Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
net/publication/310420576
CITATIONS READS
4 195
4 authors:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Adolfo Palombo on 18 February 2018.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: In this paper a new dynamic simulation model for the building energy performance analysis of multi-
Received 31 August 2016 enclosed thermal zones, where rigid air temperature and humidity conditions must be kept, is presented.
Received in revised form 5 November 2016 The model was implemented in a suitable computer code (DETECt 2.3.1) developed for research scopes.
Accepted 9 November 2016
Such simulation model allows the hygrothermal analysis of buildings with multi-enclosed thermal zones
Available online 22 November 2016
surrounded by larger ones (e.g. display glass cases with valuable artefacts in museum halls, neonatal
intensive care units for premature and full-term newborn babies in hospitals wards, etc.). For this purpose,
Keywords:
a novel control algorithm, based on a model reference adaptive control scheme, enabling the online
Building simulation
Model reference adaptive control algorithm
adaptation of the control gains, is implemented. Rigid air temperature and humidity conditions can be
Multi enclosed zones guaranteed also in case of sudden and rapid variations of hygrothermal loads. Through such new tool
Thermo hygrometric analysis innovative techniques and operative strategies for obtaining energy efficiency and indoor comfort of
special building spaces can be studied.
In order to show the capabilities of the tool and the robustness of the adaptive algorithm, as well as
the potentiality of the proposed multidisciplinary approach to the energy-related behaviour in buildings
(based on building energy modelling and simulation and control theory), two meaningful case studies
have been developed. In particular, they refer to the museums and hospital indoor spaces where enclosed
thermal zones have to be kept under stringent hygrothermal conditions.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction with respect to the surrounding thermal zones, although they are
often stressed by the hygrothermal conditions of such spaces in
Indoor specific microclimates or rigorous hygrothermal condi- which they are located.
tions are crucial and active responsibilities in case of special-use In all these cases, specific control strategies have to be consid-
environments, such as neonatal intensive care nurseries, muse- ered in order to ensure the stability of the required indoor climate
ums spaces and laboratories (see for example [1,2] and references conditions in all the different thermal zones by handling all the
therein). Although such indoor spaces may have different aims, occurring hygrothermal loads independently of their intensity and
they often have the common need of a very tight indoor tempera- rapidity of variation.
ture and humidity control, where the accurate indoor climate has Whereas commonly space temperature controls for maintaining
to be guaranteed independently of the sudden and rapid variability human thermal comfort typically have a dead-band for tem-
related to the weather conditions and indoor thermal loads. Fur- perature and humidity between heating and cooling set-points,
thermore, these environments are often characterized by indoor the above mentioned special indoor spaces require a continuous
spaces with multi-enclosed thermal zones (e.g. display glass cases and strict hygrothermal control. Indeed, in these spaces the con-
with perishable artefacts in museum halls, neonatal intensive care trol algorithm, responsible for the microclimate, must be able to
units for premature and full-term newborn babies in hospitals counteract and attenuate all the perturbations causing quick tran-
wards, etc.). Here, different hygrothermal conditions must be kept sitions or fluctuations of air temperature and humidity around
the required conditions (e.g. air temperature and humidity set
points). Furthermore, whenever the hygrothermal conditions must
be changed in some zones according to specific requirements (e.g.
∗ Corresponding author.
medical instance, etc.), the transitions must be carefully handled
E-mail addresses: umberto.montanaro@unina.it,
umberto.montanaro@gmail.com (U. Montanaro).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.11.015
0378-7788/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
264 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
Fig. 2. Automaton for the management of the activation/deactivation of the temperature controller for intermittent running building a) for th ∈ [ton , toff ], and b) th ∈
/ [ton , toff ].
born babies, a complete model for the prediction of the temperature the enclosed ones) are always disregarded and vice-versa (e.g. in
and humidity and for the design of suitable controllers was devel- [12,14,17,27]).
oped [10]. A similar analysis, aiming at increasing the neonatal
survival rate and weight, was carried out by developing a detailed 1.1. Contributions
thermal model also necessary to set up and solve a control problem
[12]. In this paper, in order to model and simulate the hygrother-
In order to mainly assess the influence of temperature and mal behaviour of these special environments with strict and
velocity within active museum display cases and to describe the different conditions to be simultaneously fulfilled, as well as to
thermal interaction between the neonate body and its environ- allow the implementation and the investigation of suitable con-
ment, a significant effort have also been done by researchers trol approaches, a flexible and customizable simulation platform
through the adoption of commercial computational fluid dynam- is adopted [30]. Such platform, called DETECt 2.3.1, is a dynamic
ics (CFD) packages [26–28]. On the other hand, in order to model building energy performance simulation tool, purposely developed
the time-dependent hygrothermal behaviour of such indoor spaces for research aims [30,31], which enables the analysis and optimiza-
and, in particular, to devise suitable control algorithms (neces- tion of novel building design and operating scenarios (including
sary to optimize both the environmental comfort and the energy innovative building concepts, new materials, energy efficiency
saving performances), simulation models based on lumped param- technologies, renewable energy sources, etc.) to be also adopted
eters for the description of the enclosed zone to be controlled (e.g. in the next generation of buildings [32,33]. As DETECt was con-
showcases and incubators) have been widely adopted. In particular, ceived to allow the modelling of mono and multi zone buildings
nodal networks (commonly adopted in literature) with intercon- [30], it has been further extended and several new features have
necting paths representing both energy and mass flows (separately been included. At the best of the authors’ knowledge, such new
dealt with through dedicated networks [10,29]) are taken into release of DETECt (v. 2.3.1) is the first dynamic simulation code in
account. literature which allows:
By means of all the above cited models, the hygrothermal
behaviour of a mono enclosed zone can be assessed (with different
• analysing of the overall energy efficiency and hygrothermal com-
levels of detail of the occurring phenomena). Nevertheless, none
fort of multi-enclosed thermal zones totally included into larger
of the papers available in literature has the ability to simultane-
surrounding ones;
ously predict the hygrothermal dynamics of the multiple enclosed
• controlling enclosed zones by adaptive strategies stringent
zones along with the surrounding ones, by taking into account all
indoor air temperature and humidity conditions, independently
the physical disturbances (i.e. opening of the incubator doors or of
of the sudden and rapid variability related to the weather condi-
the neonatal ward access, sudden increase of sensible and latent
tions and indoor thermal loads.
heat gains due to museum visitors, etc.). In fact, when the focus
of the analysis is on the micro-climate conditions of an enclosed
zone, the hygrothermal dynamics of the larger zone (surrounding Aim of this study is to show the features and the potential-
ity of the enhanced simulation model and the effectiveness and
266 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
Fig. 3. Modelled RC thermal network of two-thermal zone system (one zone totally included in a surrounding one).
Fig. 4. Case 1, Zone 1: time history of indoor air temperature (a) and relative humidity (b) together with the corresponding reference profiles for Denver (319th day of the
year).
robustness of the related control algorithm, conceived for assessing among zones) do not alter the closed loop dynamics in terms of
the thermo-hygrometric behaviour of different building thermal the tracking of the reference trajectory, a formal proof is devised
zones enclosed into others. To this purpose, in this paper two dif- by using the hyperstability/passivity theory [36], as reported in the
ferent meaningful case studies have been developed. The first one Appendix B.
is referred to an indoor hall of a museum building with an enclosed
glass display case where a tight control is required for the preser- 2. Mathematical theory and modelling
vation of the included artefacts (for avoiding eventual irreversible
damages). The second case study refers to a neonatal intensive care In this section, the mathematical models describing the
nursery, where six incubators for premature and full-term new- hygrothermal behaviour of multi enclosed thermal zones (Section
born babies are located. In each incubator, the developed control 2.1) and the design of the control system based on the adaptive
imposes different rigid indoor air temperature and humidity condi- scheme for the stringent regulation of the indoor hygrothermal
tions for producing the healthful micro-environment for the hosted conditions (Section 2.2) are reported and discussed.
babies. Both the analyses concern the effect of different accidental,
heavy and intensive hygrothermal disturbances on the resulting 2.1. DETECt − thermo hygrometric model of multi enclosed zones
control actions and confirm that the the requred indoor climate
conditions are preserved in all the modelled thermal zones. More- In order to simulate the hygrothermal behaviour of special envi-
over, during transients the numerical results disclose the ability of ronments characterized by enclosed thermal zones, the dynamic
the proposed approach in tracking the desired temperature and building simulation tool, called DETECt [30,34], was used. The tool
humidity profiles within all the indoor spaces (e.g., in the case allows assessing the temperatures and humidity dynamics, as well
of set-point variations, the approach ensures a rapid and precise as heating and cooling loads and demands of any modelled ther-
transition toward the new set-point). Some preliminary results of mal zone of mono and multi zone buildings. The model is based on
these case studies have been presented in [32,65,66] whereas the the resistive-capacitive (RC) thermal network approach, assuming
adaptive solution for mono thermal zone has been considered in as one-dimensional the transient heat transfer. Details about the
[34]. It is worth noting that the simultaneous regulation of indoor hygrothermal model and the adopted assumptions are provided in
air temperature and humidity (to different specific set-points) is [30,32].
here obtained by a decentralized control approach [35]. Specifi- In this paper, DETECt has been improved in order to prop-
cally, in the proposed adaptive control solution, interactions among erly carry out the hygrothermal analysis of multi-enclosed thermal
zones are considered as additional uncertainties, embedded in a zones and to effectively design the indoor climate control [34]. The
generic disturbance term acting on the decentralized control sys- modelled RC thermal network, related to Z thermal zones, consist-
tems. In order to show that these disturbances (i.e. interactions ing of one main zone including the remaining Z-1 ones, is sketched
A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285 267
Fig. 5. Case 1, Zone 1: time history of the adaptive gains (K2 , KR and KI2 [W/K] and KE , [K]) for control of indoor air temperature (a) and relative humidity (b) for Denver
(319th day of the year).
in Fig. 1. For the proposed thermal network scheme, the calcula- non-capacitive outer (n = 0) and inner (n = N + 1) surface boundary
tion procedure takes into account the heat flows between: i) the nodes, the algebraic equation describing the heat transfer is:
outdoor environment and the main thermal zone (e.g. zone 1 in
Fig. 1); ii) the main thermal zone and the enclosed ones (e.g. zones
n+1
Tm,j − Tm,n
cv + Q̇m,n = 0 (2)
2–7 in Fig. 1). In addition, several adopted assumptions are: i) the Rm,j
j=n−1
indoor air of each thermal zone is considered as fully mixed, thus a
single indoor air node of uniform temperature is modelled; ii) the cv
where Rm,j conv
is either a convective (external Rm,0 conv
or internal Rm,N+1 ,
building envelope of the main zone is discretized in a suitable num- cond ), depending on the side layer
Fig. 1) or a conductive resistance (Rm,n
ber of nodes, whereas lumped envelopes of each enclosed zone are conv conv
of the considered node. Rm,0 and Rm,N+1 connect non capacitive
modelled; iii) homogeneous, isotropic and time-invariant thermo-
nodes to those related to the outdoor air temperature, Tout , and to
physical properties (density, specific heat and conductivity) are
the indoor air one, Tin,1 , respectively. Note that the outdoor surface
taken into account.
unitary convection heat transfer coefficient is calculated by empir-
The whole system, including the main zone and the enclosed
ical relationships (for rough surface) as a function of the outdoor
ones, is modelled through a high order RC thermal network of: i)
wind speed. The indoor surface unitary convection heat transfer
M × (N + 2) nodes in which the building envelope of the main zone
coefficients are calculated as a function of the surfaces slope, taking
is discretized (consisting of M envelope elements (m = 1, . . ., M) and
into account the ascendant or descendant heat flux [37]. In case of
N sub-layers (n = 1, . . ., N)); ii) Z-1 nodes (z = 2, . . ., Z) of the lumped cv
floor elements, Tout and Rm,j are replaced with the ground temper-
envelopes of each enclosed zone; iii) Z nodes related to the indoor
k . The
ature, Tgr , and an equivalent thermal conductive resistance,Rgr
air of each enclosed zone and the main one.
In each -th time step, for each n-th capacitive node (j = 1,. ., N) of modelled forcing function Q̇m,n includes the solar radiation (trans-
mitted through windows and incident on the indoor surfaces, Im int
the m-th element (m = 1,. ., M), the differential equation describing
the energy rate of change of each temperature node of the building in Fig. 1) and the long-wave radiation exchange acting on outer
envelope of the main zone is calculated as: and inner surfaces of zone 1 [30]. Note that solar radiation enter-
ing through glasses is absorbed, reflected and distributed within
the internal space by selected absorption, reflection and view fac-
dTm,n
n+1
Tm,j − Tm,n
Cm,n = (1) tors, respectively. Thus, the total solar radiation flux striking a
eq
dt Rm,j generic indoor surface includes the solar irradiance reflected by
j=n−1
other interior surfaces. A detailed description of the thermal phe-
nomena occurring within the main zone is discussed and reported
where C and T are the thermal capacity and temperature of the node, in [30,32,34].
eq
respectively. Rm,j is the sum of the halves sub-layers thermal resis- A simplified approach is adopted for the enclosed zones
cond , Fig. 1). For
tances that links the n-th node to their neighbours (Rm,j (z = 2,. . .,Z). Here, the differential equation describing the energy
rate of change of the temperature node of each enclosed zone enve-
lope (Tw,z ) is calculated as:
transfer between the enclosed zones envelopes and the main zone, new additional control actions to improve tracking performance
disregarding the long-wave fraction of each enclosed zone versus of the reference model dynamics [8]). The LQ-MRAC strategy is
the remaining ones. Within the enclosed zones, the equivalent described in detail in Appendix A.
glob
global thermal resistance (R2,z ) includes combined conduction and The proposed adaptive control strategy has been implemented
convection phenomena only. in a novel release of DETECt, modified as in Section 2.1, allowing
The dynamics of the indoor air of the main zone Tin,1 and of each modelling of enclosed multi zone systems. A set of automatons
enclosed zone Tin,z are respectively described by:
Fig. 6. Case 1, Zone 1: time histories of the indoor air temperature (a) and humidity (b) for: Denver (319th day of the year); Copenhagen (11th day of the year); Naples (99th
day of the year); Rome (114th day of the year); Nice (278th day of the year); Jerusalem (280th day of the year).
Fig. 7. Case 1, Zone 1: time histories of the control actions (sensible heat (a) and water vapour mass flow rate (b)) at the control activation time for: Denver (319th day of
the year); Copenhagen (11th day of the year); Naples (99th day of the year); Rome (114th day of the year); Nice (278th day of the year); Jerusalem (280th day of the year).
mented in SimuLink/Stateflow [44] and is now included in DETECt. vation/deactivation of the controllers due to numerical error and
Its logic is shown in Fig. 2a. Here, the indoor air temperature track- consequently the chattering phenomena [41].
ing error is denoted with eT (t) = Tsp − Tin (t), being Tsp the reference In addition, by properly setting the parameters of the automa-
temperature, equal to either Tu (when Tin (ton ) > Tu ) or Tl (when ton in Fig. 2, different working conditions can be achieved. For
Tin (ton ) < Tl ), and εT is a positive small threshold which is set to 0.05. an example, to get a continuous running configuration, the user
The states of the system are “Initialization”, “Tracking”, “Free Float- must set ton = 0 and toff = 24, while to keep the temperature to a
ing” “Heating” and “Cooling”. Specifically:
i) the system is in the state given value (i.e., avoiding possible free-floating), it is enough to
“Initialization” when th ∈ / ton , toff , i.e., for the time range in which set Tu = Tl = Tsp , with Tsp being the required temperature. Con-
the temperature control is not required (e.g., night-time); ii) in the versely, in case of intermittent running regimes for both the indoor
state “Tracking” the temperature controller is active (th ∈ tin , toff air temperature and humidity, an additional automaton works in
and Tin ∈ / (Tl , Tu )) and the temperature profile generated by the con- parallel to the one depicted in Fig. 2a. In particular, in this paper in
troller is imposed to the indoor air temperature in order to reach order to implement setback strategies (e.g. for achieving additional
the desired set point; iii) the automaton is in “Free Floating”, occur- energy savings [45]), a suitable automaton, shown in Fig. 2b is taken
ring when (despite of the internal and external disturbances, e.g. into account. In this case, when th ∈
/ [ton , toff ], the temperature con-
internal gains, outdoor air temperatures, etc.) the indoor air tem- troller can be switched on. Indeed, the finite state machine switches
perature dynamics are in the pre-assigned range of variation, i.e., to the state “Heating” (in case of the indoor air temperature goes
Tin ∈ (Tl , Tu ), with a consequent switching off of the controller; iv) below the temperatureTsl ) and to the state “Cooling” (if the indoor
in the state “Heating”, the controller is active in order to keep the air temperature surpassesTsu ). Tsl and Tsu are the parameters of the
indoor temperature to Tl (e.g. winter season, i.e. Tin ≤ Tl ), analo- automaton in Fig. 2b which need to be tuned in accordance with
gously in the state “Cooling”, the controller is active to keep the the specific use of the thermal zone.
indoor air temperature to Tu (e.g. summer season, i.e. Tin ≥ Tu ).
We remark that, the transition from the state Cooling or Heating
to the state Free Floating is done when the control variable (i.e., 3. Case studies
the sensible heat Q̇HC s ) changes its sign and not monitoring the
indoor air temperature. In so doing it is possible to avoid acti- In order to show the features and the potentiality of the
simulation model and the effectiveness and robustness of the con-
270 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
the NICUs have been only recently emphasized [10]. For this sec-
ond case study, the main idea is to analyse the effect of sudden
disturbances (e.g., room windows, discontinuous thermal loads
and NICUs openings) and how the adaptive controller tackles such
unexpected events.
All the carried out analyses are referred to 9 different climate
zones referred both to cold winter and temperate Mediterranean
areas, Table 1. Here, the weather zones are sorted by decreasing
the related Heating Degree Day (HDD). Such parameter, as well
as the Cooling Degree Day (CDD), is calculated by assuming a ref-
erence temperature of 20 ◦ C. In Table 1 the annual Incident Solar
Radiation on the horizontal surface (ISR) is also reported. Note that
the weather data adopted in the simulations (outdoor air temper-
ature and humidity, solar radiation, etc.) vary according to hourly
Meteonorm files.
Fig. 8. Case 1, Zone 1: indoor air routes on the psychrometric chart. Denver (319th
day of the year), Copenhagen (11th day of the year), Naples (99th day of the year),
Rome (114th day of the year), Nice (278th day of the year), Jerusalem (280th day of 3.1. Case studies 1: museum hall with glass display case (one
the year). enclosed zone)
The first case study regards a two thermal zone system, as shown
trol approach for multi-zone systems with several zones totally in Fig. 3, in which a museum indoor space is depicted. Here, the first
included in others, two case studies are suitably developed. zone is referred to the museum hall while the second one (totally
In particular, the first case study refers to an indoor hall of a included in the first zone) to a glass display case with an accurate cli-
museum building with an included glass display case. Here, an mate control (rigid constraints of temperature and humidity of the
accurate climate control of indoor air temperature and humidity case indoor air) necessary to preserve non-hygroscopic collected
into both the hall and display case is required. As it is well known, in exhibits such as: jewellery, stone or ceramic tools, metal objects
case of particular exhibited items contained in such glass cases (e.g. (which require suitable conditions of indoor air temperature and
jewellery, stone or ceramic tools, metal objects, etc.) specific micro- relative humidity, simultaneously).
climate rigid constraints are mandatory for avoiding irreversible For Zone 1, it is considered a length, width and height
damages. In this case study two different thermal zones are mod- equal to 20, 10 and 3.5 m, respectively. The building longitu-
elled and controlled. The museum hall and the included display case dinal axis is East-West oriented and a South facing windows
zones are operated according to an intermittent and a continuous (4–6-4 air filled double-glazed system) of 32 m2 is taken into
running regime, respectively. Here, the robustness of the adap- account, by considering a U-value of 2.1 W/m2 K. The considered
tive approach for the included zone climate to sudden variation thickness and U-values are: for the building walls 25 cm and
of the hygrothermal conditions of the hall surrounding environ- 0.45 W/m2 K, for the floor 30 cm and 0.43 W/m2 K, for the ceil-
ment (caused also by the HVAC system activation/deactivation) is ing 30 cm and 0.40 W/m2 K. Their layering is designed by concrete
investigated. bricks ( = 0.51 W/mK, = 1400 kg/m3 , c = 1000 J/kgK) and thermal
The second case study refers to a Neonatal Intensive Care Ward insulation ( = 0.04 W/mK, = 15.0 kg/m3 , c = 1400 J/kgK). Note that
(NICW) where several Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs) for each building element is modelled as subdivided in 10 sub layers
premature and full-term newborn babies are located. In each NICU, of equal thickness. The direct solar radiation transferred through
an accurate climate control of air temperature and humidity is the windows to the inside zone is assumed to be absorbed by the
required for producing healthful micro-environment for the hosted floor with an absorption factor of 0.3. The absorption and emission
babies. Although many papers in literature highlighted the need factors of interior surfaces are assumed to be equal to 0.15 and 0.9,
of a neutral thermal environment for increasing the survival rate respectively. For such zone, a ventilation rate of 1.0 Vol/h and a
of preterm infants [46,47], the adoption of accurate and advanced crowding index of 0.12 person/m2 are taken into account. The sen-
regulation of both the temperature and relative humidity within sible heat and moisture productions due to occupants vary from
Fig. 9. Case 1, Zone 1: time history of PMV, PPD and mean radiant temperature for several cold winter zones.
A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285 271
Table 2
Case 1, Zone 1: energy demands, peak loads and comfort indexes during the heating (H) and cooling (C) seasons.
Sensible (kWh/m2 y) Latent (kWh/m2 y) Sensible (kW) Latent (g/s) PMV (−) PPD (%)
Fig. 10. Case 1, Zone 1: time history of indoor air temperature, relative humidity and sensible load and water vapour mass flow rate for several cold winter zones.
Fig. 11. Case 1, Zone 1: time history of PMV, PPD and mean radiant temperature for hot summer zones.
272 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
Fig. 12. Case 1, Zone 1: time history of indoor air temperature, relative humidity, sensible load and water vapour mass flow rate for hot summer zones.
Fig. 13. Case 1, Zone 2: time history of the control actions for sensible heat and water vapour mass flow rate during the winter season.
85 to 55 W/p and from 35 to 90 g/h p as a function of the indoor Consequently, the automaton of Fig. 2 can be taken into account for
air temperature (from 20 to 27 ◦ C). Sensible thermal loads due to the simulation of Zone 1. Note that besides collection preservation
lighting and equipment are considered equal to 8 W/m2 . A cubic in Zone 1, the indoor climate in museums must provide thermal
shaped zone 2 with 1.0 m length side is considered. In particular, a comfort to visitors and staff. Relative humidity is primarily deter-
glass envelope of 3.0 cm thickness, with an occurring air infiltration mined by collection requirements, whereas temperature is mostly
of 2.0 l/h is modelled. Sensible thermal load due to lighting within determined by thermal comfort requirements.
the enclosed zone is considered equal to 9 W/m2 . The heating/cooling system for the thermal Zone 2 is switched
The simulation starts on 0:00 of January 1st and ends at 24:00 on 24/7 for accurately conserving the case exhibited items. Here,
of December 31st . For the thermal zone of the museum hall it is the indoor air temperature and relative humidity are controlled all
assumed an HVAC system intermittent running regime. In particu- over the year at 20 ◦ C and 65%, respectively.
lar, the heating/cooling system is switched on from 08:00 to 18:00, The above presented LQ-EMRAC has been implemented to con-
from November 1st to March 31st (heating mode) and from 14:00 trol the indoor air temperature and humidity of both the modelled
to 20:00, from June 1st to September 30th (cooling mode). Stan- thermal zones, simultaneously. In particular, by following a decen-
dard sensible and latent thermal loads due to people are taken in tralized control approach four different and independent adaptive
to account from 09:00 to 18:00 and from 15:00 to 20:00 for both controllers are designed. Here, each control variable is used to
winter and summer season. The HVAC system is considered as acti- impose the dynamic behaviour of only one variable to be controlled
vated: i) in winter, for indoor air temperatures lower than 20 ◦ C and according to decentralized control scheme [35], while the couplings
higher than 28 ◦ C; ii) in summer, for indoor air temperatures higher between the two zones are assumed to be as additional unmodelled
than 25 ◦ C and lower than 10 ◦ C. Simultaneously, humidification dynamics to tackle in closed loop.
and dehumidification are taken into account for indoor relative According to the above reported model, the weight matrices,
humidity lower than 45% and higher than 55%, respectively. Note which define the cost function, were set in order to impose: i) a set-
that, for this case study also setback strategies have been consid- tling time of 50 min for Zone 1 and 10 min for Zone 2; ii) absence
ered. In particular the temperature controller is activated also: i) in of overshoots for any step variation of the reference signal. The
winter, for simulation time t ∈/ [08:00,18:00], by avoiding indoor air choice of the relaxation time for Zone 1 is done according to [48]
temperature lower than 10 ◦ C; ii) in summer, for simulation time t ∈ / with the aim to ensure a smooth daily transition during the tran-
[14:00,20:00], by avoiding indoor air temperature higher that 28 ◦ C. sient operation toward the regime set-point. Finally, the reference
A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285 273
Fig. 14. Case 1, Zone 2: time history of the adaptive gains (K, KI and KR [W/K] and KE , [K]) for the control of the air temperature (a) and relative humidity (b) for several
winter sample days.
Fig. 15. Case 1, Zone 2: time history of the control actions of the sensible load and the water vapour mass flow rate during the summer season.
Fig. 16. Case 1, Zone 2: time history of the adaptive gains (K, KI and KR [W/K] and KE , [K]) for the control of the air temperature (a) and relative humidity (b) for several
summer sample days.
274 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
Table 3
Case 1, Zone 2: energy demands and peak loads during the heating (H) and cooling (C) seasons.
Table 4
NICUs air temperature and humidity set points as a function of the mass of infants, gestational age and days of life.
Table 5
Activation/deactivation of disturbances.
1 Switched off artificial lighting and crowding index equal to 0.036 person/m2 Grey
2 Opening of Zone 1 windows, simulated by an additional outdoor air flow rate of 1.4 kg/s, Light purple
occurring at 9:00 and 16:00 (duration of 1 h)
3 Opening of the 6 NICUs, modelled as an air flow rate exchange of 3.5 g/s to/from each NICU, Dark pink
occurring for 10 min every 6 h
4 A first steep of internal gains, simulated from 06:00 to 12:00 by increasing the crowding index Light yellow
to 0.054 person/m2
5 A second steep of internal gains, simulated from 14:00 to 16:00 by increasing the crowding Dark yellow
index to 0.142 person/m2 (9 pers.).
6 Switched on artificial lighting and crowding index equal to 0.036 person/m2 White (no colour)
input signals depend on the selected temperature and humidity the building walls and floor/ceiling are 35 and 30 cm, respec-
set points. Note that, the humidity control is obtained through the tively, by considering a U-value of 2.1 W/m2 K. The considered
input reference set point of indoor air specific humidity, in order to thickness and U-values are: for the building walls 35 cm and
achieve the selected relative humidity set-point. 0.72 W/m2 K, for the floor 30 cm and 0.59 W/m2 K, for the ceiling
30 cm and 0.57 W/m2 K. Their layering is designed by con-
crete ( = 0.51 W/mK, = 1400 kg/m3 , c = 1000 J/kgK), semi-aerated
3.2. Case studies 2: hospital ward with infant-incubators
bricks ( = 0.6 W/mK, = 1000 kg/m3 , c = 840 J/kgK) and ther-
(multiple enclosed zones)
mal insulation ( = 0.04 W/mK, = 15.0 kg/m3 , c = 1400 J/kgK). The
direct solar radiation transferred through the window to the inside
In order to further demonstrate the effectiveness of the adap-
zone is assumed to be absorbed by the floor with an absorption fac-
tive control strategy to suppress the coupled dynamics of thermal
tor of 0.3. The absorption and emission factors of interior surfaces
systems also in case of multiple inner zone dynamics to be tack-
are assumed to be equal to 0.15 and 0.9, respectively. For such zone,
led, an additional case study is presented. In particular, it refers
a ventilation rate equal to 0.8 Vol/h and a crowding index of 0.054
to a Neonatal Intensive Care Ward (NICW) in which six Neonatal
person/m2 (3 pers.) are adopted. The sensible heat and moisture
Intensive Care Units (NICUs), for premature and full-term newborn
productions due to occupants vary from 85 to 55 W/p and from 35
babies, are located. A sketch of the RC thermal network taken into
to 90 g/h p as a function of the indoor air temperature (from 20 to
account for this case study is depicted in Fig. 1 (seven thermal zones,
27 ◦ C). Sensible thermal loads due to lighting and equipment are
Z = 7).
considered equal to 14 W/m2 . Each NICU (zones 2 to 7 in Fig. 1)
For the NICW, Zone 1, a heavy building envelope, with
has length, width and height equal to 1.3, 0.77 and 0.60 m, respec-
length, width and height equal to 8, 7 and 3.5 m, respec-
tively. In such zones, a polycarbonate envelope of 2.0 cm thickness
tively, is considered. The building longitudinal axis is East-West
is assumed and an occurring air infiltration of 0.5 Vol/h is modelled.
oriented and a South facing window (4–6-4 air filled double-
glazed system) of 12 m2 is taken into account. The thickness of
A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285 275
Fig. 17. Case 2, Zone 1: time histories of the control actions (sensible heat and water vapour mass flow rate) in several cold winter zones during the 14th day of the year (a)
and in some hot summer regions during the 230th day of the year (b). See Table 5 for the coloured areas related to the simulated disturbances.
Fig. 18. Case 2, Zone 1: time histories of the adaptive gains (K, KI and KR [W/K] and KE , [K]) (cold winter zones during the 14th day of the year (a) and hot summer regions
during the 230th day of the year (b). See Table 5 for the coloured areas related to the simulated disturbances.
In order to assess the effectiveness and robustness of the control of the mass of infants, gestational age and days of life, Table 4 [10].
algorithm, several accidental, heavy and intensive hygrothermal In the NICW and NICUs zones, air temperature and humidity are
disturbances are simulated. They regard: i) the opening of Zone 1 simultaneously and accurately controlled 24/7. Sensible and latent
windows, modelled by an additional outdoor air flow rate of 1.4 kg/s losses of each premature infant are calculated by adopting a decou-
(i.e. 1.2 vol/h) occurring at 9:00 and 16:00, the duration is 1 h); ii) pled approach [49]. Such physical and biological model includes
the opening of the 6 NICUs, modelled an air flow rate exchange conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation, breathing and heat
of 3.5 g/s to/from each NICU (occurring every 6 h, the duration is generation from the infant, calculated by following the approach
10 min); iii) a steep increase of internal gains, by increasing the described in [10].
crowding index to 0.142 person/m2 (9 pers.) (occurring from 14:00
to 16:00).
The simulation starts at 0:00 on January 1st and ends at 24:00 on
December 31st . In Zone 1 (NICW), heating and cooling are activated 4. Numerical results
for indoor air temperature lower than 20 ◦ C and higher than 26 ◦ C,
respectively. Simultaneously, humidification and dehumidification In the following, all the numerical results relative to the case
are required for relative humidity lower than 45% and higher than studies 1 and 2 are reported. It is worth noting that no mutual ther-
55%, respectively. Inside the NICUs, different indoor air tempera- mal effects among zones were taken into account during the design
ture and humidity set points are taken into account as a function of the adaptive control schemes. Hence, the coupled dynamics are
considered as additional uncertainties to tackle in closed loop in
276 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
Fig. 19. Case 2, Zone 1: dynamics of the indoor air temperature and relative humidity for cold weather zones during two warm days (148th − 149th day of the year). See
Table 5 for the coloured areas related to the simulated disturbances.
Fig. 20. Case 2, Zone 1: dynamics of the indoor air temperature and relative humidity for hot summer zones during two winter days (314th − 315th day of the year). See
Table 5 for the coloured areas related to the simulated disturbances.
order to impose the required indoor air temperature and humidity temperature and internal loads) and the thermal coupling with the
set points. Zone 2. To better illustrate this feature, Fig. 4 shows the evolution of
indoor air temperature and humidity and the corresponding refer-
4.1. Case studies 1: museum hall with glass display case (one ence model profiles at the control activation occurring at the 319th
enclosed zone) day of the year in Denver. Here it is clear that adaptive strategies can
impose the demanded hygrothermal regime also in the transient
Numerical results relative to case studies 1 are discussed for switching on regime of the HVAC system (overlapping of refer-
the main thermal zone in Section 4.1.1 and for the enclosed one in ence and obtained temperature/humidity profiles). Note that, in
Section 4.1.2. this figure and in the following ones, the grey shaded area denotes
the hours where the controllers are not activated according to the
4.1.1. Thermal zone 1: museum hall (surrounding zone) above mentioned schedule.
Here, the indoor air temperature and humidity are controlled The dynamics of the adaptive gains to obtain the tracking perfor-
to the related selected set points only for several hours of the day mance of Fig. 4 are shown in Fig. 5 for the sake of completeness. In
(intermittent regime). In this case, for each hygrothermal variable, particular, in Fig. 5a, a change of the rate of variation of the adaptive
the gains of the corresponding controller adapt so that it is possible gains for indoor temperature control is observed around 9:00. This
to track in closed loop the output of the reference model (which is mainly due to the effect of additional internal loads in the room
converges to the required set point, e.g. temperature and rela- caused by the people coming. Despite of this occurrence, the track-
tive humidity). The tracking of the reference model dynamics are ing of the reference profiles is guarantee by the adaptive system
imposed despite of external disturbances (solar radiation, external (fast gains adjust to counteract the new operating condition).
A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285 277
Fig. 21. Case 2, Zone 1: dynamics of the control actions of indoor air temperature and relative humidity for several cold winter zones during the 148th day of the year (a) and
some hot summer zones during the 315th day of the year (b). See Table 5 for the coloured areas related to the simulated disturbances.
Table 6
Case 2, Zone 1: energy demands, peak loads and comfort indexes during the heating (H) and cooling (C) seasons.
Sensible (kWh/m2 y) Latent (kWh/m2 y) Sensible (kW) Latent (g/s) PMV (−) PPD (%)
Similar tracking performances are obtained for other weather new operating regime). Note that, in the considered time interval of
zones and different sample days of the year, Fig. 6. Note that for Fig. 6 the thermal loads due to people are not sufficient to increase
Nice (dashed dark yellow line), comfort indoor air temperatures are the indoor air temperature preventing the activation of the HVAC
already obtained with switched off control system (Fig. 6a) despite system (except for Nice, where the indoor temperature is in free
of the increase of the indoor air temperature due to the presence floating regime).
of people (starting from 9:00). Consequently, no control action for For such weather zones, the hygrothermal routes [67] obtained
heating/cooling is provided (sensible heating power is equal to zero, between the time interval 8:00 − 9:00 are shown on the psychro-
Fig. 7a). Note also that in Fig. 6b for Jerusalem the control of the metric chart of Fig. 8. Here, according to Fig. 6, it can be observed
indoor air relative humidity is not activated being such parame- that for Naples and Rome, when the control is activated, heating
ter within the range 45–55% for all the hours of the considered and dehumidification are required to reach the hygrothermal com-
day. Therefore the control action for the vapour (flow rate) addi- fort domain (see routes D-4 and E-4 in Fig. 6). On the other hand
tion/subtraction is switched off in all the observed hours of the day heating and humidification have to be provided in the case of Den-
(Fig. 7b). In Fig. 6 it can be also observed that for Copenhagen the ver and Copenhagen (see routes A-1 and B-1 in Fig. 6). Finally, only
setback strategy is activated during the night to keep the indoor heating and dehumidification are required for Jerusalem and Nice,
air temperature higher than 10 ◦ C (for the other weather zones, the respectively.
indoor air temperatures at 8:00 are always higher than 10 ◦ C). The The energy demands required to achieve this fine regulation is
effect of the people presence (starting at 9:00) can be observed in reported in Table 2 where the weather zones are sorted according
Fig. 7a. Here, the occurring additional internal load implies lower to decreasing HDDs. In this table it is possible to note that the lower
sensible heating power to be supplied to the space to keep the the HDD, the lower the building heating demand (although a strictly
indoor air temperatures at the required set-point (the adaptive decreasing trend cannot be detected because of the solar radiation
temperature controllers automatically modulate their gains to the effects). Conversely, the lower the HDD, the higher is the building
278 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
Fig. 22. Case 2, Zones 2–7: NICUs indoor air temperature and humidity control actions and simulated disturbances for the weather zone of Naples.
Fig. 23. Case 2, Zones 2–7: time histories of the control actions (sensible heat and vapour flow rate) for the weather zone of Jerusalem.
cooling demand. In the same table the peak of the heating/cooling indoor air temperature and humidity were about 0.037 ◦ C and
loads and humidification/dehumidification requirements are also 0.28%, respectively.
reported. These calculated values can be used for the design of the Note that, during the HVAC system running time (considered in
HVAC system of the thermal zone 1. At last, in Table 2 the average this case study), the adopted adaptive control strategy falls within
PMVs and PPDs (computed in steady state, i.e. after the transient the AA class defined by ASHRAE [50]. Here, different classes are
regime due to the system control activation). Note that such PMVs defined for the control of the indoor air temperature and humidity
are always within the range −0.59 to 0.57 (the maximum observed for museums, galleries, archives and libraries. Such classes differ as
PPD is 12.2%). a function of the control effectiveness in tracking the set points
The dynamics of PMV, PPD and mean radiant temperature for (required to preserve artefacts and to provide comfort to occu-
several cold weather zones and for a set of sample days during the pants) and are labelled as AA, for the most stringent control, and
winter season are reported in Fig. 9. Here, it is clearly shown that as A, B, C and D for slighter strict control. AA class is characterized
hygrothermal comfort is swiftly achieved by activating the con- by an accurate control, such as: i) very light temperature fluctu-
trol systems (white regions in Fig. 9. Here, as an example, PPDs ations plus space gradients of the indoor air temperature (±2 K)
lower than 10% are quickly reached for whatever starting value). with a seasonal change of ±5 K (note that 21 ◦ C is the reference
For the same days, the dynamics of the indoor air temperature and temperature); ii) light relative humidity variation (50 ± 5%) without
relative humidity as well as the corresponding control actions are seasonal changes.
reported in Fig. 10. Here, it is possible to observe for the selected
days the above mentioned setback strategy (for avoiding indoor
air temperature lower than 10 ◦ C) is activated just in Denver and 4.1.2. Thermal zone 2: glass display case (enclosed zone)
Copenhagen switching on the temperature controller also during The thermal zone 2 is modelled as totally included in the above
the night hours (grey shaded area in Fig. 10). For the sake of com- described thermal zone 1. In the zone 2 the indoor air temperature
pleteness, by Figs. 11 and 12 an equivalent hygrothermal comfort and humidity are controlled 24/7. The application example taken
analysis can be carried out for several hot summer weather zones. into account is a glass display case (thermal zone 2) located in a
Note that for all the investigated weather zones the maximum museum hall (thermal zone 1).
root mean squared tracking error for the indoor control for the Fig. 13 shows the time histories of the sensible heat and the
vapour flow rate control actions required to achieve an accurate
A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285 279
Table 7
Case 2, Zones 2–7: sensible heating demands for the NICUs for the different weather zones.
Weather zone NICU 1 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 2 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 3 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 4 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 5 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 6 (kWh/m2 y)
Table 8
Case 2, Zones 2–7: latent heating (H) and cooling (C) demands of the NICUs for different weather zones.
Weather zone Mode NICU 1 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 2 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 3 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 4 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 5 (kWh/m2 y) NICU 6 (kWh/m2 y)
regulation of indoor air temperature and humidity for several sam- unsteady cooling demand is achieved when the indoor air temper-
ple days of the heating season (from 64th to 70th ) in some cold ature controller of Zone 1 is deactivated (see grey shaded area in
winter zones. Note that, the air temperature set point of Zone 2 is Fig. 15).
20 ◦ C. The same temperature set point is selected for Zone 1 from The calculated energy demands, for both sensible and latent
8:00 to 18:00. Consequently, during this time interval no sensible heats, are reported in Table 3. Similarly to the above mentioned
heat control action is necessary since no temperature difference is case of Zone 1, these results can be used by designers and practition-
observed between such two zones (see white areas in Fig. 13). ers in order to assess both systems consumptions and peak loads.
A different steady state regime is achieved during the night-time Note that, for all the considered weather zones the same order of
where the setback strategy is activated. As an example, for Copen- magnitude is observed for sensible and latent energy demands.
hagen the sensible heat to be provided to Zone 2 for regulating its
air temperature to 20 ◦ C when the indoor air temperature of Zone 1
4.2. Case studies 2: hospital ward with infant-incubators
is 10 ◦ C is about 2.5 W for all the sample days (see grey shaded areas
(multiple enclosed zones)
in Fig. 13). A similar analysis can be carried out also for the humidity
control action of Zone 2 during the same sample days of the heating
Numerical results relative to case studies 2 are discussed for the
season and cold winter zones. Note that, for Zone 1 the indoor air
main thermal zone in section 4.2.1 and for the enclosed ones in
relative humidity is controlled at 45% from 8:00 to 18:00 while the
section 4.2.2.
required set point for Zone 2 is 65% for 24/7. Hence, to regulate the
air humidity of Zone 2 a vapour flow rate of about 0.6 mg/s has to
be provided (see white area in Fig. 13). Instead, when the humidity 4.2.1. Thermal zone 1 (medical ward, surrounding zone)
control of the museum hall is deactivated (see shaded grey area In case of adaptive controller adoption to tackle external distur-
in Fig. 13) the vapour flow rate to be supplied to Zone 2 varies on bances many observations can be done regarding the dynamics of
the basis of the free floating regime selected for the indoor air rela- the hygrothermal variables. Results can be discussed on the basis of
tive humidity of the surrounding Zone 1. For sake of completeness the investigated weather zones (Table 1). As an example, for cold
for the same weather zones and sample days the adaptive gains winter zones no free floating regime for the indoor air tempera-
necessary to obtain the regulation of the considered hygrothermal ture and humidity is observed during the heating season (despite
variables are reported in Fig. 14. of the occurrence of the above mentioned disturbances, 20 ◦ C and
A similar analysis is carried out for several hot summer zones. In 45% are constantly imposed by the adaptive control, respectively).
particular, in Figs. 15 and 16 the dynamics of the required control Similarly, for temperate weather zones no free floating regimes are
actions and the related adaptive gains are reported, respectively. detected during hot summer days (26 ◦ C and 55% are constantly
Note that, from 15:00 to 20:00 a constant cooling action of about imposed, respectively).
−1.25 W is required to continually keep the temperature of Zone The control actions (sensible heat and vapour flow rate to be
2 at 20 ◦ C since during such time interval the air temperature of removed/added to the space) for several weather zones and sample
Zone 1 is controlled at 25 ◦ C (see white area in Fig. 15). Instead, an days are reported in Fig. 17. Here, different colours for the depicted
areas are adopted to denote the activation and deactivation of the
280 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
rate (simulating 1.2 ACH) with the aim to force the controller and
to assess its robustness. Note that the comparison of the simulation
results versus those obtained without considering disturbances (i.e.
no windows opening) was out of the scope of this study. Nev-
ertheless, due to the effective control of hygrothermal variables,
suitable mean PMV and PPD are always achieved for all the consid-
ered weather zones. In particular, PMV varies from −0.574 to 0.513,
consequently the mean PPD is always below 12%.
Fig. 24. Closed-loop error dynamics (23) represented as an equivalent feedback
system.
4.2.2. Thermal zones 2–7 (NICUs, enclosed zones)
In the Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs) a stringent regu-
lation of both indoor air temperature and relative humidity (see
different disturbances taken into account for Zone 1. The criteria
Table 4) is required for 24/7.
adopted for each coloured area are reported in Table 5.
Note that the maximum control actions are required during the
By Fig. 17, it is clear that the dominant disturbance to be rejected
NICUs openings. For these occurrences, Fig. 22a shows the dynam-
to preserve the required hygrothermal conditions is the window
ics of the sensible heating control actions necessary to keep the air
opening (light purple areas). Here, from 9:00 to 10:00 and from
temperatures into the NICUs perfectly constant and equal to their
16:00 to 17:00 both the control actions increase, reaching higher
required set-points for a winter sample day (January 25th ) in the
values with respect to the ones related to the remaining hours of
weather zone of Naples. In the same Fig. 22a the time histories of
the day. In particular, for cold winter zones during the 14th day of
the sensible load disturbances due to the NICUs openings are also
the year (Fig. 17a), both sensible and latent heats are required to be
depicted. Similarly, in Fig. 22b, for a summer sample day (July 15th )
supplied to the space for controlling the indoor air temperature and
in the weather zone of Naples, the dynamics of the humidifica-
relative humidity to 20 ◦ C and 45%, respectively. Conversely, in case
tion/dehumidification control actions necessary to keep the NICUs
of hot summer regions during the 230th day of the year (Fig. 17b),
at their required relative humidity set-points. In the same Fig. 22b
cooling and dehumidification are necessary to keep the indoor air
the time histories of the occurring latent load disturbances corre-
temperature and humidity at 26 ◦ C and 55%, respectively. For the
spondent to the NICUs openings are also reported (in several cases
sake of completeness, Fig. 18 shows the adaptive gains correspond-
such NICUs disturbances overlap each other).
ing to the control actions shown in Fig. 17.
By the obtained results it is observed that: i) the required tem-
Note that free floating regimes of indoor air temperature and
perature and humidity set points (control targets) for the Zones
humidity are obtained for cold weather zones during averagely
2–7 are always achieved for all the investigated sensible and latent
warm days. Here, the combined effect due to the presence of the
load disturbances; ii) in all the Zones 2–7 very low regulation
NICUs and to the warm outdoor temperature allow both such
errors for the indoor air temperature and relative humidity are
hygrothermal parameters to evolve within the related selected
obtained despite of the fluctuations of the temperature and humid-
admitted ranges. For instance, Fig. 19 shows the indoor air temper-
ity conditions (within the allowed ranges: 20–26 ◦ C and 45–55%,
ature and relative humidity evolution during the 148th and 149th
respectively) of the surrounding Zone 1.
day of the year (May 28th and 29th ). Note that for these days the
Note that, when the indoor air temperature of the surround-
indoor air temperature is in free floating as far as Zone 1 (NICW)
ing Zone 1 is controlled at 20 or 26 ◦ C (boundary temperatures of
windows are kept closed. Conversely, during the window opening
the allowed free floating range) a maximum and constant sensi-
time the adaptive controller has to be activated to avoid that such
ble heat has to be supplied or subtracted to or from each NICU,
temperature decreases beyond the admitted lower threshold.
respectively (the contrary occurs when a free-floating regime is
Note also that the openings of NICUs have a weak effect on the
detected). A similar behaviour is obtained for the humidity. These
Zone 1 temperature (only a small temperature increase is detected).
results are clearly visible in Fig. 23. In this figure the maximum
This result is due to the short time duration (10 min) in which such
supplied sensible heats and vapour flow rates correspond to the
NICUs are opened. Conversely, a remarkable effect of NICUs open-
set point temperature and relative humidity of 20 ◦ C and 45% while
ings is obtained on the Zone 1 (NICW) indoor air relative humidity,
the minimum subtractions of sensible heat and vapour flow rate are
as clearly shown in Fig. 19. Here, sudden and significant increase
referred to the space conditions of 26 ◦ C and 55%. The maximum and
of indoor are humidity are detected, as response to such kind of
minimum control actions depicted in Fig. 23 vary as a function of
disturbance.
the different NICU temperature and humidity set points (Table 4).
A similar analysis can be carried out for temperate winter zones
It is noteworthy to observe that none of hygrothermal disturbances
during the heating season, see Fig. 20. Here, the thermal loads due to
taken into account in the NICW affect the NICUs microclimate (even
NICUs often allow in Zone 1 free floating or a cooling demands while
the windows openings).
heating is required only in case of windows opening. For the sake
In Tables 7 and 8 the yearly sensible heating and latent heat-
of completeness in Fig. 21 are shown the dynamics of the control
ing/cooling demands are reported, respectively. Here, the obtained
actions for the cases reported in Fig. 19 and 20. Here, it is evident,
results basically depends on the required NICU indoor air temper-
that the HVAC systems must be activated in order to tackle the
ature and humidity conditions (Table 4) being almost independent
disturbance effect due to the window openings.
of the simulated weather zone. This result is mainly due to the reli-
The energy demands, peak loads and comfort indexes for all
able and accurate adaptive control of the indoor air temperature
weather zones are reported in Table 6. Obviously, the magnitudes
and humidity in the surrounding Zone 1.
of the obtained results depend on the resulting climate conditions.
Moreover, the heating/cooling demand is highly affected by the
windows openings (i.e. occurring two times, 10 min each, per day). 5. Future analyses
Thus, when the windows are open the required sensible heat can be
ten times higher than the sensible heat obtained without such dis- Further novel analyses obtained with the enhancement of the
turbance (when no natural ventilation rate is assumed), resulting simulation model and results will be presented in a next future
in very high peak loads. Note that the opening of the windows in paper. In particular, in order to take into account, the hygrother-
the intensive care ward is obtained by assuming a high ventilation mal behaviour of hygroscopic materials (e.g. archival artefacts,
A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285 281
paper-based objects, panel paintings, wooden artwork, etc.) within to impose the required hygrothermal conditions in presence of
the enclosed thermal zones, the moisture buffering will be suit- unmodelled dynamics. At last, note that for both the case studies
ably modelled and included in the moisture balance implemented the air temperature and humidity mean square root errors (calcu-
within the developed model. Different analyses will be carried out lated with respect to the modelled set-points over a time horizon
with the aim to assess the effects due to the control strategy on the of one year) resulted very small. This result confirms the effec-
energy demands. First of all, the comparison of simulation results tiveness of the adaptive control strategy in order to fulfil stringent
with and without sudden and relevant hygrothermal disturbances hygrothermal requirements.
will be investigated in order to assess the overall energy demands as
a function of the magnitude of disturbances for different typologies Appendix A. LQ Enhanced Model Reference Adaptive
of building use. Finally, for museum buildings, as well as galleries, Control Algorithm
archives and libraries, a comprehensive analysis will be performed
in order to assess the energy requirements and the occupants com- In order to achieve the exact and robust regulation of the micro-
fort according to the above mentioned ASHRAE classes defined for climate within the above described special-use indoor spaces with
the indoor climate control [50]. Presently, few studies are reported multi-enclosed thermal zones. the optimal adaptive algorithm,
in literature on this topic [51,52]. Therefore, as a function of the namely LQ-MRAC, is used. The idea behind the approach is to
occurring building envelope features and weather conditions, such recover robustness of the classical Linear-Quadratic (LQ) strategy,
analysis will be also useful to rate the energy saving potentials by that is typical in the optimal control theory [53], by implement-
moving from the higher control classes to the lower ones. ing it via an Adaptive Model Reference Control (MRAC) scheme
[39,40]. Such scheme is enhanced by two additional control actions
to improve performance and robustness, as reported in reference
6. Conclusion [34].
Specifically, the LQ-EMRAC Reference Model represents the
In this paper a novel dynamic simulation model developed desired dynamic performance to impose to a given uncertain sys-
for the dynamic energy buildings performance analysis of multi- tem and the challenge is to find an Adaptive Mechanism so that the
enclosed thermal zones, where rigid air temperature and humidity system state exactly tracks that of the reference model. The refer-
conditions must be kept, is presented. Such model is implemented ence dynamics can be selected in terms of a requested behaviour in
in a novel simulation code, namely DETECt 2.3.1, written in MatLab. closed-loop and their design do not require a precise and detailed
In such tool, several remarkable novelties have been introduced knowledge of the system under control. In order to accomplish opti-
versus the previous releases. In particular, the presented code is mality of the reference profiles, the Reference Model is chosen as
now able to simulate multi thermal zones enclosed in a surround- a simplify Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) model of the system under
ing one and to accurately control in all such zones the indoor control driven by an optimal LQ control action. In so doing, the ref-
air temperature and humidity also under unexpected and tough erence model dynamics, say xm (t), are solutions of an optimization
external disturbances. This capability is obtained by an innovative problem resulting from a minimization of a quadratic cost index
Linear Quadratic − Enhanced Model Reference Adaptive Control J [38]. The mathematical formulation of the LQ-EMRAC strategy is
(LQ-EMRAC) strategy. given in what follows. Consider the system dynamics described as:
In order to test the potentiality and the effectiveness of such sim-
ẋ = A · x + B · u + f (x, t) (8)
ulation tool, two interesting case studies were suitably developed.
In particular, in the first one two thermal zones of a museum build- where x (t) ∈ n is the state of the system to be controlled; u (t) ∈
ing are taken into account. Specifically, a glass display case with is the control input; f (x, t) ∈ n is a bounded disturbance; A ∈
a rigid temperature humidity micro-climate control is enclosed in n×n and B ∈ n×1 are the dynamic and input matrixes, respec-
a museum hall. In such large indoor space the HVAC system run- tively.
ning is scheduled through an intermittent regime, while in the glass The control aim is to find an adaptive strategy, so that the system
display case a continuous running mode is adopted (for permanent state tracks the trajectories of a simplified LTI model of the plant,
artefacts preserving aims). Hence, the temperature and humidity controlled via an LQ strategy [38]. Although it is well known in
control capability is tested in order to provide to the enclosed zone the classical control theory [38], some details on the construction
(glass display case) the required stringent microclimate constraint of the optimal reference model through the LQ approach are also
also with remarkable changes of the hygrothermal conditions of here provided for the sake of completeness.
the surrounding space (museum hall). The first step is to describe the system dynamics (8) by selecting
In the second case study, seven thermal zones of a hospital build- a very simple nominal LTI model of the form:
ing are taken into account. Here, six neonatal intensive care units
for newborn babies are enclosed in a hospital care ward. In all such ẋ0 (t) = A0 · x0 (t) + B0 · u0 (t) , y0 (t) = C0 · x0 (t) (9)
modelled thermal zones, the HVAC system running is simulated being x0 ∈ n
the state vector, y0 ∈ the output of the system,
through a continuous running regime (24/7). Here the tempera- A0 ∈ n×n the dynamic matrix, B0 ∈ n the input vector and C0 ∈
ture/humidity control capability is tested in order to provide rigid 1×n the output vector. Notice that, in case of building control a
microclimate conditions to the six intensive care units. The analysis possible choice can be based on some rough estimation of the plant
was carried out under the effect of different accidental, heavy and matrices as illustrated in [34]. Then, it is necessary to impose to sys-
intensive hygrothermal disturbances. tem in (9) an optimal control signal u0 (t) = uopt (t) that minimizes
For both the case studies an assessment of the resulting control the following quadratic functional cost:
actions is carried out for all the simulated thermal zones (surround-
ing and enclosed ones) and for different weather conditions. In all +∞
the cases, the developed adaptive solution is able to reliably cope J (x0 (t0 ) , u0 (·)) = ȳ0T · Q1 · ȳ0 + (y0 − r)T · Q2 · (yo − r) + uT0 · R · u0 · d
all the modelled operative conditions changes. t0
(10)
It is noteworthy to observe that for both the developed case
studies, the adaptive controllers tackle coupled thermal dynamics
that are not considered during the design of the control strategy. In where r is the given set point, t0 is the initial time instant Q1 ∈ n
so doing we also tested the effectiveness of the adaptive approach and Q2 , R ∈ are positive matrices and the auxiliary variable ȳ0 is
282 A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285
1) to identify a nominal linear model of the plant of interest in the Step (i): Recast the Error Dynamics as a Feedback System.
form reported in (9). This model represents a rough estimate of
the plant matrices that can be used to design a classical optimal From (23), the error dynamics can be easily represented as
control law; the feedback system shown in Fig. 24 The feed-forward block is
2) to design a classical LQ optimal controller on the nominal plant described by the LTI model whose input-state-output representa-
model in order to minimize the target cost function (10), where tion is characterized by the triple (Am , Bm , Ce ), while the feedback
Q1 , Q2 and R are suitable weight matrices; block is a nonlinear mapping which depends on the output signal
3) to implement the LQ-EMRAC control law by using the closed- ye and the adaptive gains. The auxiliary input is defined as
loop LQ nominal plant in (14) as the reference model for the
adaptive algorithm (16) acting on the real system dynamics (8). =−
1
· T
·ω−
1 T
· ye · ω · ˇ · ω −
1
· (d + KE · sgn (ye )) .
opt opt opt
KR KR KR
Appendix B. Proof of asymptotic stability Step (iii): Passivity of the feedback path.
The effectiveness of the control algorithm presented in In order to prove that the feedback block in Fig. 24 satisfies the
Appendix A is analytically proven by showing that the error dynam- Popov’s integral inequality, it suffices to show that, for some finite
ics can be recast as an asymptotically hyperstable system [39,63]. constant c, it holds [39]:
Before showing in detail the proof, we disclose some technical t1
aspects that are related to the mathematical derivation. In par- I= −ye d ≥ −c 2 , (24)
ticular, in accordance with the classical MRAC theory [39], we t0
opt
assume that the sign of the KR in (15) is known. As a further
technical assumption, we assume that the nonlinear term acting for any generic time instant t1 .
on the plant dynamics (8) is bounded and it can be parameter- Substituting the expression of in (24), after some algebraic
ized as f (x, t) = Bm · d (x, t) with d (x, t) being a generic function manipulations, we have
of the plant state and the time. In addition, we assume that some
I = I1 + I2 + I3 , (25)
saturation strategy and an anti-windup scheme are adopted when
computing the integral xI in (17) [64]. Moreover, we select the con- with
trol weights ˛ , ˇ , ˛ , ˇ , ˝˛ , ˝ˇ and in (18) and (19) with t1
opt ye2 wT ˇw
the same sign of KR . Note that, the boundedness of f (x, t) implies I1 = d, : :
opt
the boundedness of d (x, t), i.e. there exists a constant D > 0 so that KR
t0
t1
|d (x, t) | ≤ D.
T w
I2 = −ye d, : (26)
T T T recast the closed-loop state vector
To derive the proof, we first as KR
opt
xe
. .
KE , being
= K opt − K I .. −K I .. K opt − K I , so t0t1
I R R KE sgn(ye ) + d ()
I3 = ye d.
that the closed-loop dynamics under the LQ-EMRAC control action opt
KR
t0
can be written as
opt
Since each element of the ˇ-matrix has the same sign of KR , we
opt opt
wT ˇw/KR = wT |ˇ|w/|KR | R2n+1 ,
ẋe = Am · xe +
Bm
·
T · ω −
Bm
· ye · ωT · ˇ · ω −
Bm
· (d + KE · sgn (ye )) ,
have that
≥ 0, for all w ∈ with
KR
opt
KR
opt opt
KR |ˇ| = diag |ˇ11 |, |ˇ22 |, . . ., |ˇ2n+1,2n+1 | . Consequently,
˙ = −ye · ˛ · ω, I1 ≥ 0 (27)
(23)
for all time instants.
Consider now I2 in (26). By exploiting the second equation in
.. .. (23) we can solve the integral that defines I2 as follows
where, ωT = xT . xIT . r and ˛ = diag ˛ , ˝˛ , ˛ and ˇ =
diag ˇ , ˝ˇ , ˇ ∈ D2n+1 . t1 t1
T w
T ˛−1
˙ 1
T (t1 )˛−1
(t1 ) 1
T (t0 )˛−1
(t0 )
Notice that, since each entry of ˛ and ˇ have the same sign of I2 = −ye opt
d = opt
d = opt
− opt
.
opt opt opt KR KR 2 K 2 K
KR , matrices ˛/KR and ˇ/KR are positive definite. t0 t0 R R
Final, consider the term I3 , after simple algebraic manipulations [14] F. Romano, L.P.M. Colombo, M. Gaudenzi, C.M. Joppolo, L.P. Romano, Passive
we have control of microclimate in museum display cases: a lumped parameter model
and experimental tests, J. Cult. Heritage 16 (2015) 413–418.
[15] A.W.M. van Schijndel, H.L. Schellen, J.L. Wijffelaars, K. van Zundert,
KE sgn(ye ) + d sgn (ye ) d KE
ye opt
= |ye | · opt
· opt
+ opt
. (30) Application of an integrated indoor climate: HVAC and showcase model for
KR sgn KR |KR | KR the indoor climate performance of a museum, Energy Build. 40 (2008)
647–653.
opt [16] R.J.M. Lony, A.W.M. van Schijndel, H.L. Schellen, Evaluation of the climate
Taking into account (30) and that the quantity KE /KR is a pos- control performance and reliability of active display cases/Bewertung der
opt qualität einer klimaregelung und der zuverlässigkeit aktiver
itive increasing term as KE has always the same sign of KR , there
opt opt ausstellungsschränke, Restor. Build. Monum. (2010) 15.
exists a time instant, say so that t∗, KE (t) /KR > D/|KR | for all [17] R.P. Kramer, M.P.E. Maas, M.H.J. Martens, A.W.M. van Schijndel, H.L. Schellen,
t > t ∗ , with D the positive constant so that |d(t)| ≤ D, ∀t ≥ t0 (which Energy conservation in museums using different setpoint strategies: a case
exists as the disturbance was assumed to be bounded). Conse- study for a state-of-the-art museum using building simulations, Appl. Energ.
158 (2015) 446–458.
quently also the term (30) is positive for t > t ∗ . Hence, [18] P. Brimblecombe, B. Ramer, Museum display cases and the exchange of water
t1 vapour, Stud. Conserv. 28 (1983) 179–188.
KE sgn(ye ) + d () [19] D. Yu, S.A. Klein, D.T. Reindl, An Evaluation of Silica Gel for Humidity Control
I3 = ye opt
d in Display Cases, WAAC Newsletter, 2001.
t0 KR [20] N. Museux, V. Cardot, V. Bach, S. Delanaud, L. Degrugilliers, B. Agourram, et al.,
t∗ t1 A reproducible means of assessing the metabolic heat status of preterm
KE sgn(ye ) + d () KE sgn(ye ) + d () neonates, Med. Phys. 35 (2008) 89–100.
= ye opt
d + ye opt
d. (31)
KR KR [21] P. Décima, E. Stéphan-Blanchard, A. Pelletier, L. Ghyselen, S. Delanaud, L.
t0 t∗
t∗
Dégrugilliers, et al., Assessment of radiant temperature in a closed incubator,
Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 112 (2012) 2957–2968.
KE sgn(ye ) + d ()
≥ −| ye opt
d| ≥ −c32 . [22] J.S. Ultman, S. Berman, P. Kirlin, J.M. Vreslovic, C.B. Baer, K.H. Marks,
t0 KR Electrically heated simulator for relative evaluation of alternative infant
incubator environments, Med. Instrum. 22 (1988).
From (27), (29) and (31) follows immediately that I ≥ −(c 21 + [23] A.E. Wheldon, Energy balance in the newborn baby: use of a manikin to
estimate radiant and convective heat loss, Phys. Med. Biol. 27 (1982) 285.
c22 ) − c 2 , therefore the Popov’s integral inequality (24) is fulfilled. [24] M.H. LeBlanc, The physics of thermal exchange between infants and their
In so doing the feedback system Fig. 24 is hyperstable and their environment, Med. Instrum. 21 (1987) 11–15.
dynamics converge to zero according to [39]. [25] J.B.N. Simon, N.P. Reddy, A. Kantak, A theoretical model of infant incubator
dynamics, J. Biomech. Eng. 116 (1994) 263–269.
Furthermore, the convergence of the adaptive gain KE to a finite [26] H.J. Steeman, M. Van Belleghem, A. Janssens, M. De Paepe, Coupled simulation
value in the absence of persistent perturbations can be easily shown of heat and moisture transport in air and porous materials for the assessment
by following the approach in [58]. In practice, it might keep grow- of moisture related damage, Build. Environ. 44 (2009) 2176–2184.
[27] L.C. Wrobel, M.K. Ginalski, A.J. Nowak, D.B. Ingham, A.M. Fic, An overview of
ing if persistent disturbances are present. In this case, a simple recent applications of computational modelling in neonatology. Philosophical
implementation solution is to lock the evolution of over a certain Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Phys. Eng. Sci.
threshold. In addition the boundedness of the adaptive feedfor- 368 (2010) 2817–2834.
[28] M.K. Ginalski, A.J. Nowak, L.C. Wrobel, A combined study of heat and mass
ward and feedback control gains can be assured in presence of transfer in an infant incubator with an overhead screen, Med. Eng. Phys. 29
disturbance by using parameter projection and signal modification (2007) 531–541.
techniques [68,69]. [29] C. Ghiaus, Linear algebra solution to psychometric analysis of air-conditioning
systems, Energy 74 (2014) 555–566.
[30] A. Buonomano, A. Palombo, Building energy performance analysis by an
References in-house developed dynamic simulation code: an investigation for different
case studies, Appl. Energ. 113 (2014) 788–807.
[1] K.A. Thomas, A. Magbalot, K. Shinabarger, L. Mokhnach, M. Anderson, K. [31] A. Buonomano, Code-to-code validation and application of a building
Diercks, et al., Seasonal mapping of NICU temperature study conducted at the dynamic simulation tool for the building energy performance analysis,
university of washington medical center, Adv. Neonatal Care 10 (2011) 83–87. Energies 9 (2016) 301.
[2] D. Erhardt, C.S. Tumosa, M.F. Mecklenburg, Applying science to the question [32] A. Buonomano, G. De Luca, U. Montanaro, A. Palombo, Innovative technologies
of museum climate, in: Museum Microclimates Conference, Copenhagen, for NZEBs: an energy and economic analysis tool and a case study of a
2007, pp. 11–18. non-residential building for the Mediterranean climate, Energy Build. (2015).
[3] S. Michalski, The Ideal Climate, Risk Management, the ASHRAE Chapter, [33] F. Ascione, D. D’Agostino, C. Marino, F. Minichiello, Earth-to-air heat
Proofed Fluctuations and Toward a Full Risk Analysis Model, 2007, pp. 1–19. exchanger for NZEB in Mediterranean climate, Renew. Energy 99 (2016)
[4] z. Bratas, Allowable microclimatic variations for painted wood, Stud. Conserv. 553–563.
58 (2013) 65–79. [34] A. Buonomano, U. Montanaro, A. Palombo, S. Santini, Dynamic building
[5] R.B. Knobel, J.E. Wimmer, D. Holbert, Heat loss prevention for preterm infants energy performance analysis: a new adaptive control strategy for stringent
in the delivery room, J. Perinatol. 25 (2005) 304–308. thermohygrometric indoor air requirements, Appl. Energy 163 (2016)
[6] K.J. Astrom, T. Hagglund, PID Controllers – Theory, Design, and Tuning, 2nd 361–386.
edition, 1995. [35] A. Pedro, A. Sala, Multivariable Control Systems: An Engineering Approach,
[7] A.I. Dounis, C. Caraiscos, Advanced control systems engineering for energy Springer, 2004.
and comfort management in a building environment—a review, Renew. [36] B. Brogliato, R. Lozano, B. Maschke, O. Egeland, Dissipative Systems Analysis
Sustain. Energy Rev. 13 (2009) 1246–1261. and Control: Theory and Applications, Springer, 2007.
[8] M.d. Bernardo, A.d. Gaeta, U. Montanaro, S. Santini, Synthesis and [37] ISO International Organization for Standardization ISO 6946:2008, Building
experimental validation of the novel LQ-NEMCSI adaptive strategy on an Components and Building Elements – Thermal Resistance and Thermal
electronic throttle valve, IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol. 18 (2010) Transmittance – Calculation Method, 2008.
1325–1337. [38] B.D.O. Anderson, J.B. Moore, Linear Optimal Control, Prentice Hall, Englewood
[9] D. Trevisanuto, N. Doglioni, F. Cavallin, V. Zanardo, Heat loss prevention in Cliff, NJ, 1971.
very preterm infants in delivery rooms: a prospective randomized, controlled [39] I. Landau, Adaptive Control, the Model Reference Approach, 1979.
trial of polyethylene caps, J. Pediatr. 156 (2010) 914–917. [40] K. Astrom, B. Wittenmark, Adaptive Control, 2nd edition, 1995.
[10] M.A. Zermani, E. Feki, A. Mami, Building simulation model of infant-incubator [41] P.J. Mosterman, An overview of hybrid simulation phenomena and their
system with decoupling predictive controller, IRBM 35 (2014) 189–201. support by simulation packages, in: Hybrid Systems: Computation and
[11] A.K. Abbas, S. Leonhardt, System identification of neonatal incubator based on Control, Springer-Verlag, 1999, pp. 165–177.
adaptive ARMAX technique, in: J. Vander Sloten, P. Verdonck, M. Nyssen, J. [42] International Organization for Standardization. ISO 8601:2004, Numeric
Haueisen (Eds.), 4th European Conference of the International Federation for Representation of Dates and Time, 2004.
Medical and Biological Engineering: ECIFMBE 2008 23–27 November 2008 [43] J. Sakarovitch, Elements of Automata Theory, Cambridge University Press,
Antwerp, Belgium, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2009, pp. 2009.
2515–2519. [44] Mathworks. MATLAB.
[12] A. Fraguela, F.D. Matlalcuatzi, Á.M. Ramos, Mathematical modelling of [45] C.R. Ruivo, P.M. Ferreirac, D.C. Vazc, Prediction of thermal load temperature
thermoregulation processes for premature infants in closed convectively difference values for the external envelope of rooms with setback and setup
heated incubators, Comput. Biol. Med. 57 (2015) 159–172. thermostats, Appl. Therm. Eng. 51 (2013) 980–987.
[13] D. Camuffo, G. Sturaro, A. Valentino, Showcases: a really effective mean for [46] M.H. LeBlanc, The physics of thermal exchange between infants and their
protecting artworks, Thermochim. Acta 365 (2000) 65–77. environment, Med. Instrum. 21 (1987) 11–15.
A. Buonomano et al. / Energy and Buildings 135 (2017) 263–285 285
[47] A. Lyon, Applied physiology: temperature control in the newborn infant, Curr. [59] V.I. Utkin, Sliding Modes in Control and Optimization, Springer-Verlag, 1992.
Paediatr. 14 (2004) 137–144. [60] D.P. Stoten, H. Benchoubane, Robustness of a minimal controller synthesis
[48] I. Hazyuk, C. Ghiaus, D. Penhouet, Optimal temperature control of algorithm, Int. J. Control 51 (1990) 850–861.
intermittently heated buildings using model predictive control: part I − [61] M.S. Branicky, Studies in Hybrid Systems: Modeling, Analysis, and Control,
building modeling, Build. Environ. 51 (2012) 379–387. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1995.
[49] C. Ghiaus, Linear algebra solution to psychometric analysis of air-conditioning [62] M. di Bernardo, U. Montanaro, S. Santini, Novel hybrid MRAC-LQ control
systems, Energy 74 (2014) 555–566. schemes: synthesis: analysis and applications, Int. J. Control 81 (2008)
[50] ASHRAE, in: V.A.C.A.S.e. ASHRAE Handb. Heating (Ed.), Museum, Galleries, 940–961.
Archives and Libraries, 2011. [63] V.M. Popov, Hyperstability of Control Systems, Springer-Varlag, 1973.
[51] R. Kramer, H. Schellen, J. van Schijndel, Energy impact of ASHRAE’s museum [64] G.F. Franklin, J.D. Powell, A. Emami-Naeini, Feedback Control of Dynamic
climate classes: a simulation study on four museums with different quality of Systems, Addison Wesley, 1993.
envelopes, Energy Procedia. 78 (2015) 1317–1322. [65] A. Buonomano, U. Montanaro, A. Palombo, S. Santini, Adaptive control for
[52] R.P. Kramer, H.L. Schellen, A.W.M. van Schijndel, Impact of ASHRAE’s museum building thermo-hygrometric analysis: a novel dynamic simulation code for
climate classes on energy consumption and indoor climate fluctuations: indoor spaces with multi enclosed thermal zones, Energy Proc. 78 (2015)
full-scale measurements in museum Hermitage Amsterdam, Energy Build. 2190–2195.
130 (2016) 286–294. [66] A. Buonomano, U. Montanaro, A. Palombo, S. Santini, Multi-zone buildings
[53] B.D.O., Anderson, J.B., Moore, Linear Optimal Control. thermo-hygrometric analysis: a novel dynamic simulation code based on
[54] H.K. Khalil, Nonlinear Systems, 3rd edition, 2001. adaptive control, in: Building Simulation Applications 2015-2nd IBPSA-Italy
[55] A. Buonomano, U. Montanaro, A. Palombo, S. Santini, Indoor air temperature Conference (4–6 February), Bolzano (Italy), 2015, pp. 109–118.
control in buildings via an optimal tuned PI strategy, Int. J. Eng. Innov. [67] P. Mazzei, A. Palombo, Economic evaluation of hybrid evaporative technology
Technol. 4 (2014) 77–85. implementation in Italy, Build. Environ. 34 (5) (1999) 571–582.
[56] P. Ioannou, B. Fidan, Adaptive Control Tutorial: Advances in Design and [68] U. Montanaro, J.M. Olm, Integral MRAC with minimal controller synthesis and
Control, 2006. bounded adaptive gains: the continuous-time case, J. Franklin Inst. 353
[57] D.P. Stoten, The adaptive minimal control synthesis algorithm with integral (December (18)) (2016) 5040–5067.
action, International Conference on Industrial Electronics, Control, and [69] U. Montanaro, J.M. Olm, Discrete-time integral MRAC with minimal controller
Instrumentation (1995) 1646–1651. synthesis and parameter projection, J. Franklin Inst. 352 (December (12))
[58] M.d. Bernardo, D.P. Stoten, A new extended minimal control synthesis (2015) 5415–5436.
algorithm with an application to the control of chaotic systems, Conf. Decis.
Control (1997) 1902–1907.