL Erlenmeyer 1
50 mL beaker 1
100 mL Erlenmeyer 1
100 mL graduated 1
cylinder
10 mL graduated cylinder 1
10 mL graduated pipette 1
10 mL volumetric pipette 1
25 mL volumetric pipette 1
thermometer 1
hotplate 1
balance 1
Techniques
You have to read this before you come to the laboratory.
1. Using graduated cylinders (Appendix 2)
2. Using bulb pipette (Reference 3)
3. Using graduated pipette (Reference 3 – 5, Appendix 2)
4. Using volumetric pipette (Reference 4 and 5)
Procedure
1. Investigating the accuracy and precision of laboratory glassware

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You are given a beaker and two Erlenmeyer of different size. What can you say regarding the
accuracy and precision of the glassware when used to measure volume?
a. Take a 50-mL graduated cylinder and fill with water to the 50-mL mark. Transfer the water,
completely and without spilling, to a 50 mL graduated Erlenmeyer flask. Record the volume
on the Report Sheet (2) to the nearest 1 decimal place. Repeat the process three times. Make
sure the glassware is dried completely before each trial.
b. Repeat step (a) with 50 mL beaker instead of Erlenmeyer flask.
c. Repeat step (b) with 100 mL graduated Erlenmeyer flask.
d. Calculate the % difference in measurement between the 50 mL graduated Erlenmeyer flask or
50 mL beaker or 100 mL Erlenmeyer flask with the following formula:
volume a or b or c −50 ml
%difference = 50 ml
x100%
2. Choosing the appropriate measuring apparatus

You can calculate the volume of water provided that you have information regarding the weight of
the water and the water density at certain temperature. Using this principle, you can measure the
volume of water delivered by different measuring apparatus. By comparing the volume delivered
and the volume calculated from the weight, you can then measure the percentage of error of the
measurement.
a. Weigh a 100 mL beaker using a balance. Make sure that it is dry. Repeat the weighing process
for three times. Record your results on the Report Sheet.
b. Using a glass ware listed in the table below, deliver 10 mL of water into the beaker. Each
student has to practice using volumetric pipette and graduated pipette at least three times before
doing the actual measurement. Weigh the beaker again. Repeat the weighing process for three
times. Record your results on the Report Sheet.
Type of glassware
10 mL volumetric pipette
10 mL graduated pipette
10 mL graduated cylinder
c. Using a glass ware listed in the table below, deliver 25 mL of water into the beaker. Weigh the
beaker again. Repeat the weighing process for three times. Record your results on the Report
Sheet.
Type of glassware
25 mL volumetric pipette
25 mL graduated pipette
25 mL graduated cylinder
3. Thermometer
Routine measurements of temperature are done with a thermometer. Thermometers found in
chemistry laboratories may use either mercury or a colored fluid as the liquid, and degrees Celsius
(℃) as the units of measurement. The fixed reference points on this scale are the freezing point of
water, 0 ℃, and the boiling point of water, 100 ℃. Between these two reference points, the scale is
divided into 100 units, with each unit equal to 1 ℃. Temperature can be estimated to 0.1 ℃. Other
thermometers use either the Fahrenheit (°F) or the Kelvin (K) temperature scale and use the same
reference points, that is, the freezing and boiling points of water.

Rev.0.1
a. Use the thermometer in your kit and record to the nearest 0.1⁰C the temperature of the
laboratory at room temperature by placing the thermometer for 1 minute on your desk. Use the
Report Sheet to record your results.
b. Record the temperature of boiling water. Set up a 250-mL beaker containing 100 mL water,
and heat on a hot plate until boiling. Hold the thermometer in the boiling water for at least 1
min. before reading the temperature (be sure not to touch the sides of the beaker). Using the
Report Sheet, record your results to the nearest 0.1⁰C. After measurement, put the thermometer
into a glass containing water at room temperature for about 3 minutes or until the reading is fix
before next measurement. Do triplicate (3 times) of measurement!
c. Record the temperature of ice water. Into a 250-mL beaker, add enough crushed ice to fill
halfway. Add distilled water to the level of the ice. Stir the ice water gently with a glass rod for
1 min before reading the thermometer. Hold the thermometer in the ice water for at least 1 min
before reading the temperature. Use caution; be careful not to touch the walls of the beaker with
the thermometer or to hit the thermometer with the glass rod. Read the thermometer to the
nearest 0.1⁰C. Record your results on the Report Sheet. After measurement, put the
thermometer into a glass containing water at room temperature for about 3 minutes or until the
reading is fix before next measurement. Do triplicate (3 times) of measurement!
4. Calculate the amount of the chemicals needed in the following questions (the real solution will be
made in session 3):
a. Make 10 mL of 3% (w/w) Sucrose Solution in water!
b. Calculate how much 37% (w/w) Hydrochloric Acid is needed to make 25 mL of 1 M
Hydrochloric Acid! Density: 1.2 g/ml; MW: 36.5 g/mol
c. Protein can be separated by SDS-PAGE method. Make 10 mL 1x working stock of SDS PAGE
Running Buffer! 10x SDS Page Running Buffer (1L) : 30 grams of Tris Base; 144 grams of
Glycine; 10 grams of SDS.
d. Plasmids (circular extrachromosomal DNA) can be extracted by alkaline lysis method. Usually
GTE solution is used. Make 25 mL of GTE Solution! GTE Solution: 50 mM Tris-Cl (pH 8.0),
50 mM glucose, and 10 mM EDTA
e. Alternatively, if chromosomal DNA is needed, it can be extracted by initially lysing the
bacterial cells with bacterial lysis buffer. Make 25 mL of Bacterial Lysis Buffer! Bacterial Lysis
Buffer: 50 mM Tris-Cl (pH 8.0), 0.5 % SDS, and 25 mM EDTA (ph 8.0)
Data observation
In your lab notebook, create several tables to record your observation. Be sure to label and title each
table so you can easily identify the information contained in each one.
Table 1. Investigating the accuracy and precision of laboratory glassware

Volume of water (mL)
Trial Observation 1 Observation 2 Observation 3
50 ml Erlenmeyer 50 mL beaker 100 mL Erlenmeyer
1
2
3
Table 2. Choosing the appropriate measuring apparatus (1 table each for point b and c in procedure
part 2)

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Weight of _____ mL water (g) with beaker

Observation 5 Observation 6
Observation 4
Trial ___ ml ___ ml Weight of empty beaker (g)
___ ml Volumetric
Graduated Graduated
pipette
pipette cylinder
1
2
3
Table 3. Thermometer
Temperature (°C)
Trial Boiling
Room temperature Ice water
water
1
2
3
Calculation of procedure no. 4:

a. Weight of sucrose =
Weight of water =
b. Volume of 37% (w/w) Hydrochloric Acid =
Volume of water =
c. Weight of Tris Base =
Weight of Glycine =
Weight of SDS =
d. Weight of Tris-Cl =
Weight of glucose =
Weight of EDTA =
e. Weight of Tris-Cl
Weight of SDS =
Weight of EDTA =
Data analysis
1. Investigating the accuracy and precision of laboratory glassware
a. Calculate mean and standard deviation of every observation
b. Calculate the percent difference in measurement between the flasks or beakers and the
graduated cylinder. The number used in the measurement is the mean value of each
measurement.
2. Choosing the appropriate measuring apparatus

a. From external reference, find the density of water at the temperature recorded during
experiment.
b. Using the information of density and weight of water, calculate the volume of the water for
each measurement
c. Calculate mean and standard deviation of every observation.
d. Calculate the % error between mean value of each observation and the intended volume you
want to obtain.

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3. Thermometer
a. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of boiling water and ice water.
4 Laboratory math
Write down the full calculation steps for laboratory math problems!
Discussion
1. Using the % difference, what can you conclude about accuracy and precision of the beaker and
Erlenmeyer? In what case do you think it is appropriate to use the graduated mark on the
apparatus? What can you conclude about the effect of beaker size on the accuracy and precision
of the measurement?
2. When you want to obtain 10 mL and 25 mL of water using the above measuring apparatus as
indicated in the experiment, which measuring apparatus is the most suitable? Use the calculated
data as basis of your reasoning. You could also take into account the time needed to transfer
the indicated water volume.
3. Compare the temperature of boiling water and ice water recorded with the reference
temperature. If they are different, what cause the difference?
4. What is the difference between % w/w and % w/v? How to change molarity into weight?
Prelab activities (answer in separate paper)

1. Explain the function of at least 5 equipment featured in appendix 1.
2. Explain what cause the liquid to curve in the cylinder
3. Most of glass wares in the lab are graduated, but not all are designed to deliver certain volumes,
example beakers are used to contain certain volume of liquid, not to deliver certain volume of
liquid. Why are the beakers graduated?
4. When working with laboratory glassware, scientists choose the glassware that is appropriate while
also efficient for the experiment. For example, if an experiment calls for using approximate
volumes, it would be a waste of time to set up a buret. For each of the following situations,
determine which type of glassware would be most appropriate. Each will be used only once. The
glassware available are 150 mL beaker, 10 mL pipette, 25 mL buret, 100 mL volumetric flask, 50
mL graduated cylinder.
a. Adding enough water to dissolve 1 g of sugar to make a total of 50.00 mL of solution.
_________________
b. Adding very small amounts of liquid A to solution B until a color change is detected. The
amount of liquid A added must be recorded. _____________________
c. Adding approximately 50mL of water to a solution. _____________________
d. Adding 50.0 mL of water to a solution. _____________________
e. Delivering 10.00 mL of solution Z to an Erlenmeyer flask. ________________
References
1. Learning the basics – how to work with volumetric instruments. Brand GMBH. Retrieved from
www.brand.de.
2. Rules of significant figure http://tournas.rice.edu/website/documents/SignificantFigureRules1.pdf
3. How to use pipette bulb
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jc7DVy3-TFc
https://www.homesciencetools.com/media/reference/CE-PIPFILL.pdf
4. The Volumetric pipet and pipetting technique

Rev.0.1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HC44xjs7dho&t=4s
5. Chemistry – glass pipettes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h2QZM6ZWvPs
6. Garcia, JI, et al. 2016. Experimental Organic Chemistry.
7. Jespersen, N.D., J. E. Brady, & A. Hyslop. 2012. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter 6th
Edition. Wiley Pub.: USA

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Micropipette, Solution Preparation and Serial Dilution
Session 3
Aim Identify critical steps in using micropipette, solution preparation and simple dilution
Overview
Following last session (laboratory math), the students are going to perform solution preparation using
micropipette. In laboratories, the technique of preparing correct amount of concentration is one of the
most important skill aside from laboratory math. Solution preparation and dilution require accurate
measurement of the samples or reagents, the use of the right equipment along with the correct technique.
Micropipette is commonly used to transfer accurate amount of solutions (usually in microliters). Such
accuracy however, is highly dependent on the user as correct technique of pipetting is needed to produce
reproducible experiments. The main objective of this practical session is to practice accurate pipetting
technique along with the introduction of serial dilution method.
Based on the mechanism of action, there are two types of micropipette: air-displacement and positive
displacement. In majority of cases, air displacement is the type that is commonly used. Air-displacement
micropipette works like a syringe with an air cushion between the piston and the sample. When the
plunger / operating button is pressed to the 1st stop, the piston will expel the same volume of air as
indicated on the volume setting.
Air displacement micropipette comes in many volume capacities (from 0.2 µl to 10 mL) and is
commonly described by adding “P” to the number of the maximum volume of the micropipette (i.e. A
micropipette with the volume range of 200 – 1000 is commonly described as P1000). To aid the transfer
of the liquid, disposable plastic tips are attached to the bottom shaft of the micropipette. There are
different sizes of the tips and must be matched with the pipette volumes. (Note: NEVER use a
micropipette without the tip)
Anatomy of an Air-Displacement Micropipette

Plunger / Push Button – It has 3 positions: Resting, 1ST Stop, 2nd Stop
Volume Adjustment Knob - Some micropipettes have a separate knob to
adjust the volume, in other models the plunger button serves as a volume
knob as well
Tip Ejector Button – to discard used tips
Volume Indicator /Display – Some micropipettes employ a 3 digits
volume display (Thus, 1000 µl in a P1000 is shown as 100, while 20 µl in a
P20 is shown as 200, with the last 0 represents tenths of microliters); In
other type of micropipettes, the volumes are represented clearly (1000 for
1000 µl and 20.0 for 20 µl)
8 Steps to Achieve Accurate Micropipetting [Forward Pipettting]

1) Set the volume knob.

Rev.0.1
2) Fit the appropriate tip Gently press down the shaft with rotation motion (“Press and twist”). Do
NOT stab the tip (“jacking” the tip).
3) Depress the plunger into the 1st stop position.
4) As the pipette is held vertically (90o), immerse the tip slightly below the surface of the liquid
(around 2-4 mm).
5) Aspirate (draw) the liquid, by slowly release the plunger to the resting position. Wait for one second.
6) As the tip is positioned at an angle (10-45o) against the inside wall of the receiving container,
depress the plunger smoothly to the first stop position to dispense the liquid.
6) Wait for one second and then depress the plunger to the second stop to discharge the residual liquid.
This step is usually called “blow out” or purge.
7) While holding the plunger at the 2nd stop position, slowly remove the tip from the receiving
container by sliding it along the inner wall.
8) Release the plunger to the rest position.
NOTES
● Pre-wet the pipette tips (before step 5) 3-5 times to improve the accuracy of pipetting.
● At step 6 – the angle is created by shifting the container, while the micropipette should be held in
vertical manner.
● ALWAYS use a micropipette tip
● ALWAYS pipette in a slow, smooth action
● ALWAYS immerse the tip slightly below the surface, to prevent droplets buildup on the outer wall.
● ALWAYS discard the pipette tips when pipetting different samples/chemicals or different
concentrations of the same samples/chemicals.
● ALWAYS return the knob to the highest volume, to reduce tension of the spring.
● If possible, NEVER use the lowest capacity of the micropipette if different range of micropipette is
available (i.e. use P200 for 100 µl instead of P1000)
● NEVER hold the micropipette horizontally when the tip is connected to the micropipette (especially
if there’s liquid inside)
● NEVER move the plunger too fast to prevent chemicals moving into the micropipette shaft.
Serial Dilutions

Rev.0.1
If the target concentration is much smaller than the initial concentration, it is very hard to directly dilute
the solution without compromising the accuracy. Furthermore, if the initial volume of sample / reagents
are relatively small, it’s technically impossible to accurately transfer a very minute amount of solution
and expect a homogenized final solution. Therefore, the dilution process is usually carried out in a
stepwise manner.
A serial dilution is a step wise dilution series in which the concentration decreases by the same quantity
(same Dilution Factor) in each successive step. Dilution factor of 1/2, 1/5, and 1/10 are commonly used.
The main disadvantage of serial dilution is that an error in the initial steps will be carried over to the
subsequent dilutions and will result in a multiplicative error.
For a 0.01 mM glucose solution to be made from a 1 M stock, the initial stock can be diluted 5 times
with the dilution factor of 1/10: 1) 5 empty tubes are initially filled with 0.9 mL of water. 2) 0.1 mL of
the 1M solution is then added to the first tube, resulting in a 0.1 M solution (after careful mixing) 3)
With a new pipette tip, 0.1 mL of the 0.1 M solution is then added to the second tube, resulting in a 0.01
M solution. 4) Repeat the process until a final tube of 0.01 mM glucose solution is created.
Materials and Equipment

Materials Equipment
Sucrose 10 mL graduated cylinder
37% (w/w) Hydrochloric Acid 50 ml beaker
Tris Base 10 ml graduated pipette
Glycine 25 ml volumetric flask
SDS Stirring rod
Phenol red solution Dropper
1 M CuSO4.5H2O Balance
Glycerol Micropipette
10 ml volumetric flask
Graduated cylinder
PCR tube
Microcentrifuge tube
Techniques
You have to read this before you come to the laboratory.
1. Prepare standard solution (Appendix 2)
2. Preparing sample for spectrophotometric measurement (Appendix 2)

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Procedure
A. Micropipette Exercise
A1. Accuracy of Repetitive Pipetting 1
1) Transfer 6 mL of water using 1 mL micropipette into a 10 mL graduated cylinder.
2) Observe the amount of water in graduated cylinder and write down the difference between the
estimated result and the observed measurement.
A2. Accuracy of Repetitive Pipetting 2

1) Using a 10 µl micropipette, aspirate 2 µl Phenol Red Solution and transfer it into a PCR tube
2) Into the same tube, transfer more Phenol Red Solution in the following manner: 4 µl, 6 µl, 8 µl, 10
µl.
3) Using a 200 µl micropipette, aspirate 30 µl of the solution from the PCR tube to a clean PCR tube.
Observe whether there is an excess solution remaining in the tube / pipette tips.
A3. Reverse Pipetting for Transfer Viscous Solution

Reverse pipetting technique is often used for the pipetting the following sample conditions: viscous
liquids (i.e. glycerol), volatile solvents (i.e. chloroform), very small volumes (i.e. < 1.0 µL), and when
the solution has a tendency to foam. During the aspiration, there’s an extra amount of air (corresponds
to the amount of purged air) to compensates for the extra liquid which remains inside the tip during
dispensing. No prior pre-wetting is required.
1) Press the plunger / push button to the 2nd stop.
2) Immerse the tip +/- 3-4 mm below the surface of the glycerol.
3) Aspirate 500 µL of glycerol by slowly release the plunger. Wait for 1-2 seconds to ensure all liquid
has moved up to the tip.
4) At an angle against a clean microcentrifuge tube, depress the plunger smoothly to the 1st stop to
transfer the glycerol to the new container.
5) Depress the plunger to the 2nd stop to a waste container to do a complete purge.
Note: If the pipette tip needs to be reused for subsequent pipetting, maintain the plunger at 1st stop and
aspirate the liquid (restart from step 2)
B. Solution preparation
1. Make 10 mL of 3% (w/w) Sucrose Solution in water using 50 mL Beaker!
2. Prepare 25 mL of 1 M Hydrochloric Acid from 37% (w/w) Hydrochloric Acid! Please note that
37% HCl is very strong acid and is corrosive. Therefore, you have to do it inside fume hood and
cover your hands using gloves. Take 37% HCl using only glassware (do not dip plastic tips into
strong acid!). For dilution of strong acid, ALWAYS add acid into water! Put 80% of the amount of
water needed into volumetric flask, slowly add strong acid through the flask wall (do not carelessly
drop it directly into the solution). Let the solution cool down a bit, and add remaining water until
the volumetric marking.
3. Prepare 10 mL 1x working stock of SDS PAGE Running Buffer from 10x SDS Page Running
Buffer (1L) (30 grams of Tris Base; 144 grams of Glycine; 10 grams of SDS).
C. Serial Dilution
Using serial dilutions, design a standard curve covering 0.4 ppm until 4000 ppm of CuSO4.5H2O using
a 1 M CuSO4.5H2O solution in exponential manner.
1) Make a 6-points of standard curve (6 different concentrations) using microcentrifuge tubes. (1 tube
= maximum 1 mL). One of them should be the blank.

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2) Transfer 150 µl of each concentration into a 96-well plate. Make a duplicate for each concentrations.
Data observation
A. Micropipette exercise
1. Compare the volume obtained by repetitive pipetting and find the % error (for the A1).
2. Is there any excess liquid observed in A2?
3. What are problems you face when you try to pipette viscous liquid?
1. What is the actual weight of sucrose that you add?
2. What are problems you face when you try to dilute strong acid?
3. What is the actual weight of Tris base, glycine and SDS that you add?
C. Serial dilution
1. What are the concentrations of CuSO4.5H2O solution?
Data analysis and Discussion

A. Micropipette exercise
Analyze whether it is acceptable to use repetitive pipetting based on the % error that you get! What is
the common final volume result when you use repetitive pipetting? Why reverse pipetting is useful for
viscous liquid?
What is the limit of % weighing error? Were the weighed materials within those limit? Why you need
to be careful when you dilute strong acid or base?
C. Serial dilution
What is the use of serial dilution? What its advantage and disadvantage?
Prelab activities (answer in separate paper)

1. Student A prepare a 10 mL 5 M NaCl solution at 20°C. Student B prepare the same solution at
80°C. Will the final weight of the solution prepared by A be the same as B? Why?
2. Prepare a calculation algorithm to convert:
a. solution with known M to % w/v and vice versa
b. solution with known M to % w/w and vice versa
3. How mL of 5 M solution is needed to prepare 10 mL of 1 M solution? How much solvent should
be added?
4. Find the MSDS for the chemicals used in this session. Which compounds are flammable, toxic by
inhalation, toxic by ingestion, or other routes of exposure? How do you handle them? What kind
of PPE is needed when handling the chemicals? How should they be disposed?
References

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Inorganic Nomenclature: Binary Compound and Oxidation Number
Session 4
Aim Determine the oxidation number of an element and the name of an inorganic compound
Overview
A. Binary compounds
In this session, students will learn how to name binary compound of inorganic compound. Binary
compounds containing two elements are named directly from the elements involved. In naming a binary
salt the more metallic (more electropositive) element is named first. The second element of the
compounds is named with the suffix -ide added to it. For example: NaBr is sodium bromide; Al2O3 is
aluminum oxide. Some Two polyatomic anions such as OH– and CN–, have names ending in –ide
although those are not binary compounds. One polyatomic cation is named as a single species in the
naming of a compound; for example: NH4Cl is ammonium chloride, even though NH4Cl is not a binary
compound. For transition metal cations, they can exist in multiple oxidation numbers. Below are the
rules for naming in binary compound:
1. The -ous ending is usually used for the lower of two common oxidation numbers for the metal
cation, while the -ic ending shows the higher oxidation number.
2. Roman numeral is after English name to show the oxidation number of the metal cation in the
compound.
3. Below lists are metal cations which are used the old and new “stock “system. The metal ions with
the old system are highlighted.
4. The number of atoms of each element can be named with Greek prefixes. Below are the most
common Greek prefixes:

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5. In the naming of binary compounds, the prefix system is preferred rather than the stock system.
6. Hydrates and inorganic salts are also used prefixes. For example, barium chloride is often labeled
as barium chloride dihydrate: BaCl2.2H2O, another example: The formula of iron(III) chloride
hexahydrate is FeCl3•6H2O.
7. An aqueous solution of a compound formed by hydrogen and electronegative nonmetal is called
binary acid. Below are the lists of acid nomenclature.
8. The sum of oxidation numbers of elements should be equals to zero, when writing formulas for
compounds.
Example of the formula for calcium nitride. Calcium has oxidation number of +2: Ca2+. The
nitrogen atom has –3 when combined with a metal: N3–. Therefore, for the sum of the oxidation
numbers to equal zero, there should be three Ca2+ (a total of +6) for every two N3– (a total of –6);
and the formula is Ca3N2.
B. Oxidation Number
Ions are charge molecules. They are either positive or negative charge. A negative charge ion is called
anion while positive charge ion is called cation. When one element combines with other element to
form a compound, the elements will have oxidation number (or oxidation state) instead of actual charge.
The following “rules” will only use the term oxidation number when considering the common charge
or “apparent” charge for an element. Note in rule 6 that polyatomic ions have an actual charge (not an
oxidation number).
1. Free State element (not combined with another element) has zero oxidation number. Ne, O2, P4 S8,
and C60 has an oxidation number of 0.
2. The oxidation number of monoatomic ions is equal to the charge of the ion. For example: Ca2+,
Fe3+, and Cl– have oxidation numbers of +2, +3, and –1, respectively.
3. Oxygen in compounds has oxidation number of –2 with the exception for a –1 in peroxides; e.g.,
H2O2, and +2 in OF2. In FeO, Fe2O3, KMnO4, and KIO3 oxygen has oxidation number of -2.
4. Hydrogen in compounds has oxidation number of +1 (except for –1 in metal hydrides; e.g., NaH).
In HCl, NaHCO3, and NH3, hydrogen has oxidation number or +1.
5. There are several elements have only one common oxidation number:
a. Group 1A elements have oxidation number of +1 in compounds.
b. Group 2A elements have oxidation number of +2 in compounds.
c. Boron and aluminum have oxidation number of +3 in compounds.
d. Binary compounds with metals, the nonmetallic elements of Group 6A typically has oxidation
number of –2.
e. binary compounds with metals, the elements of Group 7A have an oxidation number of –1.

Rev.0.1
6. The charge of polyatomic ions is equal to the sum of oxidation numbers of the polyatomic group’s
elements. Polyatomic ions have a charge equal to the sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements
of the polyatomic group.
7. In assigning oxidation numbers to elements in a compound, the element closest to fluorine (the
most electronegative element) in the periodic table is always assigned the negative oxidation
number. In the compound, P4O10, oxygen has the negative oxidation number of –2.
8. a. For compounds, the total oxidation number of all atoms in the compound should be equal to
zero. For example, Na2S compound, the sum of the oxidation numbers equals zero.
2 Na atoms, +1 for each (rule 5a) = +2
1 S atom, –2 for each (rule 5d) = –2
Sum of oxidation numbers (+2) + (–2) = 0
b. For polyatomic ions, the sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements must equal the charge
of the ion. For example, CO32– has the sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements equals a
charge of 2–.
3 O atoms, –2 for each (rule 3) = –6
1 C atom which must be +4= +4
so that (–6) + (+4) = 2–, the charge of the CO32- ion.
9. There are chemical elements which have more than one oxidation number such as FeCl2 and FeCl3.
Since the chlorine atom has an oxidation number of –1 when combined with a metal (rule 5e), the
oxidation numbers of iron are +2 in FeCl2 and +3 in FeCl3.
Procedure
A. Binary compounds
Given the formula of the compound, the proper names for a large number of compounds are to be
written. Given the name of the compound, the formulas for a large number of compounds also are to be
written. Your instructor will assign the exercises you are to complete. Answer them on a separate piece
of paper. Use the rules that have been described.

Rev.0.1
B. Oxidation number
Use the rule in the overview section to determine the oxidation number of an element in the below
compounds and ions. Your instructor will indicate the questions that you need to complete. In a separate
paper, answer the selected questions from your instructor.

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References
1. Laboratory Manual for Principles of General Chemistry. 10 th Edition. J.A. Beran

Rev.0.1
Stoichiometry of Chemical Reaction
Session 5
Aim Understand the principle of stoichiometry and calculate stoichiometry in chemical reaction
Overview
When atoms gain or lose electrons to yield ions, or combine with other atoms to form molecules, their
symbols are modified or combined to generate chemical formulas that appropriately represent these
species. Extending this symbolism to represent both the identities and the relative quantities of
substances undergoing a chemical (or physical) change involves writing and balancing a chemical
equation. The stoichiometric coefficients are the numbers used to make sure chemical equation is
balanced. Ratios can be calculated using the stoichiometric coefficients, and the ratios will inform the
relative proportions of the chemicals in the reaction. This ratio is usually called the mole ratio, the
stoichiometric factor or the stoichiometric ratio. The mole ratio can be used as a conversion factor
between different quantities.

Materials Equipment
NaHCO3 Erlenmeyer
Acetic acid 2% (0.83M) Watch glass/evaporating dish
Heater/Water bath
Procedure
1. Mix sodium hydrogen carbonate with acetic acid for this experiment to generate carbonic acid
(H2CO3 which latter breaks up into water and carbon dioxide) and sodium acetate.
2. Write down the chemical reaction and balanced it. State the limiting reactant of this reaction.
3. If 10 ml of 0.125 M of NaHCO3 is used, measure how much acetic acid is needed to achieve 100 %
yield of reaction.
4. Add the acetic acid from the calculation into 10 ml of 0.125 M of NaHCO3 then vaporize the
solution until only sodium acetate is left using evaporating dish. Record the weight and calculate
the actual yield you obtained.
Data observation
1. Write down the calculation for acetic acid needed!
2. What is the weight of sodium acetate that you get, and what is the yield?
Data analysis and discussion

What is stoichiometry in this reaction? What you can conclude from the yield of sodium acetate that
you get?
References
1. Jo Allan Berran. 2010. Laboratory Manual for Principles of General Chemistry, 9th edition.
2. Raymond Chang. 2013. General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts, 7th edition.

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The Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
Session 6
Aim Understand factors that are involved in chemical equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
Overview
Two important questions are asked about every chemical reaction: (1) How much product is produced
and (2) How fast is it produced? The first question involves chemical equilibrium and the second
question belongs to the domain of chemical kinetics. The Law of Chemical Equilibrium is based on the
constancy of the equilibrium constant. This means that if one disturbs the equilibrium, for example, by
adding more reactant molecules, there will be an increase in the number of product molecules in order
to uphold the product/reactant ratio unchanged and thus preserve the numerical value of the equilibrium
constant. The Le Chatelier Principle states this as follows: If an outside stress is applied to a system in
equilibrium, the system reacts in such a way as to partly relieve the stress.
In this experiment, we determine the Le Chatelier Principle in two ways:

(1) Disturbing the equilibrium by changing the concentration of a product or reactant, and
(2) Changing the temperature.

CHEMICAL USED EQUIPMENT USED
0.1 M CuSO4 400 mL beaker
1 M NH3 100 mL beaker
100 mL graduated
1 M HCl
cylinder
Saturated NaCl 10 mL graduated cylinder
Concentrated HCl 10 mL graduated pipette
0.1 M KSCN Dropper
0.1 M FeCl3 Test tube (100 x 13 mm)
0.1 M CoCl2 hotplate
1 M K2HPO4
Litmus paper red and blue
Procedure
1. Effect of reagent and concentration
a. Part 1
1) Place 20 drops (about 1 mL) of 0.1 M CuSO4 solution into a clean and dry test tube (Test
tube 1). Record the color.
2) Add (dropwise) 1 M NH3 solution, mixing the contents after each drop. Continue to add
until the color changes. Note the new color and the number of drops of 1 M ammonia
added and record it on your Report Sheet.
3) To the equilibrium mixture thus obtained, add dropwise, (counting the number of drops
added) 1 M HCl solution until the color changes back to pale blue. Report your
observations on your Report Sheet.
b. Part 2

Rev.0.1
1) Place 2 mL of 1 M K2HPO4 solution into a clean and dry test tube (Test tube 2). Use red
and blue litmus papers and test to see whether the solution is acidic or basic. Record your
findings on your Report Sheet.
2) Add a drop of 1 M HCl to new pieces of red and blue litmus papers. Record your
observation on the Report Sheet.
3) Add 1 drop of 1 M HCl solution to the test tube 2. Mix it and test it with red and blue litmus
papers. Record your observation on the Report Sheet.
c. Part 3
1) Prepare a stock solution by mixing 1 mL of 0.1 M iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, and 1 mL of
0.1 M potassium thiocyanate, KSCN, to a distilled water up to final volume of 50 mL in a
100-mL beaker.
2) Set up four clean and dry test tubes (test tube 3 - 6). To each test tube add about 2 mL of
the stock equilibrium mixture you just prepared. Test tube no. 3 will be used as the standard
to which you can compare the color of the other solutions.
3) To test tube no. 4, add 10 drops of 0.1 M FeCl3 solution; to test tube no. 5, add 10 drops of
0.1 M KSCN solution. To test tube no. 6, add 5 drops of saturated NaCl solution. Observe
the color in each test tube and record your observations on the Report Sheet.
2. Effect of temperature
a. Prepare a boiling-water bath by heating a 400-mL beaker containing about 200 mL water to a
boil.
b. Set up two clean and dry test tubes (no 7 & 8).
c. Place 1 mL of 0.1 M CoCl2 solution in test tube no. 7. Add 1M HCl dropwise until a color
change occurs. Record your observation on the Report Sheet. Note the molar concentration of
the acid.
Note: HCl is toxic and can cause skin burns. Wear gloves when dispensing. Do not allow skin
contact. If you do come into contact with the acid, immediately wash the exposed area with
plenty of water for at least 15 min. Do not inhale the HCl vapors.
d. Place 1 mL of 0.1 M CoCl2 CoCl2 solution in test tube no. 8. Immerse the test tube into the
boiling water bath. Add 1M HCl dropwise until a color change occurs. Record your observation
on the Report Sheet. Note the molar concentration of the acid.
Data Observation
Table 1 Effect of reagent and concentration
No Step Observation
1 Color of CuSO4 solution
2 Color after NH3 solution addition
3 Amount of NH3 added
4 Amount of 1 M HCl added
5 Color of blue litmus after addition of K2HPO4
6 Color of red litmus after addition of of K2HPO4
7 Color of blue litmus after addition of 1 M HCl
8 Color of red litmus after addition of 1 M HCl
9 Color of blue litmus after addition of 1 drop of 1 M HCl
10 Color of red litmus after addition of 1 drop of 1 M HCl
11 Color of tube 3
12 Color of tube 4

Rev.0.1
13 Color of tube 5
14 Color of tube 6
Table 2 Effect of temperature

No Step Observation
1 Color of CoCl2 (tube 7 & tube 8)
2 Color in tube 7 after HCl addition
3 Number of drops HCl needed to change color in tube 7
4 Number of drops HCl needed to change color in tube 8
Data Analysis
1. Effect of reagent and concentration part 1
Calculate the moles amount of CuSO4 in 1 mL 0.1 M CuSO4 solution!
Calculate the theoretical amount of moles amount of NH3 solution needed to change color!
Calculate the actual amount of moles amount of NH3 solution needed to change color!
Calculate the theoretical moles amount of 1 M HCl needed for the color to change back to blue!
Calculate the actual moles amount of 1 M HCl needed for the color to change back to blue!
2. Effect of reagent and concentration part 2
Based on litmus test, report whether K2HPO4, 1 M HCl and the resulting mixture is acid or basic!
3. Effect of temperature
Calculate the amount of moles of 1 mL of 0.1 M CoCl2!
Calculate the theoretical moles amount of 1 M HCl needed to change color!
Calculate the actual moles amount of 1 M HCl needed to change color!
Data analysis and discussion

1. Describe & explain the color changes and the principle of chemical equilibrium and le Chatelier’s
principle base on the results of this experiment.
2. Is the moles amount of NH3 and 1 M HCl actually added agreed with theoretical amount you
calculated? If it doesn’t agree, what is the reason?
3. Is the moles amount of concentrated HCl actually added agreed with theoretical amount you
calculated? If it doesn’t agree, what is the reason?
4. Is the amount of HCl needed at high temperature identical with the room temperature? What is the
reason?
Prelab Activities (answer in separate paper)

1. Write the reaction between CuSO4 and NH3
2. Write the reaction when the HCl is added to the mixture above
3. Write the reaction for effect of reagent and concentration part 2 and 3
4. Investigate the color of FeCl3 and KSCN
5. Explain what will happen when you add NaCl to a mixture of FeCl3 and KSCN solution!
6. What is the blue litmus and red litmus for? What is the range of pH they can be used for? How do
you use them?
inhalation, toxic by ingestion, or other routes of exposure? How do you handle them? What kind of
PPE is needed when handling the chemicals? How should they be disposed?

Rev.0.1
References
Bettelheim, F.A., Landesberg, J.M. 2009. Laboratory Experiments for Introduction to General,
Organic, and Biochemistry 7th Edition. Cengage learning

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pH and Buffer Solutions
Session 8
Aim Measure acid – base content of a substance using universal pH indicator and pH meter
Overview
In our daily life, we encounter various acids and bases, from those of natural origin, such as fruits, to
commercial chemical products, for example household cleaning agent. Based on the BrØnsted-Lowry
theory, acids are compounds that can donate a proton (hydrogen ion), while bases are those that can
accept proton. In solution, the strength of an acid or base is measured in terms of pH. In this experiment,
pH of some solutions will be measured using pH indicator paper, as well as an instrument called pH
meter. pH measurement involving buffer solutions, which can resist pH change, will also be performed.
The objective of this experiment is to learn how to measure pH of solutions and to understand the mode
of actions of buffers.

CHEMICAL USED AMOUNT
0.1 M HCl
0.1 M acetic acid
0.1 M sodium acetate
0.1 M citric acid
0.1 M sodium citrate
0.1 M NaOH
pH paper
EQUIPMENT USED AMOUNT
Falcon Tubes 14
100 mL beaker 2
10 mL graduated pipette 1
Wash bottle 1
pH meter 1
Fume hood 1
Procedure
1. Transfer 5 mL of acetic acid, sodium acetate, citric acid, sodium citrate, HCl and NaOH (all at 0.1
M) into separated reaction tubes.
2. Dip a universal pH paper into those solutions. For each reading, use a new pH indicator paper
3. Compare the color of the paper to the color chart of the pH indicator box. Record your reading
4. Wash the pH meter electrode. Measure the pH of each solution using the pH meter.
5. Prepare 4 buffer systems in tall reaction tubes:
a. 5 mL 0.1 M acetic acid + 5 mL 0.1 M sodium acetate
b. 1 mL 0.1 M acetic acid + 10 mL 0.1 M sodium acetate
c. 5 mL 0.1 M citric acid + 5 mL 0.1 M sodium citrate
d. 1 mL 0.1 M citric acid + 10 mL 0.1 M sodium citrate
6. Measure the pH of each buffer solutions with pH meter.
7. Divide each of the 4 buffer solutions (a, b, c, d) into two halves (5 mL each) and place them in
clean reaction tubes.

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a. To the first 5 mL of buffer (a), add 10 drops of 0.1 M HCl. Mix and then measure the pH using
pH paper & pH meter.
b. Repeat procedure 7a by replacing HCl with NaOH.
c. Repeat procedures 7a & 7b for the other 3 buffer solutions (b, c, d).
8. Place 5 mL distilled water in two reaction tubes. Measure the pH using pH meter. Repeat
procedure 7a & 7b for these 2 reaction tubes.
Data observation
Table 1 pH of different solution
Acetic Sodium Citric acid Sodium HCl NaOH
acid acetate citrate
pH
indicator
pH
meter
Table 2 pH of buffer system

5 mL 0.1 1 mL 0.1 5 mL 0.1 1 mL 0.1 5 mL
M acetic M acetic M citric M citric Distilled
acid + 5 acid + 10 acid + 5 acid + 10 water
mL 0.1 M mL 0.1 M mL 0.1 M mL 0.1 M
sodium sodium sodium sodium
acetate acetate citrate citrate
Buffer pH
system indicator
pH
meter
Addition pH
of 10 indicator
drops of pH
0.1 M meter
HCl
Addition pH
of 10 indicator
drops of pH
0.1 M meter
NaOH
Data analysis
1. From your observation, determine which systems are acid, base or neutral
2. From the pH, calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion in each sample
Discussion
1. Discuss the merits of pH indicator and pH meter in measuring pH.
2. Discuss the discrepancies, if any, in the data measured by both methods
3. What patterns do you see in the data? What substance react in a similar manner?
4. What conclusion can be drawn about the effect of adding acid and base to the buffer system?

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Prelab activities
1. Explain what is a buffer and how to prepare buffer generally
2. Explain what is pH
3. Explain why the pH of every 0.1 M acid is not 1
4. What is weak acid and strong acid?
5. What is Ka? Does this have any relationship to this session?
6. Predict what will happen to the pH of an acetic acid solution if a salt that did not contain acetate
ions were added.
7. Explain what determines the pH of a weak acid
8. What is a conjugate salt?
inhalation, toxic by ingestion, or other routes of exposure? How do you handle them? How should
they be disposed?
References

Rev.0.1
Acid-Base Titration : Standardization of Sodium Hydroxide Solution and Analysis of Vinegar

Concentration
Session 9
Aim Standardize the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution and determine the concentration of
acetic acid in vinegar
Overview
A standard solution is a solution typically used in chemical analysis because the concentration is
precisely known. Standardization process is the determination of concentration of standard solution for
titration analysis.
In the standardization process, a primary standard is used to accurately determine the molarity of the
standard solution. The chemical used as a primary standard must be very pure, reasonably soluble,
stable, non-hygroscopic, and of fairly high molar mass. In this lab you will use KHP as a primary
standard. The KHP will be use to standardize NaOH solution. NaOH solution is considered a secondary
standard because NaOH is hygroscopic. Therefore, before it is used in titration or other experiments, it
should be standardized.
The standardization of NaOH with KHP in this session is using acid – base titration concept. In an acid-
base titration, an acid is added to a known quantity of base (or base is added to acid) until the moles of
protons donated by the acid equals the moles of hydroxide accepted by the base. This is called a
neutralization reaction and the point at which it happens is called equivalence point. Theoretically you
should stop titrating when the equivalence point is reached. However, the equivalence point is difficult
to observe, and the change around the equivalence point is steeped. Therefore, an indicator is used to
indicate the end point of the titration. The titration is stopped when there is a permanent change in the
indicator color. The titration should be slowed down as soon as the titration near the end point to prevent
the end point being too far from the equivalence point.
The neutralization process of KHP with NaOH is described in the following reaction:
NaOH (aq) + KHC8H4O4(aq) → KNaC8H4O4(aq) + H2O
It means to neutralize 1 mole of KHP, 1 moles of NaOH is needed. If we know the concentration of
KHP and the volume, and also the volume of NaOH , then, the concentration of NaOH could be
calculated using the following equation:
b. Ma. Va = a.Mb. Vb
where a = reaction coefficient of the acid, b = reaction coefficient of the base, Ma = molarity of the acid,
Mb = molarity of the base, Va = volume of the acid, and Vb = volume of the base.
Meanwhile, Acetic Acid is a weak acid commonly found in household vinegar. Household vinegar
contains 4-5 % by mass of acetic acid. To determine the percent mass of acetic acid in vinegar,
volumetric analysis technique could be employed. A certain amount of vinegar is titrated with
standardized NaOH solution to the vinegar solution which contains phenolphthalein indicator. The
determination of percent mass of acetic acid in vinegar can be calculated by using below equations:

Rev.0.1

CHEMICAL USED AMOUNT
Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate
(KHP)
NaOH
phenolphthalein
Water
Vinegar
Blank white paper
EQUIPMENT USED AMOUNT
100 mL beaker 2
150 mL beaker 2
250 mL beaker 2
100 mL volumetric flask 2
Wash bottle 1
funnel 1
Burette, clamp and stand 1
balance 1
dropper 1
50/100 mL Erlenmeyer 3
Hotplate 1
Techniques
Watch the following videos carefully before you go to the lab:
1. Setting up and performing a titration
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFpFCPTDv2w

Rev.0.1
2. Titration calculations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2z4mlE6MK0U
3. How to use and clean a glass burette
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P1UWoU2ELZo
Procedure
A. Preparation of NaOH Solution
1. In a 150 mL beaker, prepare 100 mL of 0.1 M NaOH solution. Cover the beaker with plastic
wrap when the solution is not in used. Be careful when dissolving the NaOH as heat will rise
during dissolution process.
B. Preparation of KHP Solution

1. Weigh a clean, dry 150 ml beaker and record the mass in grams.
2. Place approximately 2.04 g of KHP in the beaker.
3. Record the exact mass of the beaker and citric acid.
4. Add approximately 25 ml of deionized(DI) water and carefully swirl the solution to dissolve
KHP in the beaker.
5. Pour the dissolved solution through a funnel into a 100 ml volumetric flask. Continue to rinse
by adding approximately 15 ml aliquots (or portions) of DI water to the beaker that contained
the KHP and pour the rinse water into the volumetric flask. Do this until the liquid reaches the
neck of the volumetric flask. This will help ensure that all of the KHP is transferred.
6. Remove the funnel and begin to add the DI water with a dropper until the meniscus reaches
the 100.00 ml mark on the flask.
7. Carefully shake the flask to evenly mix the KHP solution. Be sure to hold pressure against
the stopper while you are shaking to keep it from falling out.
C. Standardization of NaOH Solution

1. Set up a buret by clamping a buret clamp to a ring stand and placing a buret in it. Place a funnel
on top of the buret and a waste beaker below it.
2. Rinse twice a clean 50 mL burette with 5 mL of NaOH solution, making certain no drops cling
to the inside wall.
3. Close the buret stopcock and fill the buret a little over the 0.00 ml mark. Drain the solution into
a waste beaker until no air bubbles are present in the tip. You may need to open and close the
buret quickly several times to remove air bubbles. If needed, refill the buret slightly over the
0.00 ml mark and slowly drain until the bottom of the meniscus or curve touches the 0.00 ml
mark. Record the initial level of NaOH in the buret.
4. Pipet 20.00 ml of KHP solution into a 100 ml Erlenmeyer and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein
in it.
5. While swirling the Erlenmeyer, slowly and carefully begin to add approximately 1 ml aliquots
from the buret. When NaOH solution reaches the surface of the KHP solution, a pink color will
develop. Swirl until it disappears. Continue to do this until the rate of pink color fading
decreases. Then add the NaOH solution drop wise followed by swirling. The titration is stopped
when the pink color persists.
6. Record the final level of NaOH in the buret.
D. Preparation of vinegar sample

1. Preparation and standardization of NaOH solution. Standardized NaOH solution will be used
for this analysis.

Rev.0.1
2. Vinegar Sample Preparation. Add the approximate calculated volume of one brand of vinegar
(obtained from prelab activities) to a clean dry Erlenmeyer flask with a previously measured
mass or a flask that has already been tared on the balance. Record the tared mass of the vinegar
sample. Add 2 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator and rinse the wall of the flask with 20 mL of
previously boiled, deionized water.
3. Burette preparation and Titration set-up. Rinse twice a clean 50 mL burette with 5 mL of the
standardized NaOH solution, making certain no drops cling to the inside wall. Fill the burette
with the standardized NaOH solution, eliminate all air bubbles in the burette tip, and after 10-
15 seconds, read and record the initial volume. Place a sheet of white paper beneath the flask
containing the vinegar sample.
E. Analysis of Vinegar sample

1. Vinegar Sample Titration. Slowly add the NaOH solution from the burette to the acid,
swirling the flask (with the proper hand) after each addition. Occasionally, rinse the wall of
the flask with previously boiled, deionized water from your wash bottle. Continue addition
of the NaOH titrant until the endpoint is reached. After 10–15 seconds, read and record the
final volume of NaOH titrant in the burette.
2. Repeat with the same vinegar. Refill the burette and repeat the titration at least twice more
with another sample of the same vinegar.
3. Calculations. Determine the average percent by mass of acetic acid in the vinegar(s).
Data Observation
1. Mass of KHP added: ____________ g
2. Mass of NaOH used to prepare NaOH solution: ___________g
3. Volume of NaOH added to 20.0 mL KHP solution
Tria Initial volume of NaOH Final volume of NaOH Volume of NaOH needed (mL)
l (mL) (2) (mL) (3) [(2) – (3)]
1
2
3
Table 1. Volume of NaOH needed to neutralized the vinegar

Tria Weight of Initial volume of Final volume of Volume of NaOH needed
l vinegar (g) (1) NaOH (mL) (2) NaOH (mL) (3) (mL) [(2) – (3)]
0
1
2
3
Data Analysis
1. From the mass of NaOH used and the volume of water added, calculate the theoretical molarity of
NaOH solution you prepared
2. From the mass of KHP used and the volume of water added, calculate the theoretical molarity of
KHP solution you prepared
3. From the volume of NaOH used to titrate KHP solution, calculate the actual molarity of NaOH
solution you prepared

Rev.0.1
4. Calculate the average molarity and standard deviation of NaOH from the titration
5. Calculate the % difference between average molarity of NaOH (number 4) and the theoretical
molarity of NaOH solution (number 1)
6. For each trial, calculate the volume of NaOH needed to neutralize the vinegar and KHP solution
7. Determine the actual molar concentration of NaOH solution using the data from the
standardization process
8. Using the actual molar concentration of NaOH solution, calculate the mole of acetic acid titrated,
the mass of the acetic acid, and % mass of acetic acid in the vinegar
9. Calculate the percent error of your calculation.
Discussion
1. What cause the difference between average molarity of NaOH and the theoretical molarity of
NaOH solution?
2. What are the challenged you faced during titration and how do you plan to improve the process?
3. What cause the error in your calculation? What could you do to reduce the error?
4. What is the merit of using the titration method with NaOH solution in determining the acetic acid
concentration? Discuss and compare one other method to determine the acetic acid concentration.
Prelab activities
1. Why is it important that the primary standard chemical be nonhygroscopic and pure? Why is it
important to dry the primary standard to a constant mass?
2. 20.00 ml of NaOH was titrated with a 0.600 M KHC8H4O4 solution. The data were graphed and
the equivalence point was found to be 15.50 ml when standard 0.600 M KHP solution was added.
The reaction equation is
NaOH (aq) + KHC8H4O4(aq) → KNaC8H4O4(aq) + H2O
a. What is the molar ratio of NaOH:KHC8H4O4?
b. What is the molarity of the NaOH solution?
3. Research and evaluate the hazards for all chemicals you will be using. Study the procedure
and look for other possible hazards that exist. List all hazards, including ones from chemicals.
What protective equipment will you need to use?
4. Find the molecular mass for KHP.
5. Calculate the mass of NaOH needed to prepare 100 mL 0.1 M NaOH
6. What is the use of phenolphthalein and why it is chosen in the protocol?
7. Explain how you should handle the burette and what should be done to the buret after the lab
session is done.
8. Investigate the % of acetic acid in the household vinegar claim by the manufacturer.
9. Calculate the volume of vinegar which needed to neutralized 20 mL of standardized NaOH
solution. Assume the vinegar has a density of 1 g/mL and a percent of acetic acid 5% by mass, and
the standardized NaOH solution is 0.1 M NaOH. Show the calculation on your report.
10. Find out what potassium hydrogen phthalate is, its molecular mass and its reaction with sodium
hydroxide. What is the role of KHP in this session?
11. Find the MSDS for acetic acid, NaOH and KHP. Which compounds are flammable, toxic by
inhalation, toxic by ingestion, or other routes of exposure? How do you handle them? How should
they be disposed?
References

Rev.0.1
Henrie, Sally A. 2015. Green Chemistry, Laboratory Manual for General Chemistry. CRC Press.
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/lab/equipment/buret/use.html

Rev.0.1
Paper Chromatography – Separation of Color Pigments
Session 10
Aim Understand the principle of paper chromatography and its application
Overview
Chromatography is a widely used experimental technique for the separation of a mixture of compounds
into its individual components. Two kinds of chromatographic techniques will be explored: column
chromatography and paper chromatography. In column chromatography, a mixture of components
dissolved in a solvent is poured over a column of solid adsorbent and is eluted with the same or a
different solvent. This is a solid–liquid system; the stationary phase (the adsorbent) is solid and the
mobile phase (the eluent) is liquid. In paper chromatography, the paper adsorbs water from the
atmosphere of the developing chromatogram. (The water is present in the air as vapor, and it may be
supplied as one component in the eluting solution.) The water is the stationary phase. The (other)
component of the eluting solvent is the mobile phase and carries with it the components of the mixture.
This is a liquid–liquid system.
Column chromatography is generally used for preparative purposes, when one deals with a relatively
large amount of the mixture, and the components need to be isolated in milligram or gram quantities.
Paper chromatography, on the other hand, is an analytical technique. Microgram or even picogram
quantities can be separated by this technique, and they can be characterized by their Rf value.
Example:
The Rf values for two substances are as follows:

Rf (substance 1) =3.1 cm / 11.2 cm=0.28
Rf (substance 2) =8.5 cm / 11.2 cm=0.76
The objectives of this experiment are to compare separation of components of a mixture by two different
techniques and to demonstrate the effect of bromination on plant pigments of tomato juice.
CHEMICAL USED
Melting – point capillaries open at both ends
Glass wool

Rev.0.1
Whatman no 1 filter paper, 10 x 10 cm, cut to

size
Tomato paste
Petroleum ether (b.p. 30-60°C)
95% ethanol
Acetone
0.5% β carotene in petroleum ether
Toluene
Iodine crystals
Black, orange, blue markers
Aluminium foil
EQUIPMENT USED AMOUN

T
25 mL burette or chromatography 2
column
Stapler 1
Hotplate (with water bath) 1
Ruler 1
50 mL beaker 2
Stirring rod 1
Funnel 1
50 mL Erlenmeyer 1
fumehood
600 mL beaker 1
Procedure
A. Beta Carotene Separation Paper Chromatography
1. Obtain a sheet of what man no. 1 filter paper, cut to size, 10 x10 cm.
2. Plan the spotting of the samples as illustrated in Figure 2. Five spots will be applied. The first spot
will be (β) carotene solutions supplied by your instructor. The second, and third spots will have
your tomato paste extracts with one time spotting, the fourth is tomato paste extract with two times
spotting, and the fifth is tomato paste extract with three times spotting. Use a pencil to mark lightly
the spots according to Figure 2.
3. Pigments of tomato paste will be extracted in two steps.
a. Weigh about 10 g of tomato paste in a 50-mL beaker. Add 15 mL of 95% ethanol. Stir the
mixture vigorously with a stirring rod until the paste will not stick to the stirrer. Place a small
amount of glass wool (the size of a pea) in a small funnel, blocking the funnel exit. Place the
funnel into a 50-mL Erlenmeyer flask and pour the tomato paste–ethanol mixture into the
funnel. When the filtration is completed, squeeze the glass wool lightly with your spatula. In
this step, we removed the water from the tomato paste and the aqueous components are in the
filtrate, which we discard. The residue in the glass wool will be used to extract the pigments.
b. Place the residue and the glass wool in a 50-mL beaker. Add 10 mL petroleum ether and stir
the mixture for about 2 min. to extract the pigments. Filter the extract as before, through a new
funnel with glass wool blocking the exit, into a new and clean 50-mL beaker. Place the beaker
under the hood on a hot plate (or water bath). Evaporate the solvent to about 1 mL volume. Use

Rev.0.1
low heat and take care not to evaporate all the solvent. After evaporation cover the beaker with
aluminum foil.
4. Spotting
a. Place your chromatographic paper on a clean area (another filter paper) in order not to
contaminate it. Use separate capillaries, one for your tomato paste extract and one for the (β)
carotene solution. First apply your capillary to the extracted pigment by dipping it into the
solution as illustrated in Figure 3.
b. Apply the capillary lightly to the chromatographic paper by touching, sequentially; the spots
marked 2, and 3 Make sure, when touching the paper, that you make only small spots, not larger
than 2-mm diameter, by quickly withdrawing the capillary from the paper each time you touch
it. (See Figure 4.)

Rev.0.1
c. Make the fourth capillary and apply more extract on top of the spot at positions marked 4 once
the first spotting dried. While for spot at position marked 5 will have 3 times spotting (make
sure that you let the previous spotting dried before you apply more extract). Let them dry
(Figure 5)
d. Let all the spots dry. The unused extract in your beaker should be covered with aluminum foil.
Place it in your drawer in the dark to save it for the second part of this experiment.
5. Developing the paper chromatogram

a. Curve the paper into a cylinder and staple the edges above the 2-cm line as it is shown in Figure
6.
b. Pour 20 mL of the eluting solvent (petroleum ether : toluene : acetone in 45 : 1 : 4 ratio, supplied
by your instructor) into a 600-mL beaker.
c. Place the stapled chromatogram into the 600-mL beaker, the spots being at the bottom near the
solvent surface but not covered by it. Cover the beaker with aluminum foil (Figure 7). Allow
the solvent front to migrate up to 0.5–1 cm below the edge of the paper. This may take from 15

Rev.0.1
min. to 1 hr. Make certain by frequent inspection that the solvent front does not run over the
edge of the paper.
d. Remove the chromatogram from the beaker when the solvent front reaches 0.5–1 cm from the
edge. You must remove the filter paper from the 600-mL beaker before the solvent front reaches
the edges of the paper. Mark the position of the solvent front with a pencil. Put the paper
standing on its edges under the hood and let it dry.
e. Remove the staples from the dried chromatogram. Mark the spots of the pigments by circling
with a pencil. Note
f. the colors of the spots. Measure the distance of the center of each spot from its origin. Calculate
the Rf values.
g. If the spots on the chromatogram are faded, we can visualize them by exposing the
chromatogram to iodine vapor. Place your chromatogram into a wide-mouth jar containing a
few iodine crystals. Cap the jar and warm it slightly on a hot plate to enhance the sublimation
of iodine. The iodine vapor will interact with the faded pigment spots and make them visible.
After a few minutes of exposure to iodine vapor, remove the chromatogram and mark the spots
immediately with a pencil. The spots will fade again with exposure to air. Measure the distance
of the center of the spots from the origin and calculate the Rf values.
Caution: If you use the iodine, heat in the hood. Iodine vapor is toxic. Do not breathe the vapor. Also,
do not touch the crystals; they will stain your fingers.
h. Record the results of the paper chromatography on the Report Sheet. (Is there more than one
spot visible for the tomato paste?)
B. Pen Paper Chromatography

1. Make a spot (about 5 cm above the edge) using black marker on a small rectangle shape filter
paper.
2. Placed the filter paper with the black spot in a beaker contain solvent (acetone: water 80:20 by
volume)
3. Make sure the spot is above the solution
4. Remove the chromatogram from the beaker when the solvent front reaches 0.5–1 cm from the
edge
5. Measure the distance of the center of each spot from its origin.
Data Observation
For part A and B:
1. Record the distance of the center of each spot from its origin.
2. Record the distance of the center of origin spot to solvent front
3. Record number of visible spots and of the color of each spot

Rev.0.1
Data Analysis
Calculate the Rf of beta carotene, spots developed from tomato paste and the marker
Discussion
1. Compare the Rf of beta carotene and the tomato paste. Do you think tomato paste contain beta
carotene?
2. What are other possible pigments or compounds that could give rise to the spots? Give some
references.
3. What compound makes up the marker?
Prelab Activities
1. Why do you have to make sure that the solvent front does not reach the edge of the paper?
2. Describe the active compounds in tomato that could give rise to color
3. Why could iodine vapor increase the visibility of the spots?
4. What factors should be considered to achieve good separation of compounds to be identified
using paper chromatography?
5. What happen if prior to the separation, you do not remove the other components using water and
ethanol?
6. What components from tomato are being extracted by water and ethanol?
7. Find the MSDS for acetone, petroleum ether, ethanol, and toluene. Which of the components are
flammable, toxic by inhalation, or toxic by absorption through the skin? How do you handle these
compounds? How should you dispose these compounds? What PPE are suitable in handling these
compounds?
References

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Density and Specific Gravity
Session 11
Aim Determine the density of solid and liquid
Overview
One of the property of material is density. Density measurement of different materials could be used
for many purpose. For example, density of wort during beer production determines how far the
fermentation process has gone. Density of cake determine firmness of the cake. Density depends on
temperature. The higher the temperature, the lower the density. For gas and liquid, the change in density
with regards to temperature can be very large. On the other hand, the change in density for solid in
general is negligible. That is why the measurement of density should be done in constant temperature
environment.
Density of Liquids
Density is a unique property of a substance. It can be calculated by dividing the mass (g) of a substance
to the volume of a substance (mL). The unit of density is typically in gram / milliliter (g/mL). The mass
of a substance is measured by weighing.
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity of a liquid / substance is calculated by comparing the density of that liquid/substance
with the density of water which is 1.00 g/mL at 4o C.
Specific gravity has no units, since units are cancelled out in the equation.
Density of Solids
For solid matter, its density can be measured by displacement, in which solid is submerged in a known
amount of water. The difference of final volume substract to the initial volume of water is the volume
of water to the substance.
In this module, you are going to learn how to measure the density of liquid and solid. Several apparatus
such as pycnometer and hydrometer are introduced. In addition, you are going to learn how to determine
the density of powder or granule and solid object.
CHEMICAL
USED
water
Unknown liquid
Metal object
sand

Rev.0.1

EQUIPMENT USED AMOUN
T
250 mL beaker 1
hydrometer 1
pycnometer 1
50 mL graduated 1
cylinder
balance
String or thread
Techniques
Measuring powder with balance: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNeNBx8nAyQ
Procedure
1. Measuring density of unknown liquid with graduated cylinder and specific gravity with
hydrometer
a. Weigh a 50 mL graduated cylinder.
b. Place specific amount of liquid into the graduated cylinder (to be assigned by instructor).
Record the volume of liquid in the graduated cylinder with the correct number of significant
figures. Record also the weight of the water and the cylinder
c. Put a hydrometer in the cylinder. Record the specific gravity you read from the hydrometer.
d. Take out the hydrometer.
2. Measuring density of liquid with pycnometer

a. Weigh a pycnometer with its cap. Make sure the pycnometer is dry
b. Fill in the pycnometer to the brim with liquid and the close the pycnometer. Wipe any excess
liquid from the pycnometer. Make sure there is no bubble inside the pycnometer.
c. Weigh the liquid filled pycnometer with its cap.
3. Density of sand
a. Weigh a pycnometer with its cap. Make sure the pycnometer is dry
b. Fill in the pycnometer up to 2/3 with sand and the close the pycnometer. Weigh the
pycnometer
c. Fill in the rest of pycnometer with water and close the pycnometer. Wipe any excess liquid
from the pycnometer. Make sure there is no bubble inside the pycnometer.
d. Weigh the pycnometer with its cap.
4. Density of metal object

a. Obtain a metal object. Weigh it and record the mass, in grams.
b. Obtain a graduated cylinder that is large enough to hold the solid metal object. Add water to
the cylinder until its about full. Record the water level, in milliliters.
c. Attach a string or thread to the object. Lower it slowly into the water until it is submerged.
Record the final water level, in milliliters.
d. Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of the object.
e. Calculate the density (g/mL) of the metal object

Rev.0.1
Data Observation
Record your observation in the following table
Part 1 Unknown
liquid
Weight of graduated cylinder (g)
Weight of cylinder and liquid
(g)
Volume of liquid (mL)
Specific gravity (hydrometer)
Part 2 Unknown
liquid
Weight of pycnometer (g)
Weight of pycnometer and liquid
(g)
Volume of pycnometer (mL)
Part 3 wate Unknown

r liquid
Weight of pycnometer (g)
Weight of pycnometer and sand (g)
Weight of pycnometer, water and sand
(g)
Volume of pycnometer (mL)
Part 4 wate Unknown

r liquid
Weight of solid (g)
Initial volume of water (g)
Final volume in graduated cylinder
(g)
Data Analysis
1. Density of unknown liquid with graduated cylinder
a. Determine the mass of the liquid by subtracting the mass of the cylinder from the mass of the
cylinder plus the liquid
b. Calculate the density of liquid sample by dividing its mass (g) by its volume (mL)
2. Density of water and unknown liquid with pycnometer
a. Calculate the density of liquid by dividing the mass of liquid with the volume of the
pycnometer
3. Calculate the specific gravity of unknown liquid by dividing the density obtained from point 1
and 2 above by the density of water at 293 K (obtained from literature)
4. Density of sand
a. From the density of water at the ambient temperature (obtained from the literature), calculate
the volume of water filling in the pycnometer

Rev.0.1
b. Calculate the volume occupied by the sand by deducting volume of pycnometer with the
volume of water occupying the pycnometer
c. Calculate the density of the sand by dividing the sand mass with the volume of the mass
Discussion
1. Report your finding in the following table
Density of liquid (g/mL) calculated from part 1
Density of liquid (g/mL) calculated from part 2
Density of sand (g/mL) calculated from part 3
Density of object (g/mL) calculated from part
4
2. Based on your finding, what is the liquid measured in the experiment? Explain your deduction?
Additional data regarding the other properties of the liquid might be given during the lab session.
3. Based on your finding, what is the metal measured in the experiment? Explain your deduction?
Prelab activities
1. Explain what is pycnometer and hydrometer. Describe their application in industry
2. What is specific gravity and when do you used specific gravity
3. Describe the requirement for measuring particle using pycnometer. Can density of all particle
measured using pycnometer?
References

Rev.0.1
Calorimetry : Determination of specific heat of metal
Session 12
Aim Determine the specific heat of metal
Overview
Any chemical or physical change includes a change in energy. Heat is a form of energy that can be
observed as a flow of energy. Heat can Travel spontaneously from an object at a high temperature to an
object at a lower temperature. Two objects in contact at different temperatures, given sufficient time,
will eventually reach the same temperature. The flow of heat energy can also be either into or out of a
system. The amount of heat can be measured in a device called a calorimeter. A calorimeter is a
container with insulated walls. The insulation prevents rapid heat exchange between the contents of the
calorimeter and the surroundings. In the closed environment of the system, there is no loss or gain of
heat. Because the change in temperature of the contents of the calorimeter is used to measure the
magnitude of the heat flow, a thermometer is included with the calorimeter. The specific heat of any
substance can be determined in a calorimeter which will be demonstrated in this lab
Specific gravity has no units, since units are cancelled out in the equation.
Materials and Equipments
CHEMICAL USED
Water
Unknown metal
Styrofoam cups
Lid for Styrofoam cups
Metal stirring loop
Thermometers, 110 ℃ (2)
Latex rubber ring
Volumetric pipette 50 mL or
measuring cylinder/volumetric
flask
Thermometer clamp
Test tube (tall, 10 pcs)
Hot plate
Bunsen burner
100 mL beaker

Rev.0.1
Procedure
1. Determination of the Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter
Construct a calorimeter as shown in Figure 1. The two dry 8-oz. Styrofoam cups are inserted one
into the other, supported in a 250-mL beaker. The plastic lid should fit tightly on the cup. With a
suitable-sized cork borer, make two holes in the lid; one hole should be near the center for the
thermometer and one hole to the side for the stirring wire. In order to keep the thermometer bulb 2
cm above the bottom of the inner cup, fit a rubber ring (cut from latex rubber tubing) around the
thermometer and adjust the ring by moving it up or down the thermometer.
Figure 1 . Styrofoam calorymeter
Figure 2 . Plot of temperature versus time
Because the density of water is approximately 1.00 g/mL over the temperature range for this
experiment, the amount of water used in all parts of the procedure will be measured by volume.
With a 50-mL volumetric pipet, place 50.0 mL of water in a clean, dry 150-mL beaker; determine
and record the mass (1). Slowly heat the water with a hot plate to a temperature of 70 ℃. While the
water is warming, you can do the following: with a 50-mL volumetric pipet, place 50.0 mL of cold
water in the calorimeter cup; determine and record the mass (2). Cover the cup with the lid
thermometer- stirrer assembly. Stir the water for 5 min., observing the temperature during the time;

Rev.0.1
record the temperature at 1-min. intervals on the Data Sheet (enter your temperatures using the
blanks in the left column). When the system is at equilibrium, record the temperature to the nearest
0.2℃. (3). When the water warming in the 150-mL beaker has reached about 70℃, remove the
beaker from the hot plate and allow the hot water to stand for a few minutes; stir the water
occasionally during this time period. Quickly record the temperature to the nearest 0.28 ℃. (4), and
pour the water completely into the calorimeter that has been assembled and has reached equilibrium
(Figure 1). Replace the cover assembly and stir the contents gently. Observe the temperature for 5
min. and record the temperature on the Data Sheet .every 30 sec. during that 5-min. period. Plot the
temperature as a function of time, as shown in Figure 2. (Use the graph paper on p. 113.) Determine
from your curve the maximum temperature by extrapolation and record it (5). Determine the ΔT (6
and 7). From the data, calculate the heat capacity of the calorimeter according to the calculations
on the Report Sheet.
2. Determination of the Specific Heat of a Metal

Dry the Styrofoam cups used for the calorimeter calibration. Reassemble the apparatus as in Figure
1. With a 50-mL volumetric pipet, place 50.0 mL of cold water in the calorimeter cup; record the
mass (1). Obtain an unknown metal sample from your instructor. Record the number of the
unknown on the Report Sheet. Weigh a clean, dry 50-mL beaker to the nearest 0.01 g (2). Place
about 40 g of your unknown sample in the beaker and reweigh to the nearest. 0.01 g (3). Determine
the mass of the metal by subtraction (4). Pour the sample into a 150 x 25 mm clean, dry test tube.
Figure 3 . Assembly for heating the metal

Rev.0.1
Place the test tube in the water bath as shown in Figure 3. Be sure that all of the metal in the test
tube is below the surface of the water. Heat the water to a gentle boil and keep the test tube in the
bath for 10 min. Make certain that water does not splash into the test tube.
While the metal is heating, follow the temperature of the cold water in the calorimeter for 5 min.;
record the temperature on the Data Sheet (enter your temperatures using the blanks in the right
column) at 1-min. intervals. After 5 min., record the temperature on the Report Sheet of the cold
water to the nearest 0.2 ℃ (5). After 10 min. of heating the metal, observe and record the
temperature on the Report Sheet of the boiling water in the beaker to the nearest 0.2 ℃ (6). Obtain
and use another thermometer for the calorimeter. All steps must be done quickly and carefully at
this point. Remove the test tube from the boiling water; dry the outside glass with a paper towel;
remove the lid on the calorimeter; add the hot metal to the calorimeter. Be careful no water is added
to nor lost from the calorimeter on the transfer.
Record the calorimeter temperature on the Data Sheet as soon as the apparatus has been
reassembled. Note the time when the temperature is determined. Stir the water. Continue to follow
the temperature, recording the temperature on the Data Sheet every 30 sec. for the next 5 min. Plot
the temperature as a function of time, as shown in Figure 2. Determine from your curve the
maximum temperature; record the temperature on the Report Sheet (7). Determine the ΔT (8). From
the data, determine the specific heat and the atomic mass of the metal. (Use the graph paper)
Data Observation
Record your observation in the following sheet
Determination of the heat capacity of the calorimeter

1. Mass of the warm water
50.0 mL x 1.00 g/mL ______________ g
2. Mass of the cold water

50.0 mL x 1.00 g/mL ______________ g
3. Temperature of the equilibrated system:

cold water and calorimeter ______________ ℃
4. Temperature of the warm water ______________℃
5. Maximum temperature from the graph ______________ ℃
6. ΔT of cold water and calorimeter

(5) – (3) ______________℃
7. ΔT of warm water
(5) – (4) ______________℃
8. Heat lost by warm water

(2) x 1.00 cal/g ℃ x (7) ______________ cal

Rev.0.1
9. Heat gained by cold water and

the calorimeter: - (8) ______________ cal
10. Heat gained by cold water

(1) x 1.00 cal/g℃-(6) ______________ cal
11. Heat gained by the calorimeter

(9) - (10) ______________ cal
12. Heat capacity of calorimeter, Ccal

(11)/(6) ______________ cal/℃
Determination of the specific heat of a metal
1. Mass of cold water

50.0 mL x 1.00 g/mL ______________ g
2. Mass of 50-mL beaker ______________ g
3. Mass of the beaker plus metal ______________ g
4. Mass of metal: (3) – (2) ______________ g
5. Temperature of the equilibrated system ______________ ℃
6. Temperature of hot metal

(Temperature of boiling water) ______________ ℃
7. Maximum temperature from the graph ______________ ℃
8. Δ T of cold water and calorimeter

(7) – (5) ______________ ℃
9. Heat gained by the calorimeter and water

[(1) x 1.00 cal/g ℃ x (8) ] + [Ccal _ (8)] ______________ cal
10. Δ T of the metal

(7) – (6) ______________ ℃
11. Heat lost by the metal: – (9) ______________ cal
12. Specific heat of the metal

(11)(4)𝑥(10) ______________ cal/g ℃
13. Atomic mass

6.3𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 ℃ (12) __________ g/mole
Unknown number ______________ Metal unknown ______________

Rev.0.1
Temperature Data Sheet

Calorimeter Calibration Specific Heat Determination
Cold water
Time (min.) Temp (℃) Time (min.) Temp (°C)
0 ______________ 0 ______________
1.0 ______________ 1.0 ______________
2.0 ______________ 2.0 ______________
3.0 ______________ 3.0 ______________
4.0 ______________ 4.0 ______________
5.0 ______________ 5.0 ______________
After mixing
5.5 ______________ 5.5 ______________
6.0 ______________ 6.0 ______________
6.5 ______________ 6.5 ______________
7.0 ______________ 7.0 ______________
7.5 ______________ 7.5 ______________
8.0 ______________ 8.0 ______________
8.5 ______________ 8.5 ______________
9.0 ______________ 9.0 ______________
9.5 ______________ 9.5 ______________
10.0 ______________ 10.0 ______________

Rev.0.1

Rev.0.1
Data Analysis
2. Density of unknown liquid with graduated cylinder
a. Determine the mass of the liquid by subtracting the mass of the cylinder from the mass of the
cylinder plus the liquid
d. Calculate the density of liquid sample by dividing its mass (g) by its volume (mL)
5. Density of water and unknown liquid with pycnometer
a. Calculate the density of liquid by dividing the mass of liquid with the volume of the
pycnometer
6. Calculate the specific gravity of unknown liquid by dividing the density obtained from point 1
and 2 above by the density of water at 293 K (obtained from literature)
7. Density of sand
a. From the density of water at the ambient temperature (obtained from the literature), calculate
the volume of water filling in the pycnometer
b. Calculate the volume occupied by the sand by deducting volume of pycnometer with the
volume of water occupying the pycnometer
c. Calculate the density of the sand by dividing the sand mass with the volume of the mass
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What is the purpose of the insulated walls in a calorimeter?

2. Why is a thermometer included in the construction of a calorimeter?
3. What are the units of specific heat?
4. If you were to construct benches for a stadium that would be in the sun for long periods of the
day, excluding cost as a factor, why would you choose wood over aluminum or iron?
5. A car engine cools efficiently when water is used as a coolant, but the engine does not cool as
efficiently with either pure ethylene glycol (antifreeze) or pure ethyl alcohol. Explain this
observation.
6. 50 g of water was heated from 20 to 50℃. How many calories were needed to bring about the
temperature change?
Discussion
1. In doing this experiment, a student did not follow the directions exactly. How would the
experiment be affected if the following were done?
a. Glass beakers were used to make the calorimeter instead of Styrofoam cups.
b. Not all of the water was delivered from the 50-mL volumetric pipet to the calorimeter.
c. No plot of temperature was carried out. Instead, the student used the value of the water just
after mixing with the metal as the maximum temperature.
2. A 102.5-g sample of metal beads was heated in a water bath to 99.58C. The metal was then added
to a sample of water (25.7 g) and the temperature of the water changed from an initial temperature
of 20.0℃ to a final temperature of 41.5℃.
3. Calculate the amount of heat (in calories) absorbed when 50.0 g of water at 20 ℃ spreads over
your skin and warms to body temperature, 37℃
a. What was the temperature of the metal at equilibrium?
b. What was the temperature change of the metal?
c. Calculate the specific heat and the atomic mass of the metal. What is the metal?

Rev.0.1
References

Rev.0.1
Physical Properties of Inorganic Substances – Solubility and Boiling point
Session 13
Aim Understand the concept related to solubility and boiling point
Overview
The physical properties of a substance can be observed through its physical appearance, for example
calcium carbonate, is white, dull and powdery. The Physical properties of a compound such as its
solubility, boiling point, melting point and density can be observed and analyzed with laboratory set up.
1 The boiling point of pure water is 100 oC at standard atmospheric pressure, 1 atm or 760 mmhg.
Boiling point is also depend on the pressure for example: on the Mount Everest (28028 feet above the
sea), the atmospheric pressure is lower than at lower ground therefore temperature below 100 oC can
boil water. Another physical property is density. The density has a unit of mass per volume (g/mL). the
calculation for density can be performed by obtaining mass from analytical balance and volume from
several sources such as graduated cylinder, pipet or even by water displacement method.
Materials
NaCl
Na2C2O4
Metal Cylinders,
CaCl2
Equipment
250 mL Erlenmeyer Flasks
Stirring Rods
Ring Stand
Thermometer
Thermometer Clamp
Wire Screen
Hot Plate
Laboratory Balance
Rulers
Graduated Cylinder
Procedure
1. Solubility of ionic compounds: Determine and compare the solubilities of sodium chloride,
NaCl, and sodium oxalate, Na2C2O4, in water.
a. Obtain two 125 mL Erlenmeyer flasks. To each, add 50 mL of DI water, using a graduted
cylinder for the volume measurement.
b. Begin determining the solubility limit of NaCl by measuring out 15 g of NaCl on a balance.
Record the exact amount on your data sheet. Mix the solid into one of the flasks, stirring until
the NaCl crystals dissolve and are no longer visible. Return to the balance and measure out an
additional 0.5 g of NaCl. Record the exact amount. Add this to the solution and stir until it

Rev.0.1
dissolves. Continue this procedure of adding 0.5 g each time until the added amount no longer
goes into solution. Keep careful track on the data sheet as to how much NaCl is added
c. Follow the step b procedure with Na2C2O4, except begin by measuring 1.0 g of Na2C2O4
(record exact amount); stir the solid into the second flask of water until it completely dissolves.
Continue the adding process described above, but measure out an additional 0.20 g each time.
Be sure to record the exact amount of compound added. Compare this final result to the data
from the NaCl. Save these flasks for the next part of the experiment.
2. Boiling point elevation of water

a. Determine the boiling point of DI water. Add about 150 mL of water to 250 mL Erlenmeyer
flask. Clamp this securely to the middle of a ring stand. Suspend a thermometer into the flask
so that the tip of the thermometer rest inside the top of the water. Heat with Bunsen burner (or
a hot plate if one is available). The boiling point is reached when bubbling is seen and the
temperature reading stays steady. Record the boiling point on the data sheet.
b. After the boiling point is determined, shut off the heat source and carefully remove the
thermometer. Remove the hot flask with either a cool clamp or a hot pad. Obtain the flask from
the procedure 1b, which contains 50 mL of NaCl solution. Add this solution along with an
additional 50 mL of water to a 250 mL flask. Clamp the flask onto the ring stand to determine
the solution’s boiling point. Record the boiling point on the data sheet.
c. Obtain another 250 mL flask and add the Na2C2O4 solution from procedure 1c along with an
additional 50 mL of water into the flask. Again, determine the boiling point of this solution and
record the value on the data sheet
Reference:
Exploring Chemistry: laboratory experiments in general, organic and biological chemistry. 2nd edition.
Julie R. Peller

Rev.0.1
Appendix 1: Laboratory Equipment
Figure 1. Common equipment found in lab


Rev.0.1


Rev.0.1


Rev.0.1
Appendix 2: Laboratory Techniques
1. Using Graduated Cylinders
A graduated cylinder is a cylinder marked with different scale increments. It comes in many
different size and different scale increments. Before you begin to measure, you need to first determine
the scale increment. To do this, subtract the values of any two adjacent labeled graduations and divide
by the number of intervals between them.
A 50 mL graduated cylinder. The value difference of two adjacent label is 50 –

40 = 10. There are 10 intervals between the label. So each graduation is 10 mL
divided by 10 intervals = 1 mL for each interval.
To determine the volume of liquid in the cylinder,

hold it up to the eye level and view the height of the
liquid in the cylinder with your eyes directly level with
the liquid. The liquid in the cylinder will most likely
curve downward. This phenomenon is called meniscus.
It is important that when you read the liquid level, you
position should be on eye – level with the meniscus. Do
not read from above or below eye level. The line you
are reading should be the center of the meniscus. For
water, this is the bottom of the meniscus. For mercury (found in thermometer), the reading is taken from
the top of the meniscus since the mercury is curved upward.
Handling graduated cylinders

- Pouring liquids
Graduated cylinders are tall and thin, so they easily tip over, break and spill out their contents. So
when pouring liquid, hold the top of cylinder with one hand while pouring the liquid with other
hand. Never crouched down so your head is on the lower position than the cylinders.
- Cleaning and drying
If you need to use the cylinder directly after washing, take a piece of paper towel a few inches
longer than the graduated cylinder. Then fold the paper towel lengthwise, then until the folded paper
towel has a circumference that will allow it to fit inside the cylinder. Insert the folded paper towel,
and thrust it up and down a few times to absorb the liquid from the inside surface of the cylinder.
Else put the cylinder upside down on a hanger rack, or put it horizontally to dry.

Rev.0.1
2. How to use pipette filler
Source : Learning the basics – how to work with volumetric instruments. Brand GMBH. Retrieved
from www.brand.de.
3. How to read marking on pipette

To deliver (TD) – the graduation line indicates the volume delivered by the pipette
To contain (TC) – the graduation line indicates the volume contained in the pipette
TC calibrated pipette contain error caused by water holdback by the adhesion force with the wall
of the pipette. The residual liquid left in the tip must be discharged by blowing out. TD calibrated
pipette has already considered the error. Therefore, the residual liquid left in the tip must not be
discharged into the vessel, such as by blowing out.
4. Using measuring pipette

There are two types of measuring pipettes: Mohr and serological pipettes.
Mohr pipettes Serological pipette
The graduation mark always end before tip The graduation mark continue to the tip
These pipettes require a controlled delivery of Partial measurements using the last few
the solution between the upper fill mark and milliliters of the pipette in or near the
the intended lower mark. The mark between delivery tip are inaccurate (and thus
the last graduated line and the tip are not discouraged) due to changes in the
calibrated. Therefore, should not be used for diameter of the pipette. The opening in
measurement. the tip is large, allowing liquid to flow
faster.
5. Using volumetric pipette

Volumetric pipette is used to deliver only one volume. Should be used when accuracy and
reproducibility are crucial, because these can achieve accuracy to four significant figures.
On a volumetric pipette, the specifications indicate:
how much liquid will be transferred if the liquid is drawn up to the calibration line on the neck
• the temperature at which the calibration was made

Rev.0.1
1. How to prepare a standard solution with a volumetric flask:

a. Insert the precisely weighed amount or measured volume of substance.
b. Rinse the weighing cup or volumetric pipette with water. The rinsing solution is then poured
into the volumetric flask.
c. Fill the flask with distilled water to about half. Swirl the flask to dissolve and mix the contents
thoroughly.
d. Top up the flask with distilled water to just below the ring mark.
e. Top up the remaining volume, using a wash bottle or pipette, until the meniscus is exactly at
the ring mark. Important: meniscus must be read at eye level. The wall of the flask must not be
wetted above the mark.
f. Close the flask and shake upside down to mix contents.
Source : Learning the basics – how to work with volumetric instruments. Brand GMBH. Retrieved
from www.brand.de.

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Laboratory Protocol Developer and Supervisor(s) Information

Fundamental of Laboratory Practice I consists of the following session:

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Introduction to Laboratory Practice and Safety

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10. How to operate an extinguisher in case of fire:

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Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Laboratory Measurement and Mathematics

Figure 1: an illustration of precision and accuracy.

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Table 1. weigh of cylinder measured with device A, B and C (in g)

Device Device Device

Step 2. Calculate the percent error of each measuring device

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Device A Device B Device C

Step 3. Calculate standard deviation of each measurement

Calculating the Required Mass

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Ppm (part per million)

Making (Simple) Dilutions

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Making More Complicated Solutions

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Materials and equipment

EQUIPMENT USED AMOU

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2. Choosing the appropriate measuring apparatus

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Table 1. Investigating the accuracy and precision of laboratory glassware

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Weight of _____ mL water (g) with beaker

Calculation of procedure no. 4:

2. Choosing the appropriate measuring apparatus

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Prelab activities (answer in separate paper)

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Micropipette, Solution Preparation and Serial Dilution

Anatomy of an Air-Displacement Micropipette

8 Steps to Achieve Accurate Micropipetting [Forward Pipettting]

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Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Materials and Equipment

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A2. Accuracy of Repetitive Pipetting 2

A3. Reverse Pipetting for Transfer Viscous Solution

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Data analysis and Discussion

Prelab activities (answer in separate paper)

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Inorganic Nomenclature: Binary Compound and Oxidation Number

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Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Indonesia International Institute for Life Science – General Chemistry

Stoichiometry of Chemical Reaction

Materials and Equipment

Data analysis and discussion

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