556 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-89, NO.
4, APRIL 1970
Optimum Megawatt-Frequency Control
Multiarea Electric Energy Systems
OLLE I. ELGERD, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE, AND
Abstract-The North American Power Systems Interconnection
Committee recommends that each control area set its frequency bias
equal to the so-called area frequency response characteristic (AFRC).
The authors question seriously the basis for this practice and prove
by the methods of optimum control that better response and wider
stability margins can be obtained by lower bias settings.
INTRODUCTION
AN electric energy system must be maintained at a desired
operating level characterized by nominal frequency,
voltage profile, and load flow configuration. It is kept in this
nominal state by close control of the real and reactive powers
generated in the controllable sources of the system. The total real
and reactive power demands PD and QD will slowly change
throughout the 24 hours of the day, but during time periods
measured in seconds or minutes, they can be considered as
essentially constants with superimposed first-order pertur-
bations APD and AQD, respectively. (Throughout the paper, A
symbolizes a perturbation of first-order magnitude. The super-
script * indicates "nominal" value.)
The perturbations in generated power APG and AQG must
match the load perturbations if exact nominal state is to be
maintained. However, due to the statistical nature of the load
fluctuations, this can never be achieved-the best we can hope
for is to keep the system within sufficiently small tolerance
levels.
By means of sensitivity analysis [1] the following very im-
portant characteristics of a power system can be proved.
1) A mismatch in the real power balance affects primarily the
system frequency f, but leaves the bus voltage magnitudes
essentially unaffected.
2) A mismatch in the reactive power balance affects only the
bus voltage magnitudes, but leaves the system frequency es-
sentially unaffected.
It is reemphasized that these rules apply only when the
changes involve only small percentage, i.e., are first order in a
mathematical sense. In view of the above facts, the nominal
steady-state control problem can be divided into two independ-
ent or "decoupled" control problems.
1) The megawatt-frequency control problem, or "P-f control"
for short. By means of a frequency sensor, the frequency error is
Paper 69 TP 658-PWR, recommended and approved by the Power
7Q+flf Engineering Committee of the IEEE Power Group for
at the IEEE Summer Power Meeting, Dallas, Tex.,
<;entation
June 22-27, 1969. Manuscript submitted March 28, 1969; made
available for printing April 30, 1969. The research reported was
supported in part by a grant from the investor-owned utilities in the
State of Florida.
0. I. Elgerd is with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. 32601.
C. E. Fosha, Jr., was with the Department of Electrical Engi-
neering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.. He is now with the
Department of Mathematics, U. S. Air Force Academy, Colorado
Springs, Colo. 80840.
of
CHARLES E. FOSHA, JR., MEMBER, IEEE
CONTROL AREA J CONTROL AREA I r
system parameters
H- D- TTITGi Ri
system variabless
--- APD1 tV-
TIE LINES
CONTROL ANA K
Fig. 1. Interconnection of individual control areas.
detected, since it is the most sensitive indicator that real-
power balance is not maintained. If an error exists, "lower" or
"raise" commands are sent to the prime mover, resulting in
decreased or increased real generator power.
2) The megavar-voltage control problem, or "Q-V control" for
short. By means of voltage sensors, bus voltage magnitude
deviations are detected; these are the most sensitive indicator -of
the reactive power imbalance. If an error exists, "increase" or
"decrease" commands are sent to the Q sources.
During major fault situations, the deviations in frequency and
voltage are no longer small, and the noninteraction feature be-
tween P and Q control channels no longer applies.
MEGAWATT-FREQUENCY CONTROL PROBLEM
In this paper the P-f control problem has been selected for
critical examination. The problem, of course, is as old as the
power systems technology itself. Interest in overall system
stability resulting from some spectacular recent system break-
downs has focused renewed interest on this problem area. This
particular study was actually initiated in an effort to better
learn the reasons for the relatively unsuccessful attempt to
synchronize the western United States power-block with the
eastern block via midwestern tie lines.
Dynamic System Model
The first order of business is development of a system model.
The following analysis is based on the assumption that the elec-
trical interconnections within each individual control area (Fig.
1) are so strong, at least in relation to the ties with the neigh-
boring areas, that the whole area can be characterized by a
single frequency only. In the strictest sense, when the system
deviates from the constant nominal frequency, every bus voltage
will experience its own angular velocity or frequency. The
assumption made means that all generators belonging to an
area will swing in unison. Should this assumption not be
permissible (and one must be careful in the case of an individual
ELGERD AND FOSHA: OPTIMUM MEGAWATT-FREQUENCY CONTROL 557

area covering a wide territory), then one must subdivide the ApDi (s)
area into subareas. The theory that follows will still apply.
The net power surplus in the area following a disturbance
APD equals APG - APD MW, and this power will be absorbed aFi (s)
by the system in three ways:
1) by increasing the area kinetic energy Wki. at the rate
dl d (fY1
dt Wkin = dt [Wkinir* (f1 2 IPtie
~tie i (s)
i

Fig. 2. Control area block diagram.

d Wkin*
(1 +2 Af)
2Ikin* d Incremental Tie-Line Power APtie j: The total real power
W) exported from area i, Ptie i, equals the sum of all out flowing line
f* dt powers, Ptie i,, in the lines connecting area i with neighboring
2) by an increased load consumption: All typical loads (be- areas, i.e.,
cause of the dominance of motor load) experience an increase
D - OPD/If MW/Hz with speed or frequency. This D param-
Ptie i =
E Ptie i, (9)
eter can be found empirically; The summation shall be extended over all lines v that terminate
3) by increasing the export of power, via tie lines, with the in area i.
total amount APtie MW defined positive out from the area. If the line losses are neglected, the individual line powers
In summary, the following power equilibrium equation applies
to area i: can be written in the form

Wkin j" -d Ptiei= lvillVyI

XivPri
sin (di - a,)
APGi - APDi = 2 f* dt (Afi) + DiAfi + APtiei- (2) (10)
A Ptie max iv sin (a, -
Ap)
All terms have dimension MW. It is more practical to divide
the equation by Pr,i the total rated area power expressed in MW. where
The equation then takes on the form Vi= 1vile'i
APGi -
d
APDi = 2 f*-dt (Afif) + DiAfi + APtiei (3)
VF IV,Ieie'5
are the terminal bus voltages of the line, and X;p its reactance.
where the inertia constant Hi is defined as The maximum value Ptie max i, represents the maximum real
power (here expressed in per unit of area power Pri) that can be
HiA "Wkin MWs/MW or s. (4) transmitted via the line. The tie line is termed "weak" if Ptie max iv
Pr1 << Pri.
If the phase angles deviate from their nominal values bi* and
In (3) all powers are now in per units of Pri. The inertia 8/* by the amounts Ab8 and A8,, respectively, one obtains
constant Hi has the desirable property of being almost inde-
pendent of area size. The normal numerical H range is 2-8
seconds.
APtieip =
aPe(i-i ) (ASi - Ab,). (11)
The differential equation (3) is linear with constant coef- Thus
ficients, and upon Laplace transformation it takes on the
form:
APtie i -= YI11I
XivPri Cos (8i* - 8,*)(A8 - NO,). (12)
[APGi(S) - APDi(s) - APtiei(s)] 1 + = AFi(s) (5) The phase angle changes are related to the area frequency
sT1pi changes by
where, for brevity, the following new parameters have been A81 = 27r f fifdt. (13)
introduced:
Upon combination of (12) and (13) one obtains
Tif*DW
A2"'
(6) APtie iP = Ti,* (f Af1 dt - f Af, dt) (14)
where
KpA = , Hz/pu MW. (7)
Ti,* A 2vr IvillvI
XivPri
cos (8i* - * (15)
Upon defining the area transfer function
is the synchronizing coefficient, or the electrical stiffness of the
Gp, s) A_ 1 +Kpi.sT,,i (8) tie line. Note that it is expressed in per-unit megawatts of the
rated power in area i. Upon Laplace transforming (14), one gets
the control area can be represented by the block diagram in APtie is() = Ti,* lAF(s) - AF,(s)]. (16)
Fig. 2. s
558 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, APRIL 1970

AF%(s) SF1 (s)

GOTi (s)
AP (,s) + AP
i(s)
LFu(s) AFv(s)
Fig. 3. Incremental tie-line power out of area i. Fig. 5. Block diagram of turbine generator.

t A~~~~~~~
PDI S
STEAM G t( ) LPGI(S) Gpi(Js)
FLOW APci (5F
iI+tlsf51I)(I4ST5i ) \
I < I+sTpi
(s)
'DECREASE TURBINE ktie i(S)
APC; -LZ SPEED CHANGER I APGI
4INCREASE
,CLOSE GENERATOR A ~~~I!;
I S QOPEN
SPEED GOVERNO
HIGHH,,
PRESSURE)
OIL AFj(s) AF vC)
Fig. 4. Typical turbine control arrangement. Fig. 6. Block diagram of single-area perturbation model.

The total increment in exported power from area i (symbolized gard for the time being the dotted portions of the figure.) Before
in block diagram form in Fig. 3) is finally obtained from (9) we proceed, we must explain the presence of the block containing
the transfer function al2. This transfer function equals the
APtiei(s) = - > T AFi (s) - AF,(s)]. (17) following:

Incremental Generated Power APGi: The real power generated in A

a P2
= Prl (18)
a synchronous machine is controlled by means of the prime
mover torque. This torque is affected by opening or closing
the main steam valve in the case of a steam turbine or the water i.e., the negative ratio between rated megawatts of areas 1 and 2,
gates in the case of a hydroturbine. Fig. 4 depicts schematically respectively. It must be included in the block diagram because
the typical turbine control arrangement. the term APti, 1 in (3) represents the tie-line power change
A study of this system [1 ] reveals that for small signals around out from area i expressed in per unit of area rating Pri. If in
the nominal settings, the system in Fig. 4 can be represented by Fig. 7 the areas have different ratings, we clearly have the
the block diagram in Fig. 5. In this block diagram the governor following relation between APtie i and APti0 2:
turbine generator has been represented by two time constants
TGi and TTi. The former represents the time constant of the APtie 2 = - A
lPtie 1 A al2APtie 1. (19)
governor, and the latter represents the time lag of the turbine. Pr2
(The generator response is, for all practical purposes, instan-
taneous.) This representation is the most fundamental but We have chosen the two-area system as the object of our study
detailed one that we can, in the name of simplicity, use. for several reasons:
The constant Ri measured in Hz/pu MW is a measure of the 1) it is the simplest of multiarea systems;
static speed droop of the uncontrolled turbine generator. We 2) because the few papers that have been published [2], [3], on
term the unit uncontrolled when the command signal AP,i, multiple-area control have limited their analysis to two-area
to the speed changer is zero. systems, we are able to compare results;
Overall Single-Area System Model: Upon combining the block 3) before we attempt to understand the larger systems, it is of
diagrams of Figs. 2, 3, and 5, we obtain the overall single-area paramount importance that we command the two-area case.
perturbation model shown in Fig. 6. This type of model will serve Useful Mechanical Analog: The novice who attempts to grasp
as basis for the analysis to follow. the frequency load dynamics of the two-area system may find it
useful to make comparisons with the mechanical analog shown
P-f Control of Two-Area System in Fig. 8. The analog consists of two engine-freightcar assemblies.
We have combined two single-area models just developed to each representing the respective areas interconnected via a
form the two-area perturbation model shown in Fig. 7. (Disre- soft spring, which represents the tie line. If the train travels
ELGERD AND FOSHA: OPTIMUM MEGAWATT-FREQUENCY CONTROL 559

ANALOG AREA ANALOG WEAK ANALOG AREA 2

TIE LINE

z i

V+ AV1 VA AV2
Fig. 8. Mechanical analog of two-area interconnected
power system.

Af (f)

_ sec

<\Af2(t]~~~~~~~~~fsa
Fig. 7. Block diagram of two-area perturbation model. e
i ~ ~ ~ f

at the nominal constant speed v*, and a load change is suddenly sec
applied in one of the assemblies, the speeds of the two assemblies AP4ie stat
will change with the amount Av1 and Av2, and the spring force
(or power) with the amount AFtie. Fig. 9. Uncontrolled response of two-area system to step-load
One can show [1] that the differential equations describing increase in area 1.
an n-assembly train are identical (except for scale factors)
with those we have derived for the electric system in this paper; We introduce here the area frequency response characteristic
i.e., the mechanical system is an analog of the electrical (or vice (AFRC) for each area:
versa). In the two-area case the following variables are inter-
related: - Di + 1/Ri, pu MW/Hz
(21)
Afi ± AV, 02A D2 + 1/R2, pu MW/Hz
Af2 =/\A)2 and can then write (20)
APD2 - al2APD1
APtie ± AFtie. Afstat = - 13-
02- al2ol
(22)
Response of Uncontrolled System: Before we enter into a dis- _1 APD2 -
32APD1
cussion of how to control the two-area system, it is useful to APtie 1 stat
082- a12#1
take a look at the response of the uncontrolled system. For this
purpose we consider the system in Fig. 7 with no command The physical significance of the AFRC can be stated as
inputs fed to the speed changers; i.e., we set AP,1 = APC2 = 0. follows: An area operated alone will, if uncontrolled and subject
A step load is applied to area 1 and the subsequent variations to a step-load change, experience a static frequency drop in-
of Af1, Af2, and APtie are studied. Fig. 9 shows the results as versely proportional to its AFRC. This follows directly from
recorded on an analog computer. We note the following important Fig. 6, which renders (by setting s = 0 and APtie i = 0)
features: P
Afstat = (23)
1) all three variables have nonzero static errors;
2) the two frequency errors will, of course, be equal after Equation (22) becomes particularly simple should we assume
steady state is reached; identical area parameters, i.e.,
3) the system is oscillatory but stable.
D1 = D2= D
All these results could have been predicted by considering the
mechanical analog. Ri = R2 = R
Area Frequency Response Characteristic Concept: Let us compute 31 = 12 = 1
the static frequency error Afl stat = Af2 stat and the static tie-
line power error APtie stat identified in Fig. 9. We can either use a12 = -1.
(3) and set d/dt = 0, or use the block diagram in Fig. 7 and set We then get
s = 0. The analysis gives the result
APD2 213
+ APD1
al2APD1
APD2 -
Afstat = - X Hz
Afstat = -
D2 + 1/R2- a12(D1 + 1/R2) APtie 1 stat = - APtie 2 stat (24)
+ 1/R)
APtD2(Dl 1/20-a APD(D2 + 1/R2) (20) APD2 -
APD1
AP tie 1 stat =-

2 y puMW.
560
For example, if a step-load change occurs in area 2 we get
Afstat = - ,PD2
2$
Hz (25)
2 /-' sec
APtiel1 stat =AP,
2
pu MW. (26)
In summary, (25) and (26) tell us the advantages of pool
operation:
1) 50 percent of the added load in area 2 will be supplied by
area 1 via the tie-line;
2) the frequency drop will be only half that which would be
experienced if the areas were operating alone [compare (23)
and (25) ].
Control Specifications: The curves in Fig. 9 indicate that the
response of the uncontrolled system is unacceptable in several
respects. Here follow a set of typical minimum requirements:
1) the static frequency error following a step-load change
must be zero;
2) the transient frequency swings should not exceed +0.02 Hz
under normal conditions;
3) the static change in the tie-line power flow following a step-
load change in either area must be zero;
4) the time error should not exceed + 3 seconds;
5) the individual generators within each area should divide
their loads for optimum economy.
The four first requirements are suggested by the North
American Power Systems Interconnection Committee (NAPSIC).
The fifth is up to the individual member.
The very accurate frequency control specified in requirements
1) and 2) is due to a desire to keep the frequency as smooth
as possible. The frequency is the surest indicator of a
serious fault, and by thus keeping it as smooth as possible under
normal operating conditions, a fault can be detected at an early
stage.
Requirement 3) is of fundamental importance in pool opera-
tion, where the basic rule is that each pool member should,
in steady state, carry its own load.
Requirement 4) limits the time error in synchronous clocks
operated from the system frequency. Due to the high-frequency
accuracy specified in 2), a time error of Hr 3 seconds will take at
least 3 X 1/0.02 X 60 = 9000 seconds - 3 hours to accumulate.
The normal procedure is to let one of the pool members keep
track of this accumulated time error (by comparing "system
time" with standard time), and from time to time command
all pool members to reduce the error to zero by a unison effort.
Requirement 5) is satisfied by the individual pool members
by a slow secondary adjustment of the generator outputs
after the primary control system, to be discussed below, has
done its job. This "economic control loop" will not affect the
primary response, and we shall therefore disregard it in our
analysis.
Tie-Line Bias Control Strategy: The standard control strategy
used in the industry to meet the above requirements is of linear,
integral form:
APC1 A- Kn f (APtie 1 + B,Af1) dt
(27>
APC2 A- KI2 f(APtie 2 + B2Af2) dt.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, APRIL 1970
150%
LAB
AfO(t) 1 01 /
T T /D \
1500%1
APtie l(t)
22 5
"lo
o/7i'1-
\.\j. \17hec
Fig. 10. Closed-loop response of two-area system to step-load
increase in area 1; K1 fixed.
The constants K11 and K12 are integrator gains, and the constants
B1 and B2 are the frequency bias parameters. This strategy
has been indicated by the dotted portions in Fig. 7. The minus
signs must be included since each area should increase its
generation if either its frequency error Afi or its tie-line power
increment APtiei is negative.
Static Closed-Loop Response: The chosen strategy meets the
important requirements 1) and 3) for the following reason:
After a step-load change a new static equilibrium, if such an
equilibrium exists, can be achieved only after the speed changer
commands AP,, and AP02 have reached constant values. But
this evidently requires that both integrands in (27) be zero,
i.e.,
APtie 1 stat + BlAfstat = 0
(28)
APtie 2 stat + B2Afstat = 0.
In view of (19) those conditions can be met only if
Afstat = APtie 1 stat = APtie 2 stat = 0. (29)
Note that this result is independent of the B1 and B2 values.
In fact, one of the bias parameters (but not both) can be zero
and we still have a guarantee that (29)-and thus require-
ments 1) and 3)-is satisfied.
Dynamic Closed-Loop Response: The dynamic characteristics
of the closed-loop response are as important as the static ones-
maybe more so. From all we know at this stage, the proposed
system may not even be stable. To find the dynamic response
analytically is difficult because the characteristic equation of
the closed-loop system in Fig. 7 is of ninth order. We therefore
employ simulation. Such a study reveals the following important
feature: The closed-loop system becomes unstable if any one of
the four gain parameters defined in (27) is chosen sufficiently
large.
Fig. 10 depicts a typical set of response recordings. The curves
depict APti, and Afi (Af2 looks essentially the same as Af1 and
is not included) for a two-area system where all parameters in
both areas are assumed identical. This assumption leads to the
simplification of having to consider only two parameters,
K1 and B, instead of four. All recordings in Fig. 10 refer to a
fixed K, setting but variable bias setting B. The deterioration of
the system stability with increased B setting is clearly mani-
fested. (The reason for expressing B in percent of as done in
Fig. 10 will be explained below.)
ELGERD AND FOSHA: OPTIMUM MEGAWATT-FREQUENCY CONTROL 561

251
Z

* 20-
LU 1.
z
0 IC'

z IJt
U

B OOA______ -
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
B INTEGRAL GAIN K1
Fig. 11. "Cost surface" showing minimum value of C at Ki opt Fig. 13. Cost function C, penalizing both APti.l (t) and Af1(t).
and Bopt.

20

45070~125 100%25%750s
15
H li
z
0
0 1
I0 I

0.5 0.75 .0 125 1.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

I NTEGRAL GAIN KI INTEGRAL GAIN KI
Fig. 12. Cost function of C, penalizing only APtie l(t). Fig. 14. Cost function C, penalizing only Af,(t).

Optimum Gain Settings: When confronted with a response
of the type shownao in Fig. 10 one naturally asks, what
picture 0~~~~~~~~
combination of the four (two, in the case of identical areas) gain
parameters produces the best response?
Having posed this question one must next clarify one's defini-
tion of "'best." Often a so-called scalar integral error criterion
provides the most meaningful measure for the quality or good-
ness of transient response. The integral of squared error (ISE)
criterion is chosen in this case. It is defined by
C-' (Ate + aAlfi2) dt. (30)
(Since ASf1 and Af62 have very close resemblances, we have
included only one frequency error Api.)
The merits of this criterion are described elsewhere [4]. The
parameter Gin (30) is a weighting factor that determines the
relative penalty attached to the tieline power error and fre-
quency error, respectively. For example, if a is chosen equal to
zero, all penalty is attached to the tie-line power swings.
In making use of a criterion as in (30) one would proceed as
follows: The responses, APtie and Af', corresponding to a par-
ticular parameter pair KI and B (we consider identical areas)
are found. Upon substitution into (30), the integral is evaluated.
Clearly, the value thus obtained is a function of KI and B, i.e.,
CC=AC(K,, B).
(31)
That particular value pair of KI and B that renders C a
minimum represents the optimum parameter settings.
The "cost-function" C can be plotted versus K, and B in a
three-dimensional coordinate system as shown in Fig. 11. One
obtains a bowl-shaped "cost surface," the lowest point of which
corresponds to the optimum gain settings, KI opt and Bopt.
COMPUTER RESULTS
As we have indicated earlier, analysis of the transient response,
although straightforward, is very impractical. We have instead
simulated the system on the analog computer and also let the
analog provide the cost integral (30). Two multipliers and one
summer-integrator are required to perform the squaring, sum-
ming, and integrating operations called for.
It would, of course, be very impractical to plot on a two-
dimensional paper the three-dimensional cost surface. We
plot instead the "equi-B" cost contours, two of which are shown
dotted in Fig. 11. They are obtained simply by fixing the B
parameter and then computing the C integral for various K,
settings. Figs. 12-14 show the results of such a simulation study.
The particular system parameters used in the numerical study
are given in Fig. 12. In each figure is also indicated the particular
cost integral used. The cost contours in Fig. 12 correspond to a
cost integral where 100 percent of the penalty has been attached
to APtie. In Fig. 14 all the penalty is attached to the frequency
error. In Fig. 13 a 50-50 weighting ratio has been used. This
means that the two integral portions of (30) are of about equal
size at the optimum point; to find the particular a value that will
provide this penalty division requires some trial-and-error
investigation.
562 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, APRIL 1970

For this study the following system data were used: ing upon the KI value, we may be located anywhere on the
cost surface along this curve, even on the vertical portion.
Pri = P,2 = 2000 MW
7) In attempting to synchronize the western United States
H1 = H2 = 5 seconds power block with the eastern block via midwestern tie lines, on
DT = D2 = 8.33 X 10-s pu MW/Hz occasion the low-frequency (about 4-5 cycles/min) power
TTI = TT2 = 0.3 second swings on those lines have shown an unstable tendency of the type
TG2= 0.08 second demonstrated in Fig. 10, and it has been necessary to sever the
R1 = R2 = 2.4 Hz/pu MW connection. It is entirely conceivable that the reason for in-
Ptie max = 200 MW stability is the one given in 6).
51 *-,62*-= 30 degrees 8) The utility industry is presently readjusting its bias setting
l 12* 0.545 pu MW/Hz every year, based upon updated measurements of the AFRC.
APdl = 0.01 pu MW.
If the industry were to adopt a parameter setting policy out-
lined here, no such readjustments would be really needed, be-
SUMMARY, COMMENTS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS cause the change in cost function C as a function of the gain
variables around the optimum settings is very small. (This is the
1) Nowhere in our extensive computer analysis has it been benefit derived from wider stability margins.)
confirmed that the bias setting B = /, which presently is used by 9) This analysis confirms what many years of operational
the American utilities, offers any advantages of a particular experience already has told us; the control strategy defined by
nature. (27) is a workable one. Like many other workable control
2) If the tie-line swings are taken as sole indicator of the quality strategies it was born out of intuitive thinking.
of control (see Fig. 12) then the results would indicate that B i. However, the strategy is not the "best" one. Modern control
0.53 is the best bias setting. This is half the value recommended theory tells us that there exists one, and only one, strategy that
by NAPSIC! is "better" than all others, including the one presently in use. If
3) In all cases studied so far, the optimum bias setting is "better" means as measured in the ISE sense, this unique
considerably below that used by the industry. optimum strategy is a linear one also. The authors are presently
4) The study reveals that specification of the gain parameter investigating the nature of this "supreme" strategy. Whether its
K1 is equally important as specification of B. advantages warrant its adoption has yet to be judged. Future
5) On what basis then does NAPSIC base its present policy papers will report the status of this research.
of recommending to industry to set B = ,B but saying nothing- 10) It is worthwhile to remember that the cost curves given
about KI? The reasons seem to be found in vious works in are valid strictly only for the particular system parameters that
this area [2], [3], both of which have ha rerable impact were given in Fig. 12. Furthermore, they are valid only for a
on present utility practice. A careful study of these references two-area system.
confirms that both base their conclusions on results obtained by Further work is carried on to increase our knowledge in the
static analysis. Their reasoning goes something like this. following respects:
Each area if operated alone and subject to a step-load in- 1) How sensitive is the cost function to system parameter
crease APD will experience, in accordance with (23), a static changes?
frequency drop of Af = APD/I3 Hz before the controller goes 2) How should one best approach the optimization problem
into operation. Their reasoning then continues: By commanding for an n-area system?
the area generators to increase their output by the exact amount 3) Is it possible (as is intuitively felt) when optimizing the
/31 f , the original steady state will be restored. They then parameters of an individual area to treat the rest of the system
conclude that, by setting the frequency bias B = /, "minimum as having infinite inertia? This then would mean that the in-
tie-line oscillations will ensue." This reasoning has a consider- dividual pool members could optimize their parameters based on
able amount of intuitive appeal, but must at closer scrutiny an "individual" C criterion that would be based upon the in-
be judged wrong. We have, in fact, no right to judge dynamic dividual errors only. If this assumption were to prove true then
performance on the basis of static characteristics. We proved the optimization procedure would be simple indeed.
in connection with (28) that in fact any value for B will in the
end result in zero static tie-line power deviation. NOMENCLATURE
6) A parameter optimization study as presented here has its
greatest value as a means of optimizing the system stability f* nominal system frequency
margins. As indicated Fig. 11,
in the cost function C may assume Wkin kinetic energy of area
infinite values for certain finite KI and B values; i.e., the "cost Pr rated area power
bowl" will have vertical walls in certain places. An unbounded H inertia constant
cost integral indicates an unstable system, and by keeping Ptie tie-line power
away from those vertical portions of the cost surface, we thus APtie incremental change in tie-line power
have a guarantee for stability. By specifying a centain value for f incremental frequency deviation
B but disregarding the other equally important variable KI, D load frequency constant
we have really no guarantee of our stability margins. In fact APd incremental load demand change
our margin may be zero. Ape incremental generation change
This point is demonstrated both in Fig. 11 and the graphs in APe incremental change in speed changer position
Fig. 10. The dotted curve labeled B = 100 percent represents area power angle
the B recommendations presently used in the industry. Depend- Ti* tie-line spring constant
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-89, NO. 4, APRIL 1970
Tv turbine time constant
TG speed governor time constant
R self-regulation of generator
KI ACE integrator gain
B frequency bias constant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Several figures and graphs are borrowed from [1]. Use was
made of the analog computer facilities in the Department of
Electrical Engineering, University of Florida.
10
SFr
The Megawatt-Frequency
A New Approach Via Optimal Control Theory
CHARLES E. FOSHA, JR., MEMBER, IEEE, AND
Abstract-This paper records the development of a state variable
model of the megawatt-frequency control problem of multiarea
electric energy systems. The model is in a mathematical form
necessary for application of theorems of modem optimal control
theory.
An optimal feedback controller whose structure is radically different
from that considered before is developed. The results of this study
allow the authors to suggest feasible ways of greatly improving
dynamic response and stability margins of the megawatt-frequency
control system.
Paper 69 C 2-PWR, recommended and approved by the Power
System Engineering Committee of the IEEE Power Group for pre-
sentation at the IEEE PICA Conference, Denver, Colo., May 18-21,
1969. Manuscript submitted January 31, 1969; made available for
printing October 8, 1969. This research was supported in part by
a grant from the investor-owned utilities in the State of Florida.
C. E. Fosha, Jr., was with the Department of Electrical Engi-
neering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.. He is now with the
Department of Mathematics, U. S. Air Force Academy, Colorado
Springs, Colo. 80840.
0. I. Elgerd is with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. 32601.
563
REFERENCES
[1] 0. I. Elgerd, Electric Energy Systems Engineering. New York:
McGraw-Hill (to be published).
[2] L. K. Kirchmayer, Economic Control of Interconnected Systems.
New York: Wiley, 1959.
[3] N. Cohn, "Some aspects of tie-line bias control on intercon-
nected power systems," AIEE Trans. (Power Apparatus and
Systems), vol. 75, pp. 1415-1436, 1956 (February 1957 sec.).
[4] 0. I. Elgerd, Control Systems Theory. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1967.
For Combined Discussion see pp.571-577.
FItST PAGE
Control Problem:
OLLE I. ELGERD, SENIOR, MEMBER, IEEE
INTRODUCTION
IN a previous paper [1] the authors developed a dynamic
system model of the multiarea electric energy system suitable
for study of the megawatt-frequency control problem. Classical
optimization theory was used to find the "best" value of pa-
rameters KI, gain of the area control error (ACE) integrator,
and B, frequency bias, in the sense of minimizing the integral
square error (ISE) criterion. The error was defined as the tie-
line power deviation from scheduled value and the frequency
deviation.
In this paper the authors again study the megawatt-frequency
control problem but from a different point of view. In [1] the
control strategy was fixed, being that employed by industry
today [2]. This area controller operates in response to the
integral of the ACE for that area. By dropping the restriction
of a fixed control structure, techniques of optimal control theory
can be applied.
The authors derive a model of the multiarea electric energy
system in state space form necessary for application of theorems