Crop Science Notes 2 2015

Comprehensive Crop science Hand out
(a) Draw and describe the structure of a plant cell as seen under an electron microscope,
(b) Describe the structure of the cell membrane and chloroplast as seen under an electron
microscope,
Membrane lipid bilayer is unit membrane that surrounds prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In
addition, all bio membranes form closed structures, separating lumen on inside from outside, and
are based on a similar bilayer structure. They control movement of molecules between inside and
outside of a cell and into and out of organelles of eukaryotic cells. In accord with importance of
internal membranes to cell function, total surface area of these membranes is roughly tenfold as
great as that of plasma membrane
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Written by Shamuyarira, Mvurwi High School.2015
Basic Structural Organization of Membrane Lipid Bilayer

Fluid mosaic model of S. J. Singer and Garth Nicolson 1972 best describes structure of
membranes bilayer.
 Lipids form a bilayer in which nonpolar regions of lipid molecules in each layer face
core of bilayer and their polar head groups face outward, interacting with aqueous
phase on either side.
 Proteins are embedded in this bilayer sheet, held by hydrophobic interactions between
membrane lipids and hydrophobic domains in the proteins. Some proteins protrude
from only one side of membrane; others have domains exposed on both sides.
 The orientation of proteins in bilayer is asymmetric, giving membrane “sidedness”:
protein domains exposed on one side of bilayer are different from those exposed on
other side, reflecting functional asymmetry.
 The individual lipid and protein units in a membrane form a fluid mosaic with a
pattern that, unlike a mosaic of ceramic tile and mortar, is free to change constantly.
 The membrane mosaic is fluid because most of the interactions among its components
are noncovalent, leaving individual lipid and protein molecules free to move laterally
in the plane of the membrane.
Lipid Components
A typical membrane bilayer is assembled from phosphoglycerides, sphingolipids, and
steroids. All three classes of lipids are amphipathic molecules having a polar (hydrophilic)
head group and hydrophobic tail. Hydrophobic effect and van der Waals interactions cause
tail groups to self-associate into a bilayer with polar head groups oriented toward water.
Phosphoglycerides is most abundant class of lipids in most membranes. A typical

phosphoglyceride molecule consists of a hydrophobic tail composed of two fatty acyl chains
esterified to two hydroxyl groups in glycerol phosphate and a polar head group attached to
phosphate group.
A second class of membrane lipid is sphingolipids. All of these compounds are derived from
sphingosine, an amino alcohol with a long hydrocarbon chain, and contain a long-chain fatty
acid attached to sphingosine amino group.
Cholesterol and its derivatives constitute third important class of membrane lipids, steroids.
Basic structure of steroids is a four-ring hydrocarbon. Cholesterol, major steroidal constituent
of animal tissues, has a hydroxyl substituent on one ring. Presence of one hydroxyl group in
cholesterol makes it amphipathic. Cholesterol is especially abundant in plasma membranes of
mammalian cells but is absent from most prokaryotic cells.
Lipid composition influences physical properties of membrane bilayer and may also
correspond to specialization of membrane function. Degree of bilayer fluidity depends on
lipid composition, structure of phospholipid hydrophobic tails, and temperature. Van der
Waals interactions and hydrophobic effect cause nonpolar tails of phospholipids to aggregate.
Long, saturated fatty acyl chains have greatest tendency to aggregate, packing tightly together
into a gel-like state. Phospholipids with short fatty acyl chains, which have less surface area
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for interaction, form more fluid bilayers. Likewise, kinks in unsaturated fatty acyl chains
result in their forming less stable van der Waals interactions with other lipids than do
saturated chains and hence more fluid bilayers. At usual physiologic temperatures,
hydrophobic interior of natural membranes generally has a low viscosity and a fluid like,
rather than gel-like, consistency.
Cholesterol is important in maintaining fluidity of membrane bilayer in a concentration

dependent manner. Intercalation of cholesterol among phospholipids restricts random
movement of phospholipid head groups at outer surfaces of leaflets.
Protein Components
Membrane bilayer proteins can be classified into three categories—integral, lipid-anchored,
and peripheral—on basis of nature of membrane–protein interactions.
Integral membrane proteins, also called transmembrane proteins, span a phospholipid

bilayer and are built of three segments. Cytosolic and exoplasmic domains have hydrophilic
exterior surfaces that interact with aqueous solutions on cytosolic and exoplasmic faces of
membrane bilayer.
Lipid-anchored membrane proteins are bound covalently to one or more lipid molecules.
Hydrophobic carbon chain of attached lipid is embedded in one leaflet of membrane and
anchors protein to membrane bilayer. Polypeptide chain itself does not enter phospholipids
bilayer.
Peripheral membrane proteins do not interact with hydrophobic core of phospholipid

bilayer. Instead they are usually bound to membrane bilayer indirectly by interactions with
integral membrane proteins or directly by interactions with lipid head groups. Peripheral
proteins are localized to either cytosolic or exoplasmic face of plasma membrane.
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Structure
Chloroplasts found in higher plants are generally biconvex or planoconvex shaped. In
different plants chloroplasts have different shapes, they vary from spheroid, filamentous saucer-
shaped, discoid or ovoid shaped.
They are vesicular and have a colourless centre. Some chloroplasts are in shape of club, they have a
thin middle zone and the ends are filled with chlorophyll. In algae a single huge chloroplast is seen
that appears as a network, a spiral band or a stellate plate.
The size of the chloroplast also varies from species to species and it is constant for a given
cell type. In higher plants, the average size of chloroplast is 4-6 Âµ in diameter and 1-3 Âµ in
thickness.
Function
The chloroplasts are double membrane bound organelles and are the site of photosynthesis.
The chloroplasts have a system of three membranes: the outer membrane, the inner
membrane and the thylakoid system. The outer and the inner membrane of the chloroplast
enclose a semi-gel-like fluid known as the stroma. This stroma makes up much of the volume
of the chloroplast, the thylakoids system floats in the stroma.
Outer membrane - It is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small molecules and

ions, which diffuses easily. The outer membrane is not permeable to larger proteins.
Intermembrane Space - It is usually a thin intermembrane space about 10-20 nanometers and
it is present between the outer and the inner membrane of the chloroplast.
Inner membrane - The inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to the stroma. It
regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. In addition of regulation activity,
the fatty acids, lipids and carotenoids are synthesized in the inner chloroplast membrane.
Stroma
Stroma is an alkaline, aqueous fluid which is protein rich and is present within the inner
membrane of the chloroplast. The space outside the thylakoid space is called the stroma. The
chloroplast DNA chloroplast ribosome’s and the thylakoid system, starch granules and many
proteins are found floating around the stroma.
Thylakoid System
 The thylakoid system is suspended in the stroma. The thylakoid system is a collection of
membranous sacks called thylakoids. The chlorophyll is found in the thylakoids and is the
sight for the process of light reactions of photosynthesis to happen. The thylakoids are
arranged in stacks known as grana.
 Each granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids.
 Thylakoids are interconnected small sacks, the membranes of these thylakoids is the site
for the light reactions of the photosynthesis to take place. The word 'thylakoid' is derived
from the Greek word "thylakos" which means 'sack'.
 Important protein complexes which carry out light reaction of photosynthesis are
embedded in the membranes of the thylakoids. The Photosystem I and the Photosystem II
are complexes that harvest light with chlorophyll and carotenoids, they absorb the light
energy and use it to energize the electrons.
 Thylakoids are of two types - granal thylakoids and stromal thylakoids. Granal thylakoids
are arranged in the grana are pancake shaped circular discs, which are about 300-600
nanometers in diameter. The stromal thylakoids are in contact with the stroma and are in
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the form of helicoid sheets.

-The granal thylakoids contain only photosystem II protein complex, this allows them to
stack tightly and form many granal layers with granal membrane. This structure increases
stability and surface area for the capture of light.
-The photosystem I and ATP synthase protein complexes are present in the stroma. These
protein complexes act as spacers between the sheets of stromal thylakoids.
Chloroplast Function
Functions of chloroplast:
 In plants all the cells participate in plant immune response as they lack specialized immune cells.
The chloroplasts with the nucleus and cell membrane and ER are the key organelles of pathogen
defense.
 The most important function of chloroplast is to make food by the process of photosynthesis.
Food is prepared in the form of sugars. During the process of photosynthesis sugar and oxygen
are made using light energy, water, and carbon dioxide.
 Light reactions take place on the membranes of the thylakoids.
 Chloroplasts, like the mitochondria use the potential energy of the H+ ions or the hydrogen ion
gradient to generate energy in the form of ATP.
 The dark reactions also known as the Calvin cycle take place in the stroma of chloroplast.
 Production of NADPH2 molecules and oxygen as a result of photolysis of water.
 BY the utilization of assimilatory powers the 6-carbon atom is broken into two molecules of
phosphoglyceric acid.
(c) Explain the functions of the following organelles: rough and smooth endoplasm, reticulum,
Golgi body, ribosome’s, lysosome, chloroplast, cell surface membrane, nuclear envelope,
centriole, nucleus and nucleolus.
Organelles or
Description Function
Structures
Dense spherical area in the
Nucleolus nucleoplasm that contains Produces the organelle called ribosome.
some DNA and RNA.
Performs the tasks that are coded in the
Ribosomes Small round dense granules DNA. Produces proteins which are
needed for functioning and structure.
Curved shaped surface called They place different membranes around
Golgi Bodies forming face with vesicles cell products sorting and packaging
coming off. them.
Rough System of membranes with
Transport system and is the site of
Endoplasmic ribosome connecting the
protein production made by ribosome.
Reticulum nucleus cell membrane.
Smooth System of membranes
Transport system and is the site of lipid
Endoplasmic connecting the nucleus cell
production.
Reticulum membrane.
Breakdown of cell organelles that are no
Small membrane bound round
Lysosome longer needed, so that they can be used
sac of fluid
to create new ones.
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Bean shaped organelle with an Cellular respiration which provides

Mitochondria
inner and outer membrane energy for cell functions.
A dense granular cylindrical Produces spindles which separate the
Centrioles
structure made of microtubules cell during cell division.
(d) Describe cell differentiation.and mitosis

 The process by which cells or parts of an organism become different from one and other and
also from their previous state.or
 The process by which cells or tissues of an organism acquire the ability to perform their
special functions.or
 Cell differentiation: the process by which an undifferentiated cell reaches its specialized
function. It occurs during histogenesis. Cell differentiation is stable. Most differentiated cells
cannot transform into other cell types (it can happen during regeneration).
 Cellular differentiation is the process by which a cell changes from one cell type to another.
Usually this is because a less specialized type becomes a more specialized type, such as
during cell growth. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a
multicellular organism as it changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of tissues and
cell types.
 All cells in an organism have the same genome therefore differences must be due to which
genes are expressed.
 Unspecialised cells are called stem cells. These cells are undifferentiated.
 Stem cells are classified into three types.
a) totipotent, or growing into any other cell type
b) pluripotent, or growing into any cell type but a totipotent cell
c) multipotent, or growing into cells of a closely related cell family

 Within multicellular organisms, tissues are organized communities of cells that work together
to carry out a specific function. The exact role of a tissue in an organism depends on what
types of cells it contains. For example, the endothelial tissue that lines the human
gastrointestinal tract consists of several cell types. Some of these cells absorb nutrients from
the digestive contents, whereas others (called goblet cells) secrete a lubricating mucus that
helps the contents travel smoothly.
The nature and function of cells
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A cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane, which forms a selective barrier that allows
nutrients to enter and waste products to leave. The interior of the cell is organized into many
specialized compartments, or organelles, each surrounded by a separate membrane. One
major organelle, the nucleus, contains the genetic information necessary for cell growth and
reproduction. Each cell contains only one nucleus, whereas other types of organelles are
present in multiple copies in the cellular contents, or cytoplasm. Organelles include
mitochondria, which are responsible for the energy transactions necessary for cell survival;
lysosomes, which digest unwanted materials within the cell; and the endoplasmic reticulum
and the Golgi apparatus, which play important roles in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selected molecules and then processing, sorting, and directing them to their
proper locations. In addition, plant cells contain chloroplasts, which are responsible for
photosynthesis, whereby the energy of sunlight is used to convert molecules of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into carbohydrates. Between all these organelles is the space
in the cytoplasm called the cytosol. The cytosol contains an organized framework of fibrous
molecules that constitute the cytoskeleton, which gives a cell its shape, enables organelles to
move within the cell, and provides a mechanism by which the cell itself can move. The
cytosol also contains more than 10,000 different kinds of molecules that are involved in
cellular biosynthesis, the process of making large biological molecules from small ones.
CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
The cell cycle
Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series of stages known collectively as the cell
cycle: two gap phases (G1 and G2); an S (for synthesis) phase, in which the genetic material is
duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis partitions the genetic material and the cell divides.
G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the restriction
point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase.
S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now consists of two
sister chromatids.
G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and
cytokinesis.
M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis).
The period between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase.
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THE NUCLEUS, CHROMOSOME AND GENE
So far we have done the functions of some important cell organelles. Now let us look closely
at the most important organelles that are involved in inheritance.
The nucleus
We mentioned that the nuclei contain genetic material which includes the chromosomes and
genes. These control all activity of an individual cell. The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear
envelope and contains chromatin, one or more nucleoli and nucleoplasma.
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope
Nucleoplasma
Nucleolus
Nuclear pore
The nuclear envelope is composed of two membranes and is perforated by nuclear pores, to
allow exchange of substances between the nuclear and the cytoplasm. Nucleoplasma is a gel-
like substance which contains the chromatin and one or more nucleoli. The chromatin is
composed mainly of coils of the genetic material (DNA) bounded to proteins called histones.
During cell division the chromatin bodies condense to form shorter and thicker threads which
are called chromosomes. The nucleolus is a dense spherical body of variable size which is not
enclosed in a unit membrane.
Chromosome
Chromosomes or chromatin are responsible for the transmission of hereditary information

from generation to generation. The chromatin is contained in the nucleus. Just before nuclear
division, the chromatin coils up into much more compact structures which are shorter and
thicker and visible as separate structures known as chromosomes. In all types of higher
animals the nucleus contains a definite number chromosome.
Chromosome number and homologous chromosomes
The number of chromosomes of different species is variable. The number has no specific
significance and does not indicate in any way the revolutionary advancement of the species.
Somatic cells of all the individual of the same species possess the same number of
chromosomes. This number is called the somatic or diploid number and is denoted by 2n.
The total chromosome complement is made up of two matching sets of chromosomes. These
pairs of chromosomes are referred to as homologous chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of
homologous chromosomes (46 total chromosomes). One set comes from the female egg
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(maternal chromosomes). After fertilization the resulting cell or zygote has two sets of
chromosomes.
Advantages of possessing two set of chromosomes is that genetic variation is increased and
that if a gene of one chromosome is faulty, the second chromosome may provide a normal
back up.
The morphology of chromosome
A chromosome is made up of two chromatides joined by a region called centromere(figure

2.1). Inside the chromosome the are two strands of DNA. DNA is made up of strands of
segments called genes.
2.4.3 Structure of the chromosome
Chromomere
Centromere
Figure 2.1 : Structure of the chromosome
Depending upon the position of the centromere the following chromosome shapes can be
distinguished:
 Telocentric type- In these, the centromere is at the tip of the chromosome
 Acrocentric type- The centromere is near to one end
 Metacentric type- Centromere is in the middle
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 Sub-metacentric/ Subcentric- Centromere lies a little distance away from the middle
o Dicentric type - a chromosome with two centromeres
o Acentric type - a chromosome fragment without any centromere
Chemical constituents of chromosomes
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein molecules (histones), with small amounts
of RNA. These three substances are responsible for storing and utilizing the vast amount of
genetic information and for transmitting the same from one cell generation to the other.
Genes
So far we have covered the structure and morphology of a chromosome. Now we want to
look at the gene which is a segment of a chromosome. A gene is the shortest segment of a
chromosome that codes for a particular characteristic. This means that the gene contain some
information and therefore it can replicate without losing this information. In 1944, Mr.
Oswald Avery of the Rockefeller Institute in New York produced evidence that DNA is the
carrier of genetic information. This is some of the evidence:
 DNA content is the same in all diploid cells of organism of the same species.
 Haploid cell (gametes) contains half the amount of DNA present in the somatic
cells.
 DNA is capable of self duplication and that with high accuracy
 Gene are known to be stable; DNA is known to be the best stable compound in a
cell.
Activity
1. Draw and label the typical plant cell

2. Write down major differences between the plant cell and the animal cell
3. Illustrate various shapes of the chromosomes
Summary
We mentioned that the cell is the unit structure in all living things. It is made up of the
protoplasm which contains all cell organelles (parts of the cell). The protoplasm is further
differentiated into the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus contains the genes and the
chromosomes. Every individual has a certain number of chromosomes and they are found
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in set of two for variation and also the other set can provide a normal back up when one
chromosome is at faulty. Genes are located in the chromosomes and are the ‘units of
heredity’ and they control one or more characters in an organism.
CELL DIVISION
Introduction
Every individual grows in terms of size and also has a certain capacity of reproduce
offspring. This is brought about by mitosis and meiosis respectively. Take it from this angle,
we all started as a single cell (when the ovum fused with the sperm cell) and this cell divided
into several cell to produce a multi-cellular organism. The growth of a young animal or
young plant in to adult, the development of sex cells, all involve cell multiplication.
Objectives
 Stage and role of mitosis and meiosis in agriculture

 The difference between mitosis and meosis
Stages of mitosis
Mitosis is a nuclear division which involves four stages which are prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase. There is a resting phase called interphase between telophase and
prophase. The stages of mitosis are described below in detail:
Interphase cell
This is the stage between two mitotic division. At this stage the genetic material is visible as
chromatin. Sometimes this stage is referred to as resting stage. There is DNA synthesis and
replication of centrioles.
Prophase
The chromosome further shortens and thickens and each appear as a double strand consisting
of two identical sister chromatids attached to a centromere. The nucleolus and nuclear
membrane gradually disappear and the centrioles moves to opposite ends of poles of the
nucleus.
centriole replicates (just before prophase)
Prometaphase
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The chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to the equatorial plane in the midline of cell
- at right-angles to the axis formed by the centrosomes. This region of the mitotic spindle is
known as the metaphase plate. The spindle fibres bind to a structure associated with the
centromere of each chromosome called a kinetochore. Individual spindle fibres bind to a
kinetochore structure on each side of the centromere. The chromosomes continue to condense.
Metaphase
During this stage the chromosomes line up around the equator of the spindle. They are
attached by their centromere to the spindle fibres.
Chromosome line up across the equator
Anaphase
The centromere divide to separate the two chromatids, which then move apart and migrate
towards the opposite poles of the cells. Once separated, the sister chromatids are referred to
as daughter chromosomes. The separated chromatids are pulled along behind the centromere.
Telophase
It is tamed the reorganization phase that result in the constitution of two daughter nuclei. As
soon as daughter chromosome reach the poles of the cell, they lengthen and uncoils to form
chromatin. The spindle fiber disintegrate. The nucleoli reappear and nuclear membrane is
reformed.
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Division of the cytoplasm (cytokenesis) starts during the late telophase. The process separate
the cytoplasm and newly formed daughter nuclei into two daughter cells.
Significance of mitosis
 Facilitate growth of an organism.

 Basis of asexual reproduction.
 Ensure genetic stability (No variation).
 Cell replacement and cell repair
Meiosis
Meiosis is a special type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms. It
reduces the chromosome number by half, enabling sexual recombination to occur. Meiosis of
diploid cells produces haploid daughter cells, which may function as gametes. Gametes
undergo fertilization, restoring the diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote
The stages of meiosis can be broken down into two main stages which are meiosis 1 and
meiosis II. The stages are described in detail below.
Meiosis I
Interphase
This is the resting stage. DNA replication takes place during this stage.
Prophase I
Most of the significant processes of Meiosis occur during Prophase I. The chromosomes
condense and become visible while the centrioles form and move toward the poles. The
nuclear membrane begins to dissolve and the homologue pair up, forming a tetrad. Each
tetrad is comprised of four chromotids (the two homologues), each with its sister chromatid.
Prophase I is divided into five phases:
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Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.

Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become closely associated (synapsis) to form pairs of
chromosomes (bivalents) consisting of four chromatids (tetrads).
Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of homologous chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing.
chiasma).
Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain attached by chiasmata.
Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate, and chiasmata move to the ends of
the chromosomes.
Prometaphase I
Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes attached to spindle fibres by kinetochores.
The diagram below show a nucleus during prophase I.
During crossing over genetic material from the homologous chromosomes is randomly
swapped and this creates four unique chromatids as shown in the diagram below.. Since each
chromatid is unique, the overall genetic diversity of the gametes is greatly increased (as
shown in figure 3.1)
Figure 3.1
Metaphase I
Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres and the tetrads line up
along the cell equator.
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Anaphase I
The centromeres break and homologous chromosomes separate (note that the sister
chromatids are still attached). Cytokinesis also begins.
Telophase I
The chromosomes reaches the poles and may decondense (depends on species) while
cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two haploid daughter cells
Meiosis II
It is important to note that meiosis II is similar to mitosis.
Prophase II
-centrioles form, move toward the poles and the nuclear membrane dissolves.
Metaphase II
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Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres and the sister
chromatids line up along the cell equator
Anaphase II
The centromeres break and sister chromatids separate and cytokinesis begins.
Telophase II
The chromosomes may decondense (depends on species) and cytokinesis reaches completion,
creating four haploid daughter cells
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Roles of meiosis
o Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half, enabling sexual recombination to

occur.
o Meiosis and fertilization introduce genetic variation in three ways:
 Crossing over between homologous chromosomes at prophase I.
 Independent assortment of homologous pairs at metaphase I:
 Random chance fertilization between any one female gamete with any
other male gamete.
Activity
1 Compare and contrast mitosis and meosis.
2 what are the roles of these two nuclear division in agriculture?
Summary
In this unit we looked at cell division ie mitosis and meosis and to summarise it all i
will give you a quick comparison of those processes.
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(e) Explain how cell division and enlargement leads to growth,

When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where a cell,
known as the "mother cell", grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells" (M phase). When
used in the context of cell development, the term refers to increase in cytoplasmic and organelle
volume (G1 phase), as well as increase in genetic material (G2 phase) following the replication
during S phase.
Cell populations
Cell populations go through a particular type of exponential growth called doubling. Thus, each
generation of cells should be twice as numerous as the previous generation. However, the number
of generations only gives a maximum figure as not all cells survive in each generation.
Cell division
Cell reproduction is asexual. For most of the constituents of the cell, growth is a steady,
continuous process, interrupted only briefly at M phase when the nucleus and then the cell divide
in two.
The process of cell division, called cell cycle, has four major parts called phases. The first part,
called G1 phase is marked by synthesis of various enzymes that are required for DNA replication.
The second part of the cell cycle is the S phase, where DNA replication produces two identical
sets of chromosomes. The third part is the G2 phase. Significant protein synthesis occurs during
this phase, mainly involving the production of microtubules, which are required during the
process of division, called mitosis. The fourth phase, M phase, consists of nuclear division
(karyokinesis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis), accompanied by the formation of a new
cell membrane. This is the physical division of "mother" and "daughter" cells. The M phase has
been broken down into several distinct phases, sequentially known as prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase leading to cytokinesis.
Comparison of the three types of cell division
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The DNA content of a cell is duplicated at the start of the cell reproduction process. Prior to DNA
replication, the DNA content of a cell can be represented as the amount Z (the cell has Z
chromosomes). After the DNA replication process, the amount of DNA in the cell is 2Z
(multiplication: 2 x Z = 2Z). During Binary fission and mitosis the duplicated DNA content of the
reproducing parental cell is separated into two equal halves that are destined to end up in the two
daughter cells. The final part of the cell reproduction process is cell division, when daughter cells
physically split apart from a parental cell. During meiosis, there are two cell division steps that
together produce the four daughter cells.
After the completion of binary fission or cell reproduction involving mitosis, each daughter cell
has the same amount of DNA (Z) as what the parental cell had before it replicated its DNA.
These two types of cell reproduction produced two daughter cells that have the same number of
chromosomes as the parental cell. Chromosomes duplicate prior to cell division when forming
new skin cells for reproduction. After meiotic cell reproduction the four daughter cells have half
the number of chromosomes that the parental cell originally had. This is the haploid amount of
DNA, often symbolized as N. Meiosis is used by diploid organisms to produce haploid gametes.
In a diploid organism such as the human organism, most cells of the body have the diploid
amount of DNA, 2N. Using this notation for counting chromosomes we say that human somatic
cells have 46 chromosomes (2N = 46) while human sperm and eggs have 23 chromosomes (N =
23). Humans have 23 distinct types of chromosomes, the 22 autosomes and the special category
of sex chromosomes.
Cell growth measurement methods
The cell growth can be detected by a variety of methods. The cell size growth can be visualized
by microscopy, using suitable stains. But the increase of cells number is usually more
significant. It can be measured by manual counting of cells under microscopy observation, using
the dye exclusion method (i.e. trypan blue) to count only viable cells. Less fastidious, scalable,
methods include the use of cytometers, while flow cytometry allows combining cell counts
('events') with other specific parameters: fluorescent probes for membranes, cytoplasm or nuclei
allow distinguishing dead/viable cells, cell types, cell differentiation, expression of a biomarker
such as Ki67.
Beside the increasing number of cells, one can be assessed regarding the metabolic activity
growth. I.e. the CFDA and calcein-AM measure (fluorimetrically) not only the membrane
functionality (dye retention), but also the functionality of cytoplasmic enzymes (esterases). The
MTT assays (colorimetric) and the resazurin assay (fluorimetric) dose the mitochondrial redox
potential.
(g) Describe pollen structure, pollen formation and ovule development.

Pollen is a fine to coarse powder containing the microgametophytes of seed plants, which
produce the male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat that protects the sperm
cells during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants or
from the male cone to the female cone of coniferous plants. When pollen lands on a compatible
pistil or female cone (i.e., when pollination has occurred), it germinates and produces a pollen
tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule (or female gametophyte). Individual pollen grains are
small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology.
Pollen itself is not the male gamete. [1] Each pollen grain contains vegetative (non-reproductive)
cells (only a single cell in most flowering plants but several in other seed plants) and a generative
(reproductive) cell containing two nuclei: a tube nucleus (that produces the pollen tube) and a
generative nucleus (that divides to form the two sperm cells). The group of cells is surrounded by
a cellulose-rich cell wall called the intine, and a resistant outer wall composed largely of
sporopollenin called the exine.
POLLEN DEVELOPMENT
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a) The anthers comprise pollen sacs(usually four) which contain a mass of diploid pollen mother
cells. Each pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis to form a tetrad of four haploid cells.
b) The cells round off and are called microspores.
c) The nucleus divides by mitosis to give tube nucleus and generative nucleus.
d) The wall thickens and forms an inner layer, intine and an often highly sculptured outer
layer,the exine.
e) When transferred to the stigma of a plant of the same species,the pollen grain germinates to
produce a pollen tube.
f) The tube nucleus moves down the tube first, followed by generative nucleus which soon
divides mitotically to give two male nuclei.
OVULE DEVELOPMENT
a) The ovule consists of a mass of cells called the nucellus which is carried on a short stalk
called funicle. The nucellus is completely surrounded by two protective integuments except
the narrow channel at the tip called micropyle. One cell of the nucellus becomes larger and
more conspicuous than the rest. This is called embryo sac mother cell.
b) The embryo sac mother cell divides meiotically to give four haploid megaspore cells.
c) The three cells nearest the micropyle degenerate while the remaining one enlarges to form the
embryo sac.
d) The embryo sac nucleus divides by mitosis and the resultant nuclei migrate to the opposite
poles.
e) Each nucleus undergoes two mitotic divisions to give a group of four haploid nuclei at each
pole.
f) One nucleus from each polar group moves to the centre of the embryo sac. These are the
polar nuclei. The remaining nuclei develop cytoplasm around them and become separated by
cell walls, leaving two groups of three cells at each pole.
g) The three cells at the opposite end to the micropyle are called antipodal cells and play no
further role in the process. Of the three cells at the micropyle end,one,the egg remains, the
other two,the synergids, degenerate.
(h) Explain the concept of double fertilization in plants.
 This process involves the joining of a female gametophyte (megagametophyte, also called the
embryo sac) with two male gametes (sperm). It begins when a pollen grain adheres to the
stigma of the carpel, the female reproductive structure of a flower. The pollen grain then
takes in moisture and begins to germinate, forming a pollen tube that extends down toward
the ovary through the style. The tip of the pollen tube then enters the ovary and penetrates
through the micropyle opening in the ovule. The pollen tube proceeds to release the two
sperm in the megagametophyte.
 One sperm fertilizes the egg cell and the other sperm combines with the two polar nuclei of
the large central cell of the megagametophyte. The haploid sperm and haploid egg combine to
form a diploid zygote, while the other sperm and the two haploid polar nuclei of the large
central cell of the megagametophyte form a triploid nucleus (some plants may form polyploid
nuclei). The large cell of the gametophyte will then develop into the endosperm, a nutrient-
rich tissue which provides nourishment to the developing embryo. The ovary, surrounding the
ovules, develops into the fruit, which protects the seeds and may function to disperse them.[1]
The two central cell maternal nuclei (polar nuclei) that contribute to the endosperm, arise by
mitosis from the same single meiotic product that gave rise to the egg. The maternal contribution
to the genetic constitution of the triploid endosperm is double that of the embryo.
 The generative cells divides by mitosis to produce two male gametes.
 Double fertilization gives rise to the zygote and endosperm
 Directed by a chemical attractant, possibly calcium, the tip of the pollen tube enters the ovary,
probes through the micropyle (a gap in the integuments of the ovule) and discharges two
sperms within the embryo sac.
 Both sperm fuse with nuclei in the embryo sac.One sperm fertilizes the egg to form a zygote.
20
 The other sperm combines with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid nucleus in the central
cell.
 This large cell will give rise to the endosperm, a food-storing tissue of the seed.
 The union of two sperm cells with different nuclei of the embryo sac is termed double
fertilization.
 Double fertilization is also present in a few gymosperms, probably via independent evolution.
 Double fertilization ensures that the endosperm will develop only in ovules where the egg has
 been fertilized.
(i) describe the structural changes that occur after fertilisation leading to the development of the
seed and the fruit.
After fertilisation, the zygote divides rapidly by mitosis and develops into the embryo, which then
differentiates into a young shoot called plumule, a young root called radical and seed leaves
called cotyledons. The primary endosperm nucleus also divides mitotically to give a mass of
cells, the endosperm. This forms the food source for the growing embryo. In legumes like beans
or peas, it is quickily absorbed by and stored in cotyledons. The most common food stored is
carbohydrates. This is usually in the form of starch but some seeds store quantities of sugar. After
fertilization, the following changes are observed in a flower:
 There is formation of a diploid zygote and it develops into an embryo, which forms the
future plant.
 The endosperm cells serve as a source of nutrition for the developing embryo.
 The ovule becomes the seed.
 The ovary becomes the fruit.
 In most of the plants the antipodals and synnergids disintegrate before, during or
immediately after fertilization.
 The outer and inner integuments of the ovule become the testa or the seed coat of the
seed.
 Petals and sepals fall off.
(j) Discuss the factors affecting germination (temperature including vernalisation, light, oxygen
and water)
The Seed
The seed is a miniature plant in an arrested state of development. This embryonic plant can under
favourable conditions develop, at first drawing raw materials from a food store in the seed, into
an actively metabolizing individual individual that can synthesise its food from simple inorganic
compounds. The seed is not only a source of food for the embryonic plant but is being used to
21
feed man and his animals; the seeds of legumes and cereals have proved to be very important in
this respect.
Seed Structure
Figure 8.19 Diagrams showing structure of different seeds
A mature seed consists of the following parts.

Testa:
This is the seed coat and develops from the integuments of the ovule. The integuments may
develop either wholly into the testa or part of them may be absorbed by the other developing
structures. The main function of the testa seems to be that of protecting to varying degrees, the
embryo from fungi, bacteria and pests. The testa of some plants is very impermeable to moisture
and this is an important factor in the delayed germination of these ‘hard’ seeds, e.g. leguminosae.
Endosperm
The endosperm is a product of the fusion of the two polar nuclei and one male gamete. The
longevity of the endosperm and the amount and kind of stored material varies with species.
Therefore the seeds of some plants have no endosperm and are called exalbuminous seeds while
those with endosperm are albuminous. In eexalbuminous seeds food materials are stored in the
cotyledons, e.g. Leguminosae, compositae, cucurbitaceae. Seeds of graminae is usually found
starch and proteins. The proteins are stored either as glutens or as aleurone grains. The aleurone
grains are restricted to the outermost layer of endosperm cells called the aleurone layer. The rest
of the endosperm stores starch or fats.
Embryo
The mature embryo of the dicots consists of the embryo axis and the two first foliar structures,
the cotylendons. Below the cotyledons the axis is called the hypocotyls and at its lower end it
bears an embryonic root called the radical. At the top end of the axis is the apical meristem of the
future shoot and sometimes a small shoot develops before the embryo is mature and this bud is
the plumule or epicotyl.
The embryo in the monocots consists of the same parts as that of the dicots but because it lacks
one cotyledon, the embryo is not two-lobed at the distal end. In the caryopsis of the grasses it will
be observed that the embryo is adpressed to the endorsperm by a cotyledon, the scutellum. The
22
embryonic root and its rootcap are enclosed in a coleorhiza while the shootapical meristem is
enclosed in coleoptiles.
Hilum
This is the scar lefty by the stalk that attached the seed to the ovary.
Micropyle
The micropyle has been identified earlier and is a tiny pore in the testa, usually opposite the
radical.
Seed Germination
Germination is the resumption of active growth on the part of the embryo resulting in the rupture
of the testa and the emergence of the young plant. The seed of some plants will germinate soon as
they are ripe and the conditions favourable. e.g. some varieties of groundnuts sprout in the field
following showers of rain late in the season. On the other hand the seeds of many of many plants
will not germinate until after a certain period of time has elapsed – these are dormant.
The process of seed germination
Figure 9.1 Seed Germination and Seedling growth of Allium cepa
The initial process in germination is the imbibitions of water by the dehydrated seed. As a result
of the entry of water the seed usually swells and the testa may be ruptured. The dehydration of the
testa usually increases its permeability for oxygen and carbon dioxide. More important, the
hydration of the cells activates various enzymes that are that are necessary for catalyzing
chemical reactions which occur during germination. Stored food materials in the endosperm or
cotyledons become hydrolysed into soluble simpler compounds and are translocated to the
growing parts of the embryo.
23
Starch and other polysaccharides are converted to simple sugars such as maltose and glucose by
the action of such enzymes as alpha and beta –amylase and maltase. The carbohydrates are used
mostly in respiration and the construction of new cells. As a result the amount of simple sugars
present in the germinating seed is not equivalent to the original amount of polysaccharides
because a proportion is consumed to yield energy. Fats and oils are hydrolysed to fatty acids and
glycerol and are usually transformed into carbohydrates for use. Proteins are hydrolysed by
various proteases into amino acids which are not consumed in respiration but are utilized in the
synthesis of plant organic compounds.
The main purpose of the stored materials is to provide a respiratory substrate as a source of
energy and also to provide new materials for growth (e.g. new protein, complex lipids and
cellulose). Since the site of use (sink) of these materials is the developing embryo then the dry
weight of the plumule and radical increases with germination while that of storage organ (source)
decreases. However, the total dry weight of the seedling decreases for time due to respiratory
consumption and latter increases with absorption of materials from the environment and
commencement of photosynthesis.
Epigeal and hypogeal germination
Figure 9.2 Diagram illustrating epigeal germination
Hypogeal germination
24
Figure 9.3 Diagram illustrating hypogeal germination
According to the structural changes that occur, germination can be distinguished as epigeal and
hypogeal. In epigeal germination the hypocotyls elongates and the shoot apex and cotyledons
emerge above ground (e.g. most dicots and some monocots such as the onion).
Hypogeal germination is found in most monocots and some dicots (e.g. pea) where the hypogeal
elongates very little or not at all and the cotyledons remain within the seed and bellow the
ground. The elongation of the epicotyls brings the shoot apex above grond.
Factors affecting germination
Water
Water enters through the micropyle and testa, the relative importance of these paths vary
according to the permeability of the testa. It is the initial imbibition of water that triggers
germination. The amount of moisture in the soil need not be very high. The consequences of
water absorption are as follows;
 The testa usually ruptures or its permeability to gases is increased after being moistened.
This will allow gaseous exchange for aerobic respiration to occur at fairly rapid rate.
 Water activates enzymes and provides a medium in which metabolic activities and
translocation can occur.
 Vacuolation can take place so that the embryo can increase its length.
Oxygen
In the dormant seed respiration occurs at a very slow rate and is of the anaerobic kind. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) accumulates in the seed because the testa is dry and impermeable, this gas will
inhibit germination. When the permeability of the testa the gases increase, there is a marked rise
in the respiration rate with the respiration changing from anaerobic to aerobic. The seeds of some
species can germinate under conditions of very low oxygen content. On the other hand the seeds
of some weeds will be buried deep in the soil without germinating. When the land is disturbed by
ploughing, the seeds are brought nearer the surface and will germinate if moisture present. The
failure of these seeds to germinate is because of either low O 2 tensions or high CO2 tensions.
Temperature
Dry seeds will remain viable even if exposed to temperatures that are very extreme. Once the
seed imbibes water then the temperature range over which the seed remains viable becomes
narrow. The seed of a specific species will germinate only in a certain temperature range; the
25
temperature below which no germination occurs is the minimum, the temperature above which no
germination occurs is called the maximum, the temperature that favours maximal germination is
the optimum. By maximal germination is the attainment of the highest germination percentage in
as short a period of time as possible.
The reason for the existence of a maximum temperature is the denaturation of proteins (including
enzymes). Temperature also affects the rate of chemical reactions and water uptake by altering
the viscosity of the water and the kinetic energy of the molecules.
An exposure of seed to low temperatures in the presences of moisture before germination

increases the germination percentage – this is known as stratification. The process decreases the
period of after – ripening in dormant seeds.
Light
Most seeds will germinate in both light and darkness. The seeds of some species will germinate
only in the presence of light (e.g. lettuce, tobacco). In these light sensitive seeds infrared light
inhibits germination and red light promotes germinates. The effect of these wavelengths is
connected with a light sensitive pigment called phytochrome.
(k) Design and carry out experiments on germination.

Refer to o level experiments on seed germination and afctors affecting germination.
(l) Test seed for viability and determine germination percentages.

There are two types of these tests. First type, when germination is done under favourable
conditions (standard laboratory germination, and test of growth intensity). Second type, when
seed is exposed to unfavourable environmental conditions (cold test, accelerated aging test, and
Hiltner test); Biochemical tests – are considered as indirect methods for estimation of seed value.
These are Tetrazolijum test, conductometric measurements, enzyme activity and respiration.
Seed viability
The viability of seed is usually tested by germinating the seed under optimum conditions and
determining the percentage of the seed that produces normal seedlings.
Tetrazolium test
Tetrazolium test is based on reduction of colourless solution 2,3,5 – tripheniltetrazolim chloride
or bromide into insoluble 2,3,5 – triphenilformazan red in colour. This solution acts as an
indicator for detection of reduction processes that take place in living parts of the seed. Inside the
seed, tetrazolim intakes hydrogen from dehydrogenase. By hidrogenization of tetrazolium a red,
stable substance called formazan, which dyes living parts of the seed, is formed in the living cells
(ISTA, 2009).
Seed is submerged in water because swollen seed is hard to crack and easy to cut in relation to
dry seed, and dying is more uniform. Tissue of many plant species must be removed to introduce
the dye into the tissue. Tissue removal can be done by pilling the seed coat off, punching, and
longitudinal or cross-cutting of unessential seed parts.
Prepared seed is submerged into 0,5 – 1% tetrazolium solution. Seed must be completely covered
with solution, and not exposed to direct light. After the time needed for dyeing expires (it
depends on plant species) the estimation of dyeing is approached. During testing the viable seed
should express its potential for normal seedling formation through biochemical activity. Non
viable seed expresses malformations which prevent normal seedling formation (ISTA, 2009).
All tissue (necessary for normal seedling development) of a viable seed should be dyed. Except
completely dyed, viable seeds, and completely undyed, unviable seeds, a partly dyed seeds may
also be found. Depending on the species, small undyed spots of some parts of these tissues may
be accepted. Location, size of undyed areas, and sometimes intensity of dyeing, determine
26
whether some seed is considered as viable or not. Tetrazolium test has several limitations because
it:
- provides too high values of vitality, i.e. within the vigour seeds it cannot be separated seed
which will give typical and abnormal seedlings,
- causes difficulties in the visual identification of abnormal seedling (i.e. split coleoptiles,
negative geotropism etc.),
(m) Discuss the different types of seed dormancy and methods of overcoming dormancy.
Seed dormancy
Non – germination of seeds due to absence of suitable conditions is termed as dormancy.
OR
A physical or physiological condition of viable seed, which prevents germination even in the
presence of favorable conditions
Viable seed of some species does not germinate even if the external conditions are optimal; such
seed is said to be dormant. The dormancy of seed is due to one or more factors.
Types of seed dormancy
In general, there are two types of seed dormancy: seed coat dormancy and internal dormancy.
Seeds with seed coat dormancy usually have a seed coat that is impermeable to oxygen and/or
water. Occasionally the dormancy is caused by an inhibiting chemical in the epidermis or
adjacent interior membranes. Internal dormancy is a general term encompassing a number of
physiological conditions that delay germination. Not all of these conditions are
fully understood or easy to counteract. The most common one is called afterripening.
Seeds that require an after-ripening period, even though harvested when mature, germinate
poorly or not at all until they have been subjected to moisture and either high or low
temperatures or both in sequence
a) Physical dormancy
This type of dormancy is due to structural limitations to germination. The testa may be
impermeable to water and gases as is the case in some legumes. Permeability improves slowly
under natural condition whereby soil micro organisms and fluctuations of moisture and
temperature weakens the testa.
The seed can also be scarified artificially by mechanical abrasion or by the corrosive action of
sulphuric acid. The testa may offer physical resistance to the expansion of the embryo even if
water and oxygen are absorbed. The seed of Amaranthus will remain dormant if saturated with
moisture and on drying certain changes occur in the testa so that on rewetting the seed can
germinate.
b) Physiological dormancy
In some plants, the fruit and seed might be ripe when the embryo is still immature. The embryo
should therefore develop further. In other cases the embryo might be mature but dormant. (e.g.
apple, apple) and the embryo requires a period of after – ripening. This period can be shortened
by stratification as has been mentioned. Dormancy can also be controlled by growth regulators
(plant hormones). Inhibitors, such as coumarin, will prevent germination and may be present in
the flesh of the fruit (e.g. tomato) or the seed itself (e.g. irish). The inhibitors can be removed by
leaching. Some compounds have an effect opposite to that of the inhibitors and are called
promoters (e.g. gibberellins). The concentration of a promoter should reach a certain level before
the seed can germinate.
c) Secondary dormancy
Some seeds are capable of germinating soon after they are ripe but if exposed to conditions
unfavorable for germination they become dormant for certain period of time. Seeds of white
mustard fail to germinate after exposure to a high concentration of CO 2 even if the CO2 is later
27
withdrawn. Light sensitive seed may go dormant after exposure to darkness. Secondary may
include physical and/or physiological dormancy.
BREAKING SEED DORMANCY
A general summary of methods for breaking seed dormancy,
Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy
i) Microorganisms present in the soil weaken and decompose the hard seed coat
ii) The digestive juices present in the alimentary canal of the fruit eating birds makes the seed
coat soft
iii) Mechanical abrasions weaken the tough and impermeable seed coat
iv) Washing away of inhibitors by rain or irrigated water
v) Inactivation of growth inhibitors by heat and cold
vi) Leaching of solutes in halophytes where dormancy is due to high concentration of salts
vii) Synthesis of growth hormones
viii) Maturation of embryo
Scarification[for some members of legume family]
Mechanical scarification is a technique for overcoming the effect of an impermeable seed
coat. Mechanical scarification can be done by rubbing seeds between two pieces of sandpaper
(Schmidt 1980), or using a file, a pin, or a knife to rupture the seed coat. Seed may also be
mixed with coarse sand and shaken vigorously in a jar (Schmidt 1980). Even a vise can be
used to squeeze seeds along the suture until they crack open. Care must be taken not to injure
the embryo. It may be necessary to open a couple of seeds to see where the embryo is located
in relation to the micropyle, the former point of attachment to the fruit. Large seeds like those
of the bush lupine (Lupinus) are easily scarified with a knife; the hot water treatment is easier
for small seeds (Emery 1987).
Low Temperature (Chilling)
In many woody and in certain herbaceous species the dormancy can be broken by chilling
treatments, just above freezing (0 - 5o C).
Alternating Temperatures
Seeds are exposed to alternating high and low temperatures to reduce the concentration of the
inhibitory substances.
Running Water Treatment
Running water washes off the inhibitors from the seeds and breaks dormancy.
Light
In some plants, dormancy can be broken by exposing them to light.
Hormones Treatment
Dormancy in some seeds is broken by treating them with hormones such as gibberellins,
cytokinins and ethylene.
Gibberellic acid
Germination test paper is moistened with a 0.05% solution of Gibberellic acid (GA3), prepared
by dissolving 500 mg of GA3 in 1 l water. Germination is then continued in recommended
conditions.
Potassium nitrate
A 0.2% solution of potassium nitrate (KNO3) – prepared by dissolving 2 g KNO3 in 1 l water –
is used to moisten the germination paper at the beginning of the test. Germination is continued in
recommended conditions.
(o) Discuss factors that affect water and nutrient uptake and explain the mechanism of water
uptake (osmosis), and nutrient uptake (active transport).
Plant – Water Relations
28
Plants can be classified as hydrophytes – plants that grow in water and usually have a poorly
developed root system; mesophytes – intermediate in water requirements and have a well
developed root systems; and xerophytes – plants which have been adapted to dry conditions.
Importance of water
Water is a constituent of protoplasm and acts as a solvent for numerous solutes and supports the
huge molecules of proteins and nucleic acids. The hydration properties of water permits ready
reaction between molecules in solution and between enzymes and substrates. Water participates
as a chemical itself in a number of reactions such as photosynthesis and hydrolysis and is a
product of respiration. Water also maintains the turgidity of cells and therefore the shape of the
plant. Water also acts as a coolant in plants.
Water movement
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules of molecules from regions of high concentration and
this is a function of their kinetic energy. The tendency of one species of molecules to diffuse
(diffusion pressure, D.P.) is decreased by the presence of another species of molecules, e.g.
solutes in water. The rate of diffusion will depend on the steepness of the concentration gradient
(or free energy gradient) and the permeability of the medium such as membranes to water.
Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. For instance when an aqueous solution is separated from
pure water by differentially – permeable membrane (a membrane permeable to solvent (e.g. water
molecules and not solute molecules) the net movement of water will be from the solvent into the
solution. Osmosis can be defined as the diffusion of a solvent across a differentially – permeable
membrane. The diffusion pressure of water in a solution is less than that of pure water and the
difference between the two is the diffusion pressure deficit (DPD) or the water potential
difference. The osmotic pressure (OP) of a solution tells us the maximum possible pressure that
could be developed in the solution if it were permitted to come to equilibrium with pure water.
The pressure could be larger in a concentrated solution than in a dilute one.
The actual pressure that develops as a result of osmosis is turgor pressure (TP) and ranges usually
from zero to OP. A negative pressure is exerted by the wall as a result of turgor pressure and is
known as wall pressure (WP).
The parts of the cell that are involved in these relationships are;
 The cell wall – this is completely permeable and has no direct role in osmosis;
 The plasmalemma and tonoplast – These membranes are partially differentially
permeable (solutes can pass through them slowly).
 The vacuole – this contains an aqueous solution called the sap.
If the diffusion pressure deficit of the vacuole is higher than the diffusion pressure deficit of the
surrounding solution then water is taken up by the cell (endosmosis). After equilibrium has been
attained the diffusion pressure deficit will equal. The medium is pure water, then at equilibrium
diffusion pressure deficit equal zero and since DPD = OP = TP, then OP = TP. In such a case the
cell is said to be fully turgid.
Absorption of water
The absorption of water from the soil is through the zone of the root that bears root hairs. Some
water may be absorbed by the zone of cell elongation. Water from the soil passes through the
epidermal cells of the absorbing regions and across the cortex, and then through the endodermis.
The route of water movement through the cortex is the cell wall, and cytoplasm to the
plasmodesmata and then into the cytoplasm of the next cell, and so on. At the endodermis the free
passage of water through the cell wall and cytoplasm is blocked by the presence of casparian
strips on the transverse and radial walls of the endodermis.
The bulk of the water has to move through the vacuole. In some plants thin-walled endodermal
cells are present opposite the xylem tissues and facilitate water movement – these are called
passage cells.
Due to the evaporation of water from mesophyll cells a diffusion pressure deficit develops in
these cells. This inturn will cause the development of a diffuision pressure deficit in the xylem
29
tissues and a tension is built up down the xylem and leads a creation of diffusion diffusion
pressure across the root. When the diffusion pressure water in the root hairs exceeds that of the
soil-water, then moves from the soil into the root. This type of absorption is said to be “passive”
and results from the ‘suction’ of the water upwards.
Another possible method of driving the water would be the pumping action of the root. It has
been demonstrated that water is exuded from the stub of a fresh cut stem. This exudation is due to
some forces which are not well understood and referred to as root pressure.
Factors affecting water absorption
Available soil water
Plants can only absorb soil moisture that is free. When the moisture is held tightly by the soil
particles then absorption is very slow. Such a condition is found when the moisture in the soil is
held at below the permanent wilting point. Absorption is also suppressed when the moisture is in
excess of the field capacity because of reduced aeration.
Aeration of the soil
In most cases the absorption of water by the roots is faster in a well-aerated soil than in a badly-
aerated one. The effects of aeration are obviously felt by the process of aerobic metabolism of the
roots. Poor aeration is usually due to excess soil moisture or soil compaction. The roots of some
species, such as the hydrophytes, absorb water even in anaerobic conditions.
Soil temperature
Very low soil temperatures slow down the rate of absorption. This is probably because root
elongation is retarded, movement of water molecules is slowed, permeability of cell membranes
decreased and metabolic activity of the roots decreased. High soil temperatures are not common
but if they exist, water absorption also decreases.
Concentration of soil solution
This factor affects the osmotic potential of the soil solution and absorption usually decreases with
an increase in soil solution concentration.
Loss of water to the atmosphere

Plants take in large quantities of water than they require for the life processes. Most of the water
is lost to the atmosphere in the form of vapour – this loss of water by evaporation is known as
transpiration.
Sites of water loss
Any cell surface that is not protected by a water-proof covering and in contact with a less
saturated atmosphere loses water by evaporation. Therefore, in order to prevent excessive loss of
water, plants adapted to live on land have developed external layers of cutin and suberin.
However, the layers are perforated to allow for aeration and it is through these perforations that
water vapour diffuses into the atmosphere.
There are three main places where some loss of water can occur;
 The cuticle can lose small amounts of water. The amount evaporated will depend on the
thickness of the cuticle. This is called cuticular transpiration.
 Water loss also takes place through the lenticels of fruits and stems. Water loss by
lanticular transpiration is negligible.
 80 – 90 % of all the water evaporation from the plant passes through the stomata of the
leaves and some stems. Loss of water involves evaporation at the mesophyll cell walls
and the subsequent diffusion of the vapour through the intercellular spaces and out of the
stomatal pore into the atmosphere. The size of the stoma varies with species but is
invariably small. Stomata may be found on both surfaces of the leaf (e.g. wheat, maize,
Lucerne), or on the lower surface as in most woody species (e.g. floating leaves of water
lilly).
Stomatal mechanism
The most important functional property of the stomata is that they are sometimes openand
sometimes closed. When open then gaseous diffusion can take place and the principal gases that
30
pass through O2 and CO2 and water vapour. The closue of the stomata greatly retards the
diffusion of these gases
The closure and of the opening is due of the stomta the changes in the turgidity of the guard cells
and that these changes are due to endomosis or exomosis by the guard cells. It is also a general
observation that the stomata have a diurnal rhythm in that they are open during the day and close
at night. The effect of the changes of turgidity results in changes in the volume of the guard cells.
It is this change in volume and the uneven thickness of the walls of the guard cells that result in
the stomata being open or closed. The stomata opens when the guard cells gain water (high OP)
and closes when they lose water (low OP). The behavior of the stomata was first thought
that since the guard cells are the only epidermal cells that have chlorophyll then the concentration
of sugars in their vacuoles rose to high enough level to create DPD large enough to cause
endosmosis. However this placed too great a demand on the photosynthesis of the guard cells.
Later it was discovered that the starch in the guard cells turned into sugar in light whereas that of
other cells was converted in the dark. i.e.
Guard cells Starch to sugar (light)
Parenchyma cells Starch to sugar (dark)
To explain this it was thought that the diastase of guard cells required a different optimum pH
from that of the enzyme in other parts of the leaf. Therefore the guard cells has to change any
CO2 that accumulated from respiration in the dark from photosynthesis and so alter the pH.
However this did not explain the rapidity of stomatal movements.
Another idea arose with the discovery of glucose-1-phosphate and that this compound can be
reversibly converted to starch by a series of dephosphorylation and phosphorylation reaction
catalysed by a ph sensitive enzyme ‘phosphorylase’. This simple conversion did not seem to alter
the osmotic concentration of the cells. It was then suggested that in order to affect osmotic
relationships the glucose-1-phosphate had to be split into glucose and phosphate. However the
reverse reaction is not readily possible since it requires energy from adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) and hexokinase. If these two compounds are adequate then the stomata close.
In the presence of light the guard cells use up CO2 in photosynthesis and this raises the pH
favouring the conversion of starch to glucose-1-phosphate. When light is absent photosynthesis
stops and CO2 accumulates lowering the pH and glucose-1-phosphate is converted back to starch.
Factors affecting transpiration
Relative humidity
The air in the intercellular spaces of the leaf is saturated with water vapour while that in the
atmosphere has usually, a relative humidity of less than 100 %. This creates a gradient in vapour
pressure so that water diffuses out of the leaf into the atmosphere. If relative humidity of the
atmosphere is very low then the gradient will be very steep and the rate of transpiration fast. The
opposite is true.
Temperature
At a constant humidity increasing the temperature results in an increased rate of transpiration.
This is because of the increases in water holding capacity of the air and an increased kinetic
energy of the water molecules.
Light
Stomata are normally open in daylight and closed at night; transpiration is then obviously faster
during the day. Direct sunlight also raises the temperature of the leaf and thus increase the kinetic
energy of water molecules.
Wind
In still air water vapour accumulates around the leaf and this slows down transpiration by offering
a resistance to diffusion. Air currents will tend to sweep away water vapour and thus keep the
diffusion gradient steep.
Soil moisture
31
Any factor which reduces water supply to the leaves reduces the rate of transpiration because the
stomata tend to close. In some cases this will only occur after wilting.
Plant structure
Some plants, the xerophytes, have morphological modifications that reduce transpiration. For
instance, the surface area/volume ratio of the plant may be reduced; a very thick cuticle may be
present; stomata may be sunk in the epidermis; and, leaves may fold to protect the stomata.
Functions of transpiration
Transpiration may be necessary for uptake of mineral salts from the soil although some
experiments show an independence of the latter process from the former. Evaporation of moisture
at the leaf surface cools the plant; however, the leaf temperature rarely drops by more than 3 – 5
0
C. On the other hand transpiration is undesirable , especially when the plant loses more
water than it can absorb. In brief, transpiration may be taken as a “necessary evil”.
Movement of water up the plant

It has been shown that water is absorbed from the soil by roots and that it is lost through the leaf
surfaces to the atmosphere. In order to bridge these two points, a system to conduct the water up
the plant is necessary. This upward movement of water occurs through the xylem elements of the
vascular tissues.
Root pressure can play a part in “forcing” the water up the water; however, this mechanism
cannot cope with a rise of several meters and the considerable height of some trees. It is known
that water rises to a certain height in fine capillary tubes. There is therefore a possibility that
capillary action in the xylem strands contributes something to the upward movement of water
although this would be insignificant in tall plants.
Water is lost to the atmosphere by evaporating from the surfaces of mesophyll cells. Tension
builds up and water diffuses from the surrounding cells which in turn develop a diffusion pressure
deficit higher than that found in the xylem. Water will the move out of the xylem. This will exert
a pull on the water in the xylem and will tend to “lift” it up. For this to function the water
molecules should move up in mass, i.e. be cohesive; the suction from the leaves should be
sufficient to lift the water to great heights; no air should enter the system and break the continuity
of the water column; and the xylem elements should be rigid enough to resist collapse when the
water moves under tension. However this should not be taken as the final explanation since work
on the subject is still going on.
PHLOEM TRANSPORT
Structure of phloem
 Remember the structure of phloem cells (sieve areas (plates) & sieve pores)
Phloem is a complex permanent tissue, which is specialized for the conduction of food and other
organic substances. Phloem is also a heterogenous tissue, made up of four different types of
cellular elements, namely,
 Sieve tubes
 Companion cells
 Phloem parenchyma and
 Phloem fibres
Of these, the sieve tubes and the companion cells are directly involved in the translocation of the
organic substances. Hence, they are commonly described as essential elements. Phloem
parenchyma and phloem fibres are described as associated elements since they play only a
supporting role in the process.
The sieve tubes, the companion cells and the phloem parenchyma represent the living
components of the tissue while phloem fibres represent the only nonliving component of the
tissue.
Phloem is commonly described as a living, complex permanent tissue.
32
Figure 13.1 Structure of phloem
Contents of phloem cells
 Water
 90 % of solutes are sugars
 Sucrose is primary (30% of phloem sap)
 Sugar alcohols
 Other reducing sugars such as raffinose, stachyose.
Model for phloem transport
Flow from Source to Sink
Food, primarily sucrose is transported by the vascular tissue called phloem from a source to a
sink. Unlike transpiration's one-way flow of water sap, food in phloem sap can be transported in
any direction needed so long as there is a source of sugar and a sink able to use, store or remove
the sugar.
The source and sink may be reversed depending on the season, or the plant's needs. Sugar stored
in roots may be mobilized to become a source of food in the early spring when the buds of trees,
the sink, need energy for growth and development of the photosynthetic apparatus.
Phloem sap is mainly water and sucrose, but other sugars, hormones and amino acids are also
transported. The movement of such substances in the plant is called translocation.
The Pressure Flow or Mass Flow Hypothesis
The accepted mechanism needed for the translocation of sugars from source to sink is called the
pressure flow hypothesis. (see diagram below)
As glucose is made at the source (by photosynthesis for example) it is converted to sucrose (a
dissacharide). The sugar is then moved into companion cells and into the living phloem sieve
tubes by active transport. This process of loading at the source produces a hypertonic condition in
the phloem.
Water in the adjacent xylem moves into the phloem by osmosis. As osmotic pressure builds the
phloem sap will move to areas of lower pressure.
At the sink osmotic pressure must be reduced. Again active transport is necessary to move the
sucrose out of the pholem sap and into the cells which will use the sugar -- converting it into
33
energy, starch, or cellulose. As sugars are removed osmotic pressure decreases and water moves
out of the phloem.
The Pressure Flow or Mass Flow Hypothesis
Figure 13.2 Diagram illustrating the Pressure Flow of Mass Flow Hypothesis
Phloem Loading
Figure 13.3a Diagram illustrating sucrose loading into the phloem for transport
34
Apoplast and symplast routes are used during transport at the source. ATP and H+ carrier pump
protons out of sieve tube and K+ are transported in to sieve tube. There is Co transport of H+ and
sucrose into sieve tube which lowers water potential of sieve tube.
Movement in phloem can be bi-directional and rate of flow chiefly depends on strength of sink.
Figure 13.3b Diagram showing Pressure flow in the phloem of flowering plants
Activity
Discuss the various hypotheses underlying phloem transportation.
(p) Explain the factors affecting photosynthesis, including carbon dioxide compensation point
(C3 and C4 systems).
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the series of reactions by which light energy is utelised to synthesise
carbohydrates (monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides) CO2 and water in the
presence of chlorophyll and with oxygen as a by-product. This process is the prime source of all
organic molecules, animal or vegetable.
Essential requirements
Raw materials
Water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials in photosynthesis. Water is absorbed from the by
the root hairs and translocation up the plant into the leaves. Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere
through the stomata and is also obtained from the respiration of the leave mesophyll cells
themselves.
Energy
The source of energy for photosynthesis is sunlight. Radiant energy or light consists of a
spectrum of which visible light is a small portion. The visible light in turn consists of light of
35
different colour and wave lengths. The blue and red light are the most absorbed by chlorophyll
and as such are affective in photosynthesis.
Pigments
The pigment that is necessary for the absorption and conversion of light energy into chemical
energy is chlorophyll. This green pigment is found in the chloroplasts of the mesophyll cells. Two
types of chlorophyll occur in higher plants, that is, chlorophyll a and b. The term chlorosis refers
to a condition when the plant cannot synthesise chlorophyll due to a deficiency of an essential
factor in chlorophyll synthesis, such as magnesium.
Chemistry of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis can be summerised by the equation:
6CO2 + 12H2O ______________ C6H12O6 + 6O2 +6H2O
However the whole process is not as simple as the equation suggest; it is indeed a process that
involves a series of complex enzyme catalysed reactions. Two stages have been identified in
photosynthesis. The first stage occurs only in light and called the light reaction while the second,
the dark reaction. This can be represented as:
A ___photochemical_______ B ___chemical______ C
Under periods of continuous light A B proceeds faster than B C so that B will tend to accumulate.
A period of darkness will allow B C to occur while A B stops. Therefore for a given amount of
light more C will be formed if a dark period is present.
Light reaction
Photosystem I and II
Photosystems are light-absorbing complexes in the thylakoid membranes that are present in
photosynthetic organisms. There are two types of photosystems: Photosystem I and Photosystem
II. Each has one primary photochemical reaction center (either chlorophyll P700 or P680) and a
set of accessory pigments to absorb additional light.
There is a special molecule called chlorophyll a P700, located in photosystem I, which absorbs
light best at 700 nanometers (nm). It also contains other accessory pigments. Another special
chlorophyll a molecule in photosystem II is called chlorophyll a P680 because it absorbs best at
680 nm. Photosystem II also contains chlorophyll b and other accessory pigments.
Photosystem II
PS II is an extremely complex, highly organized transmembrane structure that contains a water-
splitting complex, chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments, a reaction center (P680), pheophytin (a
pigment similar to chlorophyll), and two quinones. It uses the energy of sunlight to transfer
electrons from water to a mobile electron carrier in the membrane called plastoquinone:
H2O → P680 → P680* → plastoquinone
Plastoquinone, in turn, transfers electrons to cytb6, which feeds them into PS I.
The water-splitting complex
The step H2O → P680 is performed by a poorly understood structure embedded within PS II
called the water-splitting complex or the oxygen-evolving complex. It catalyzes a reaction that
splits water into electrons, protons and oxygen:
2H2O → 4H+ + 4e− + O2
The electrons are transferred to special chlorophyll molecules (embedded in PS II) that are
promoted to a higher-energy state by the energy of photons.
The reaction center
The excitation P680 → P680*of the reaction center pigment P680 occurs here. These special
chlorophyll molecules embedded in PS II absorb the energy of photons, with maximal absorption
at 680 nm. Electrons within these molecules are promoted to a higher-energy state. This is one of
two core processes in photosynthesis, and it occurs with astonishing efficiency (greater than 90%)
because, in addition to direct excitation by light at 680 nm, the energy of light first harvested
by antenna proteins at other wavelengths in the light-harvesting system is also transferred to
these special chlorophyll molecules.
36
This is followed by the step P680*→ pheophytin, and then on to plastoquinone, which occurs
within the reaction center of PS II. High-energy electrons are transferred to plastoquinone before
it subsequently picks up two protons to become plastoquinol. Plastoquinol is then released into
the membrane as a mobile electron carrier.
This is the second core process in photosynthesis. The initial stages occur within picoseconds,
with an efficiency of 100%. The seemingly impossible efficiency is due to the precise positioning
of molecules within the reaction center. This is a solid-state process, not a chemical reaction. It
occurs within an essentially crystalline environment created by the macromolecular structure of
PS II. The usual rules of chemistry (which involve random collisions and random energy
distributions) do not apply in solid-state environments.
Link of water-splitting complex and chlorophyll excitation[edit]
When the chlorophyll passes the electron to pheophytin, it obtains an electron from P 680*. In turn,
P680* can oxidize the Z (or YZ) molecule. Once oxidized, the Z molecule can derive electrons
from the oxygen-evolving complex.
Dark reaction
The dark reaction is sensitive to temperature and not light while the light reaction is sensitive to
light and not temperature. This second stage is essentially a reductive fixation of carbon dioxide
and the elucidation of the course of the reactions was made possible by the use of paper
chromatography and radioactive tracers.
Firstly, CO2 combines with a 5-carbon compound known as ribulose diphosphate. A 6-carbon
unstable intermediate compound is thus formed and this split into two molecules of
phosphoglyceric acid. This acid is reduced by hydrogen from NADPH 2 into an aldose
(phosphogylceraldehyde) and a ketose (dihydroxyacetone phosphate). These 3-carbon sugars are
interconvertible and a combination of two molecules will form a hexose such as glucose whose
molecules can be converted into other carbohydrates. The trioses can also form fats and amono
acids.
The CO2 acceptor, ribulose diphosphate is regenerated during photosynthesis. This is
accomplished by the conversion of the triose molecules into several intermediate compounds.
Eventually ribulose monophosphate is formed. For this compound to be converted to ribulose
diphosphate ATP is consumed.
Therefore the dark reaction is cyclic except that some molecules are drawn out of the cycle as
carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids.
Factors affecting photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide
37
At a high light intensity and constant temperature, the rate of photosynthesis is proportional to the
concentration of CO2 within a certain range above which there is no effect. At this point some
other factor limits photosynthesis. Another important aspect is the rate of diffusion of CO2
through the stomata and into the leaf mesophyll. A rapid rate of diffusion would mean an
increased supply of CO2 and therefore a faster rate of photosynthesis.
Light
The light energy stored during photosynthesis is supplied by light. Intensity, quality and duration
of the light are important. In general, an increase in light intensity is accompanied by an increase
in the rate of photosynthesis until another factor becomes limiting. However, the light intensity
required for maximum photosynthesis varies with species since some plants like the shade and
others the full sun. Light intensity also has an indirect effect on photosynthesis due its influence
on stomatal behavior and therefore the diffusion off CO 2.
Temperature
When no other factor is limiting, the rate of photosynthesis increases with temperature up to a
point which varies with species. A further increase in temperature results in a rapid decline in
photosynthesis because the protoplasm is injured. The main effects of temperature are on the
enzyme catalysed reactions of the dark stage.
Water
The chloroplasts are usually supplied with adequate water for photosynthesis. In fact, less than
1% of the water absorbed by the plant is used in photosynthesis so that the effects of water would
mainly be indirect. For instance the results of wilting would be the closure of the stomata and a
consequent reduction in the supply of CO2.
Activity
Photosynthesis comprises a ‘light reaction’ and a ‘dark reaction’. Give an outline of each of these
two stages of photosynthesis. Explain the factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis.
(q) Describe the structural differences between C3 and C4 plants.
38
39
(r) Compare C3 and C4 biochemical pathways.
(s) Measure the growth of a chosen plant in terms of increase in leaf area, leaf area index (LAI)
and dry matter accumulation with time.
LAI is a dimensionless variable and was first defined as the total one-sided area of photosynthetic
tissue per unit ground surface area (Watson, 1947). For broadleaved trees with flat leaves, this
definition is usable because both sides of a leaf have the same surface area. However, if foliage
elements are not flat, but wrinkled, bent or rolled, the one-sided area is not clearly defined.
Myneni et al. (1997) consequently defined LAI as the maximal rojected leaf area per unit ground
surface area.
Direct LAI measurement
Direct methods are the most precise, but they have the disadvantage of being extremely time-
consuming and as a consequence making large-scale implementation only marginally feasible.
Precision problems may in this case result from the definition of LAI, the scaling-up method, or
from the error accumulation due to frequently repeated measurements.
Harvesting and non-harvesting methods
LAI can be assessed directly by using harvesting methods such as destructive sampling and the
model tree method or by non-harvesting litter traps during autumn leaffall period in deciduous
forests. As the leaf area is determined through repeated area measurements on single leaves and
area accumulation, these methods are hence considered the most accurate (Chen et al., 1997), and
for that reason they are often implemented as calibration tools for indirect measurement
techniques (e.g. Cutini et al.,1998).
Leaf area determination techniques
After leaf collection, leaf area can be calculated by means of either planimetric or gravimetric
techniques (Daughtry, 1990). The planimetric approach is based on the principle of the
correlation between the individual leaf area and the number of area units covered by that leaf in a
horizontal plane. To do so, a leaf can be horizontally fixed to a flat surface, its perimeter can be
measured with a planimeter, and its area can be computed from this perimeter assessment. There
are different planimeter types on the market for this purpose. A first type is the scanning
planimeter (e.g. Li-3000, Licor, Nebraska) that uses an electronic method of rectangular
approximation. The area of the leaf is measured as the leaf is drawn through the scanning head.
The scanning head can be combined with a transparent belt conveyer with constant speed in order
to measure large numbers of detached leaves. Other scanning planimeters (e.g. Li-3100, Licor,
Nebraska) make use of a fluorescent light source and a solid-state scanning camera to sensethe
area of leaves as they move through the instrument.
The gravimetric method correlates dry weight of leaves and leaf area using predetermined green-
leaf-area-to-dry-weight ratios (leaf mass per area, LMA). LMA is determined from a sub sample
extracted from the global field sample. After greenleaf area determination using of one of the
above-cited planimetric methods, the sub-sample is dried in an oven at about 75-105°C until a
40
constant weight is reached. The dry weight is subsequently determined using a precision balance
and LMA is determined
(t) Explain respiration as a consumer of products of photosynthesis.
Respiration
One characteristic of all living things is that they respire. Respiration is basically a process
whereby complex substances are broken down into simpler ones with the release of energy in
utilisable forms. The energy is required for the maintenance of life so that respiration is indeed an
important reaction. Respiration occur without the uptake of oxygen – this is anaerobic
respiration of fermandation. Fermentation is common with fungi and bacteria and may also
occur in some higher plants if the oxygen concentration is low. In most cases respiration is
aerobic in that molecular oxygen is utilised during the process. This type of respiration (aerobic)
can be summerised by the equation below.
C6H12O6 + 6O2--------------------- 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
The biological combustion of sugars (and at times fats) is accomplished through a series of
complex reactions that involve specific enzymes and energy carriers found in the mitochondria of
the cell.
Chemistry of respiration
Aerobic respiration occurs in two steps – the oxidation of carbohydrate to pyruvic acid with small
amounts of energy being produced (glycolisis); and the subsequent oxidation of pyruvic acid
through the Krebs Cycle in which much of the energy is released.
Oxidation is the loss of oxygen whilst reduction is the gain of oygen.
Glycolysis
The first stage of respiration common to both types is glycolysis. This first series of metabolic
reactions occurs in the cytoplasm not the mitochondrion
Glucose undergoes phosphorylation, taking up a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP
(reducing it to ADP) and becoming glucose phosphate. This is then rearranged into another
molecule – fructose phosphate, which is again phosphorylated to become fructose biphosphate.
This six carbon sugar is then split into two smaller molecules which are each called triose
phosphate (3-carbon)
Finally, two molecules of ADP are phosphorylated for each triose phosphate to become ATP, and
the sugar then has two hydrogen atoms removed using dehydrogenase enzymes to become a
molecule known as pyruvate
The hydrogen atoms are accepted by a coenzyme called NAD (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide), reducing the coenzyme to reduced NAD (or NADH2). Overall, as two ATP were
used to phosphorylate the sugar and four were eventually made, it is said that the net ATP
production per glucose molecule in glycolysis is 2 ATP. Two molecules of pyruvate and two
41
molecules of reduced NAD were also produced.
Krebs Cycle
42
The next stage involved only in aerobic respiration begins with the pyruvate molecules
produced from glycolysis. This part of aerobic respiration happens in the mitochondrial matrix
and the pyruvate is transported there from the cytoplasm
In the link reaction, named so as it links glycolysis to Krebs, a molecule of pyruvate is first
decarboxylated (has carbon dioxide removed) using decarboxylase enzymes and
dehydrogenated (has hydrogen removed) using dehydrogenase enzymes. The hydrogen atoms
are accepted by a molecule of NAD. The result is an acetyl group which binds with coenzyme-A
to form acetyl coenzyme A. The coenzyme-A leaves the molecule (leaving it as acetate) and is
recycled to be used again
The acetate is a 2-carbon molecule which then joins a molecule of oxaloacetate (a 4-carbon
compound) to form citrate (a 6-carbon compound). Citrate is then decarboxylated and
dehydrogenated to form a 5-carbon acid, which also has hydrogen and carbon dioxide removed,
forming a 4-carbon acid. At this stage, substrate-level phosphorylation occurs as in glycolysis –
an inorganic phosphate is removed from the compound and attached to a molecule of ADP to
form ATP
A molecule of FAD is then reduced, as is a molecule of FAD, and the removal of these four
hydrogen atoms forms oxaloacetate, and so the cycle continues
There is one complete turn of the cycle for each molecule of pyruvate. The end products of Krebs
cycle for each glucose include two molecules of ATP produced directly during Krebs, six lots of
reduced NAD and two reduced FAD, as well as four molecules of carbon dioxide, a waste by-
product. The link reaction produces a further two reduced NAD and two carbon dioxide
molecules added on to this total
The molecules of reduced NAD and FAD will enter the electron transport chain and donate their
accepted hydrogen atoms so that ATP can be synthesised via oxidative phosphorylation.
Generally, one NADH2 yields 2.5 ATP and one FADH2 yields 1.5 ATP
Electron Transport Chain
• Glycolysis, the conversion of PA to acetyl-CoA, and the Krebs Cycle complete the breakdown
of glucose.
• Up to this point:
• NADH + H+ and FADH2 carry electrons to an electron transport chain, where additional ATP
is produced.
• Steps:
1. NADH + H+ and FADH2 carry electrons to the ETC.
2. As electrons move down the energy gradient in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion,
hydrogen ions are pumped across the membrane into the matrix.
3. An electrochemical gradient forms, and hydrogen ions diffuse through channels that contain
ATP synthetase.
4. The energy generated by the movement of hydrogen ions is used by ATP synthetase to make
ATP.
(u) Describe the structure and synthesis of ATP.
ATP
The function of ATP is to provide energy for cellular processes such as muscle contraction, cell
division, protein synthesis and DNA replication.
ATP is formed from one molecule of adenosine joined to three phosphate groups (Pi). ATP can
be broken down into ADP and Pi, and reformed in a process called phosphorylation.
43

(v) Explain the universal role of ATP as the energy 'currency' in all living organisms.
 Functions in cells
Metabolism, synthesis, and active transport[edit]
 ATP is consumed in the cell by energy-requiring (endergonic) processes and can be generated by
energy-releasing (exergonic) processes. In this way ATP transfers energy between spatially
separate metabolic reactions. ATP is the main energy source for the majority of cellular
functions. This includes the synthesis of macromolecules, including DNA and RNAand proteins.
ATP also plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules across cell membranes,
e.g.exocytosis and endocytosis.
Roles in cell structure and locomotion[edit]
ATP is critically involved in maintaining cell structure by facilitating assembly and disassembly
of elements of thecytoskeleton. In a related process, ATP is required for the shortening of actin
and myosin filament crossbridges required formuscle contraction. This latter process is one of the
main energy requirements of animals and is essential for locomotionand respiration.
Cell signalling
Extracellular signalling
ATP is also a signalling molecule. ATP, ADP, or adenosine are recognised bypurinergic
receptors. Purinoreceptors might be the most abundant receptors in mammalian tissues. [35]
Intracellular signaling
ATP is critical in signal transduction processes. It is used by kinases as the source of phosphate
groups in their phosphate transfer reactions.
DNA and RNA synthesis
In all known organisms, the Deoxyribonucleotides that make up DNA are synthesized by the
action of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) enzymes on their
corresponding ribonucleotides.[42] These enzymes reduce the sugar residue
from riboseto deoxyribose by removing oxygen from the 2' hydroxyl group; the substrates are
ribonucleoside diphosphates and the products deoxyribonucleoside diphosphates (the latter are
denoted dADP, dCDP, dGDP, and dUDP respectively.)
Amino acid activation in protein synthesis
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzymes utilise ATP as an energy source to attach a tRNA molecule
to its specific amino acid, forming an aminoacyl-tRNA complex, ready
for translation at ribosomes. The energy is made available by ATP hydrolysis toadenosine
monophosphate (AMP) as two phosphate groups are removed. Amino acid activation refers to the
attachment of an amino acid to its Transfer RNA (tRNA).
(w) Identify and classify common weeds.
WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL
Introduction
Weeds are of economic importance in crop production since they can lead to yield losses in the field,
and down grading of the crop at marketing. They have their own defensive characteristics. To be able
to control weeds one needs to know the behaviour of weeds and then select the ways which can easily
counter their development. This chapter will cover the characteristics of weeds and weed control.
44
Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
Define a weed.
Outline the adaptive characteristics of weeds.
Definition
A weed is a plant that grows where it is not wanted. This definition includes volunteer plants. A weed
can be broad leaved or narrow leaved, annual or perennial.
Special adaptations
Special adaptations which make weeds special competitors.
Seed production
Most weeds multiply and disseminate through seed production. Weed seed can survive in very high
temperatures, drought and frost. Life cycles of weeds can be as short as 6 weeks such that there can be
several generations per season. Most weeds produce a large number of seeds per flowering period e.g.
shamva grass 10000 seeds / plant, Rapoko grass 100000/ plant , Mexican marigold -59000/ plant.
Weeds have very efficient reproductive and disseminative mechanisms which make them strong
competitors with arable crops.
Weed seed dormancy
A weed may mature and shed thousands of seeds under favourable conditions for germination. Only a
fraction germinates in the first year. Much of the seed will remain dormant and germinate in
succeeding years.
Weed control
Weed control should be done within the first 8 weeks of plant establishment (referred to as the critical
period). Weeds are easy to control in the early stages.
Techniques used in weed control
1. Hand hoeing
Hoes are used to remove or dislodge the weeds resulting in death.
Advantages of hand hoeing
1. No chemical damage or toxicity to the crop.
2. There is enough aeration to the soil.
3. Organic matter is also added to the soil.
4. Cut weeds can act as a mulch to conserve moisture
Disadvantages
1. There is high labour demand during the process of weeding.

2. Hand hoeing is very difficult in wet weather.
6.7.2 Mechanical cultivation
Ox drawn cultivators or tractor drawn implements can be used also to dislodge the weeds.
Herbicide use
Stage and method of application of herbicides

1. Pre-planting herbicides – Herbicides are applied before planting and incorporated into
the soil. Preplanting herbicides are applied 2-3 weeks before planting. If applied earlier
45
they lose efficiency due to volatilization, sunlight destruction or photodecomposition. An

example is Trif in cotton.
2. Pre- emergence herbicides – Herbicide is applied after planting before the emergence of
the crop. Should be applied before the emergence of weeds (3-4 day of planting). Delay
in application result in poor weed control and crop damage. An example is Atrazine in
maize.
3. Post emergence herbicide – Is a herbicide applied after the crop has emerged over the
top or directed to affect only weeds under the crop. Application late in the season is
referred to as lay-by treatment. Post emergence herbicide may have contact action or
translocated therefore should be applied after weed emergence. Soil acting post
emergence herbicides are applied before weed emergence.
Selective herbicides
Selective herbicides retard or kill the weeds while the crop is tolerant. The herbicide is selective to a
particular crops within certain limits. Over application of such herbicides can affect the crop.
Basics of selectivity of herbicides
With herbicides, several mechanisms are involved in the selectivity to crops. Selection depends on
one or more of the following:
1- Genetic vigour of the crop

2- High crop seed viability and low weed seed viability under herbicides.
3- Physiological resistance or inherent crop tolerance with the herbicides
4- Application of herbicide to avoid excessive contact with the crop.
Mechanisms can be divided into physiological and non physiological mechanisms.
Non physiological mechanisms selectivity (positional selectivity)

a. Positional selectivity depends on the position of the growing point of the crop and the
weed. Broad leaved weeds have well exposed meristematic tissue while the meristem of
grass is intercalary. Each node in grass has meristematic tissue protected by leaf tissue.
Herbicides affect growing point and discriminate between the crop and broad leaved
weeds which are killed by virtue of their exposed apical meristems.
b. Leaf angle -Broad leaved weeds have flat leaf surface areas therefore intercept more
herbicide than grasses or cereals which have upright leaves.
c. Surface nature- Hairiness, waxiness of the leaf affects the effect of herbicide by
preventing the herbicide from adhering to the leaf therefore protecting the crop from the
herbicide.
d. Different behaviour and movement of herbicide in the soil.
6.7.3. 3 Depth control
Depth control is the principle on with pre-emergence herbicide work. Selectivity depends
on the depth of the crop and weed seed in relation to the depth to which the herbicide
would penetrate. Crop seed is planted deep and herbicide with low leachability is prayed
and light irrigation is applied. Herbicide stops weed germination in superficial layers of
the soil.
Fig 1. Depth control
Herbicide
46
Crop seed protected by depth, seal

Therefore no contact with the
herbicide
In this case weed seed which germinate from a depth e.g upright star bar, salt weed are
difficult to control because pre- emergence herbicide do not penetrate to that depth.
Examples of pre-emergence herbicide which work by depth control are: Metachlor (dual)
, Cotogard , Sencor , Alachor ( lasso) ,Planavin ,Trifluralin, Igran.
Depth control in orchards

Deep rooted crops such as fruit trees are depth protected by using a low solubility
herbicide which is highly adsorbed by soil colloids and will form a layer which will
prevent weed growth in that layer.
Fig 2. Diagramatic Illustration of Depth control in orchards
Herbicide layer, low solubility and

high adsorption, e.g. Diuron.
Weed seed will not germinate
Selective and non selective herbicides can be directly applied to hit weeds and avoid
excessive contact with the crop using flat jet nozzles or shielded sprayers. The crop must be
taller than the weeds within the rows.
Physiological selectivity mechanisms

Differential absorption of herbicides
Weeds with certain morphological and anatomical characteristics e.g. permeable cuticles, and
large stomatal apertures absorb folia sprays, thus the weed absorb more herbicide than the
crop and is controlled.
Differential Translocation of herbicide
Differences in the ability of translocation of herbicide in the phloem and xylem between the
weed and the crop forms the basis of selectivity.
Enzymatic activation
In some plants enzymes are capable of converting non toxic compounds into toxic compounds
as is the case with many weeds while monocots are unable to do so e.g m.c.p.a.
Persistence of herbicides in the soil
Persistence is the period a herbicide remains active in the soil to affect a subsequent crop.
Persistence determines the period of weed control achieved. A herbicide should not persist in
a subsequent crop. Herbicides like atrazine are generally used in maize. It is selective and
47
cheap but persists for a long period. It affects any broad leaf crops which follow the maize.
Persistence affects rotations.
Factors that affect persistence of herbicides
Physical factors and chemical properties of herbicides.
a- Water solubility
Water solubility influence movement of herbicides in the soil, and very soluble herbicides
move faster downwards than less soluble herbicides.
b- Alkalinity
Alkalinity determine the degree to which the herbicide is positively charged and therefore its
likely wood to be adsorbed to the cation exchange sites. Under alkaline conditions more of
the cations are adsorbed to soil colloids. Most herbicides emit positively charged hydrogen
ions to soil colloids and the positively charged herbicides is coupled by soil colloids and is
leached therefore persistence is reduced.
c- Volatility
Herbicides evaporate at certain temperatures and lost as a volatile gas. Herbicides with high
vapour pressure are highly volatile therefore must be protected immediately after application
to avoid loss due to vapourisation. Highly volatile herbicides include perbulate , litraline, and
trif.
Soil type
Adsorption on soil colloids
a. Strongest adsorption occurs in soil of high organic matter or high clay content. For
herbicides to be effective they must be in soil solution to be taken up by the plant.
Herbicides adsorbed in clay particles is not readily available to plants. Dosage rates
are higher in clay soils than sand soils to compensate for the higher adsorption power
of clays. Persistence is higher in strongly adsorptive soils e.g. clays.
b. Leaching is the down ward movement of chemical substances in solution through the
soil. The degree of leaching is determined by the chemical solubility, movement of
water, and amount of herbicide adsorbed by soil colloids.
c. Photo-decomposition
When a soil applied herbicide is exposed to light gradual photo-decomposition takes
place. This effect is minimized if rain or irrigation follows within a few days after
application. In prolonged dry weather shallow incorporation will reduce photo-
decomposition.
d. Chemical decomposition
Organic compounds when applied to the soil are decomposed by micro-organisms and
reserve the energy. Many herbicides are organic compounds and are broken down by
micro-organisms. This process is facilitated by warm moist conditions in well aerated
soils
Examples of persistence of herbicide
Herbicide persistence (weeks)
Simazine, durone,flomethrone 12-25
Atrazine, trif , nitraline 8-18
p.p.tc,alachloa, linurone, cynazine ,terbutryne,
naphthalin,DNCP. 6-12
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24D,MCPD 4-8
Summary
The use of herbicides is an important and easy approach towards the control of weeds; this method is
less labour intensive as compared to hand weeding. The different modes of action of different
herbicides in conjunction with different means of selectivity help in the control of different weed
species.
Activities
 How does weed dormancy influence the survival of the weed?

 With the aid of diagrams explain the herbicide control mechanisms employed in the control of
weeds.
 Define herbicide persistence. Explain how persistence affects crop succession in the lands?
(x) Discuss crop/weed competition,
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(y) Discuss methods of weed control to include biological, cultural, mechanical, chemical, and
integrated weed control,
Weed control is the botanical component of pest control, which attempts to stop weeds,
especially noxious or injurious weeds, from competing withdomesticated plants and livestock.
Many strategies have been developed in order to contain these plants.
The original strategy was manual removal including ploughing, which can cut the roots of weeds.
More recent approaches include herbicides (chemical weed killers) and reducing stocks by
burning and/or pulverizing seeds.
A plant is often termed a "weed" when it has one or more of the following characteristics:
 Little or no recognized value (as in medicinal, material, nutritional or energy)

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 Rapid growth and/or ease of germination
 Competitive with crops for space, light, water and nutrients
Methods
Pesticide-free thermic weed control with a weed burner on a potato field inDithmarschen
Coverings
In domestic gardens, methods of weed control include covering an area of ground with a material
that creates a hostile environment for weed growth, known as aweed mat.
Several layers of wet newspaper prevent light from reaching plants beneath, which kills them.
Daily saturating the newspaper with water plant decomposition. After several weeks, all
germinating weed seeds are dead.
In the case of black plastic, the greenhouse effect kills the plants. Although the black plastic sheet
is effective at preventing weeds that it covers, it is difficult to achieve complete coverage.
Eradicating persistent perennials may require the sheets to be left in place for at least two seasons.
Some plants are said to produce root exudates that suppress herbaceous weeds.Tagetes minuta is
claimed to be effective against couch and ground elder,[2] whilst a border of comfrey is also said
to act as a barrier against the invasion of some weeds including couch. A 5–10 centimetres (2.0–
3.9 in)} layer of wood chip mulch prevents most weeds from sprouting.
Gravel can serve as an inorganic mulch.
Irrigation is sometimes used as a weed control measure such as in the case of paddy fields to kill
any plant other than the water-tolerant rice crop.
Manual removal
Weeds are removed manually in large parts of India.
Many gardeners still remove weeds by manually pulling them out of the ground, making sure to
include the roots that would otherwise allow them to resprout.
Hoeing off weed leaves and stems as soon as they appear can eventually weaken and kill
perennials, although this will require persistence in the case of plants such as bindweed. Nettle
infestations can be tackled by cutting back at least three times a year, repeated over a three-year
period. Bramble can be dealt with in a similar way.
Goat grazing
Companies using goats to control and eradicate leafy spurge, knapweed, and other toxic weeds
have sprouted across the American West. Near Red Lodge, Montana, there is Healthy Meadows,
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a company owned by Ivan Thrane and Chia Chen-Speidel, who as of late summer 2012 manage
250 goats for this express purpose.
"Stale seed bed"
Another manual technique is the ‘stale seed bed’, which involves cultivating the soil, then leaving
it fallow for a week or so. When the initial weeds sprout, the grower lightly hoes them away
before planting the desired crop. However, even a freshly cleared bed is susceptible to airborne
seed from elsewhere, as well as seed carried by passing animals on their fur, or from
imported manure.
Irrigation
Drip irrigation involves bringing water directly to the roots of the desired plants, thereby limits
weed's access to water.
Biological pesticide
Vinegar kills the visible part of the weed. They will wrinkle and die next day, although the root
will still be in place to continue growing.
Tilling
Ploughing includes tilling of soil, intercultural ploughing and summer ploughing. Ploughing
uproots weeds, causing them to die. In summer ploughing is done during deep summers. Summer
ploughing also helps in killing pests.
Mechanical tilling can remove weeds around crop plants at various points in the growing process.
Crop rotation
Rotating crops with ones that kill weeds by choking them out, such as hemp,[4] Mucuna pruriens,
and other crops, can be a very effective method of weed control. It is a way to avoid the use of
herbicides, and to gain the benefits of crop rotation.
Thermal
Several thermal methods can control weeds.
Hot foam (foamstream) causes the cell walls to rupture, killing the plant. Weed burners heat up
soil quickly and destroy superficial parts of the plants. Weed seeds are often heat resistant and
even react with an increase of growth on dry heat.
Since the 19th century soil steam sterilization has been used to clean weeds completely from soil.
Several research results confirm the high effectivness of humid heat against weeds and its seeds.
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Seed targeting
Hybrid
One method of maintaining the effectiveness of individual strategies is to combine them with
others that work in complete different ways. Thus seed targeting has been combined with
herbicides. In Australia seed management has been effectively combined with trifluralin and
clethodim.
"Organic" approaches
Organic weed control involves anything other than applying manufactured chemicals. Typically a
combination of methods are used to achieve satisfactory control.
Sulfur in some circumstances is accepted within British Soil Association standards.
Soil solarization in some circumstances is very effective at eliminating weeds while maintaining
grass. Planted grass tends to have a higher heat/humidity tolerance than unwanted weeds.
Herbicides
The above described methods of weed control use no or very limited chemical inputs. They are
preferred by organic gardeners or organic farmers.
However weed control can also be achieved by the use of herbicides. Selective herbicides kill
certain targets while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by
interfering with the growth of the weed and are often based on plant hormones. Herbicides are
generally classified as follows:
 Contact herbicides destroy only plant tissue that contacts the herbicide. Generally, these are
the fastest-acting herbicides. They are ineffective on perennial plants that can re-grow from
roots or tubers.
 Systemic herbicides are foliar-applied and move through the plant where they destroy a
greater amount of tissue. Glyphosate is currently the most used systemic herbicide.
 Soil-borne herbicides are applied to the soil and are taken up by the roots of the target plant.
 Pre-emergent herbicides are applied to the soil and prevent germination or early growth of
weed seeds.
In agriculture large scale and systematic procedures are usually required, often by machines, such
as large liquid herbicide 'floater' sprayers, or aerial application.
Resistance
Resistance occurs when a target adapts to circumvent a particular control strategy. It affects not
only weed control,but antibiotics, insect control and other domains. In agriculture is mostly
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considered in reference to pesticides, but can defeat other strategies, e.g., when a target species
becomes more drought tolerant via selection pressure.
Farming practices
Herbicide resistance recently became a critical problem as many Australian sheep farmers
switched to exclusively growing wheat in their pastures in the 1970s. In wheat fields, introduced
varieties of ryegrass, while good for grazing sheep, are intense competitors with wheat.
Ryegrasses produce so many seeds that, if left unchecked, they can completely choke a field.
Herbicides provided excellent control, while reducing soil disrupting because of less need to
plough. Within little more than a decade, ryegrass and other weeds began to develop resistance.
Australian farmers evolved again and began diversifying their techniques.[6]
In 1983, patches of ryegrass had become immune to Hoegrass, a family of herbicides that inhibit
an enzyme called acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase.[6]
Ryegrass populations were large, and had substantial genetic diversity, because farmers had
planted many varieties. Ryegrass is cross-pollinated by wind, so genes shuffle frequently.
Farmers sprayed inexpensive Hoegrass year after year, creating selection pressure, but were
diluting the herbicide in order to save money, increasing plants survival. Hoegrass was mostly
replaced by a group of herbicides that block acetolactate synthase, again helped by poor
application practices. Ryegrass evolved a kind of "cross-resistance" that allowed it to rapidly
break down a variety of herbicides. Australian farmers lost four classes of herbicides in only a
few years. As of 2013 only two herbicide classes, called Photosystem II andlong-chain fatty
acid inhibitors, had become the last hope.
(z) Identify and classify common pests, diseases and discuss methods of pest and disease control,
CROP PESTS
Introduction
Pests are of great importance in the crop production as they reduce crop productivity. In this unit you
will general information about their classification and control.
Objectives
 Define a pest.
 Differentiate the categories of pests.
 Identify the damage caused by pests.
Definition
Pest – Any form of plant or animal life or any pathogenic agent injurious or potentially injurious to
plants, plant products, livestock or man.
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Following this definition pests include insects and other arthropods, vertebrates, weeds and micro-
organisms e.g. fungi, fungi, bacteria and viruses.
Categories of pests
1. Key or major pests
This refers to the insect pests which occur perennially and cause serious and persistent economic
damage in an ecosystem in the absence of effective control measures. An example is the cabbage
webworm in brassicas in Zimbabwe.
2. Minor pests
These are pests whose populations under normal conditions do not cause economic damage.
3. Occasional pests
These are insects whose population build up would reach an economic injury level to the plants. An
example is the increase in the Lepidoptera populations which lead to heavy leaf defoliation to affect
the crop yield.
4. Potential pests
Potential pest refers to insect species with the potential to develop into major pest depending on the
situation present.
5. Migrant pests
These are insect pests which move from one area (zone) to another to cause an economic damage.
Examples are the red locust, armyworm.
6. Disease vectors
These are insects that transmit diseases to plants making them important to agriculture. Examples are
white fly which transmits tobacco and a cotton leaf curl virus, aphids transmits groundnut mosaic
virus, and leaf hopper which transmits maize streak virus. It is important to note that very low
populations of disease vectors can lead to serious crop damage.
Pest damage
Pests can cause plant damage in different ways. This can be through biting and chewing, piecing and
sucking and can be vectors of pathogens.
Pests with biting and chewing mouthparts
These are insects which feed by biting pieces of plant material and chewing. Very good examples of
such pests are: locusts, crickets, caterpillars and beetles.
Damage caused by biting and chewing pests
Losses in plant yield can be brought about in different ways by biting and chewing pests as indicated
below:
1. During feeding some pests produce substances which irritate the host plant leading to proliferation
and gall formation.
2. Loss of photosynthesis tissue due to the eating away of the leaf lamina of the plant and leaf drop,
e.g. by leaf worm
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3. There is destruction of seedlings and young plants, e.g. vegetable seedlings can be destroyed by
cutworm.
4. Feeding of pests from the growing points lead to the destruction of buds and shoots e.g. the bud
worm in tobacco.
5. Some pests feed by boring and tunneling the stems interfering with the movement of sap up and
down the plant and weakening of the plant, e.g. maize stalk borer in maize.
6. During feeding the pests destroy flowers, seed and fruits there by significantly reducing fruit
production, e.g. cape mounted rifle beetle in sugar bean.
7. Tubers and roots can be bored or eaten by pests in the soil leading to reduced yields, e.g. potato
tuber moth in potatoes.
Pests with piercing and sucking mouthparts
Pests in this category have part or all of the mouthparts modified into piercing proboscis. They suck
sap from the xylem or phloem tissues of the plant. Examples of such pests are from the order Acarina,
homoptera and thrips.
Pests that are vectors of pathogens
These are insects that transmit diseases to plants making them important to agriculture. Examples are
fruit fly which transmits tobacco and cotton leaf curl viruses, aphids transmits groundnut mosaic
virus, and leaf hopper which transmits maize streak virus. It is important to note that very low
populations of disease vectors can lead to serious crop damage.
Pests life cycles
Pests go through different developmental stages during their life. Some go through complete
metamorphosis and some incomplete metamorphosis.
With most insects growth is limited to immature stages. Insects develop from stage to stage and the
change from one stage to the next is through moulting (ecdysis). The change in appearance of the
insect due to moulting is referred to as metamorphosis.
Complete metamorphosis
In complete metamorphosis insects go through the four stages of development which are as in the
figure 4 below.
Fig 4 Complete metamophosis
(Embryonic development) (Internal wing pads)
Egg Larva
Adult Pupa (External wing pads)
(Reproduction dispersal
and sometimes feeding)

56
The four stages are mostly exhibited by holometabobla insects like the American boll worm
(Heliothis armigera), maize stalk borer (Bassiola fusca). In the complete metamophosis group of
pests there are four instars, a modified larval or pupal instar and the adult phase.
Incomplete metamorphosis
In this case insects go through three stages of development which are: as illustrated in the in the figure
5 below.
Fig 5 Incomplete metamophosis
Embryonic development
Egg
Adult Nymph (Larva)
Sexually mature 1st instar no wings
and winged 2 nd to 5th instar is sexual immaturity
External wing pads
Insects falling under this group belong to the Homimetabola.
In incomplete metamorphosis group of pests, wings appear as external wing pads in the second instar
and they are fully formed after the fifth moult e.g. grass hoppers and locusts.
Pest control methods
Pest control can be achieved using different means. The approaches to pest control are: cultural
method, natural control, mechanical, and chemical control.
CULTURAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
These approaches to pest control reduce pest populations rather than completely destroying the pests.
The advantage of using cultural control measures is that there are no hazards to the user unlike with
chemicals. The different cultural approaches to pest control are explained below:
Crop rotation
Rotating crops of different families one after the other breaks the lifecycles of some pests. For
example if a maize crop is grown following a cabbage crop, pests like cabbage webworm (Helulla
hundalis) and diamond back moth (Plutella zylostella) lifecycles are broken leading to a reduction in
the pest populations. This implies that if a four year rotation is strictly followed the method becomes
effective. Another example is the growing of Katambora Rhodes grass after tobacco leading to the
control of the root knot nematode. This is because the grass is non host to the nematode hence it dies
from starvation resulting in a decrease in the populations of the nematode.
Tillage
Tillage mechanically damage the pests and their stages, burry or expose the developmental stages of
the pests, increase the growth vigour of the crops, eliminates the alternative host plants, and changing
57
the physical conditions of the soil e.g. moisture, oxygen concentration and soil pH resulting in the
death of most pest hence the reduction of pest populations.
Trap crops
With this approach, a susceptible crop is grown close to the major crop to attract the pests and protect
the major crop. The accumulated pests are then destroyed either chemically or by tillage or any other
suitable means.
Growing tolerant varieties
Some plants have the ability to recover from pest damage due to some tolerance in them. Plants with
low or no levels of tolerance cannot recover pest damage as a result it leads to economic damage.
Use of manure and fertilizer
Healthy plants are produced through proper manure application and fertilization. Healthy plants can
better withstand pest attack.
Pruning and thinning
Healthy and pest resistant new shoots can develop on the plant if the plant is occasionally pruned;
hence it is advisable to remove old branches from the plants.
Crop location
Pests may not move from one field to the other in adjacent fields if the crops in the adjacent fields are
deferent. This minimizes the spread of pests and keeps the pest populations lower.
Crop residue destruction
Burning of crop residues destroy the pests which overwinter in the crop residues e.g. maize stalk
borer, and cotton ball worms.
Alternating the planting times
By changing the planting periods one can avoid the infestation times of a particular pest there by
reducing pest infestation to the crop.
Natural control
a) Climatic factors
Populations of pests and their host plants are directly affected by humidity, temperature, and day
length. The changes in climate also limits the dispersal of pests.
b) Natural barriers
Features like mountain ranges, large water bodies and deserts limits the spreading of pests through
migration. Hence reduce the spread of some pest species.
c) Natural enemies
Most of the vertebrates feed on insects and keep insect populations low. Within the insect group are
predator species that capture and feed on insect pests or lay their eggs inside on or in the body of other
insects (parasitoids) for the newly born parasitoids to get readily available food.
d) Diseases
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Plant pests like any other living organisms are attacked by diseases e.g. the semi-looper is affected by
the virus , plusia nuclear poly hydrosis virus.
Mechanical methods
Where manual and devices and machines are used to control pests this is referred to as the mechanical
methods of pest control. Following are some of the mechanical practices used in the control of insect
pests.
Shaking or beating of branches
Kerosinised water in a tub may be placed under the plant which is shaken or beaten with a stick to
drop the pests into the tub.
Wire gauge screens
Borers can be prevented from attacking plants by surrounding the stems and fruits of the plants with
wire gauge screens.
Hand picking
Insects can be handpicked and crushed to death e.g. beetles and caterpillars which are easily picked by
hand.
Banding
Trees can be banded to prevent insects from climbing up the plant to damage the top parts of the
plant. E.g. sticky materials can be painted on the tree or on waxed paper.
Traps
Different traps can be used to trap different insects due to different behaviour. Examples of traps used
in the control of pests are:
Light traps, pheromone traps, vacuum traps, sticky traps and sound traping.
Summary
Pest management is involving quite a good number of approaches for successful crop production. It
was revealed in this chapter that different pests damage crops differently depending on the mode of
feeding of individual pests, hence different modes of control become applicable.
Activities
i. Define a pest.
ii. Make a list of pests and classify them in any of the categories explained before
iii. Compile a list of pests in your locality and classify them according to their mode of feeding.
iv. Differentiate between complete metamorphosis and incomplete metamorphosis giving
examples of pests.
v. Explain the approaches to pest control with reference to particular crops.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

Introduction
59
IPM is much a clean approach to pest and disease control which is environmentally friendly. The
implementation of IPM produces crops which contain the least chemical residues. Its implementation
to pests and diseases reduces the costs of production significantly, hence the need for consideration.
Objectives
 Define IPM.
 Define the components of IPM
 List the cultural practices used in IPM
 Identify the precautions one should observe when handling chemicals
Definition
Integrated pest management is an integrated approach to the management of pests (insect pests,
diseases, animals and weeds) in a sustainable manner. The approaches include biological, cultural,
physical and chemical approaches.
IPM practices leading to sustainable pest conntrol
Identify pests and asses pest levels in the field.
Know the pest history, development and the factors which influence its availability.
Keep low levels of pests in the field as this ensures that natural enemies are always available.
The main objective of IPM is to keep and maintain low levels of pests and make sure that they are
always below the economic injury level.
Principles of integrated pest management
Ensure healthy plants at all times
Conserve natural enemies
Chemical control should be taken as the last option in pest and disease control
COMPONENTS OF IPM
 Monitoring
Involve operations like scouting to detect, identify and determining the pest levels in the
fields.
 Forecasting
Is the prediction on the development of the pest to economic injury level depending on the
environmental conditions.
 Thresholds
Thresholds refer to the pest levels at which economic losses are realized. Threshold levels are
also used to estimate the severity of the pest observed. Some control measures should be
taken at this level.
MANAGEMENT TACTICS IN IPM
1. Cultural
- Crop rotations are planned in such a way that they reduce the buildup of pests and diseases.
- Avoid planting susceptible plants in areas where particular pests are known too be problematic.
60
- Destroy plant residues in order to remove overwintering conditions for the pests.
- High relative humidity should be avoided at all costs to minimize the development of some pests and
diseases.
- Winter ploughing exposes some pest species to natural enemies and reduces pest pressure.
- Planting times should be such that they avoid the peak periods of particular or known pests during
the vulnerable stages of the crops.
- Proper fertilization of crops ensures high growth vigour to avoid stress that may predispose the crop
to diseases.
- Farmers should plant disease free seed to avoid early disease attacks.
- practicing good sanitation.
- Good weed control practices to avoid seeding reduce pressure to crops and promote plant growth
and it also reduces host plants to pests and diseases.
- Tap crops are also very useful in reducing pest pressure on the major crop.
- Proper irrigation scheduling reduces continuously humid conditions which favour the development
of most fungal diseases.
2. Physical and mechanical control
- Hand picking of pests can be used on some pests e.g. cape mounted riffle beetle.
- Use of traps for flying insects and sticky boards for crawling pests.
- Barriers prevent pests from reaching the crop.
3. Biological control
- Use of predators reduces pest populations significantly.

- Conserve natural enemies to keep pest populations low.
- Use of cultured bacteria to control some pest species is also effective.
4. Chemical control
Chemical control should be regarded as the last option in choosing control measures for pests
and disease control.
The right chemical should be chosen for the right pest at the right time, applied at the correct
rate, distributed correctly to ensure efficiency of the chemical used.
5.Legislation
Legislated planting and destruction dates should be observed as they minimize the spread of
pests e.g. in cotton and tobacco.
SAFE USE OF PESTICIDES
Get any chemical containers with amber, green, red and purple triangles to identify the
precautions to follow when using each chemical.
1. Pesticide transport
During packaging avoid packing pesticides together with food staffs and avoid transporting
pesticides together with human food.
Also avoid transporting pesticides in the passenger compartment in any vehicle.
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2. Storage of pesticides
The store room should be well ventilated, kept under lock.

Only enough pesticides for the season should be bought.
Pesticides should be stored out of reach of children and apart from feed and food staffs.
3. Chemical hygiene
After applying chemicals remove protective clothing, wash hands and face with soap and
clean water, wash the used equipment avoiding the contamination of public water and destroy
empty containers. Do not recycle or put the empty containers to other uses.
4.Registration
Chemicals selected for use in any one crop should be registered. They should posses the
registration number and a colour triangle. It is advisable that one should buy originally packed
chemicals from the suppliers and avoid buying repacked chemicals.
What should you do to use chemicals safely?
First of all read and understand the instructions and all other information given on the label
All chemicals should be equally regarded as potentially dangerous
Chemical users should wear protective clothing whenever chemicals are to be used.
Pesticides should be used only when necessary.
Recommended rates should always be used to maintain the efficiency of the chemicals.
Over application of the chemical may lead to crop damage and over accumulation of crop
residues beyond the limit and under application may lead to ineffective pest control.
Pre-harvest intervals should be observed where crop consumption is direct.
Factors to consider when choosing a pesticide for use
The use of chemicals should always be the last option after all other possible measures have
been exhausted.
The choice of the chemical should depend on the following
Choose the right chemical for the right pest to be controlled.
Chemicals should be used when the pest level reaches the economic threshold level.
Choose the least dangerous chemical, but the chemical should be effective against the
problem.
Choose a chemical that can be safely applied with the available equipment.
Choose affordable and available chemicals.
Summary
The way a farmer protects the crop from planting to harvesting from all the possible factors
which lead to the reduction in yield can lead to a sustainable yield. Integrated pest
management practices involve different means of pest control. The use of different methods
of pest control reduces the risk of chemicals to human beings.
Activity
i. Define IPM and make a list of the cultural practices used in IPM in your area.
ii. What are the precautions one should observe during the use of pesticides?
CROP DISEASES
Introduction
62
Crop diseases cause heavy losses in crop production if left unchecked. There are many causes of
different diseases e.g. fungi, virus, and bacteria. Different causative agents cause different forms of
damage to the crop resulting in different symptoms to different diseases.
Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define a disease.
 List the general and specific signs and symptoms of crop diseases.
 Explain how diseases are transmitted from one plant to the other.
 Identify the most suitable control measures for crop diseases.
Definition of disease
Any deviation from the normal functioning of the plant structure.
GROUPS OF DISEASES
Parasitic diseases
These are caused by fungi, virus, or bacteria.
Signs of parasitic diseases
 Spot diseases
Are generally caused by fungi or bacteria. They characterized by spots. E.G bacteria spots in
sunflower and ground nuts. Cercospora leaf spot, alternaria, wildfire and angular spot in tobacco.
 Blight diseases
Blights kill large areas of tissue e.g. potato blight, leaf blight in maize
 Wilts
These are characterized by total wilting of leaves due to infection of roots or vascular system e.g.
bacterial wilt in potatoes and tomatoes.
 Canker
Is a disease of woody tissue which causes shrinking and cracking of bark e.g. bacterial canker in
tomatoes.
 Damping off
Affects seed and seedlings. The pathogen attacks seed in the ground or seedlings at ground level
causing seedlings to fall over as in tomatoes, and tobacco by Soreshin (Rhizoctonia solani).
 Rots
Are characterized by rapid disintegration of tissues of plant organs e.g. cob rots in maize.
 Mildews
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Powdery mildew – is characterized by white powdery coating on leaves and stems e.g. in wheat and
peas.
Downy mildew – is caharacterised by bluish gray mouldy growth usually on the underside of the leaf
e.g. in brassicas, sorghum etc.
 Rust
This disease appear on the leaves and stems and produce pustules which are rust coloured (red brown
to orange) e.g. rust in wheat.
 Smuts
Appear as powdery masses on cereals e.g. head smut on maize.
 Mosaics
Mosaics are viral diseases. Indicated by paten of light and dark coloured portions on the leaves e.g.
cucumber mosaic virus.
 Stunting disease
Caused by virus e.g. Rosette virus in ground nuts.
Transmission of diseases
1. Wind
2. Water (splash rain)
3. Insect pests
4. Soil (soil borne)
5. Seed (seed borne)
5. Men
7. Implements
Diseases can also be caused by nutrient deficiencies, Dodders and cuscutas (parasitic plants)
DISEASES CONTROL METHODS
Cultural control method
Rotations – break cycle of diseases
Ploughing in and destroy trash except soil borne pathogens
Weed control – relate to insect transmitted diseases
Use of certified seed
Time of planting – diseases avoided by growing crops when conditions are unfavourable to diseases
e.g. bush top is not common in early planted crops
Hygiene- avoid taking the disease by washing equipment
Selection of healthy seedlings

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Spacing
Fertilizer application - apply correct levels , over application stimulate rank growth which affect
micro-climate
Use resistant varieties
Legislation- e.g. cotton and tobacco
a. Legislation that stipulates eradication with varieties e.g. moniclar potatoe
b. Notifiable diseases e.g. virus Y in potatoes
c. Time of planting is stipulated
d. Quarantine – applied to imports
3. Agricultural services – Use research findings on the crop. Use set light or photo to identify the
diseases.
Agrochemicals
 Pesticide formulation
Dusts
Granules
Sprays
Aerosols
Fumigants
 Dusts- active ingredient is mixed in inert carrier e.g. lime- not mixed with water. Apply when
calm to avoid breathing in.
 Granules- formulated as granules to lessen health hazards. – are very easy to apply , need no
water e.g. Dipterex
 Sprays – Wetable powders are sprayed with a wetting agent but still need constant agitation.
Disposal powders have finer particles than WP used with ULV spray.
Emulsions are suspensions of oil droplets in water. Pesticide dissolves in oily organic solvents
together with emulsifying agent. Agrochemicals are sold as concentrates therefore have to be diluted
before use. Agrochemicals are very expensive. Emulsions break down quicker than powders, less
easily washed by rain and suitable for ULV spray.
 Aerosoles – smokes and fogs. Are not for agricultural use Used on shelter places e.g. houses
 Fumigants - act in gaseous form. Fumigants are usually used for soil pests or stored products.
Used on confined space
 Types of pesticides
Plant derivatives – pyrethrum
Inorganic - lead arsenate
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Organo clorine -DDT , Aldrin
Organo phosphate - malathion
Carbonates - larvin , carbaryl
Benzilic acid compounds
Amadines - kelthin , acricide ,morocide
Pyrethroids – karate , marvirik , agrithrin
Colour coding - show the level of toxicity of a chemical
Green - is a safe chemical
Amber - dangerous
Red - very dangerous
Purple- extremely dangerous (lethal)
Modes of functions of pesticides
 Four ways
Stomach poisons – have to be ingested
Contact poisons – act by direct contact
Systemic chemicals – are stomach poisons absorbed through the plant.
Fumigants - act by inhalation contact
 Use of pesticides
Used as seed dressings
Used as baits – most suitable for small scale orchards
Used as sprays –most common and effective method.
Full cover or wet spray – used for non mobile insects e.g. scales
Soil sprays – are systemic pesticides – do not affect innocent insects
Summary
The use of agrochemicals in the control of pests should come in as the last option in pest control. For
you to choose a chemical to use on a particular pest you should be able to identify the pest, know the
mode of feeding of the pest and be able to choose the correct chemical for the pest to be controlled.
Activity
i. Identify the crop diseases in the farms around your area and categorize them accordingly in
any one of the above categories.
ii. Briefly explain how each of the diseases listed previous can be transmitted from one crop to
the other and how best it can be controlled.
iii. Using the pests identified in unit two select the chemicals suitable for the control of each pest.
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Comprehensive Crop science Hand out

Basic Structural Organization of Membrane Lipid Bilayer

Phosphoglycerides is most abundant class of lipids in most membranes. A typical

Cholesterol is important in maintaining fluidity of membrane bilayer in a concentration

Integral membrane proteins, also called transmembrane proteins, span a phospholipid

Peripheral membrane proteins do not interact with hydrophobic core of phospholipid

Outer membrane - It is a semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small molecules and

the form of helicoid sheets.

Bean shaped organelle with an Cellular respiration which provides

(d) Describe cell differentiation.and mitosis

The nature and function of cells

CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

The cell cycle

THE NUCLEUS, CHROMOSOME AND GENE

Chromosomes or chromatin are responsible for the transmission of hereditary information

Chromosome number and homologous chromosomes

The morphology of chromosome

A chromosome is made up of two chromatides joined by a region called centromere(figure

2.4.3 Structure of the chromosome

Figure 2.1 : Structure of the chromosome

 Telocentric type- In these, the centromere is at the tip of the chromosome

 Acrocentric type- The centromere is near to one end

 Metacentric type- Centromere is in the middle

o Dicentric type - a chromosome with two centromeres

o Acentric type - a chromosome fragment without any centromere

Chemical constituents of chromosomes

1. Draw and label the typical plant cell

 Stage and role of mitosis and meiosis in agriculture

centriole replicates (just before prophase)

Chromosome line up across the equator

 Facilitate growth of an organism.

Prophase I is divided into five phases:

Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.

It is important to note that meiosis II is similar to mitosis.

o Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half, enabling sexual recombination to

1 Compare and contrast mitosis and meosis.

2 what are the roles of these two nuclear division in agriculture?

(e) Explain how cell division and enlargement leads to growth,

(g) Describe pollen structure, pollen formation and ovule development.

Figure 8.19 Diagrams showing structure of different seeds

A mature seed consists of the following parts.

Figure 9.1 Seed Germination and Seedling growth of Allium cepa

Figure 9.2 Diagram illustrating epigeal germination

Figure 9.3 Diagram illustrating hypogeal germination

An exposure of seed to low temperatures in the presences of moisture before germination

(k) Design and carry out experiments on germination.

(l) Test seed for viability and determine germination percentages.

Loss of water to the atmosphere

Movement of water up the plant

Figure 13.1 Structure of phloem

Contents of phloem cells

Factors affecting photosynthesis

(q) Describe the structural differences between C3 and C4 plants.

(r) Compare C3 and C4 biochemical pathways.

molecules of reduced NAD were also produced.

(w) Identify and classify common weeds.

WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL

Special adaptations which make weeds special competitors.

Weed seed dormancy

Techniques used in weed control

1. There is high labour demand during the process of weeding.

Stage and method of application of herbicides

they lose efficiency due to volatilization, sunlight destruction or photodecomposition. An