The Robert Gordon U. Aberdeen-Well Performance

INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
Development Phase
Introduction to Hydrocarbon Exploitation

Well Performance
Pratap Thimaiah
©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Abalt Solutions
Content
 Introduction to Reservoir Performance

 Reservoir Characteristics
 Fluid Flow Equations
 Steady State Flow
 Unsteady State Flow
 Pseudo-steady State Flow
 Skin Factor
 Turbulence Flow Factor
Well Pe rformance
 Principle of Superposition
 Essentials of Well testing
Abalt Solutions
©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

Development Phase
Introduction
 Flow in porous media is a very complex

phenomenon and as such can not be described
as flow through pipes or conduits.
 Mathematical relationships that are designed to

describe the flow behaviour of the reservoir
fluids depend upon the characteristics of the
reservoir such as:
Well Perfo rma nce
– Types of fluids in the reservoir

– Flow regimes
– Reservoir geometry
– Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir
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Reservoir Characteristics – Types of

Fluids
 Reservoir fluids can be classified into three
groups:
– Incompressible fluids
– Slightly compressible fluids
– Compressible fluids
 To identify the type of reservoir fluid, the

isothermal compressibility coefficient is used.
Well Pe rformance
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Development Phase

Fluids
Isothermal compressibility coefficient (c)
– In terms of fluid volume
1V
c 
V 
p
– In terms of fluid density
1 
c
Well Perfo rma nce
p
– V and are the volume and density of the fluid

respectively.
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Fluids
 Incompressible fluids
– Fluid whose volume (or density) does not change

with pressure.
V 
0 0
p p
Well Pe rformance
– Incompressible fluids do not exist, however it is

assumed to simplify the derivation and final form
of many flow equations.
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Development Phase

Fluids
 Slightly compressible fluids
– Fluid who exhibit small changes in volume (or

density) with changes in pressure.
1 c p ref p 
V Vref 



  ref
1 c p p 
ref  

Well Perfo rma nce
– Crude oil and water systems fit into the slightly

compressible category. Vref and ref are reference
values of volume and density at reference (initial)
pressure.
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Fluids
 Compressible fluids
– Fluid who experience large changes in volume

(or density) with changes in pressure.
1 1 z
cg    
p z 
pT
Well Pe rformance
– All gases are considered compressible flows.
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Development Phase

Fluids
 Volume and density changes as a function of
pressure for three types of fluids.
Incompressible
Compressible
Slightly Compressible
Slightly Compressible
Incompressible
Compressible
Well Perfo rma nce
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Reservoir Characteristics – Flow Regimes
 There are three flow regimes that describe the

fluid behaviour and reservoir pressure
distribution as a function of time:
Steady – state flow
– Steady-state flow
Pseudo steady-state flow
– Unsteady-state flow
– Pseudo steady-state flow

Well Pe rformance
Unsteady-state flow
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Development Phase
 Steady-state flow
– Pressure at every location in the reservoir

remains constant. It does not change with time.

p
 0
t
i
Well Perfo rma nce
– Steady-state flow condition can only occur when

the reservoir is completely recharged and
supported by strong aquifer or pressure
maintenance operations.
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 Unsteady-state flow (transient flow)
– Fluid flow condition at which the rate of change

of pressure with respect to time at any position
in the reservoir is not zero or constant.

p
 f 
i, t 
t 
Well Pe rformance
– Pressure derivative with respect to time is

essentially a function of both position i and time
t.
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Development Phase
 Pseudo steady-state flow (semi steady-state

flow)
– Pressure at different locations in the reservoir is

declining linearly as a function of time, like at a
constant declining rate.

p
 constant
t
i
Well Perfo rma nce
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Reservoir Characteristics – Reservoir

Geometry
 Shape of a reservoir has a significant effect on its flow
behaviour
 Most reservoirs have irregular boundaries. Numerical

simulator are used for describing such complex
boundaries.
 The actual flow geometry may be represented by one of

the following flow geometries:
Well Pe rformance
– Radial flow
– Linear flow
– Spherical and hemispherical flow
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Development Phase

Geometry
 Radial Flow
– Absence of severe reservoir heterogeneities

facilities radial flow. Flow into or away from a
wellbore will follow radial flow lines from a
substantial distance from the wellbore.
Well Perfo rma nce
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Geometry
 Linear Flow
– Flow paths are parallel and the fluid flow in a single
direction, while the cross-sectional area to flow must be
constant.
q
q
fracture
q
wellbore
wellbore
q
Well Pe rformance
q
q
fracture
– A common application of linear flow equations is the

fluid flow into vertical hydraulic fractures.
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Development Phase

Geometry
 Spherical and Hemispherical Flow
– It depends upon the type of completion.

– A well with a limited perforated interval could result in
spherical flow in the vicinity of the perforations.
– A well that only partially penetrates the pay zone
could result in hemispherical flow.
Hemispherical flow in a partially penetrating well Spherical flow due to limited entry
Well Perfo rma nce
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Geometry
 Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir
– Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)
– Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-water)
– Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)

Well Pe rformance
 Description of fluid flow and subsequent

analysis becomes more complicated as the
number of mobile fluids increases.
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Development Phase
Fluid flow equations
 Flow equations necessary to describe the flow

behaviour are developed from:
– Conversation of mass equation
– Transport equation (Darcy’s equation)
– Equation of State
Well Perfo rma nce
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Darcy’s Law
 Fundamental law of fluid motion in porous media.
 For a horizontal linear system
q k dp
v  
Apparent velocity
A dx
 For a radial system
Volumetric flow rate at radius r
Well Pe rformance
q k p  Ar 2rh
v r   
Apparent velocity at radius r Ar  rr
Cross-sectional area to flow at radius r

Pressure gradient at radius r
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Development Phase
Darcy’s Law
 Only applies when the following conditions

exist:
– Laminar (viscous) flow
– Steady-state flow
– Incompressible flow
– Homogeneous formation
Pressure vs. distance in a linear flow Pressure gradient in radial flow
Direction of flow Direction of flow

Well Perfo rma nce
P1
pe
P2
pre ssu re
pre ssure
x p wf
distance rw r re
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Steady State Flow
 Linear flow of Incompressible Fluids

– It is assumed the flow occurs through a constant
cross-sectional area A, where both ends are
entirely open to flow.
– It is assumed that no flow crosses the sides, top,
or bottom.
kA p1 p2 
q
Field Units
L
Well Pe rformance
[ md] [ft2]
[psia]
0.001127kA 
p1 p2 
[bbl/day] q
L [cp]
[ft]
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Development Phase
Steady State Flow

 Linear flow of compressible fluids (gases)
– For a viscous (laminar) gas flow in a homogeneous- linear

system, the real-gas equation of state can be applied to
calculate the number of gas moles n at pressure p,
temperature T, and volume V:
pV pV pscVsc
n 
zRT zT Tsc
0.111924 Ak p12 p22 
qsc: gas flow rate at standard conditions, [scf /day]
k: permeability, [md]
qsc  T: temperature, [°R]

Well Perfo rma nce
TLzg
g: gas viscosity, [cp]
A: cross-sectional area, [ft2]
L: total length of the linear system, [ft]
Z and g are a very strong function of pressure. The above equation is v alid for applications when the pressure <2000 psi.
p12 p22
Gas properties must be evaluated at the average pressure defines as: p
2
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Steady State Flow
 Radial flow of incompressible fluids

– All fluids move towards the producing well from all directions
– A pressure differential exist before flow can take place
– Pressure in the formation at the wellbore of a producing well is
know as the bottom-hole flowing pressure (flowing BHP, pwf )
0.00708 khpe pw 

qo 
o Bo ln
Centre of the r 
well e r 
pe  w
dr
h qo: oil, flow rate, [STB/day]
pwf
Well Pe rformance
pe: external pressure, [psi]

pwf: bottom-hole flowing pressure, [psi]
rw r
o:oil viscosity, [cp]
Bo: oil formation volume factor, [bbl/STB]
h: thickness, [ft]
43,560A
re: external or drainage radius, [ft]
rw :wellbore radius, [ft] re 
re
A: well spacing, [area] 
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Development Phase
Steady State Flow
 Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids

1 c 
q q ref  p ref p 

  0.001127 k dp
Ar 2rh dr
Separating the variables in the above equation and

integrating over the length of the porous medium
 
0.00708kh  1 c pe pref 
qref  ln  
c ln r    1 c pwf pref 

e r 
  w 

Well Perfo rma nce
Choosing the bottom-hole flow pressure (pwf)

as the reference pressure and expressing the
flow rate in STB/day
co: isothermal compressibility coefficient, [psi -1]  

 0.00708kh 
1 co pe pwf 
qo: oil flow rate, [STB/day]
k: permeability, [md] q o  ln 



o Boco ln 
 e r 
r 

   w 
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Unsteady-State Flow
 Infinite acting reservoir
 Radius of Investigation (r inv)
 A pressure disturbance move from the wellbore at a rate that is
determined by:
– Permeability
– Porosity
– Fluid viscosity
– Rock and fluid compressibilities Q=0
pi pi
Shut in
re Constant q re
p i r4 r3 r2 r1 r1 r2 r3 r 4 pi
t1 t
2 t3 t4
Well Pe rformance
Constant Flow Rate
re re
p i r4 r3 r2 r1 r1 r2 r3 r4 pi
t1 t 2
t 3 t4
Constant p wf
pwf
re re
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Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow
 The transient (unsteady-state) flow is defined as “that
time period during which the boundary has no effect on
the pressure behaviour in the reservoir and the reservoir
will behave as its infinite in size”.
Unsteady-state flowing condition Steady-state flowing condition
fluid content of the
porous medium
changes with time
Well Perfo rma nce
“the flow rate into an element of volume of a porous media “same quantity of fluid enters the flow system as leaves it”
may not be the same as the flow rate out of that element”
Steady-state flow variables
Time, T
Unsteady-state flow variables
Porosity, 
Total compressibility, ct
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Unsteady-State Flow
 Basic Transient Flow Equation
– Continuity equation
– Transport equation
– Compressibility equation
– Initial and boundary conditions

Well Pe rformance
The formation produces at a constant rate into the

wellbore
There is no flow across the outer boundary and the
reservoir behaves as if it were infinite in size (re =∞)
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Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow

center of
the well
(q)r+dr pe
h (q)r
pwf
r
rw
r dr
r+dr
Well Perfo rma nce
mass entering mass leaving rate of mass

volume element
during interval t
- volume element = accumulation
during interval t during interval t
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Unsteady-State Flow
– Mass entering the volume element during time

interval t:
Mass 
in
2 t 
r dr h 
v 
rdr
– Mass leaving the volume element:

Well Pe rformance
Massout 2t rh vr
– Total accumulation of mass:

Total mass accumulation = 
2rh dr 
t dt 
 
t
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Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow
– Continuity Equation
Provides the principle of conservation of mass in

radial coordinates
1  
r

 v 

 

rr 
t
Well Perfo rma nce
: porosity
: density, [lb/ft3 ]
v: fluid velocity, [ft/day]
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Unsteady-State Flow
– Transport Equation
Darcy’s law is essentially the basic motion

equation, which states that the velocity is
proportional to the pressure gradient  p
 

r
k 
p
v 
0.006328 
r
Well Pe rformance
v: velocity, [ft/day]
: viscosity, [cp]
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Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow
 To describe the behaviour of radial flow of slightly compressible

fluids 1 
The compressibility of any fluid is related to its density by: c
p

1  
p
Formation compressibility (c f) cf   c f

p t t
Total compressibility (ct) c t c c f If the reservoir contains more than one fluid then
ct co S o cw S w c g S g c f
Assuming permeability and viscosity are constant over pressure, time and distance ranges
2 p 1 p 1 
p
Diffusivity Equation   
0.000264k Diffusivity constant
r rr 
2
t ct
Well Perfo rma nce
k: permeability, [md] Assumptions and limitations:

r: radial position, [ft]
p: pressure, [psia] 1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous medium
c t: total compressibility, [psi- 1] 2. Uniform thickness
t: time, [hrs] 3. Single phase flow
: porosity, [fraction] 4. Laminar flow
: viscosity, [cp] 5. Rock and fluid properties independent of pressure
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Unsteady-State Flow
 Generalised solutions to the diffusivity

equation:
– Constant-terminal-pressure solution
– Constant-terminal-rate solution
The Ei-function solution

Well Pe rformance
The dimensionless pressure pD solution

– Infinite-acting reservoir
– Finite-radial reservoir
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Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow
 Generalised solutions to the diffusivity equation:
– Constant-Terminal-Pressure Solution
Designed to provide the cumulative flow at any

particular time for a reservoir in which the pressure at
one boundary of the reservoir is held constant.
Frequently used in water influx calculations in gas and

oil reservoirs.
Well Perfo rma nce
Flow rate is considered to be constant at certain radius

(usually wellbore radius) and the pressure profile around
that radius is determined as a function of time and
position.
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Unsteady-State Flow
– Constant-Terminal-Rate Solution
Solves for the pressure change throughout the radial

system providing that the flow rate is held constant at
one terminal end of the radial system, like at the
producing well.
Integral part of most transient test analysis techniques,

such as with drawdown and pressure build up analyses.
Well Pe rformance
Most of these tests involve producing the well at a

constant flow rate and recording the flowing pressure as
a function of time like p(r w,t).
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Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow
The Ei -function Solution (Matthews and Russell, 1967)
70.6 qo o bo  948 o ct r2  p(r,t): pressure at radius r from the well after t hours
p
r, t pi  Ei 
  t: time, [hrs]
 kh   kt  k: permeability, [md]
q o: flow rate, [STB/day]
 u
e  x x2 x3  948ct r2 x 10.9  E i 
x 0
E i x  du 
ln 
x    etc x
x
u  1! 2 2! 3 3!  kt 0.01 x 3.0  E i x ln 
1.781x 
Well Perfo rma nce
Based on the following assumptions:
1. Infinite acting reservoir (the reservoir is infinite in size)

2. The well is producing at a constant flow rate
3. The reservoir is at a uniform pressure, p i, when production begins
4. The well, with a wellbore radius of rw is centered in a cylindrical reservoir of radius r e
5. No flow across the outer boundary
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Unsteady-State Flow
The Dimensionless pressure drop (Van Everdingen and

Hurst, 1949) p D: dimensionless pressure drop
2 pD 1  pD pD reD : dimensionless external radius
  t D: dimensionless time
rD2
rD rD tD rD : dimensionless radius
t: time, [hr]
p(r,t): pressure at radius r and time t
pi p  r ,t  0.000264 kt k: permeability, [md]
pD  r r tD 
 qo Bo o 
 
reD  e rD  ct rw2 : viscosity, [cp]
0.00708kh  rw rw
Well Pe rformance
Based on the following assumptions:
1. Perfectly radial reservoir system

2. The producing well is in the center and producing at a constant production rate of q
3. Uniform pressure pi throughout the reservoir before production
4. No flow across the external radius r e
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Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow
The Dimensionless pressure drop (Van Everdingen and

Hurst, 1949) reD re reD 
For Infinite acting reservoir: rw
p p  r, t  0.000264 kt
pD  i tD 
 qo Bo o  c trw2
0.00708kh 
 
tD
t D 0.01  p D 2
Well Perfo rma nce
t D 100  ln 
p D 0.5 
 tD 
0.80907 

For 0.02 < tD <1000 Lee, J., Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series.
Abalt Solutions
Unsteady-State Flow
The Dimensionless
re pressure drop (Van Everdingen and
reD 1949)
Hurst, rw
For finite-radial reservoir:
p p  r, t  tD 
0.000264kt
pD  i
 qo Bo o  ct rw2
 
0.00708kh 
Chatas (1953) proposed the following mathematical expression for calculating p D:
Well Pe rformance
For 25 t D and 0.25reD t D

2
3 4 ln 
0.5 2 tD r  reD 

2reD 1
2 2
pD  2  
eD
reD 1 4 reD 1

2 2
2t
If reD ? 1 then, pD  2D ln 
reD 0.75
2
red
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Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow
 To describe the behaviour of radial flow of compressible fluids

1 1 1 dz
The compressibility of any fluid is related to its density by: c For gas cg  
p p z dp
1 
 p
Formation compressibility (c f) cf   c f
p t t
Total compressibility (ct) c t c c f If the reservoir contains more than one fluid then c t c oS o c wS w c gS g c f
Radial Diffusivity Equation for Compressible Fluids

2
m p 1m 
p ct m 
p
 
r2 r  r 0.000264k t
Well Perfo rma nce
 There are three forms of the mathematical solution to this

diffusivity equation
 The m(p)-Solution Method (Exact Solution)
 The Pressure-Squared Method (p 2-Approximation Method)
 The Pressure Method (p-Approximation Method)
Abalt Solutions
Unsteady-State Flow
 Describing the behaviour of radial flow of compressible

fluid with the diffusivity equation
– The m (p) – Solution Method (Exact Solution)

1637qg T   kt  
m pwf m pi 
 
log  2 
3.23 
 kh 
  i ti w 
c r 
Written equivalent in terms of the dimensionless time t D

1637qgT   4t D  
 
m pwf m pi   log  

 kh   1.781 

Well Pe rformance
0.000264kt
tD  qg : gas flow rate, Mscf/day
ic tirw2
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Unsteady-State Flow
 Describing the behaviour of radial flow of compressible fluid
with the diffusivity equation
– The Pressure-Squared Approximation Method (p 2-

method)

1637 qg T z 
  kt  
p2wf pi2 
 kh 

log  23.23
  
  i ti w 
c r 


1637q gT z 
 4t D 
pwf2 pi2  
log  

Well Perfo rma nce
 kh 
 1.781 

 
p2i p2wf
The values of gas viscosity and deviation factor are evaluated at the average pressure p
2
qg : gas flow rate, Mscf/day
This effectively limit the applicability of the p 2-method to reservoir pressures < 2000 psi
Abalt Solutions
Unsteady-State Flow
 Describing the behaviour of radial flow of compressible

fluid with the diffusivity equation
– The Pressure Approximation Method (treating the gas

as a pseudo-liquid)

162.5 103 qg Bg   kt  
pwf pi 
 

log  3.23
2 
 kh 
  t w 
c r 


162.5 103 qg Bg 
 4 tD  
Well Pe rformance
pwf pi  
log 

 kh 
 
 1.781 



Gas properties are evaluated at the average pressure defined as: pi pwf
p
2
The applicability of the pressure-approximation method is limited to reservoir pressures > 3000 psi
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Pseudo steady-state flow Regime

 The change in pressure with time becomes the same
throughout the drainage area.
p 
 constant
t 
r
No-Flow Boundary
P
t1
t2 t3
p vs. r t4 No-Flow Boundary
rw r re
P
Well Perfo rma nce
Pressure
p vs. time
t1 t2 t3 t4 time
Abalt Solutions
 Behaviour of the pressure decline rate dp/dt during the

semisteady-state flow:
dp 0.23396q

dt c tre2h
– The reservoir pressure declines at a higher rate with

an increase in the fluids production rate
– The reservoir pressure declines at a slower rate for

Well Pe rformance
reservoirs with higher total compressibility coefficients
– The reservoir pressure declines at a lower rate for

reservoirs with larger pore volumes.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Semisteady-state No flow across the wells’ drainage
condition areas’ boundaries
q3 , p 3 , V 3 q4 , p4 , V4
p  q2 , p2 , V2
 constant
t r
q1 , p 1, V1
Pressure at every point in

the reservoir is changing at
p q 
the same rate
ri i
Well Perfo rma nce
pr  i
q i
i
Reservoir dp


pi  p r 
average dt t
pressure pVolumetric
r : average reservoir pressure
changing at the
same rate also
Abalt Solutions
 Radial Flow of slightly compressible fluids
0.00708kh pi p wf 
Q
 re  
B ln  0.5
 rw  
Q
0.00708kh pr pwf  
 re  
B ln  0.75
Well Pe rformance
 rw  
– Pseudo steady-state flow occurs regardless of the geometry
of the reservoir.
– Irregular geometries also reach this state when they have
been produced long enough for the entire drainage area to
be affected.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Radial Flow of slightly compressible fluids

The Shape Factor (CA ) after Ramey and Cobb, 1971
 0.23396QBt  162.6QB   4 A 
pwf pi   kh log 
 Ahct  1.781CA rw2 
 
Q
kh pr pwf  
 4A 
Well Perfo rma nce
162.6 B log 
1.781C Arw2 
 
Abalt Solutions
Pseudo steady-state flow Regime – Shape Factors Table

Well Pe rformance
After Earlougher, R., Advances in Well Test Analysis. SPE, 1977
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Radial Flow of compressible fluids (gases)
kh  
m pr m pwf 

Qg   
 re  
1422T 
ln  0.75 
 w 
r 
Q g: gas flow rate, [ Mscf/day]

T: temperature, [ °R]
K: permeability, [md]
Well Perfo rma nce
– The approximation to the above solution of the diffusivity

equation are:
Pressure-squared approximation
Pressure-approximation
Abalt Solutions
 Radial Flow of compressible fluids (gases)
– Pressure-squared approximation: for p < 2000 psi

kh pr2 pwf2 
p p
2
Qg  2
 re 
r wf
1422T z 
ln 0.75 
p
2
 rw 
Well Pe rformance
– Pressure approximation: for p > 3000 psi
Qg 

kh p r p wf  p pwf
p r B g 0.00504
zT
p
 r  2
1422B g ln e 0.75 
 rw 
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Skin Factor
 Skin effect: Altering the permeability around

the wellbore
Center of
the Well
Near Wellbore Skin Effect Center of
the Well
Pressure Profile
Undamaged
Zone
Damaged
Zone
Damaged
Well Perfo rma nce
kskin Zone
Undamaged
Zone
k
rw k k skin
rskin rw
rskin
Abalt Solutions
Skin Factor
 According to Hawkins (1956):
– Permeability in the skin zone is uniform
– Pressure drop across the zone can be approximated
by Darcy’s equation.
Representation of positive
and negative skin effects
Pressure Profile
Improved
k

p in skin zone p in skin zone
pskin = -
Well Pe rformance
p < 0 due to kskin due to k
p > 0 Reduced
k
rw
rskin
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Skin factor (s)
 Positive Skin Factor, s > 0
 Negative Skin Factor, s < 0
 Zero Skin Factor, s = 0
Qo Bo o  k  r 
p skin 141.2  s s  1ln skin 

 kh   s kin  rw 
k
Well Perfo rma nce
p 
 pideal 
actual
pskin  p p  p p  
i wf pactual
i wf ideal skin
Abalt Solutions
Skin Factor
 Steady State Radial Flow
0.00708kh pi p wf 
Qo 
 re 
o Bo 
ln s 
 rw 
 Unsteady State Radial Flow
– For Slightly compressible

fluids:

QoBoo  
p i p wf 162.6 
kt
 
log 3.23 0.87s 
 kh    ct rw
2

Well Pe rformance
– For Compressible fluids:
1037QgT z  kt 
pwf2 pi2  
log 2 3.23 0.87 s 
kh  ic tirw 
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Skin Factor
 Pseudo steady state Flow
– For slightly compressible

fluids:
Qo 
0.00708kh pr pwf  
 re  
o Bo 
ln  0.75 s 
 rw  
– For compressible fluids:
Well Perfo rma nce
kh pr2 pwf2 
Qg 
 re  
1422T z 
ln  0.75 s 
 rw  
Abalt Solutions
Turbulent Flow Factor
Non-Darcy Flow
 Not always laminar flow conditions are observed during
flow.
 During radial flow, the velocity increase as the wellbore is

approached and might result in the development of a
turbulent flow around the wellbore.
 If turbulent flow does exist, it is most likely to occur with

Well Pe rformance
gases and causes an additional pressure drop similar to

that caused by the skin effect.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Referring to the additional real gas pseudo-pressure drop

due to non-darcy flow as , the total (actual) drop is
given by:
 Wattenburger and Ramey (1968)
Non -Darcy flow coefficient

Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 Unsteady-State Radial
Flow

1637QgT  
m pwf 
kt
m pi  log
 3.23 0.87 s 0.87 DQg 
 ic tirw
2
 kh 
Turbulent flow factor
Total Skin Factor

Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Semi-steady State Flow
 Steady State Flow

Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
Oil Well Performance
 Introduction
 Vertical Oil Well Performance
– Vogel’s method
– Wiggins’ Method
– Standing’s Method
– Fetkovich’s Method
– The Klins-Clark Method
 Horizontal Oil Well Performance
– Method I
Well Pe rformance
– Method II
– Horizontal Well Productivity under Steady-State Flow
– Horizontal Well Productivity under Semi-Steady-State
Flow
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Introduction
 Production performance of a well is affected by

several factors that govern the flow of fluids
from the formation to the wellbore.
 Production performance analysis is bases on:
– Fluid PVT properties

Well Perfo rma nce
– Relative permeability data
– Inflow performance relationship (IPR)
Abalt Solutions
Vertical Oil Well Performance
 Productivity Index (J)
– Measure of the ability of the well to produce.

Ratio of the total liquid flow rate to the pressure
drawdown.
– For a water-free oil production, the productivity

index is given by:
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

– Generally measured during a production test on the
well.
The well is shut-in until the static reservoir pressure is
reached.
The well is then allowed to produce at constant flow
rate of Q and a stabilized bottom-hole flow pressure of
pwf.
Productivity index during flow regimes

Well Perfo rma nce
“The productivity index is a valid measure of the well

productivity potential only if the well is flowing at
pseudo steady-state conditions.”
Abalt Solutions

– The productivity index can be numerically calculated, but

must be defined in terms of semi steady-state flow
conditions.
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Productivity Index – Features
– Valuable methodology for predicting the future

performance of wells
– Useful for determining if a particular well has become

damaged due to completion, workover, production,
injection operations, or mechanical problems.
– Good indicator of well’s difficulties or damage during

completion through comparison between different wells
Well Perfo rma nce
in the same reservoir.
In terms of relative permeability
Abalt Solutions

 Productivity Index – Normalization Specific Productivity Index
– Productivity indexes may vary from well to well because of the

variation in thickness of the reservoir, therefore J is normalized by
dividing each by the thickness of the well.
Qo vs. p relationship
Assuming that the well’s productivity

Well Pe rformance
index is constant:
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 The Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)
– Graphical representation of the relationship that exist

between the oil flow rate and bottom-hole flowing
pressure. IPR
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 The Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) –

Features
– When pwf equals average reservoir pressure, the

flow rate is zero due to the absence of any
pressure drawdown.
– Maximum rate of flow occurs when pwf is zero.

(Absolute Open Flow - AOF)
Well Pe rformance
– The slope of the straight line equals the

reciprocal of the productivity index.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Inflow into a well is directly proportional to the pressure
drawdown. The constant of proportionality is the
productivity index (J).
 When the pressure drops below the bubble point pressure,

the IPR deviates from that of the simple straight-line
relationship.
IPR below p b
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 Variables that affect productivity index

Overall effect of changing the pressure on the term
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Qualitative effect of reservoir depletion on the

IPR
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions

 Non-linearity behaviour of the IPR for solution gas drive
reservoirs
– Several empirical methods are designed too predict

such behaviour, and most of them require at least one
stabilized flow test in which Qo and p wf are measured;
and all of them also include the following
computational steps:
Using the stabilized flow test data, construct the IPR

curve at the current average reservoir pressure
Well Pe rformance
Predict future inflow performance relationships as to the

function of the average reservoir pressures.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 To generate the current and future inflow

performance relationships, the following
empirical methods have designed:
– Vogel’s method
– Wiggins’ Method
– Standing’s Method
Well Perfo rma nce
– Fetkovich’s Method
– The Klins-Clark Method

Abalt Solutions
Vertical Oil Well Performance – Vogel’s

Method
 Used a computer model to generate IPRs for several hypothetical
saturated-oil reservoirs that are producing under a wide range of
conditions.
 Normalized the calculated IPRs and expressed the relationships in
a dimensionless form by dimensionless parameters:
Flow rate at zero wellbore pressure, i.e., AOF
 Plotted the dimensionless IPR curves for all the reservoir cases
and arrived at the following relationship:
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Method
 Can be extended to account for water production by
replacing the dimensionless rate with where
 The method requires the following data:
– Current average reservoir pressure

– Bubble-point pressure
– Stabilized flow test data that include
 The method can be used to predict IPR curve for the

following type of reservoirs:
Well Perfo rma nce
– Saturated oil reservoirs

– Undersaturated oil reservoirs
Abalt Solutions

Method
 For Saturated Oil Reservoirs (when the reservoir
pressure equals the bubble-point pressure)
– The computational procedure is as follow:
1. Using the stabilized flow data, i.e., Qo and p wf,

calculate:
Well Pe rformance
2. Construct the IPR curve by assuming various values

for P wf and calculating the corresponding Qo from:
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Method
 For Under-saturated Oil Reservoirs
– Beggs (1991) pointed out that in applying Vogel’s
method for undersaturated reservoirs, there are “two
possible outcomes to the recorded stabilized flow test
data” that must be considered.
Stabilized flow test data
- The recorded stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure

is greater than or equal to the bubble-point pressure,
Well Perfo rma nce
i.e.
-The recorded stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure

is less than the bubble-point pressure
Abalt Solutions

Method
– Case1: The Value of the Recorded Stabilized
1. Using the stabilized test data point (Qo and pwf )

calculate the productivity index J:
2. Calculate the oil flow rate at the bubble-point

Well Pe rformance
pressure:
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Method
– Case1: The Value of the Recorded Stabilized
3. Generate the IPR values below the bubble-point

pressure by assuming different values of p wf< pb and
calculating the correspond oil flow rates by applying
the following relationship:
Well Perfo rma nce
The maximum oil flow rate (Q o max or AOF) occurs when the bottom-hole flowing pressure
is zero, pwf = 0, which can be determined from the above expression as:
Note:When the IPR is linear and:
Abalt Solutions

Method
– Case 2: The Value of the Recorded Stabilized pwf < pb
1. Using the stabilized well flow test data:
2. Calculate Qob
Well Pe rformance
3. Generate the IPR for by assuming several values

for p wf above the bubble point pressure and calculating
the corresponding Qo from:
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Method
– Case 2: The Value of the Recorded Stabilized p wf

< pb
4. Calculate Qo at various values of pwf below pb, or:

Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions

Method
 Predicting well’s inflow performance for future time as the reservoir
pressure declines.
– Future well performance calculations require the development

of a relationship that can be used to predict future maximum oil
flow rates.
– Some prediction methods require the application of the material

balance equation to generate future oil saturation data as a
function of reservoir pressure.
Well Pe rformance
– Without that data, there are two options:
 First Approximation Method

 Second Approximation Method
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Method
 First Approximation Method
– Provides a rough approximation of the future maximum oil

flow rate (Qomax )f at the specified future average reservoir
pressure (pr)f
– (Qomax )f can be used to predict the future inflow performance

relationships at
1. Calculate from:
Where the subscript f and p represent future

Well Perfo rma nce
and present conditions, respectively.
2. Using the new calculated value of (Qomax )f and (pr )f generate the
IPR by using:
Abalt Solutions

Method
 Second Approximation Method
– Fetkovich (1973) proposed a simple

approximation for estimating future
Only to provide a rough estimation of future (Q o) max

Well Pe rformance
The main disadvantage of Vogel’s methodology lies with its sensitivity to

the match point, i.e., the stabilized flow test data point, used to
generate the IPR curve for the well
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Vertical Oil Well Performance – Wiggins’s

Method
 Limited by the assumption that the reservoir
initially exists at its bubble-point pressure.
 It propose generalized correlations that are

suitable for predicting the IPR during three-
phase flow.
Well Perfo rma nce
Data from a stabilized flow test on the well must be available in order
to determine (Qo )max and (Qw)max
Abalt Solutions
Vertical Oil Well Performance – Wiggins’s

Method
 Predicting future performance
– Estimating future maximum flow rates as a

function of:
 Current (present) average pressure

 Future average pressure
 Current maximum oil flow rate
 Current water flow rate
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Vertical Oil Well Performance –

Standing’s Method
 Essentially an extended application of Vogel’s
method to predict future inflow performance
relationship of a well as a function of reservoir
pressure.
Productivity index J Present (current) zero drawdown productivity index
Estimating from the present

value of
Well Perfo rma nce
For predicting the desired IPR expression

If relative permeability data is not available,
can be roughly estimated from:
Abalt Solutions

Fetkovich’s Method
 Attempt to account for the observed on-linear flow
behaviour (IPR) of wells.
– By calculating a theoretical productivity index from the
pseudo steady state flow equation.
Well Pe rformance
– Fetkovich (1973) suggests that the pressure function

f(p) can basically fall into one of the following two
regions:
 Undersaturated Region
 Saturated Region
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Region 1: Undersaturated Region
– The pressure function f(p) falls into this region if p

> pb.
 Region 2: Saturated Region

Well Perfo rma nce
– P < pb
Abalt Solutions

 Pressure Function Concept
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 In the application of the straight-line pressure
function, there are three cases that must be
considered:
– Case 1:
– Case 2:
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions

 Case 1:
– The case of a well producing from an

undersaturated oil reservoir where
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Case 2:
– Both reservoir pressure and bottom-hole flowing

pressure are below the bubble-point pressure.
but
Well Perfo rma nce
: performance coefficient C
Abalt Solutions
Horizontal Oil Well Performance

 Advantages over vertical wells:
– Large volume of the reservoir can be drained by each horizontal well.
– Higher productions from thin pay zones.
– Horizontal wells minimize water and gas zoning problems.
– In high permeability reservoirs, where near-wellbore gas velocities are

high in vertical wells, horizontal wells can be used to reduce near -
wellbore velocities and turbulence.
– In secondary and enhanced oil recovery applications, long horizontal

injection wells provide higher injectivity rates.
Well Pe rformance
– The length of the horizontal well can provide contact with multiple
fractures and greatly improve productivity.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Horizontal wells production features:
– Actual production mechanism and reservoir flow regimes around
the horizontal well are more complicated.
– Flow geometry is a combination of linear and radial flow.
– Well may behave in a manner similar to that of a well that has

been extensively fractured.
– It has been reported that the shape of measured IPRs for

horizontal wells is similar to those predicted by the Vogel or
Fetkovich methods
– Productivity gain from drilling 1,500 ft long horizontal wells is two

to four times that of vertical wells.
Well Perfo rma nce
– A horizontal well can be looked up as a number of vertical wells

drilling next to each other and completed in a limited pay zone
thickness.
Abalt Solutions
 Horizontal well drainage area

Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Calculating the drainage area of a horizontal

well (Joshi’s Methods)
– Method I:
Drainage area represented by two half circles of

radius b (equivalent to a radius of a well rev ) at
each end and a rectangle, of dimensions L (2b), in
the centre.
Well Perfo rma nce
Drainage area given by:
Abalt Solutions

 Calculating the drainage area of a horizontal well
(Joshi’s Methods)
– Method II:
Assumed that the horizontal well drainage area is an

ellipse and given by:
half major
axis of an ellipse
“Both methods give different values for the drainage area A and suggested
Well Pe rformance
assigning the average value for the drainage of the horizontal well”
Drainage radius of the horizontal well
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Inflow performance calculations for horizontal

wells
– Flowing conditions:
Steady-state single-phase flow

Pseudo-steady state two-phase flow
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions

 Horizontal Well Productivity under Steady-State Flow
– The steady state solutions requires that the pressure at

any point in the reservoir does not change with time.
– Several methods are designed to predict the productivity

index from the fluid and reservoir properties:
Well Pe rformance
Borisov’s Method
The Giger-Reiss-Jourdan Method
Joshi’s Method
The Renard-Dupuy Method
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Gas Well Performance
Abalt Solutions
Introduction
Flow capacity of a Gas Well: Flow Regime and
Determination Process conditions of flow in reservoir
Proper solution of
Darcy’s equation
Inflow Performance Relationship
Relationship between the inflow gas rate

Well Pe rformance
and the sand-face pressure or flowing

bottom-hole pressure
Flow capacity of a gas well
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Introduction
Normalisation of flow of a Gas Well, right after production has been initiated
Gas Well
Shut In
Pressure drops at
the drainage boundary
of the well
Unsteady-state Short transition

behaviour period
Well Perfo rma nce
Pseudo-steady state
flow condition
Abalt Solutions
Vertical Gas Well Performance
 Exact solution to the differential form of Darcy’s

equation for compressible fluids under the
pseudo-steady-state flow condition:
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Productivity index (J) for a gas well:
 Absolute open flow potential (AOF)

Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 Steady-state gas well flow

Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Exact solution to the differential form of Darcy’s equation for

compressible fluids under the pseudosteady-state flow
condition can also be written as:
Integral Form
p   1 
 
 : 
 

g z  g Bg 
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 Gas PVT data
Area below the curve between

the appropriated pressures
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Region III: High-Pressure Region
– Pressure functions are nearly constants, therefore:
– Gas viscosity and formation volume factor should

Well Perfo rma nce
be evaluated at the average pressure:
Abalt Solutions
 Region II: Intermediate-Pressure Region
– When the bottom-hole flowing pressure and

average reservoir pressure are both between
2000 and 3000 psi, the pseudo-pressure gas
pressure approach should be used to calculate
the gas flow rate:
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Region I: Low-Pressure Region
– At low pressure, usually less than 2000 psi, pressure

functions
and exhibit a linear relationship with pressure.
– Golan and Whitson (1986) indicated that the product

is essentially the same when evaluating any
pressure below 2000 psi.
Well Perfo rma nce
Pressure-squared approximation method
Abalt Solutions
 All presented before has been based on the assumption that

laminar (viscous) flow conditions are observed during the gas
flow.
 During radial flow, flow velocity increases as the wellbore is

approached.
 Increase of the gas velocity might cause the development of a

turbulent flow around the wellbore.
 If turbulent flow does exist, it causes an additional pressure

drop similar to that caused by the mechanical skin effect.
 The semisteady-state flow equation for compressible fluids can

Well Pe rformance
be modified for the additional pressure drop due to turbulent

flow by including the rate-dependent skin factor (DQ g)
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 First Form: Pressure-Squared Approximation Form
– Inertial or turbulent flow (D)

Well Perfo rma nce
– Non-Darcy flow coefficient (F)
1.88 
1010 
k 1.470.53
©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved 1.88 

1010 
k 1.47 
0.53
Abalt Solutions
 Second Form: Pressure Approximation Form
 Third Form: Real Gas Potential (Pseudo pressure) Form

Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

Total System Analysis
Pratap Thimaiah
Abalt Solutions
Content
 Introduction
 Tubing Size Selection
 Flowline Size Effect
 Effect of Stimulation
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Introduction
 General procedure for applying total system or
nodal analysis to a producing well.
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
Introduction
 The system analysis procedure requires first
selecting a node and calculating the node
pressure, starting at the fixed or constant
pressure existing in the system.
 Fixed pressure are usually preserv_avg and either

pwh or psep
 The node may be selected at any point in the

system, and the most commonly selected
Well Pe rformance
points are:
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Development Phase
Introduction
 Location of various nodes
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
Introduction
 The expressions for the flow into the node and

for the flow out of the node can be expressed
as:
– Inflow:
– Outflow:
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Introduction
 In most cases:
 The two criteria that must be met are:
– Flow into the node equals flow out of the node

– Only one pressure can exist at the node for a
given flow rate
Well Perfo rma nce
 Finding the flow rate and pressure that satisfies

the previous requirements can be accomplished
graphically by plotting node pressure versus
flow rate.
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Introduction
 The intersection of the inflow and outflow curves occurs
at the rate that satisfies the requirement that the inflow
rate equals the outflow rate.
 This rate will be the producing capacity for the system for
a particular set of components.
 To investigate the effect of changes in any of the

components on the producing capacity, new inflow or
outflow curves can be generated for each change.
Well Pe rformance
 If a change is made in an inflow or upstream components

only, the outflow curve will not change, and therefore will
not require re-calculation.
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Development Phase
Introduction
 If the only change made is in a downstream

component, the inflow will remain un-changed.
– This allows isolation of the effect of a change in

any component on the total system capacity.
– This method can be used for determining if

existing systems are performing properly and
also designing new systems.
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
Tubing Size Selection
 Tubing String is one of the most important components

in the production system.
– It can represent as much as 80 percent of total

pressure loss in an oil well.
 A common problem in well completions design is to select
a tubing size based on totally irrelevant criteria, such as:
– What size tubing is on the pipe rack

– What size has been installed in the past
Well Pe rformance
 Tubing size selection should be made before the well is

drilled, because tubing size dictates the casing size which
dictates the hole size.
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Development Phase

 Selecting the tubing size prior drilling a well is not
possible in exploratory wells.
 Once the first well has been drilled, enough data will be
available to plan other wells in the field.
 Selection can also be made using a possible range of

expected conditions reservoir characteristics and then
refined as more data become available.
 There is an optimum tubing size for any well system.

Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 Tubing too small will restrict the production

rate because of excessive friction loss.
 Tubing too large will cause a well to load up

with liquids and die.
 A common problem that occurs in completing

large capacity wells is to install very large
tubing to be safe, which often results in a
Well Pe rformance
decreased flowing life for the wells are reservoir

pressure declines and the wells begin to load.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 To isolate the effect of tubing size, the wellhead pressure
is considered constant in the particular case of study.
 This might be the case for a short flow line discharging

into a fixed separator pressure.
 The node selected in this case will corresponds to Node 6

as picture previously shown.
 The expressions for inflow and outflow are:
– Inflow:
Well Perfo rma nce
– Outflow:
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 Sometimes, it is necessary to run a small string of tubing in the
bottom section of a well if the well is completed with a liner.
 If the small tubing were run from the surface the producing
capacity would be too low, especially if the well is deep.
– In such wells it is often advantageous to run larger tubing from the

surface to the top of the liner (tapered tubing string)
 The effect of the size of the upper string on producing capacity

can be conveniently determined by selecting the point at which
the tubing changes size as the node.
Well Pe rformance
– The inflow will then include the reservoir and the lower section of
the tubing.
– The outflow will include the flowline and the upper section of
tubing.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Tampered strings
 Effect of upper string size

Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
Tubing performance and gradient curves

 Pressure drop required to lift a fluid through the production tubing at a
given flow rate is one of the main factors determining the deliverability
of a well.
 Having fixed either the wellhead or bottom-hole flowing pressure given

the rates of oil, gas, and water, pressure drop along the production
tubing can be calculated by charts or correlations, and the resulting
flowing pressure at the other end of the tubing can be determined.
 With a wellhead pressure specified, a gradient curve can be used to

determine wellbore flowing pressure at several different oil rates.
Resulting relationship between flowing pressure and oil rate is called
tubing performance relation (TPR); valid for the specified wellhead
pressure.
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Pressure drop in tubing due to single-phase fluid (gas and highly

undersaturated oil wells) can be calculated by conventional pipe flow
equations.
 However, a small quantity of free gas mixed with oil and/or water
create considerably more complicated flow conditions which require
empirical correlations.
 For vertical flow of dry gas (Katz):

Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 The equation for vertical flow of dry gas (Katz) can only be
used for dry gas.
– If water or condensate is produced as an entrained liquid

phase (GOR greater than 7,000 scf/STB), then gas velocity
must generally exceed 18 to 20 ft/s in order to be able to
use the above equation.
– At lower velocities it has been observed that liquid

accumulates, thereby increasing pressure loss considerably
above that calculated from the above equation.
Well Pe rformance
– If velocity decreases to 10 to 12 ft/s, then the well will

probably die.
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Development Phase
 Pressure elements constituting the total

pressure at the bottom of the tubing:
– Backpressure exerted at the surface from the

choke and wellhead assembly (wellhead
pressure)
– Hydrostatic pressure due to gravity and the

elevation change between the wellhead and the
Well Perfo rma nce
intake to the tubing
– Friction losses, which include irreversible

pressure loses due to viscous drag and slippage.
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 Components of pressure loss in the tubing
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

– In the case of single- phase liquid, density is assumed

constant and the hydrostatic pressure gradient (pressure
drop per unit length) is a constant.
– Friction loss is rate-dependant, characterized by two flow
regimes (laminar and turbulent)
– The rate dependence of friction-related pressure loss differs
with the flow regime:
 At low rates the flow is laminar and the pressure gradient

changes linearly with rate or flow velocity
Well Perfo rma nce
 At high rates the flow is turbulent and the pressure gradient

increases more than linearly with increasing flow rate.
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– In gas wells, there is interdependence between flow

rate, flow velocity, density, and pressure.
– Increasing gas rates results in increasing total
pressure loss.
– In multiphase mixtures, friction related and

hydrostatic-pressure losses vary with rate in a much
more complicated manner than for gas.
Well Pe rformance
– Increasing rate may change the governing pressure

loss mechanism from predominantly gravitational to
predominantly friction.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Pressure Traverse Curves

 The pressure traverse curve is a pressure – depth profile.
– For a given flow rate, wellhead pressure, and tubing size,

there is a particular pressure distribution along the tubing,
starting its traverse at the wellhead pressure and increasing
downward toward the intake to the tubing.
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 The pressure traverse curve (pressure – depth

profile)
– Sometimes it is advantageous (when there is not

computer applications available) to construct a
set of pressure traverse curves for hypothetical
values of variables such as qL, GLR, d, fw (water
cut), etc.
Well Pe rformance
– These curves can be used to estimate pressure

drop that would occur in a well producing under
similar conditions.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Preparation of pressure traverse curve
– To prepare a curve, the following parameters are selected:
 Pipe inside diameter, d

 Liquid flow rate, q L
 Water fraction, fw
 Average flowing temperature, T
 Oil, gas, and water gravities
– A pressure traverse is calculated for several values of GLR, starting

at zero pressure, zero well depth.
– The maximum value of GLR used is the one that will give the
minimum pressure gradient for the chosen conditions.
Well Perfo rma nce
– Figures will be prepared for the full range of pipe sizes, liqui d rates,
and water fractions expected to occur in the field under
consideration.
– The average flowing temperature and fluid properties can be
selected from fluid samples taken in the field.
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 In single-phase liquid, both gravitational and friction
pressure gradients are constant along the tubing and
therefore the pressure traverse is linear with depth.
 In gas, it is very nearly even though the friction and
hydrostatic pressure gradients vary significantly with
depth.
 In multiphase mixtures there is general trend of
increasing pressure gradient with depth. Unfortunately,
we do not have analytical equations or simple procedures
for calculating the pressure traverse of multiphase
mixtures.
Well Pe rformance
 Using correlations based on experimental data limits the

application to producing wells to the conditions of rate,
geometry, GOR, and fluid properties used in the
experimental study.
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Development Phase
 Vertical flowing pressure traverses

Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
 Procedure for estimating an unknown pressure
1. Select the chart that most closely corresponds

to the known conditions of tubing ID, liquid
production rate, and water fraction.
2. Enter the pressure axis at the known pressure.

Proceed vertically from this pressure to the
intersection of the appropriate GLR curve.
Well Pe rformance
Proceed horizontally to the left to the

intersection of the depth axis. This locates the
number on the depth axis which represents the
equivalent depth of which the known pressure
exists, i.e. either the wellhead or bottom-hole.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Procedure for estimating an unknown pressure
3. If the known pressure is the wellhead pressure, add

the actual well depth to the equivalent depth located
in step 2. This represents the axis depth which is
equivalent to the actual well depth. If the known
pressure is bottom-hole pressure, subtract the actual
well depth from the number found in step 2. This
gives the axis depth that is equivalent to the actual
wellhead pressure.
Well Perfo rma nce
4. From the point located in step 3, proceed horizontally

to the right to the intersection of the same GLR line.
From this point proceed vertically upward to the
pressure axis. Read the unknown pressure.
Abalt Solutions

 The use of a gradient curve to determine
flowing bottom-hole pressure and flowing
wellhead pressure in an oil well.
Well Pe rformance
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase

 Remarks about the use of gradient curves:
1. The vertical axis represents distance travelled

vertically from a given point where the pressure is
known. From a given point with known pressure it is
possible to determine the pressure at any other point
by moving along the gradient curve for a distance
corresponding to the distance between the two
points. Alternatively, if the pressure at the second
point is known, it is possible to determine which
distance corresponds to the pressure difference
between the two points by moving along the gradient
Well Perfo rma nce
curve an interval corresponding to the pressure

change between the two points.
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2. The gradient dp/dH decreases with increasing

gas/liquid ratio (GLR) until a minimum gradient
is reached. Thereafter the trend reverses and
dp/dH increases with increasing gas/liquid ratio.
The physical reason for this is a change in the
predominant pressure loss mechanism caused
by an increasing gas/liquid ratio.
Well Pe rformance
3. For convenience, the high-GLR gradient curves

are shifted down on the depth scale to avoid
intersection with lower-GLR curves.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
4. If production is water-free, then gas/liquid ratio,

GLR equals gas/oil ratio, GOR. If water/oil ratio,
WOR, is reported, then the relation between
GLR and GOR is GLR=GOR/(1+WOR), or
Fgl=R/(1+Fwo).
Where FgL is gas/liquid ratio (GLR), F wo is
water/oil ratio (WOR), and R is gas/oil ratio
Well Perfo rma nce
(GOR)
Abalt Solutions
Pressure Traverse Curves to construct the tubing performance
 Constructing the tubing performance curve from the pressure traverse

curves for an oil well producing through tubing with a given diameter
and length at a specific gas/liquid ratio and wellhead pressure:
– The wellhead pressure is specified as a constant

– Selecting a gradient curve with the specified GLR, the point where
pressure equals wellhead pressure is found. This point corresponds
to zero depth.
– Moving down vertically a distance equal to the tubing length and
then horizontally until the same GLR curve is reached, the bottom-
hole pressure is read on the x-axis scale. This pressure is the
intake flowing pressure for the rate corresponding to the gradient
curve chosen.
– Similarly intake pressures are determined for several other rates.
Well Pe rformance
– The rate-intake pressure points are then plotted to form the tubing
performance curve.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Pressure Traverse Curves to construct the

tubing performance
Well Perfo rma nce
Abalt Solutions
Flowline Size Effect
 If a well is producing into a flowline, the

wellhead pressure is equal to the sum of the
separator pressure and the pressure drop in
the flowline, assuming there is no wellhead
choke.
 A common cause of low producing capacity in

many wells, especially for wells with long
Well Pe rformance
flowlines, is the excessive flowline pressure

drop.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
 Many operators have a tendency to use any

size pipe that is convenient or, in some cases,
tie two or more wells into a common, small
flowline.
– This can be very detrimental, specially for gas

lifted wells, because the flowline pressure drop
increases as the gas rate increases.
Well Perfo rma nce
 In order to isolate the effect of flowline size it is

usually recommended to use Node 3, or
sometimes Node 6.
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 The effect of reducing the separator pressure is

small compared to the effect of increasing
flowline size.
– This results from the fact that as average

pressure in the flowline is decreased in a
constant area pipe, the fluid must move faster
because expansion.
Well Pe rformance
This creates more frictional pressure drop.
 This may not apply if the flowline is in a hilly

terrain area, since the increased velocity may
decrease the pressure drop caused by the hills.
Abalt Solutions

Development Phase
Effect of Stimulation
 The systems analysis approach can be used to estimate the

improvement in well capacity due to fracturing or acidizing.
 Even though the reservoir capacity may be increased

considerably by stimulation; in some cases the well’s actual
producing capacity increase may be small due to restrictions in
the outflow.
 Before a decision is made on what steps to take to increase the

producing capacity, the exact cause of the low productivity
should be determined.
Well Perfo rma nce
– This can be accomplish only through a total system

analysis.
 Large sums of money are often wasted on workover because

the wrong component of the well system is changed.
Abalt Solutions

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INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION

Introduction to Hydrocarbon Exploitation

©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved

 Introduction to Reservoir Performance

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©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

 Flow in porous media is a very complex

 Mathematical relationships that are designed to

– Types of fluids in the reservoir

Reservoir Characteristics – Types of

 To identify the type of reservoir fluid, the

©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved

©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

Reservoir Characteristics – Types of

– In terms of fluid volume

– V and are the volume and density of the fluid

Reservoir Characteristics – Types of

– Fluid whose volume (or density) does not change

– Incompressible fluids do not exist, however it is

©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

Reservoir Characteristics – Types of

– Fluid who exhibit small changes in volume (or

– Crude oil and water systems fit into the slightly

©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved

Reservoir Characteristics – Types of

– Fluid who experience large changes in volume

– All gases are considered compressible flows.

©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved

©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

Reservoir Characteristics – Types of

©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved

Reservoir Characteristics – Flow Regimes

 There are three flow regimes that describe the

– Pseudo steady-state flow

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©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

Reservoir Characteristics – Flow Regimes

– Pressure at every location in the reservoir

– Steady-state flow condition can only occur when

©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved

Reservoir Characteristics – Flow Regimes

 Unsteady-state flow (transient flow)

– Fluid flow condition at which the rate of change

– Pressure derivative with respect to time is

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©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

Reservoir Characteristics – Flow Regimes

 Pseudo steady-state flow (semi steady-state

– Pressure at different locations in the reservoir is

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Reservoir Characteristics – Reservoir

 Most reservoirs have irregular boundaries. Numerical

 The actual flow geometry may be represented by one of

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©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

Reservoir Characteristics – Reservoir

– Absence of severe reservoir heterogeneities

©2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved

Reservoir Characteristics – Reservoir

– A common application of linear flow equations is the

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©abalt solutions limited - 2005 September – October 2005

Reservoir Characteristics – Reservoir

– It depends upon the type of completion.