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The geological history and geodynamics of the Earth

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DOI: 10.3103/S0145875211040090

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 ISSN 01458752, Moscow University Geology Bulletin, 2011, Vol. 66, No. 4, pp. 225–241. © Allerton Press, Inc., 2011.
Original Russian Text © A.M. Nikishin, 2011, published in Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Geologiya, 2011, No. 4, pp. 000–000.

1 The Geological History and Geodynamics of the Earth

A. M. Nikishin
Faculty of Geology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
email: nikishin@geol.msu.ru
Received March 3, 2011

Abstract—The Earth formed through a hot accretion process. Almost simultaneously, the core and the man
tle were separated from each other. At the final stages of the accretion process, the outer layer approximately
2000 km thick was molten, thus representing a magma ocean. This magma ocean produced the primary crust
of the Earth. Surface waters were precipitated from the atmosphere and released from the crystallizing magma
ocean. The plate tectonic processes started at around 4.3 to 4 Ga BP. In the Archean, the overall tectonic
mechanism was quite specific, due to substantially higher mantle temperature and thicker oceanic crust. The
normal plate tectonics acted during the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic with the periodic assembly of conti
nents, which are known as supercontinent cycles.

Keywords: accretion, tectonics, plate tectonics, subduction, oceanic crust, continental crust, Earth’s history
DOI: 10.3103/S0145875211040090

INTRODUCTION
The problems of the Earth’s geological history and
1 geodynamics are solved on the basis of combined anal
ysis of all the available data on the Earth and on the
basis of the planets belonging to the Earth’s group.
Today, it is possible to reconstruct the general history
of the Earth in a more or less realistic manner; many
publications have been dedicated to this topic. The
author has attempted to summarize all the data into a
schematic and more or less realistic scenario of the
Earth’s evolution.
THE PRINCIPLES OF THE EARTH’S
1 GEODYNAMICS
To understand the geological history of the Earth,
let us first formulate the principal propositions of ter
1 restrial geodynamics, because they can clarify the
principal features of its history. These propositions
were grounded in numerous wellknown works, for
example, in [Turcotte and Schubet, 2002; Condie,
2001; Dobretsov et al., 2001; Lobkovskii et al., 2004;
Martin et al., 2006; Board on earth Sciences…, 2008;
Li and Zhong, 2009; ElkinsTanton, 2008; Herzberg
et al., 2010; Santosh, 2010; Condie and Aster, 2010;
Dobretsov, 2010; Yu. Pushcharovskii and D. Push
charovskii, 2010].
1. The Earth formed about 4.6 Ga BP through hot
accretion and initially was hot and close to melting.
Soon after or during this accretion, it separated into a
2 liquid metallic core, ultrabasic mantle, and basic–
2 ultrabasic (with probable acidic rocks inclusions)
crust. The principal features of the Earth’s evolution
are its general cooling, crystallization, the growth of
the inner core, and heat loss on the surface, mostly via
the spreading axes of the oceanic crust and via plume
magmatism. 3
2. Two principal boundary layers occur in the man
tle: (1) the D'' layer is located between the liquid outer
core and solid mantle; it probably has a peculiar
chemical composition and specific properties and
(2) a relatively rigid sublithospheric mantle is located
in the uppermost part of the entire magma, whereas
the material of the sublithospheric mantle proper is
capable of convection and this convection either
involves the entire mantle volume, or manifests itself
in different ways in the upper and lower mantles.
3. The mantle tomography data indicate that sub
duction zones in the upper mantle are often traced
nearly to the core surface in the form of relatively
higher seismic velocity domains; this leads to the prob
able sinking of cold material during subduction down
to the hot D'' layer on the core’s surface; material is
then heated and participates in the formation of man
tle plumes.
4. Mantle tomography data also indicate that the
D'' layer is anomalously thick above the core, beneath
the regions of Cenozoic plume magmatism; this prob 3
ably means that many large mantle plumes rise into
the upper mantle from the core–mantle boundary
(from the D'' layer).
5. Beneath midocean ridges, hot areas are found
mostly in the upper mantle; this most probably means
that there are no upwelling commonmantle flows
beneath midocean ridges and they extend mostly pas
sively owing to regional tectonic forces.
6. There are three principal moving forces in plate
tectonics: (1) ridge push (i.e., lithospheric plates slide

225
 226 NIKISHIN
down asthenospheric rises along sloped surfaces);
4 (2) slab pull (subducted parts of the lithosphere are
heavier than the asthenosphere’s material and, hence,
sink in it under the gravity effect and drag the lithos
pheric plate into the mantle); (3) adhesion force
between the lithosphere and the flow of mantle con
vection in the underlying asthenosphere (the lithos
phere seems to flow over the asthenosphere like an ice
berg over ocean water along a current flow. The shares
of these forces are unclear, but probably only their
aggregated effect makes lithospheric plates move.
7. It can be assumed in general that anomalously
hot and light material is accumulated at the boundary
of the core and mantle, in the D’’ layer. This material
forms the main plume flows; upwelling mantle flows
are branched from this layer as well. The upwelling of
hot material in the form of plumes and upwelling man
4 tle flows is compensated by the sinking of cold sub
ducted material into the mantle depths. However, the
scale and rate of convection within the mantle are
unclear in this scheme. Another key point is what
occurs with downwelling flows in the mantle (zones
where subduction of relatively cold material takes
place) and with upwelling flows (plumes and convec
tive flows) in the periods of largescale tectonic pro
cesses on the Earth’s surface, for example, during con
tinental collisions when subduction systems disappear
and new oceans originate in other regions. It is com
monly accepted that the Earth is a united geodynami
cal system with interrelated components and that any
change in one component leads to changes in the
entire system. This explains the synchronism in phases
of global tectonic deformations and special periods in
the Earth’s history (e.g., superplume events).
THE SCHEME OF THE EARTH’S
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
A strict model of the Earth’s geological evolution
has not been elaborated yet. This issue is discussed in
numerous publications, for example, in [Abbott et al.,
2000; Board on Earth Sciences…, 2008; Condie, 2001;
Li and Zhong, 2009; Khain, 2001; Allerge and
5 Schneider, 2005; Dobretsov et al., 2001]. We will fol
low the revised version of the Earth’s history model
formulated by A. M. Nikishin, V. E. Khain, and
L. I. Lobkovskii in 1992 [Nikishin et al., 1992;
Nikishin and Yakobchuk, 2002; Lobkovskii et al.,
2004; Nikishin, 2008]. At present, the most realistic
scenario of the Earth’s history is as follows (Fig. 1):
1. The Earth as a planet formed at about 4.6 Ga BP
during accretion from a swarm of silicate and metallic
bodies, gas, and comets. The duration of this accretion
is estimated at 10–100 Ma. The Earth’s size grew
because of the falling of numerous smaller bodies on
the planet surface; starting from a certain radius, fall
ing bodies led to high impact heating and melting of
outer zones. By the end of the accretion, the Earth was
hot and close to melting and its outer part, which was
MOSCOW UNIVERSITY GEOLOGY BULLETIN
hundreds of kilometers thick, melted and formed the
socalled magma ocean. Under these conditions,
dense metallic components sank and formed a metal
lic, mostly ferrous liquid core, whereas the silicate
material formed the mantle. The majority of the water
was not included in the semimelted body and formed
a dense vapor–gas atmosphere (mostly of carbon
dioxide and nitrogen).
2. At about 4.4–4.3 Ga BP the Earth’s surface
began to cool due to a significant decrease in the num
ber of falling meteorites. Under these conditions, a
solid crust appeared on the surface of the magma
ocean during its cooling; it was the first Earth’s crust,
which was probably of basaltic and ultrabasic compo 2
sition. However, the Earth’s surface still suffered
meteorite bombardment and numerous impact craters
of various sizes formed. Lava eruptions occurred in the
locations of asteroids impacts. Once the temperature
of the Earth’s surface was less than the boiling temper
ature of water, an enormous quantity of water precipi
tated onto the surface from the protoatmosphere and
formed the World Ocean; a certain part of the water
was extracted onto the surface from the mantle during
cooling and crystallization. At about 4.3 Ga BP condi
tions for primitive life occurred on the Earth’s surface
due to presence of hot water. The cause of the appear
ance of life is unclear: either life was brought from
outer space somehow (this is most probable), or it
originated during random chemical reactions on the
Earth.
3. At about 4.3–4.0 Ga BP plate tectonics began. It
originated from the combination of different factors:
at first, convective flows in the mantle and upwelling of
mantle plumes, which tended to shift parts of the
lithosphere; second, the formation of dense lithos
pheric parts occurred from erupted ultrabasic lavas 2
(komatiites) and these parts tended to sink into the
underlying and less dense asthenosphere; this was a
protosubduction. In any case, at about 4–4.3 Ga the
Earth’s lithosphere split into plates and newformed
oceanic crust formed in zones of their divergence,
whereas subduction and lithospheric folding zones
formed in convergence zones. Above subduction zones
and in places of tectonic folding and thickening of the
basaltic crust, andesite magma started to form and
became the basis for the crustal material of future con
tinents.
4. The period of 4.0–2.5 Ga BP is distinct for the
predominance of mantle plumes and plate tectonics.
The initial crust was nearly completely sunken into the
mantle or remelted. Volcanic arcs with basalts and
andesites started to form above subduction zones. The
collision of arcs led to the formation of the first por
tions (cores) of the continental crust. This stage
resulted in at least 50–70% of the modern continental
crust volume. At that time the mantle was hotter than
the modern one, thus, the lithosphere heated more
rapidly when it sunk into the mantle and it did not
reach the lower mantle. The hot mantle produced an
Vol. 66 No. 4 2011
 1 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND GEODYNAMICS OF THE EARTH 227

model of the Earth’s geological history

+500 Ma;
+500 future supercontinent

PR1 supercycle PR2 supercycle PR3PZsupercycle MZKZfuture

number of Evolution of

supercycle
Ma AP
specimens (37 830 total) +125 Ma;
unstable future supercontinent the biosphere

subduction and convection occupies

0

commonmantle plate tectonics,

the entire mantle, which caused

multicellular skeletonless organisms

300 250 Ma;

supercontinental cycle tectonics, in

the middle of the cycle an unstable

prokaryotes (anuclear cells, bacteria, etc)

supercontinental cyclicity

generation of oil
Pangea supercontinent
625 Ma;

supercontinent is formed
600 500
unstable Panotia supercontinent

eukaryotes (nucleated cells), algae

vegetation on land
multicellular skeletal organisms
1000 1000 1000 Ma;
Rodinia supercontinent

1500
1750 Ma;
1870 Columbia supercontinent
2000

2500 2500 Ma;

2700

@
Ma BP

Kenorland supercontinent

3000 "uppermantle" plate tectonics,

subduction mostly in the
upper mantle, predominance of
mantle plumes, unstable convection
3500
zirconbased
age (Ma)
4000 origin of life
mantle plume tectonics formation of the
and start of plate tectonics World Ocean

magmatic ocean tectonics and

impact bombardment tectonics
4500 accretion of the Earth formation of
the core

Fig. 1. A model of the Earth’s geological history, after [Nikishin, 2008] with modifications. The curve of the recurrence frequency
of the U/Pb age of zircons in granitoids and detrital zircons in variedage sandstones is shown at the left, after [Condie and Aster, 2010].

2 enormous volume of ultrabasic lavas (komatiites). The
Earth’s surface was mostly a water ocean with a basal
tickomatiite crust beneath; numerous volcanic arcs,
as well as intraplate and interplate volcanic plateaus,
were elevated above the ocean’s surface. Primitive life
inhabited the ocean: rocks of ~3.8 Ga hold isotopic
systems that formed within biological cycles and the
rocks younger than 3.5 Ga contain traces of biocyants.
By 2.5 Ga BP (the end of the Archean) large super
continents (or the first supercontinent, Kenorland)
had formed as a result of collisions between numerous
cores of the continental crust and largescale granitoid
3 magmatism. The most ancient continental lacustrine
alluvial systems are known in South Africa (2.8–2.9 Ga,
Witwatersrand Series). In the Early Archean, the oce
anic water was hot; however, the period around 2.4 Ga
BP is distinct for the first known, Hudsonian, glacia
tion (therefore, at that time the climate was compara
ble to the Cenozoic climate).
5. The period from 2.5 Ga BP until present (Prot
erozoic–Phanerozoic) has been characterized by the
predominance of supercontinent cycle tectonics on
the background of continuous mantle plume and plate
tectonics. The general cooling of the planet led to the
fact that subducted material reached the lower mantle; 4
this caused ordering of the entire mantle convection
system and longterm tectonic supercontinental
cycles. Continents broke up and united continuously,
oceans opened and closed as well; however, these
seemingly chaotic motions produced relatively stable
supercontinents every 750 Ma (at 1750 Ma BP there
was Columbia; 1000 Ma BP, Rodinia; 250 Ma BP,
Pangea) and these supercontinents included almost all
the existing continental masses. Less stable supercon
tinents may have formed in the middle of superconti

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY GEOLOGY BULLETIN Vol. 66 No. 4 2011

228 NIKISHIN
nental cycles (at 2125, 1375, and 625 Ma BP). General
cooling of the Earth led to a constant increase in the
mean size of lithospheric plates and to their thicken
ing. The composition of the oceanic crust altered from
komatiitebasaltic to basaltic and the thickness of this
crust decreased. In the collision zones between conti
nents and in active continental margins mountains
continuously formed and the elevations of these
mountains gently increased.
Throughout the Proterozoic–Phanerozoic, life
evolved. The principal landmarks during the evolution
of life are the following: the appearance of cells with
nuclei and multicellular organisms (about 2 Ga BP);
the wide distribution of multicellular marine back
boneless organisms in Ediacaran (630–600 Ma BP);
appearance of various types of organisms with back
bones in the Early Cambrian (542 Ma BP); the
appearance of vegetation on land and appearance of
land animals in Silurian.
During the last 2.5 Ga the climate was relatively
stable: global warming epochs changed to shorter glo
bal glaciation epochs (at 0–10, 290–325, 425–455,
625–700 Ma BP and in more ancient periods).
The atmosphere in Late Proterozoic acquired a sig
nificant oxygen content and gradually approximated
the modern one in terms of composition.
THE ISSUE OF THE OCCURRENCE
OF WATER ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE
There are two theories concerning the appearance
of water on the Earth’s surface: (1) water precipitated
onto the surface from the protoatmosphere after hot
accretion of the Earth and cooling of the planetary
surface below the boiling temperature of water [Abe
and Matsui, 1988; Martin et al., 2006; Board on Earth
Sciences…, 2008;] and (2) water was extracted into the
atmosphere during the crystallization of the magma
ocean, which was more than 2000 km thick, after the
Earth’s accretion [ElkinsTanton, 2008].
Theoretically, the mantle material can contain
water. In the transition zone (410–670 km depth) the
H2O content can be high (up to 2–3 wt %). For exam
ple, water can be incorporated into the structures of
most of the nominally waterfree minerals of the man
tle [BolfanCasanova et al., 2000]. In the lower mantle
the H2O content can be up to 0.15 wt %. The maximal
mass of water in the lower crust is 3.42 × 1021 kg
(2.5 times more than the mass of water in the World
Ocean) [Litasov et al., 2003; Litasov and Ohtani,
2007]. Water can be contained in the structures of such
minerals as Mgperovskite, Caperovskite, and Mg
wustite. This means oceanic water can be supplied
from the mantle.
During the accretion of the Earth, water could not
be incorporated (at least in a significant volume) into
the composition of the hot planet and left mostly in the
atmosphere. Initially water was found within the bod
ies of ice comets and in meteorite material.
MOSCOW UNIVERSITY GEOLOGY BULLETIN
Figures 2 and 3 show models of the Earth’s struc
ture at the end of its accretion. Theoretically, it can be
assumed that during the Earth’s accretion and crystal
lization of the magma ocean, water precipitated onto
the planet’s surface from the protoatmosphere and was
extracted from crystallizing mantle.
Geological data indicate that water existed on the
Earth’s surface as early as more than 4 Ga BP. For
example, it is known, based on the isotopic data of
δ18O and Hf, that zircons with ages of 4.1–4.3 Ga
formed in rock with the participation of water [Kram 6
ers, 2003]. The Isua Complex deposits, which are the
most ancient on Earth, formed a submarine accretion
complex above the subduction zone. Therefore, plate
tectonics and the ocean existed as early as 3.8 Ga BP
[Komiya et al., 1999; Martin et al., 2006; Shchipan
skii, 2008; Nutman et al., 2009].
The presently available data and models indicate
that water formed the World Ocean on the Earth’s sur
face as early as more than 4 Ga BP. These models sig
nify that at around 4 Ga BP the volume of water in the
oceans reached its maximum value for the entire his
tory of the Earth [Franck and Bounama, 2001].
THE ISSUE OF THE BEGINNING OF PLATE
TECTONICS AND THE APPEARANCE
OF THE FIRST OCEANS AS LARGE
DEPRESSIONS WITH WATER
It is known that the most ancient sedimentary
complexes, such as Isua, might have formed under the
environments of accretion prisms. Therefore, plate
tectonics began at about 4–4.3 Ga BP. The initial
crust, which was extracted during magma ocean crys
tallization, has not been preserved anywhere (there is
an issue concerning the origin of detrital zircons with
ages of 4–4.4 Ga; a certain part of these zircons prob
ably formed within the granitoid bodies of the initial
crust). But it could not carry large tectonic depressions
such as oceanic basins on its surface. Deep basins
appeared on the surface of the initial crust only in
impact depressions (giant meteorite craters). The first
oceans as tectonic depressions appeared after plate
tectonics began.
It is believed that the initial crust was basic–ultra 2
basic [Shirey et al., 2008; ElkinsTanton, 2008]. The
most ancient washed zircons have ages of 4–4.4 Ga
and are found in metasedimentary rocks, which prob
ably formed during repeated partial melting of the ini
tial crust with resulting felsic rocks, without plate tec
tonic environments [Shirey et al., 2008]. This issue is
under discussion [Fifth International…, 2010; Sla
bunov, 2011].
The issue concerning the time that plate tectonics
began is disputable. Let us present the principal data
on this issue.
1. In recent years the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt
has been under study. It is located in the Superior
province of the Canadian Shield; its rocks have ages
Vol. 66 No. 4 2011
 1 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND GEODYNAMICS OF THE EARTH 229

olivine 50%
A Primary atmosphere clinopyroxene 25%
saturated with water vapors B orthopyroxene 20%
0 plagioclase 5%
26 olivine 50% olivine 50%
65 clinopyroxene 20%,
orthopyroxene 20% clinopyroxene 25%

result of magma ocean

garnet 10% orthopyroxene 20%
melted magma ocean 100 spinel 5%

crystallization
490
600 βolivine 40%
majorite 35%
perovskite 95% clinopyroxene 25%
γolivine
magnesiowustite 5% majorite 55%

2000
silicate material
solid mantle @
2890
Liquid metallic
core core

Depth, km

Fig. 2. The model of the Earth’s structure in the end of its accretion (A), after [Nikishin, 2008] with modifications and the sup
posed mineral composition of the mantle and crust that formed during the crystallization of a 2000km thick magma ocean (B),
in accordance with the model in [ElkinsTanton, 2008].

4.3 Ga BP
formation of the World Ocean
water geosphere
upper solid primary crust
mantle

@
mantle

Water from primary Water from crystallizing

atmosphere and rapidly cooling
mantle

melted metallic core

Fig. 3. The supposed section of the Earth around 4.3 Ga BP and the scheme of formation of the primary water ocean on the Earth,
after [Nikishin, 2008].

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY GEOLOGY BULLETIN Vol. 66 No. 4 2011

 230 NIKISHIN
about 3.8 Ga. The rocks include amphibolites, schists,
ferruginous quartzites, tholeiitic basalts, and calc
alkali basalts; andesites have also been found. Among
other objects, a gabbroid sill with a Sm/Nd age of
4023 ± 110 Ma and an association of lowtitaniferous
amphibolites and ultramafites with a Nd/Nd–Sm/Nd
age of 4381 ± 120 Ma have been found [O’Neil et al.,
2010; Slabunov, 2011]. The preliminary conclusions
indicate that this greenstone belt is generally similar to
other Archean greenstone belts and is represented by a
fragment of the ancient volcanogenic–sedimentary
section with an age of about 4.3 Ga that formed in the
presence of marine water [Slabunov, 2011].
2. The Isua sedimentary–volcanic complex, which
is probably one of the most ancient ones (about
3.8 Ga), formed under the environment of an accre
tion prism and under subduction conditions [Komiya
et al., 1999; Shchipanskii, 2008; Nutman et al., 2009].
3. The isotopic and geochemical data on rareearth
2 elements indicate that in basic–ultrabasic rocks the
Nd/Th and Th/U ratios sharply changed at around 3.6
4 Ga BP; this signifies that subducted lithospheric slabs
existed as early as about 3.9 Ga [Shirey et al., 2008].
4. According to the geochemical data [Shirey et al.,
2008], cratons with thickened lithospheric roots
(“mantle keels”) existed at least 3.5 Ga BP; this means
that processes of lithospheric strata doubling existed as
early as that time.
5. Generalization of the geological data on the time
that plate tectonics began [Condie and Kroner, 2008;
Slabunov, 2011) (1) typical ophiolites have ages of less
than 1 Ga, whereas the most ancient hypothetical
analogues of ophiolites have ages of about 3.8 Ga
(some rocks in the Isua Complex) or even 4.3 Ga
(some rocks in the Nuvvuagittuq Complex); (2) the
most ancient volcanic arc–backarc basin systems
known have an age of 3.1 Ga (Uhando Group, Pilbara
Craton); (3) accretion prisms and orogens have been
widespread since 2.7 Ga BP (for example, the Supe
rior Province in Canada [Please et al., 2008; Wyman
and Kerrich, 2009], whose age is 3.8 Ga, formed an
accretion prism as well; (4) the most ancient marginal
troughs have ages of about 2.7 Ga (the Abitibi green
stone belt in Canada) and it is possible that a certain
part of the Fig Tree Group, with an age of 3.25 Ga, was
a part of a marginal trough for the Barberton green
stone belt in South Africa; (5) there are no “blue
shale” rocks and metamorphic rocks that experienced
ultrahigh pressures that are older than 1 Ga; (6) the
most ancient hightemperature granulites have ages of
about 3.4 Ga; (7) the most ancient studied complexes
from a passive margin are found in the Pilbara and
Kaapvaal cratons and they have ages of about 2.7 Ga;
and (8) the most ancient continental rift is found in
South Africa (the Nsuze Group) and has an age of
3 Ga; the Dominion Group in the ProtoWitwa
tersrand Basin (3.1 Ga) might have formed within a
continental rift as well.
MOSCOW UNIVERSITY GEOLOGY BULLETIN
6. Paleomagnetic data [Evans and Pisarevsky, 2008]
indicate that motion of cratons relative to each other
evidently took place 2.4–2.7 Ga BP (there are no reli
able data for earlier periods).
7. According to the geochemical data, the Archean
mantle was hotter than the modern one [van Husen et
al., 2008; Herzberg et al., 2010]; therefore, the charac
ter of plate tectonics in the Archean was substantially
different from that in the Phanerozoic.
8. According to the paleomagnetic data, the terres
trial magnetic field existed as early as 3.45 Ga, but its
intensity was less than modern values by 30–50% [Tar
duno et al., 2010; Reddy and Evans, 2009]. Therefore,
the general geodynamics of that time was similar to the 1
modern one.
9. The numerical modeling indicates that the sub
duction of the lithosphere becomes impossible if the
temperature of the upper mantle is greater than the
modern value by 250° [Sizova et al., 2010]. Therefore,
subduction could not occur on the Earth soon after its
accretion.
Proceeding from the above, it can be suggested that
plate tectonics started at about 4.0–4.3 Ga BP. There
are two scenarios of how it started. One group of
researchers believes that plate tectonics did not start as
a global event, but gradually originated in different
places [Condie and Kroner, 2008], while other
researchers think that this phenomenon could have
started as a global shortterm event.
There are two versions of theories that explain why
plate tectonics started (Fig. 4), namely, active and pas
sive mechanisms. According to the passive version,
mantle convection led to splitting of a united lithos
pheric slab into a great number of smaller plates and to
their relative motions, accompanied by formation of
the first linear depressions in oceans. The passive ver
sion implies that a great volume of heavy komatiite
magma penetrated into and flooded over the crust; this
made the lithosphere heavier and it sank when cooled;
this process was similar to the initial subduction; i.e.,
the sinking of the heavy lithosphere into the mantle
could trigger plate tectonics.
Plate tectonics exist only on Earth. Venus only has
plume tectonics [Nikishin, 1990; Basilevsky and
Head, 2006], although this planet is similar to the
Earth in many parameters. It is important to under
stand why these two similar planets followed different
types of geodynamical evolution. Probably, subduc
tion did not start on Venus and tesseras became the
principal zones of compression [Nikishin, 1990]. On
the Earth, accretion orogens with piledup oceanic
crust slabs started to appear after plate tectonics began.
The melting of the lower crust in these accretion oro
gens might signify the appearance of continental crust
material and the beginning of first masses with conti
nental crust (i.e., the first continents).
Comparison between the structures of Archean and
Cenozoic accretion folded orogens indicates their sig
Vol. 66 No. 4 2011
 1 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND GEODYNAMICS OF THE EARTH 231

The model of the "active" beginning of plate tectonics The model of the "passive" beginning of plate tectonics
Primary crust Primary crust
Lithosphere
Lithosphere

Basalts, Basalts,
komatiites Primary crust komatiites

A re’s
sphe
litho n of Be Plu
of e m e
ng matio t g in m
inni r s n Plu
Beg pull, fo ing cru in
g
ad F o V er o f
spre s B
lit din sion ubd
l
ph us n.

ho g 2 uc
g
os thr tio
ere tin

sp of . tio
ith der duc

he th n.
re e
t h U n su b

beginning of the spreading Sinking of

of the oceanic lithosphere heavier and
of n 1. g of

cooling
rsi nin

el

lithosphere
Ve egin

Triggering of
o

subduction
B

lede
Cpoluom

Fig. 4. The model for the active beginning of plate tectonics (A). Lithosphere extension zones formed above upwelling mantle
flows, while the lithosphere’s subduction or folding zones above downwelling flows.
3 The model for the passive beginning of plate tectonics (B). Largescale komatiite and basaltic magmatism occurred above mantle
plumes and this resulted in the formation of a heavy crust. During consequent cooling of the lithosphere in zones of former plume
3 magmatism, the lithosphere lost its buoyancy and began to sink. Sinking of the lithosphere caused passive extension in one group
of regions and the pull of the lithosphere in another group of regions.

nificant similarity [Kerrich and Polat, 2006]; there
fore, the characters of Archean and modern tectonics
are very similar.
TEMPORAL CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION
OF THE OCEANIC CRUST
It is known that most ancient ophiolites, which are
similar to the Cenozoic ones, have ages of about 1.95 Ga
(for example, the Jormua ophiolites in Finland
[Condie and Kroner, 2008]). However, it is usually
postulated that oceans existed as early as the Archean.
In recent years, it has been accepted that sections of
many Archean greenstone belts are fragments of the
Archean oceanic crust [Moores, 2008; Kerrich and
Polat, 2006; Condie and Kroner, 2008; Lobkovskii
et al., 2004; Shchipanskii, 2008; Wyman and Kerrich,
2009]. Komatiites play a significant role in these sec
tions, whose thicknesses are probably more than the
thickness of the modern oceanic crust. These points
lead to the conclusion that the Archean oceanic crust
was similar to the Cenozoic one, like that in the
OntongJava or Iceland oceanic plateaus, and formed
from a mantle that was significantly hotter than the
modern one (Fig. 5).
The thick oceanic crust of basaltickomatiite com
position had a rheology and buoyancy that were differ
ent from the modern ones. Therefore, Archean tec
tonics and Archean subduction had their peculiarities,
whose details are still unclear. It follows from the the
ory about the existence of a thick oceanic crust in the
Archean that the water depth in the oceans at that time
was less than that in the modern oceans; e.g., the depth
in the areas of plateaus, such as the OntongJava or
Kergelen plateaus in modern oceans is about 1–2 km.
TEMPORAL CHANGES
IN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PASSIVE
AND ACTIVE MARGINS
The complexes of passive continental margins are
quite completely characterized for the entire Phaner
ozoic (e.g., the passive margin of the Paleouralian
Ocean represented by the complexes on the western
slope of the Urals [Puchkov, 2010]), for the Neoprot
erozoic (of the western part of the Yenisei Ridge [Ver
nikovskii et al., 2009]), for the Paleoproterozoic (of
the Quebec and Wopmay orogens in Canada [Lobk
ovskii et al., 2004; Bradley, 2008]). However, the data
on Archean paleocontinental margins are more dis

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232 NIKISHIN

A section of the Phanerozoic oceanic crust

sedimen
ts

basalts
dykes

7 km
igneous body
gabbroids

mantle

A section of the Archean oceanic crust

basalts
25–30 km

gabbroids
igneous body

gabbroids,
ultrabasites
(underplating ?)

mantle

Fig. 5. The section of a typical Phanerozoic oceanic crust and the supposed section of the Archean oceanic crust. The section of
the Archean crust is made with the data on the structure of the Ontong–Java Mesozoic oceanic plateau, which has a thickened
crust (after [Mann and Taira, 2004]) taken into consideration. Arrows denote probable levels of detachments during compressive
deformations.

putable and their characteristics are more abstract
[Hynes, 2008]. It is believed that the deposits in the
Pilbara (about 2.65 Ga) and Kaapvaal (about 2.5–
2.6 Ga) cratons reliably belong to the Archean passive
margins [Condie and Kroner, 2008].
Modern review of the data on passive margins of
different ages has shown [Bradley, 2008] that they are
reliably identified for the time intervals of 1900–1890,
610–520, and 150–0 Ma BP and have not been found
for the period before 3000 Ma BP. The typical time of
existence of a passive margin is 178 Ma, whereas the esti
mations yield values from 25 to 590 Ma [Bradley, 2008].
In addition to this, the structures of active margins,
from Archean to modern ones, are very similar in gen
eral [Condie and Kroner, 2008; Shchipanskii, 2008];
however, the great variety of modern versions of active
margins suggests the same for Archean ones.

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 1 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND GEODYNAMICS OF THE EARTH 233

THE TECTONICS OF SUPERCONTINENTAL oceanic plateaus with thickened oceanic crusts

CYCLES AND THE EVOLUTION
OF THE GEOMETRY OF OCEANS
Many publications and international projects have
been devoted to supercontinental cycles [Lobkovskii
et al., 2004; Torsvik, 2003; Li et al., 2008; Li and
Zhong, 2009; Veevers, 2004; Zhao et al., 2004; Condie
and Aster, 2010]; thus, there is no need to discuss this
problem here in detail. A general sketch of supercon
tinental cycles is given in Fig. 1. The existence of the
Pangean supercontinent, as suggested by A. Wegener,
whose maximal unity occurred between the Permian
and Triassic, is strictly supported. Many papers
emphasize the significant probability that the Rodinia
supercontinent existed at about 1 Ga BP. The existence of
the Columbia supercontinent at about 1.8 Ga BP is less
probable. The data on the existence of the Kenorland
supercontinent about 2.5 Ga BP are even more scarce.
If these supercontinents did exist, then the duration of
the supercontinent cycle is estimated at 750 Ma. The
periods when the mentioned supercontinents were
formed coincide with the epochs of maximal building
up of material for a new continental crust; therefore,
these were special epochs, and it is highly probable
that supercontinents did form. On the background of
the 750Ma cycle, a 375 Ma halfcycle has been iden
tified. The only support for this cycle is the formation
of an unstable Panotia supercontinent at about 625 Ma
BP (Gondwana was the principal component of that
supercontinent).
If the hypothesis of supercontinental cycles is true
it means that the Earth’s tectonics were relatively
monotonous throughout the last 2.5 Ga: firstly, a
supercontinent appeared and then it decomposed
stage by stage. Therefore, either one superocean, or
many relatively small oceans (with continents between
them) existed and this scenario was repeated (Fig. 6).
This process occurred with a constant increase in the
volume of the continental crust and therefore in the
total area of the continents on the one hand, and with
a relative decrease in the total area of oceans on the
other hand.
On the background of the general cooling of the
Earth in the Proterozoic–Phanerozoic, it is natural to
assume a gentle decrease in the temperature of the
3 mantle; therefore, the role played by plume magma
tism became less significant as well; i.e., the height of
decreased and the mean depth of the oceans increased.
As the Earth cooled, the total length of the mid
ocean ridges (zones of the main thermal loss of the
Earth’s depths to the surface) probably decreased
[Turcotte and Schubet, 2002; Nikishin and Khain,
1991; Shchipanskii, 2008]. Hence, it is assumed that
mean sizes of lithospheric plates increased as the Earth
evolved; therefore, the typical sizes of oceans
increased throughout the Earth’s history and more
ancient oceans were less wide than modern ones.
Supercontinental cycles are not suggested for the
Archean history of the Earth. This is supported by the
fact that subduction in the Archean, under the condi
tions of a hot mantle, was shallow and subducted 4
material did not sink into the lower mantle (i.e., the
commonmantle convection had not yet formed). The
absence of commonmantle convection in the
Archean led to more chaotic plate tectonics than that
in the Proterozoic–Phanerozoic (Fig. 7).
TEMPORAL CHANGES IN THE WATER
VOLUME OF THE OCEANS
The modern models by different authors indicate
that the maximum volume of water on the Earth’s sur
face occurred earlier than 4 Ga BP. These data are in
agreement with our knowledge about Mars: it has been
indicated that there was more water on the surface of
Mars in the past and that there were vast water basins
on this planet [Nikishin et al., 2005; Drake, 2005;
Mustard et al., 2008].
Once plate tectonics began, the fixed volume of
water in the ocean became variable. During plate tec
tonic processes, water in mineral structures is sub 4
ducted into the entire thickness of the Earth’s mantle.
Additionally, water is transported to the surface above
subduction zones with magma on the one hand and it
can be transported from the lower mantle to the sur
face by mantle plumes on the other hand; i.e., there is
a global water circuit between the ocean and mantle. It
is difficult to assess the water balance here (Fig. 8).
However, models indicate a definite decrease in the
water volume of the oceans since the Archean [Franck
and Bounama, 2011].

Fig. 6. Supercontinental cycles and the World Ocean level variations for the last billion years [Nikishin, 2006]. The geologic time
scale and the variation curve for the World Ocean level (hypothetical for the Precambrian) are shown at the left; paleotectonic
reconstructions, at the right. The regions with continental crust are marked with gray; the regions with oceanic crust, with white;
subduction systems, with thick lines and triangles. A thick arrow designates the supposed Phanerozoic duration of firstorder
eustatic variations. Other arrows designate the durations of the respective supercontinental cycles (either from supercontinent to
supercontinent, or for the epochs of the maximal breakup of a supercontinent). Time scale designations: Pal is Paleogene, Sil is
Silurian. Designations of continental blocks: N.Am, North America; SAm or SA, South America; Eur, Europe; Af, Africa; In,
India; Chi, China; Aus, Australia; An, Antarctica; Laur, Laurussia; Gond, Gondwana; Si, Siberia; Kaz, Kazakhstan; NC, North
China; SC, South China; E.An, East Antarctica; Ar, Arabia; W.Af, West Africa; Ama, Amazonia; Ko, Kongo; Ka, Kalakhari; RP,
Rio Plata.

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234 NIKISHIN

400 m
200 m
LATE CRETACEOUS,

0m
0 CAMPANIAN 75 Ma BP

Cenozoic
N.Am Eurasia Breakup of Pangea

Paleo
Chi

gene
50
PACIFIC Af
THETYS
Cretaceous
100 S.Am

Level of the World Ocean

Mesozoic
In
Aus
150 An
Jurassic

LATE
PERMIAN 250 Ma BP
200
Pangea
Permian Triassic

ur
La supercontinent
375 Ma BP

250

EA
PACIFIC PA L

G
E OT
HE T

N
YS

PA
300
THETYS
Carbon

Gond
aceous

LATE
Paleozoic

350 ORDOVICIAN
Cambrian vician urian Devonian

PACIFIC 450 Ma BP
400
Si
Ordo Sil

z
Ka
450 N.Am
YS
ET

d
Eur on Breakup of the
TH

G
O
@

supercontinent
LE

500
Ma

PA

Ediacaran
(VENDIAN)
550
625 Ma BP
Ediacaran
(Vendian)

NC SC
Aus
600 PANTHALASSA
750 Ma BP

Ar In
E.An

650 Af
SA Si Panotia
N.Am
Eur SA supercontinent
Cryogenian

700
Neoproterozoic

SC PANTHALASSA 810 Ma BP
750 In
Aus SC
Ka N.Am Eur
E.An

800
Si
Ko RP
Ama
850 Breakup of the
W.Af supercontinent
Tonian

900
1000 Ma BP
SC

In Aus Si
950 SC
An
E.

PANTHALASSA N.Am Eur

1000 Ka
RP Ama Rodinia
Ko

W.Af
supercontinent

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY GEOLOGY BULLETIN Vol. 66 No. 4 2011

 1 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND GEODYNAMICS OF THE EARTH 235

A. 4.6 Ga BP B. 4.3 Ga BP
ending of the Earth’s accretion dense atmosphere formation of the World Ocean
id
saturated with water vapors ero
ast water geosphere olid primary crust
ocean of silicate upper mantle
magma

silicate hot mantle lower silicate mantle

melted metallic core melted metallic core

C. The model of the Earth’s structure in the Archean D. The model of the modern Earth’s structure. Equatorial cross section
i
upp wai Pa
er m Ha upper mantle cif
ic
antl Oc
e
lower mantle lower mantle ea
n
a

External liquid
nesi

External liquid
core core
Indo
D’’ layer

Internal Internal

D’’ layer
solid solid
core core

ca
eri
Am
S.

Mantle
plume an
Oce
tic
oceanic lan
lithosphere At
and crust Continental lithosphere Africa
and crust

Fig. 7. A generalized scheme of the Earth’s geological history.

EUSTASY AND THE EVOLUTION
OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS
The area of the oceans could change for two rea
sons (glacioeustasy is beyond the present consider
ation): (1) the total volume of water on the Earth gen
tly changed in time (it is more often considered that
the water volume decreased) and (2) the volume of the
oceanic basins changed throughout the Earth’s his
tory, which led to tectonoeustasy (ocean level varia
tions). The Phanerozoic tectonoeustatic curve is very
well supported and has several orders. The firstorder
curve indicates that the ocean level was at a minimum
in the period of formation of supercontinents such as
Pangea, whereas in the period of the most disintegra
tion of supercontinents the ocean level was at its max

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 236 NIKISHIN

A scaleless model of the Earth’s geodynamics

continental “push”
lithosphere oceanic
lithosphere
hot asthenosphere

410 km
upper mantle 650 km

“pull”
plume
plume
lower mantle

D”

external liquid core

Model of water recycling in the terrestrial system

Water outflux Water outflux
Water outflux by plume
by "arc" by MORB
volcanism volcanism volcanism Water basin
The "ocean Oceanic water World Ocean
–upper
mantle–ocean"
n

cycle
dra r
tio
hy te
de Wa

Transitional zone

Water influx
from the material
Lower mantle (the
of a subducted slab volume of water
exceeds that in the
Th ma cy

World Ocean by
e " ntle cle

two to five times)

oc –
ea oc
n– ea

Hydrogen influx
lo n"
we

from the core

r

D’’ layer. Water is

contained in the
material subducted
to the lower mantle
external liquid core

1 Fig. 8. A scaleless model of the Earth’s geodynamics and a model of water recycling in the terrestrial system.

imum. Therefore, there is a definite relationship TEMPORAL CHANGES IN OCEAN WATER

between the ocean level and the tectonic state of the
Earth [Nikishin, 2006]. There are no grounded
eustatic curves for the Archean and Proterozoic yet;
however, the available data indicate that transgressions
and regressions occurred continuously, the land and
the ocean have always existed, and the degree of flood
ing of continents (the socalled continental freeboard)
has deviated to either side from a certain level, in a
similar manner to the oceanlevel dynamics in the
Phanerozoic [Eriksson et al., 2006]. These data verify
the hypothesis that the water level in the past was com
parable to the modern level since the Archean.
COMPOSITION
Numerous isotopic studies have indicated that the
water temperature has gradually decreased from 90–
60° from the Archean to modern values; in addition to
this, the Earth’s climate and composition of the atmo
sphere also changed [Jaffrés et al., 2007]. It has been
shown that photosynthesis with oxygen emission via
organic compounds may have started earlier than
3.4 Ga BP [Beukes, 2004] and the most ancient stro
matolites are dated at 3.5 Ga BP [van Kranendonk
et al., 2008]. The water geochemistry continuously var

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 1 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND GEODYNAMICS OF THE EARTH 237

A. The modern structure of the IzuBonin subduction zone

0
basaltic crust
10
20
basic–ultrabasic crust
30
km

B. The formation model of an Archean subduction zone

1
0
10 basaltic crust
20 basic–ultrabasic crust
30
km

2
0

20

TTG intrusions
40
partial m
elting
60 lithospheric mantle
80

100

120 partial
km melting

Fig. 9. The models of modern (A) and Archean (B) subduction and formation of the Archean continental crust material.
4 It is supposed for the Archean subduction that only the mantle part of the lithosphere is subducted (or the mantle part of the litho
2 sphere with the lower basicultrabasic oceanic crust). Above the subduction zone, under a compressive environment, a cross sec
tion triangular zone with thickened oceanic crust is formed; its lower parts can suffer a partial melting with the formation of TTG
type intrusions. A volcanic arc is formed above the intrusions. The model of modern subduction is given after [Mann and Taira,
2004], and that of the Archean subduction is presented with the model of the OntongJava oceanic plateau’s subduction (after
[Mann and Taira, 2004]) taken into consideration.

ied, which led to various peculiarities in marine sedimen
tation in different epochs of the Earth’s history.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The Earth formed as a result of hot accretion and
its history is wholly related to the cooling of the plan
etary heat. A general model of the Earth’s geological
history is presented in Figs. 1 and 7.
2. Water in the form of the World Ocean appeared
on the Earth before 4 Ga BP, once the temperature on
the surface was less than the boiling temperature of
water. Water precipitated onto the surface of the planet
from the primary atmosphere and was extracted from
the mantle during crystallization of the magma ocean
and mantle cooling.
3. Plate tectonics began on Earth at approximately
4–4.3 Ga BP. Since that time, oceans and continents
(or continental cores) appeared on the Earth. Plate

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238 NIKISHIN
Collapse of an orogen,
7. The stage of a collapsing orogen formation of rifts and strikeslips

asthenosphere
detachment of
subducted slab

6. The stage of formation of a continent

–continent collision system orogen of a
a paleorift’s marginal continent–continent
inversion trough collision

asthenosphere

orogen of an arc
5. The stage of an arccontinent collision system continent collision

asthenosphere

volcanic arc
4. The stage of formation of subduction systems passive passive
postrift sedimentary continental continental
backarc
basin margin margin
basin

asthenosphere

3. The stage of an Atlantictype ocean passive passive

postrift sedimentary continental continental
margin oceanic basin margin
basin

asthenosphere

2. The stage of an opening ocean

microoceanic basin

asthenosphere

1. The rift stage

continental rift continental rift

continental crust

lithosphere

asthenosphere

Fig. 10. The model of plate tectonics cycle, typical for the Proterozoic–Phanerozoic period. Made by A. M. Nikishin with the
use of the model from [Ziegler, 1990].

tectonics triggered the formation of the continental cant. Archean tectonics were unstable; there were
crust (Fig. 9). many small continental cores with the predominance
4. The difference between the Archean and Prot of the ocean in terms of area. Subduction finished in
erozoic–Phanerozoic tectonics of the Earth is signifi the upper mantle and processes related to mantle

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 1 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND GEODYNAMICS OF THE EARTH
plumes played a significant role. In the Proterozoic–
Phanerozoic the determinative role was played by
supercontinental cycles with the formation of super
continents and their consequent breakup into numer
ous small continents divided by numerous oceans.
Mantle plumes played a significant role as well. A
model of the plate tectonics cycle that is typical for
Proterozoic tectonics is shown in Fig. 10.
5. In general, the Archean oceanic crust differed
from the Phanerozoic crust by its greater thickness and
2 more ultrabasic composition. Hence, the typical
depth of Archean oceans might have differed from that
of modern oceans and their depth was less than the
depth of the modern oceans (1–3 km).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks to his previous coauthors
V. E. Khain, E. E. Milanovskii, L. I. Lobkovskii,
P. Ziegler, D. Abbott, S. Kluting, A. T. Bazilevskii,
A. V. Yershov, A. S. Yakubchuk for the background that
was created for the present work. The author is also
grateful to D.Yu. Pushcharovskii, N. L. Dobretsov,
Yu. G. Leonov, A. A. Shchipanskii, A. I. Slabunov,
O. M. Rozen, L. ElkinsTanton, A. L. Perchuk, and
others for fruitful discussions.
The work was supported by the Federal Scientific
and ScientificPedagogical Personnel of Innovative
Russia program (state contract no. 14.740.11.0190)
and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research
(project no. 11–05–00471a).
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