CHAPTER 2: Curriculum Planning

This chapter provides information on the process of curriculum planning as an important

phase of curriculum development. In this chapter, you should be able to:
1. discuss different curriculum sources and influences;
2. analyze different levels of curriculum planning; and
3. identify different roles of teachers and school administrators in curriculum planning.

Curriculum Sources and Influences

Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subject matter, society and
learners. Accordingly, these curriculum sources need to be considered and examined to identify
the four elements of curriculum: goals, content, learning experiences, and in evaluation. It is
important to understand the nature of the subject matter in order to provide knowledge and
skills that are essential to the nature of the discipline. This also helps in selecting and designing
curriculum contents.
Likewise, it is important to have clear understanding of the nature of society in developing
a curriculum. This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs, demands, and problems of
the society, and the available resources that can be utilized in the development and
implementation of the curriculum sources, provides information about the context in which the
curriculum will be used. This is important to make the curriculum more relevant and responsive.
Understanding the nature of the learners is also important in curriculum development.
Understanding the learners includes knowing their needs, nature, and interests, learning styles,
and thinking styles. It also includes knowing the various issues and problems about them. The
learners are the direct subjects of the school curriculum. Hence, making the learners as one of
the curriculum sources is important in selecting the learning experiences for the curriculum
(Tyler, 1949).

Society as Source of Curriculum

Society is an important source of curriculum. Teachers need to understand the cultural,
socio-economic, and political conditions of the people. Understanding the context is important
in developing a relevant and responsive curriculum (Tyler, 1949; Nicholls and Nicholls, 1978). It
is useful in selecting curriculum goals and objectives, content, and learning experiences (Taba,
1962; Stark & Lattuca. 1997; Oliva, 2005).
There are many changes in the society that need to be considered in the curriculum.
Science and technology continue to influence our everyday life as new science findings, new
technology, and new information come in almost every single minute of a day. The new world of
economy also has its own issues and demands. For example, 21st century skills and new forms of
knowledge should be developed in the curriculum in order to develop a world-class workforce.
In addition, the society is becoming multilingual and multicultural. Developing cultural
understanding and socio-cultural consciousness among the learners is becoming a necessity.

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Other pressing social issues like climate change, security, problems, diseases, poverty, and many
others also affect the everyday life of people.
Educators and schools face the challenge whether they will simply respond to the needs
and demands of the society or have education through its curriculum in order to develop or
create the kind of society that everyone wishes to have. There is a need is a need to put a balance
between pursuing the utopian goals of education and its practical or economic goals.

Learners as source of Curriculum

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum. Although the
curriculum content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), or the Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA), educators
and curriculum developers have tried to align the curriculum to the needs and nature of the
students. This process is done when faculty members plan their individual syllabi, unit plans, and
lesson plans as an interpretation of the intended curriculum.
As students comes from different provinces, they have different cultures, languages,
learning styles, needs, and types and levels of motivation. The students are also different in terms
of socio-economic status and educational backgrounds (public or private).For these, the
students, as one major source of curriculum, are supported by several curriculum scholars and
are well-represented in their curriculum development models (Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967;
Walker, 1972; Skilbeck, 1976; Nicholls, 1978; Print, 1993; Stark and Lattuca, 1997; Olivia, 2005).

Discipline or Subject Matter as Source of Curriculum

Tyler (1949) identified the nature of the discipline or subject matter as one of the main
sources of curriculum. Different subjects are unique in terms of design and content. There are
specific skills and contents that should be emphasized in each of the disciplines. In some cases,
there are similarities in skills, concepts, and strands in different subjects that may be possible
points for integration.
Understanding the nature of the discipline or subject matter requires educators to closely
analyze the contents prescribed by the Department of Education especially the K-12 Curriculum.
The curriculum framework, curriculum goals, descriptions, standards, and competencies in
different subjects will help educators understand what should be taught and how to teach the
different subjects.
The Commission on Higher Education also prescribes guidelines in different courses.
Several cultural innovations and changes set by the government were considered and strictly
followed in designing the official curriculum of a particular school, college, or university. The
curricular requirements that include course title, course credit, and course descriptions are based
on the CHED Memorandum Orders (CMOs) which CHED issued for different courses. For example
CMO No. 20 Series of 2013 included the general education program for all undergraduate courses
or programs in the Philippines.
Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also prescribes different
contents of the modules offered for each particular subject for vocational or technical courses.
The skills that should be learned including the materials needed and the time that is required for
training are clearly specified in each module.

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Curriculum Influences
Aside from the major curriculum courses, Stark and Lattuca (1997) identified three major
factors that influence curriculum development; external, internal, and organizational influences
(see Figure 2).Stark and Lattuca used the term curriculum influences to refer to these three
factors that are very influential in curriculum development. According to them, these curriculum
influences affect the whole academic plan that incorporates a total blueprint for action, including
the purposes, activities, and ways of measuring success.

External Influences
Society/Government
A Discipline Associations;
c Marketplace/Alumni
a
d
Organizational Influences
e Program Relationships
m Resources
i Governance
c
Internal Influences
P Faculty, Students, Discipline,
l and Program Mission
a
n

Figure 2.Factors Affecting Academic Planning (Stark and Lattuca, 1997)

Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the different

factors that are needed to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides the sources of
data and information for developing curriculum. Knowing these curriculum influences is useful in
making the curriculum more relevant and responsive to the educational system of the
Philippines.
A research on curriculum influences conducted by Pawilen (2011) shows the results of the
Focus Group Discussion (FGP) with the faculty members and administrators who identified
several curriculum influences that they always consider whenever they plan, design, develop,
revise, and evaluate the curriculum. These identified curriculum influences are shown in Table 1.
They affect curriculum processes in the school level.

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 Table 1. Curriculum Influences

 Students/Learners
 College Philosophy, Vision, and Mission
 K-12 Basic Education Curriculum
 Admission and Retention Policies, and School Rules
 Faculty Members
 School Administrators
 Requirements from Government Agencies
 Licensure Examinations (for Higher Education)
 Accreditation Standards
 Market Demands
 Alumni and Finding Sources
 Media and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
 Church and Church-related Agencies (for religious schools)
 School Facilities and Other Resources
 Other Disciplines or Courses and Programs offered by the School
 Student Services

Students
The students are considered as the most influential among the different curriculum
influences especially in designing the implemented curriculum. Learners have different interests,
needs, talents, abilities, learning styles, and thinking preferences. All these are important in
course planning. Teachers believe that the students could learn more if their interest and learning
styles are considered when planning their courses. Many students wants a variety of learning
experiences in their classes and practical application of their lessons in real-life situations.
They came from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations, beliefs,
language, and socio-economic status. When teachers plan their courses, they always keep these
in mind. They recognize that their previous experiences with the students, including the students’
performance in class, are sources of valuable information about the students’ capabilities. Many
teachers observe during their classes that students’ backgrounds, especially their demographic
characteristics, influence their attitude and performance toward learning. Thus, students bring
with them their culture in the school.
For college, the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum planning.
As students took up their basic education in either public or private schools in their provinces,
their academic skills and learning habits differ from those of the city. For instance, some students
have poor communication skills because of poor background in English education in their basic
education.

School’s Vision, Mission, and Core Values

The school vision, mission, and core values are very influential factors in developing the
curriculum. They are the fundamental bases in developing the four elements of curriculum goals
and objectives, content, learning experiences, and evaluation. These three factors are included
in all the lesson plans or course syllabi to ensure that the course values of the institution are
included in the syllabi.

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 The vision, mission, and the core values of the school are also reflected in the planned,
implemented, and hidden curriculum of the school. All faculty members are required to reflect
this type of education in their teaching, lesson plans, and in the syllabus. The vision, mission, and
the core values of the schools are reflections of what the institution can contribute to the society
and to development of individuals. Students and alumni are expected to possess the core values
of their schools.

Admission and Retention Policies

The third influential is the admission and the retention policies. These policies set the
standard of what kind of students are admitted and what are the things they need to do as
students of the institution until they graduate. This is an important part of the intended and
implemented curriculum. School rules are set to give order and provide smooth implementation
of the curriculum. Rules also developed the hidden curriculum of the school.

Faculty Members
The influence of faculty members is also considered important. Faculty members bring
with them their educational background, experiences, expertise, and personal, professional, and
political views on the institution. They also have different interests, teaching styles, and
philosophies, which influence the way they plan, develop, and implement the curriculum.
In basic education, teachers take the role of a second parent to their students. Many
students believe in what they say and teach. They are not only seen as models of high ethical life-
students and other people also see them as intellectuals in various subject areas.
In the college level, teachers are seen as experts in their fields. They are expected to know
more about their subjects. The academic freedom enjoyed by faculty members also allows them
to modify and plan their syllabi based on their expertise and researches. The behaviors of the
faculty members also influence the hidden curriculum in college. Sometimes their students take
their professional and personal views on certain issues seriously as a principle.
Teachers, as recognized by Stark and Latucca (1997), are a major influence in curriculum
development. They are the key implementers of the curriculum. The success of any curriculum
and instruction highly depends on them. They need to be empowered to make curricular and
instructional innovations in their own schools. Teachers are expected to be experts in the content
of the subjects they teach. They should also be experts in pedagogy.

School Administrators and Board of Trustees

The influence of school officials and the school bureaucracy in curriculum processes were
recognized by several curriculum scholars like Wiles and Bondi (2006), and Stark and Lattuca
(1997), among others. School administrators, including the board of trustees, play an important
role in providing the curriculum leadership in schools, colleges, and universities. Apart from
setting and approving rules for the school, they administer the planning, implementation, and
evaluation of the curriculum. Their abilities and skills as curriculum leaders and managers are
essential in curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation (Wiles & Bondi, 2006).
Olive (2005) considered them as part of the entire team of curriculum workers in an institution.
The academic preparation and previous experiences of the administrators can also be noted to
influence the development of the curriculum.

Accrediting Agencies

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 Accrediting agencies are equally influential in basic education and in higher education.
Like the DepEd and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary standards for curriculum,
instruction, faculty and facilities, and influence how the curricular programs are governed.
Accrediting agencies determine the quality of the courses being offered in an institution. As such,
many schools especially private schools try their best to improve the governance and
implementation of their various curricular and co-curricular programs.
Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the Association of Christian Schools,
colleges, and Universities Accrediting Agency Incorporation (ACSCU-AA), Philippine Accrediting
Association of Schools, Colleges, and Universities (PAASCU), and the Accrediting Agency for
Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP). These accrediting bodies are in
charge of evaluating the quality of education for each member institution based on criteria set
by the accrediting agency.

Government Policies and Agencies

The respondents identified government policies and agencies as most influential in
curriculum planning and development. In basic education, the Department of Education Issues
Department Orders (DOS) and memoranda that serve as guide for all public and private schools
in the country. The Department of Education also prescribes the official curriculum for basic
education and issues the guidelines for operations for private schools.
For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum orders, prescribes
the minimum general education and professional courses, course credits, and course
descriptions to be taken by the students. The CHED also prescribes the faculty qualifications,
facilities, and other requirements for the implementation and administration of the courses.

Market Demands (General)

Market demands or the needs of society are very influential in planning and developing
curriculum. It is imperative that students are prepared in terms of knowledge, values, and skills
to meet the needs and demands of different institutions in the society. For example, graduates
are expected to develop or possess 21st century skills. They are expected to be technologically
literate. They are also expected to develop various literacies including functional literacy. Schools
are expected to develop graduates that can be assets and good citizens of the society.

Alumni
The alumni are also considered as one of the external influences on curriculum
development. The alumni are very helpful in terms of donating money to support programs for
students, faculty scholarships, professorial chairs, facilities, and financing students’ activities.
Besides financial help, their comments or their evaluation feedback based on their previous
quality experiences as students are very useful information for improving the implemented
curriculum of the school. The alumni are the living testimony of the curriculum or the quality of
education offered by a particular school.

Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT)

Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are two of the external
curriculum influences. The presence of technology, especially the Internet, enables students and
teachers to access almost all the information they need for teaching and learning. This allows
students and faculty members to access online journals, papers, and other information from yhe
internet to be used for teaching and learning. Technology connects the school to the global
community.

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 In as much as ICT is changing the landscape of schooling, it is also changing how the
courses are planned and implemented, especially how the content of the curriculum will be put
together. Although it is expensive to have full ICT integration in schools, school administrators
try their best to achieve this goals. Computers, LCD projectors, Internet facilities, and other forms
of technology are made available for instructional purposes in the school.

The Church and Church-related Agencies

For religious schools, the different religious orders and the church play an important role
in school. Many religious institutions serve as extension programs or mission programs of the
churches and religious orders that established them. The schools also offer institutional
requirements such as Bible subjects, theology, and Christian living subjects. These subjects are
required to all students. Religious schools also offer retreats, chapel services, and other religious
activities to their students.

School Facilities and Other Resources

School facilities and other resources are very important in the implantation of the
curriculum. The respondents explained that school facilities like classrooms, libraries,
laboratories, ICT equipment, dormitories, school clinics, counseling office, canteen, chapel for
sectarian schools, and laboratories are very useful in providing quality education, especially in
implementing the curriculum.

Student Services
The last among the influences are the existing student services or existing student support
system institutionalized by the schools. Among these services are the following:

 Campus Ministry – helps in the spiritual nourishment of the students in sectarian schools
 Guidance and Counseling Services – provides professional help to students with various
personal and psychological concerns
 Health Services – responds to various health-related concerns of the students through a
clinic with full- time health workers
 Financial Assistance and Scholarships – provides financial assistance to deserving students
 Student Affairs Office – guides the students in organizing activities and provides all forms
of support for academic and personal development of the students in the school.
These curriculum influences and sources are very important in curriculum development.
Responding to these curriculum sources and influences helps curriculum workers and
developers in planning, developing, and implementing a relevant and responsive
curriculum for different learners and schools. They help everyone involved in and affected
by a curriculum understand the context in which one is developed. Moreover, when
evaluating a curriculum, these curriculum sources and influences are the ones that are
looked into and reviewed.

Reflections on Curriculum Planning

Curriculum planning is an essential part of curriculum development. It sets the
tone for curriculum development activities. In curriculum planning, we are taught to
examine the needs and demands of the society, understand the nature of the discipline
and structure of knowledge, and analyse the nature and needs of the learners.
Knowledge about the learners – help us to understand that curriculum must respond to
the nature, needs, interest, learning styles, and thinking preferences of every learner.

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It makes us realize that the purpose of the curriculum is not just develop knowledge and
skills but for the holistic development of every learner.
Knowledge about the society – helps us to realize that a curriculum must be made
relevant and responsive to the needs and demands of the society. A curriculum should be
context-based and it must uphold social values and edify democratic principles of the
society.
Knowledge about the discipline of subject matter – helps us to understand the different
disciplines, subjects, and academic fields. It enables every curriculum worker to
understand essential contents that should be covered in a particular discipline.
There are also different curriculum influences: organizational, internal, and
external influences. Understanding these curriculum influences helps us appreciate the
educational and social context where each curriculum is developed and implemented.