ARELLANO UNIVERSITY

EXPANDED TERTIARY EDUCATION EQUIVALENCY AND ACCREDITATION PROGRAM

(E T E E A P )
2600 Legarda St., Manila, Philippines
www.arellano.edu.ph

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN PSYCHOLOGY

MODULE FOR: (RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY 1 & 2)
Introduction
1. Science and Scientific Research
2. Thinking Like a Researcher
3. The Research Process
4. Theories in Scientific Research
Basics of Empirical Research
5. Research Design
6. Measurement of Constructs
7. Scale Reliability and Validity
8. Sampling
TOPIC: Data Collection
9. Survey Research
10. Experimental Research
11. Case Research
12. Interpretive Research
Data Analysis
13. Qualitative Analysis
14. Quantitative Analysis: Descriptive Statistics
15. Quantitative Analysis: Inferential Statistics
16. Research ethics in Psychology
It will provide students with basic skills necessary to understand and conduct research in psychology. To gain an understanding of the main
scientific research methods, their advantages and disadvantages, and areas of application. You’ll get first-hand experience of participating in
OVERVIEW: psychological research. Students will also acquire skills in writing (scientific) reports and using library and online resources for scientific research.
Finally, gain an understanding of ethical issues related to conducting research in psychology.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: On successful completion of this module the student is able to:
 Gain knowledge on the basic principles, concepts and application of research.

 Illustrate the different procedures in research process.

1|Pa ge
  Realize the importance of research in enriching the quality of human life.

CONTENT:
PAP Code of Ethics

CHAPTER X. RESEARCH

A. Rights and Dignity of Participants

1. In all aspects, we respect the rights, safeguard the dignity, and protect and promote the welfare of research participants.

2. Before beginning any research work in a community not our own or not familiar to us, we obtain essential information about their mores, culture, social
structure, customs, and traditions.

3. We respect and abide by their cultural expectations, provided that this does not contravene any of the ethical principles of this Code of Ethics.

4. We respect the rights of research participants should they wish to discontinue their participation at any time. We are responsive all throughout the research to
participants’ non-verbal indications of a desire to withdraw from participation, especially if the person has difficulty with verbal communication, is a young child,
or is culturally unlikely to communicate.

5. We do not contribute nor engage in research which contravenes international humanitarian law, such as development of methods intended to torture persons,
development of prohibited weapons, or destruction of the environment.

6. It is our duty to ask participants about any factors that could bring forth potential harm, such as pre-existing medical conditions, and to detect, remove, or
correct any foreseeable undesirable consequences prior to research proper.

7. To ensure that participants’ rights are protected, we seek independent and sufficient ethical review of the possible risks our research may pose to them.

B. Informed Consent to Research

1. We do not just ask participants to sign in the consent form; we recognize that informed consent happens due to the willingness of the participants to work
collaboratively with us.

2. We make sure that the consent form is translated in language or dialect that the participants understand. We will take reasonable measures to guarantee that
the information was understood.

3. When we conduct research with persons below 18 years of age, we obtain informed assent from them and informed consent from their parents or legal
guardian.

2|Pa ge
 4. When we conduct research with adult participants who have difficulties in comprehension or communication, we obtain informed consent from adult family
members of the participants and approval from independent advisors.

5. When we conduct research with detained persons, we pay attention to special circumstances which could affect the latter’s ability to give informed consent.

6. When obtaining informed consent as required in section III.J. of this Code of Ethics, it is our duty to inform research participants about:

1. the purpose of research, expected duration, and procedures;

2. mutual responsibilities;

3. their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun;

4. the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;

5. reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse
effects;

6. how to rescind consent if desired;

7. any prospective research benefits;

8. protections and limits of confidentiality and/or anonymity;

9. incentives for participation; and,

10. whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants’ rights.

We shall provide an opportunity for prospective participants to ask questions and receive answers.

7. When conducting intervention research using experimental treatments, it is our duty to clarify to participants at the beginning of research the following:

1. experimental nature of the treatment

2. services that will or will not be available to the control group(s) if appropriate;

3. means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made;

3|Pa ge
 4. available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the research or wishes to withdraw once a study has begun; and,

5. compensation for or monetary costs of participating, and if appropriate, including whether reimbursement from the participant or a third-party payor
will be sought.

8. In longitudinal research, we may need to obtain informed consent on more than one occasion.

C. Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research

1. It is our duty to obtain informed consent from research participants before recording their voices or images for data collection, except when:

1. the research consists only of naturalistic observations in public places, and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that could cause
personal identification or harm; and,

2. the research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the recording is obtained during debriefing.

D. Research Participation of Client, Students and Subordinates

1. When we conduct research with our clients, students or subordinates, we do not coerce them to participate, rather, we inform them about their right not to
participate and we do not reprimand or penalize them for doing so.

2. When research participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit, we inform our clients, students or subordinates about equitable
alternative activities that could fulfill their educational or employment goals.

E. Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research

1. We may dispense informed consent only on the following conditions:

1. when we believe that the research would not distress or create harm to participants or general welfare or when our study involves:

i. the study or normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom management methods conducted in educational settings;

ii. only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research for which disclosure of responses would not place participants at risk of
criminal or civil liability or damage their financial standing, employability, or reputation, and confidentiality is protected;

iii. the study of factors related to job or organization effectiveness conducted in organizational settings which would not affect the participants’ employability, and
confidentiality is protected; or,

2. when it is mandated by law or is an institutional regulation.

4|Pa ge
F. Offering Inducements for Research Participation

1. We may fairly compensate participants for the use of their time, energy, and knowledge, unless such compensation is refused in advance.

2. We make reasonable efforts not to offer undue, excessive or, inappropriate reward, financial or other inducements for research participation, which could likely
pressure or coerce participation.

3. When we offer psychological and professional services as an incentive for research participation, it is our duty to clarify the nature of the services, including the
risks, obligations and limitations.

G. Deception in Research

1. We refrain from conducting research involving deception, except:

1. when we have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s significant prospective scientific, educational, medical, or
applied value; and,

2. when effective non-deceptive alternative procedures are not possible.

2. We do not deceive prospective research participants about our study that is reasonably expected to interfere their decision to give informed consent. We ensure
that level of risk, discomfort, or inconvenience that could cause physical pain or severe emotional distress is not withheld from the participants.

3. It is our duty to explain any deception as an integral feature of design and conduct of an experiment to those who participated in research as soon as possible,
preferably at the end of their participation but not later than the end of data gathering.

H. Debriefing

1. We debrief by informing the participants that they have contributed to the body of knowledge and we make sure that they have also learned from their
participation.

2. We give participants an opportunity to obtain the nature, results, and conclusions of the research. We also take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions
participants have about our research, especially when the participants were led to believe that the research has a different purpose.

3. When participants’ trust may have been lost due to incomplete disclosure or temporarily leading participants to believe that the research had a different
purpose, we seek to re- establish trust and assure them that the research procedures were carefully structured and necessary for scientifically valid findings.

4. If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, we take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.

5. When we become aware that our research procedures have harmed a participant, we act to correct and minimize the harm.

5|Pa ge
 6. If after debriefing, the participants decided to withdraw their data, we shall respect and grant their request. The participants have the right to appeal that their
own data, including recordings, be destroyed.

I. Observational Research

We respect the privacy and psychological well-being of persons studied based on observational research. This method is acceptable only when those being observed
would expect to be observed by strangers.

J. Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research

1. We do not use animals in research, except when there is a sufficient reason to say that it is the only way to:
a. further increase understanding of the structures and processes underlying human or

animal behavior;
b. increase understanding of the specific specie used in the study; or
c. eventually augment benefits to the health and welfare of humans or other animals.

2. We comply with current laws, regulations and professional standards when we acquire, care for, use, and dispose animals used in research.

3. We take reasonable steps to ensure that animals used in research are treated humanely and are not exposed to unnecessary discomfort, pain, or disruption. If
possible, a psychologist trained in research methods and experience in care of laboratory animals shall supervise all procedures in researches of this kind.

4. We make sure that all individuals under our supervision have received clear instructions and guidelines in research methods and in care, maintenance, and
handling of animals or specific species being used, to the extent that is appropriate to their role.

5. We use a procedure causing pain, stress, and privation to animals only when:
a. an alternative procedure is unavailable;
b. the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value; and, c. we make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection,
illness, and pain of animal subjects.

6. We perform surgical procedures with appropriate anesthesia and we follow techniques to avoid infection and minimize the pain during and after surgery.

7. Only when it is appropriate that an animal’s life be terminated, then we proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain and in accordance with accepted
procedures.

K . Reporting Research Results

1. Whenever feasible and appropriate, we consult with groups, organizations, or communities being studied the findings of our research so as to increase the
accuracy of interpretation and to minimize the risk of misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misuse.

6|Pa ge
 2. We are cautious when reporting results of our research regarding vulnerable groups or communities and we ensure that the results will not be misinterpreted or
misused in the development of social policy, attitude, and practices.

3. In research involving children, we are cautious when discussing the results with parents, legal guardians, or teachers and we make sure that there is no
misinterpretation or misunderstanding.

4. We do not fabricate data.

5. If we discover significant errors in our published data, we act quickly to correct such errors in a correction, retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication
means.

L. Plagiarism

We do not present any portions of other’s work or data as our own, even if the source is cited occasionally.

M. Publication Credit

1. We take responsibility and credit only for work we have actually done and credit others (including students and research assistants) for work they have actually
performed or to which they have substantially contributed.

2. We ensure that principal authorship and co-authorship accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved,
regardless of their relative status. Mere possession of an institutional position, such as department chair or head of the research unit, does not justify authorship
credit. Minor contributions to the research or to the writing for publications must be acknowledged appropriately, such as in footnotes or an introductory
statement.

3. We do not claim credit or authorship in a publication that is substantially based on our student’s thesis or dissertation if we do not have substantial contributions
to the research beyond our regular duties as thesis/dissertation mentor or advisor. As faculty advisors, we should discuss with students, publication credit at the
outset and throughout the research and publication process based on our relative contributions to the research work.

4. In a multiple-authored article that is partly and/or substantially based on the student’s thesis or dissertation, we shall give appropriate publication credit to the
student based on the student’s contribution relative to the other authors. When the article is mainly based on the student’s thesis or dissertation, we credit the
student with primary authorship.

N. Duplicate Publication of Data

We do not publish data that have been previously published and claim them as original data. However, this does not prohibit republishing of data as long as proper
acknowledgement is clearly stated.

O. Sharing Research Data for Verification

7|Pa ge
It is our duty to share and not to withhold our data to other competent professionals, who seek to verify and reanalyze the research results and substantive claims of our
publication, provided that:

1. the latter obtain prior written agreement for the use of data;

2. the latter intend to use the data solely for the purpose declared;

3. the latter will hold responsibility for costs associated with the release of data; and,

4. confidentiality of participants can be protected.

Unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude such release, then the latter should seek permission from the concerned institution, organization or agency.

P. Reviewers

When we review material submitted for presentation, publication, grant, or research proposal review, we respect the confidentiality and the proprietary rights of those who
submitted it.

Q. Limitations of the Study

1. We acknowledge the limitations of our knowledge, methods, findings, interventions, interpretations, and conclusions.

2. In cases wherein our research touches on social policies and structures of communities, which we do not belong, we thoroughly discuss the limits of our data
with respect to their social policy.

3. We do not conceal disconfirming evidence about our findings and views and we acknowledge alternative hypotheses and explanations.

Science and Scientific Research

What is research? Depending on who you ask, you will likely get very different answers to this seemingly innocuous question. Some people will say that they routinely
research different online websites to find the best place to buy goods or services they want. Television news channels supposedly conduct research in the form of viewer
polls on topics of public interest such as forthcoming elections or government-funded projects. Undergraduate students research the Internet to find the information they
need to complete assigned projects or term papers. Graduate students working on research projects for a professor may see research as collecting or analyzing data
related to their project. Businesses and consultants research different potential solutions to remedy organizational problems such as a supply chain bottleneck or to
identify customer purchase patterns. However, none of the above can be considered “scientific research” unless: (1) it contributes to a body of science, and (2) it follows
the scientific method. This chapter will examine what these terms mean.

Science

8|Pa ge
What is science?

Etymologically, the word “science” is derived from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge. Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any
area of inquiry that is acquired using “the scientific method” (the scientific method is described further below). Science can be grouped into two broad categories: natural
science and social science. Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light, objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the
human body. Natural sciences can be further classified into physical sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and others. Physical sciences consist of disciplines such as
physics (the science of physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter), and astronomy (the science of celestial objects). Earth sciences consist of disciplines such as
geology (the science of the earth). Life sciences include disciplines such as biology (the science of human bodies) and botany (the science of plants). In contrast, social
science is the science of people or collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective behaviors. Social sciences can
be classified into disciplines such as psychology (the science of human behaviors), sociology (the science of social groups), and economics (the science of firms,
markets, and economies).

Sciences can also be classified based on their purpose. Basic sciences, also called pure sciences, are those that explain the most basic objects and forces, relationships
between them, and laws governing them. Examples include physics, mathematics, and biology. Applied sciences, also called practical sciences, are sciences that apply
scientific knowledge from basic sciences in a physical environment. For instance, engineering is an applied science that applies the laws of physics and chemistry for
practical applications such as building stronger bridges or fuel efficient combustion engines, while medicine is an applied science that applies the laws of biology for
solving human ailments. Both basic and applied sciences are required for human development. However, applied sciences cannot stand on their own right, but instead
relies on basic sciences for its progress. Of course, the industry and private enterprises tend to focus more on applied sciences given their practical value, while
universities study both basic and applied sciences.

Scientific Knowledge

The purpose of science is to create scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge refers to a generalized body of laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or behavior of
interest that are acquired using the scientific method. Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors, while theories are systematic explanations of the
underlying phenomenon or behavior. For instance, in physics, the Newtonian Laws of Motion describe what happens when an object is in a state of rest or motion
(Newton’s First Law), what force is needed to move a stationary object or stop a moving object (Newton’s Second Law), and what happens when two objects collide
(Newton’s Third Law). Collectively, the three laws constitute the basis of classical mechanics – a theory of moving objects. Likewise, the theory of optics explains the
properties of light and how it behaves in different media, electromagnetic theory explains the properties of electricity and how to generate it, quantum mechanics explains
the properties of subatomic particles, and thermodynamics explains the properties of energy and mechanical work.

The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that can explain natural or social phenomena, or in other words, build scientific knowledge. It is
important to understand that this knowledge may be imperfect or even quite far from the truth. Sometimes, there may not be a single universal truth, but rather an
equilibrium of “multiple truths.” We must understand that the theories, upon which scientific knowledge is based, are only explanations of a particular phenomenon, as
suggested by a scientist. As such, there may be good or poor explanations, depending on the extent to which those explanations fit well with reality, and consequently,
there may be good or poor theories. The progress of science is marked by our progression over time from poorer theories to better theories, through better observations
using more accurate instruments and more informed logical reasoning.

We arrive at scientific laws or theories through a process of logic and evidence. Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are the two, and only two, pillars upon which
scientific knowledge is based. In science, theories and observations are interrelated and cannot exist without each other. Theories provide meaning and significance to
what we observe, and observations help validate or refine existing theory or construct new theory. Any other means of knowledge acquisition, such as faith or authority
cannot be considered science.

9|Pa ge
It is important to understand that theory-building (inductive research) and theory- testing (deductive research) are both critical for the advancement of science. Elegant
theories are not valuable if they do not match with reality. Likewise, mountains of data are also useless until they can contribute to the construction to meaningful theories.
Rather than viewing these two processes in a circular relationship, as shown in Figure 1.1, perhaps they can be better viewed as a helix, with each iteration between
theory and data contributing to better explanations of the phenomenon of interest and better theories. Though both inductive and deductive research are important for the
advancement of science, it appears that inductive (theory-building) research is more valuable when there are few prior theories or explanations, while deductive (theory-
testing) research is more productive when there are many competing theories of the same phenomenon and researchers are interested in knowing which theory works
best and under what circumstances.

Theory building and theory testing are particularly difficult in the social sciences, given the imprecise nature of the theoretical concepts, inadequate tools to measure
them, and the presence of many unaccounted factors that can also influence the phenomenon of interest. It is also very difficult to refute theories that do not work. For
instance, Karl Marx’s theory of communism as an effective means of economic production withstood for decades, before it was finally discredited as being inferior to
capitalism in promoting economic growth and social welfare. Erstwhile communist economies like the Soviet Union and China eventually moved toward more capitalistic
economies characterized by profit-maximizing private enterprises. However, the recent collapse of the mortgage and financial industries in the United States
demonstrates that capitalism also has its flaws and is not as effective in fostering economic growth and social welfare as previously presumed. Unlike theories in the
natural sciences, social science theories are rarely perfect, which provides numerous opportunities for researchers to improve those theories or build their own alternative
theories.
Conducting scientific research, therefore, requires two sets of skills – theoretical and methodological – needed to operate in the theoretical and empirical levels
respectively. Methodological skills ("know-how") are relatively standard, invariant across disciplines, and easily acquired through doctoral programs. However, theoretical
skills ("know-what") is considerably harder to master, requires years of observation and reflection, and are tacit skills that cannot be “taught” but rather learned though
experience. All of the greatest scientists in the history of mankind, such as Galileo, Newton, Einstein, Neils Bohr, Adam Smith, Charles Darwin, and Herbert Simon, were
master theoreticians, and they are remembered for the theories they postulated that transformed the course of science. Methodological skills are needed to be an
ordinary researcher, but theoretical skills are needed to be an extraordinary researcher!

Scientific Method

In the preceding sections, we described science as knowledge acquired through a scientific method. So what exactly is the “scientific method”? Scientific method refers to
a standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge, such as how to make valid observations, how to interpret results, and how to generalize those results.
The scientific method allows researchers to independently and impartially test preexisting theories and prior findings, and subject them to open debate, modifications, or
enhancements. The scientific method must satisfy four key characteristics:

Logical: Scientific inferences must be based on logical principles of reasoning.

Confirmable: Inferences derived must match with observed evidence.

Repeatable: Other scientists should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain similar, if not identical, results.

10 | P a g e
 Scrutinizable: The procedures used and the inferences derived must withstand critical scrutiny (peer review) by other scientists. Any branch of
inquiry that does not allow the scientific method to test its basic laws or theories cannot be called “science.” For instance, theology (the study of religion) is not
science because theological ideas (such as the presence of God) cannot be tested by independent observers using a logical, confirmable, repeatable, and
scrutinizable. Similarly, arts, music, literature, humanities, and law are also not considered science, even though they are creative and worthwhile endeavors in
their own right. The scientific method, as applied to social sciences, includes a variety of research approaches, tools, and techniques, for collecting and
analyzing qualitative or quantitative data. These methods include laboratory experiments, field surveys, case research, ethnographic research, action research,
and so forth. Much of this book is devoted to learning about these different methods. However, recognize that the scientific method operates primarily at the
empirical level of research, i.e., how to make observations and analyze these observations. Very little of this method is directly pertinent to the theoretical level,
which is really the more challenging part of scientific research.

Types of Scientific Research

Depending on the purpose of research, scientific research projects can be grouped into three types: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Exploratory research is
often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: (1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon, problem, or behavior,
(2) to generate some initial ideas (or “hunches”) about that phenomenon, or (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study regarding that phenomenon.
For instance, if the citizens of a country are generally dissatisfied with governmental policies regarding during an economic recession, exploratory research may be
directed at measuring the extent of citizens’ dissatisfaction, understanding how such dissatisfaction is manifested, such as the frequency of public protests, and the
presumed causes of such dissatisfaction, such as ineffective government policies in dealing with inflation, interest rates, unemployment, or higher taxes. Such research
may include examination of publicly reported figures, such as estimates of economic indicators, such as gross domestic product (GDP), unemployment, and consumer
price index, as archived by third-party sources, obtained through interviews of experts, eminent economists, or key government officials, and/or derived from studying
historical examples of dealing with similar problems. This research may not lead to a very accurate understanding of the target problem, but may be worthwhile in scoping
out the nature and extent of the problem and serve as a useful precursor to more in-depth research.

Descriptive research is directed at making careful observations and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of interest. These observations must be based on the
scientific method (i.e., must be replicable, precise, etc.), and therefore, are more reliable than casual observations by untrained people. Examples of descriptive research
are tabulation of demographic statistics by the United States Census Bureau or employment statistics by the Bureau of Labor, who use the same or similar instruments
for estimating employment by sector or population growth by ethnicity over multiple employment surveys or censuses. If any changes are made to the measuring
instruments, estimates are provided with and without the changed instrumentation to allow the readers to make a fair before-and-after comparison regarding population or
employment trends. Other descriptive research may include chronicling ethnographic reports of gang activities among adolescent youth in urban populations, the
persistence or evolution of religious, cultural, or ethnic practices in select communities, and the role of technologies such as Twitter and instant messaging in the spread
of democracy movements in Middle Eastern countries.

11 | P a g e
Explanatory research seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or behaviors. While descriptive research examines the what, where, and when of a
phenomenon, explanatory research seeks answers to why and how types of questions. It attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying causal factors and
outcomes of the target phenomenon. Examples include understanding the reasons behind adolescent crime or gang violence, with the goal of prescribing strategies to
overcome such societal ailments. Most academic or doctoral research belongs to the explanation category, though some amount of exploratory and/or descriptive
research may also be needed during initial phases of academic research. Seeking explanations for observed events requires strong theoretical and interpretation skills,
along with intuition, insights, and personal experience. Those who can do it well are also the most prized scientists in their disciplines.

Preliminary Concepts

Variables

A variable is a set of related events that can take on more than one value. The term is used in research methods much as you used it in algebra and physics classes. In
physics, a variable m might represent a concept such as mass. Masscan have many different values, and in an equation like F=ma, you might give m a particular value in
order to solve the equation for force. In psychology, a variable represents a psychological concept. The concept itself may highly abstract and not observable but the
variable is something observable and measurable that allowsus to do research on the concept. For example,“intelligence” is an unobservable concept but IQ is a number
that is derived from a test. IQ is a variable because it is observable and can assume more than one value. Some variables used in psychological research, such as
gender or age, or not abstract at all.

Imagine a favorite experiment of high school science fair project: the effect of distraction on retention while studying for a test. In this experiment, distraction and

12 | P a g e
information retention are concepts that can be represented by variables such as the presence/absence of noise and score on an exam. The noise variable might be given
two values by the research (e.g., noise present, noise absent). The exam performance variable could have a lot of different values depending on the type of test given
(e.g., on a 100 point test, there are 101 possible values). Psychological research is all about variables and values. In the next sections I discuss the most important types
of variables.

Independent Variable

An independent variable (IV) is directly controlled by the researcher. In the science fair example, noise is the independent variable. In experiments, the IV is carefully
controlled to have just certain values so that the researcher can determine how it affects other variables. Usually when researchers want to control the values of an IV
they manipulate it. Manipulation refers to the researcher’s complete control over the values of the variable. For example, the researcher controls whether or not a
particular person in the distraction-retention experiment studies in a noisy or a quiet environment (the person is not allowed to choose). When this control of the IV is
accomplished by manipulation, the IV is called the “manipulated independent variable.” Manipulated IVs have a special meaning in research because they are used in
experiments (discussed in a later section) to show cause and effect relationships.

Some independent variables are based on preexisting qualities of the subjects rather than manipulations. Such IVs are termed classification or demographic variables.
Classification variables include categories that cannot be manipulated but are inherent characteristics of the subject, such as age, gender, religious affiliation, or ethnicity.
Some of these characteristics are capable of change, such as age and religion, but not due to the actions of a researcher in a study. Classification vari- ables may be
assumed to have causal effects, but because they are not controlled by the experimenter, one can never be sure.

The word “independent” is used here to imply that no other variables in the experiment affects the IV, not that it is somehow completely independent of anything; the
research does control it. Most experiments include more than one IV, e.g., the noise study would be more interesting if a second IV, difficulty of the material to be
retained, were also included.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is affected by the independent variable is termed the dependent variable (DV). The manipulation of the IV is hypothesized to affect the value of the DV,
so the DV is at the effect end of the cause-effect relationship. In the example, score on an exam is the DV and, if everything was done just right, we can assume that the
manipulated IV (noise) was the cause of the observed test score. Much of the story of research methods is about the creation, measurement, analysis and interpretation
of IVs and DVs, and you will see these terms continually throughout the book. “Doing everything just right” is the challenge of all research and deter- mines whether or

13 | P a g e
not its results make any sense.

Research Designs

Many research designs have been developed in psychology over the last century. In this section I review only the most important ones. You should be able to see that
every design has pros and cons, and that the best research program uses a combination of different designs to develop and test a theory.

Experimental Design

The most-favored design in modern psychology is the experiment. When the term experiment is used in research design, it refers to a specific method as described in
this section, not generically to any kind of empirical research. Experiments are special because they are the only kind of design that can, if everything is done just right,
unambiguously demonstrate a cause-effect relationship. To qualify for an experiment, a study must have the following minimal characteristics:

1.The independent variable must be completely controlled

2.The sample of research participants (subjects) must be randomly chosen

3.The research participants (subjects) must be assigned randomly to conditions

Requirement 1 is that the IV must be carefully and cleanly controlled by the researcher, usually through careful manipulation. For example, in the distraction- retention
study, the experimenter must control the subjects’ experience of a noisy (or quiet) environment. In the simplest possible experiment, one group of subjects would be
placed in a noisy environment while studying and the other in a quiet environment. The noisy group would be called the experimental group or the treatment group and
the quiet group would be called the control group or comparison group. Only the research setting can be allowed to control the noise, and every detail of the environment
in the experimental and control groups must be absolutely identical except the presence of noise.

The second requirement is that the subjects must be randomly chosen. The group of subjects that will participate in the experiment is called a sample. The sample must
be chosen randomly from the target population. The target population is the group of people (or animals in animal research) to which we want to generalize the research
findings. In other words, once we successfully perform an experiment, we want to be able to say that the results of the study apply to everyone in the target population,
not just to the sample of people that we used in the study. If the sample is chosen randomly from the target population, we can say that the results generalize to that
population.

The third requirement, that subjects are assigned randomly to conditions, is extremely important. Conditions refers to the groups of subjects who receive dif- ferent values

14 | P a g e
of the IV: noise condition, no-noise condition. By randomly assigning subjects to conditions we can be sure that there is no difference between the peo- ple in the different
conditions. That way, if the IV does have an effect on the DV, we can assume that it’s not because the people in the conditions were different.

Confounding is an important term in research methods. When a variableis confounded it has lost its original, pure meaning by becoming tied to something else. When
this happens, you can’t know for sure whether the IV affects the DV or something else that has become attached to the IV affects the DV.

The solution to this problem in the present example is to randomly assigned each subject to one of the conditions just as he or she walks in the door using some kind of
random method, like flipping a coin. Both noise and no- noise condition subjects would be run throughout the day.

Experiments are very useful in providing the control and precision requiredto show causal relationships. No other method can do this as well. Theproblem with
experiments is that this control and precision come at a costin realism and in the range of phenomena that can be practically studied.Although experiments can be
conducted in field settings, where “field” refersto a natural setting outside the laboratory, the cleanest experiments are conducted in unnatural lab settings. These
unnatural settings reduce the ecological validity of the research: the extent to which the research realistically represents a normal human activity. When ecological validity
is low, the results of even the best experiments are not necessarily interesting or convincing to psychologists or to non-psychologists who use our research.

Quasi-Experimental Design

“Quasi” means “to some degree” or “almost,” so a quasi-experimental design is al- most an experimental design. In such designs, one or more of the requirements of the
true experiment is missing. However, if performed carefully and if a variety of possible threats to the study’s validity are attended to, a quasi-experimental study may be
able to demonstrate a causal relationship. Quasi-experimental research is most often performed in natural settings where the research question is very im- portant but a
true experiment is impossible or too expensive. For example, much educational research is quasi-experimental because it must be conducted on real students in real
schools without disrupting the educational process.

Correlational Design

In much research there is no hope of controlling or manipulating the independent variable, so instead all of the variables are simply measured. For example, all survey
research is comprised of measured variables such as answers to opinion questions. If you wanted to know if a personality trait affects behavior in a cer- tain situation, you
would have to measure the trait and observe the behavior; you cannot manipulate the trait. (Actually, some research does manipulate personality traits, but only in short-
term, weak ways.) A great deal of social science research is conducted in this way because no manipulation of the variables is possible. A correlational design is a
research method that examines the relationship between two or more measured variables. Causal relationships are very difficult to prove in correlational research due to

15 | P a g e
the researcher’s lack of control over the independent variable. Indeed, it often unclear which of the variables is the IV and which is the DV.

Where Data Come From

Research designs, as presented in the previous section, concern the types of variables that are used in research and the extent to which the researcher has control over
these variables. The manner in which data are obtained for use in these de- signs is partially, but not completely, independent of the designs themselves. In this section I
present some of the most common sources of data and research settings.

Laboratory Research

Research conducted in special facilities designed for careful instrumentation and isolation from the complexity of natural life is termed laboratory research. Inthe natural
sciences, labs are places where equipment is constructed and used. This is also true in psychology, although psychology labs are frequently not much more than an
empty room. What distinguishes the empty room lab from the “real world” is that all of the activity in the room is focused on performing a research study and whatever
would normally happen in the room is not happening during the research. The isolation of the lab from the real world facilitates the control required to conduct
experiments (in the formal meaning of this word).

This advantage of the laboratory in allowing great control is also its weaknessin removing the research from natural settings and activities. Labs are therefore usually low
in ecological validity, as discussed in a previous section of this chapter. Another disadvantage of the lab setting is that the research subjects are highly (humans) or dimly
(rats) aware that they are in a special place in which their behavior is being observed and strange things could happen. As a result of this awareness, behavior in lab
research can be not only unnatural, but also distorted in such a way that the experiment loses some control. The ways in subject awareness poses a problem for
research are discussed in a later chapter.

Field Research

Research in natural settings in which the subject performs normal behaviors is termed, most generally, field research. The same empty room used in a lab study can also
be used in a field study if the subjects are in it for normal reasons and perform normal activities unaware that they are in a research study. When experiments are
performed in the field they are called field experiments. Non-experimental research in the field is termed a field study, and this method includes observational research
(see next section).

The realism of field research is balanced by the problems of maintaining control, so good experiments are more difficult to perform. Many field experiments are therefore
quasi-experiments.

16 | P a g e
Observational Research

Psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists employ a type of field research called observational research to obtain information about real-world behavior. In controlled
observational research, the re- searcher sets up the situation then observes the natural behavior that occurs in this situation. In this way a certain degree of control is
imposed on the situation so that behavior takes place within a narrower range than it would otherwise. An extreme version of controlled observation is the simulation
(discussed in a later section). Most con- trolled observation research is designed to allow the researcher to obtain detailed information about natural behavior that can be
quantified in some way, that is, represented as numbers. For example, the author performed research in Taiwan in which he video taped junior high school students
solving problems, then coded each and every phrase they uttered on tape in order to understand the communication strategies they used to come to a solution.

In naturalistic observation the researcher does not create the situation, but rather observes normal, ongoing behavior. The observed behavior is also quantified, but it’s
more difficult to obtain as much detail due to the lack of any control. A classic example of this type of research is the Six Cultures Study, performed in the 1960s by
anthropologists and cross-cultural psychologists with a large research grant from a US government agency. In one part of this large study, observers watched and coded
the natural play activities of children in six cultures over a period of several months. The coded activities were used to understand the relationships between cultural
characteristics such as family structure and the personalities of children.

In some social science disciplines, a proper research study requires the researcher to live among or interact closely with the subjects. Cultural anthropologists favor
ethnographic field research, an observational technique in which the researcher lives among the “natives” (this term is never used!) for an extended period of time,
learning their language and practicing some of their customs. The goal of this type of research is to learn the culture from the people’s point of view and at the same time
to understand it in terms of the theories and models of scientific anthropology. The most famous or infamous example of this type of research is Napoleon Chagnon’s
dissertation research among the Yanamamö in the jungle region bordering Brazil and Venezuela.

A similar type of research, participant observation, places the re- searcher in the social setting of the subjects under study, performing the same activities as the subjects.
For example, if the researcher wants to study a social setting such as “used car dealerships,” he or she becomes a used care salesman for a while.

These types of research offer virtually no control but can be used to obtain rich descriptive information on which formal theories can be based, and can be used to obtain
specific kinds of information to test the validity of an existing theory in a new setting.

Surveys and Self-Reports

Research that obtains information from subjects by asking them to report on their behaviors, attitudes, values, beliefs, and feelings is generically called survey research.
The term “self-report research” is also used. Asking someone to tell the researcher what he or she did, plans to do, would do, wants to do, or might have done is distinctly

17 | P a g e
different from observing his or her actual behavior. Behavioral reports are sometimes called behavior measures to distinguish them from real behavior. Likewise, asking
somewhat what he or she thinks, thought, expects to think, should have thought, or ought to think is different than the thinking itself. Reports of this kind are sometimes
called semantic, declarative reports because they depend on the respondent’s ability to formulate the reported thought in consciousness then articulate it either in words
or through a questionnaire or survey instrument. Behavior can often be observed but the problem with internal constructs like beliefs and values is that they are not
directly observable; the subject must tell us. This reporting of internal states to the research has many problems, but few reliable alternatives exist.

Several kinds of survey methods are used, the most common of which is the questionnaire. A variety of questionnaire types have been developed since they be- come
popular in the 1920s and 1930s. Details about questionnaires are presented in a later chapter. The three most common types are the Likert scale, the 7-point scale, and
true/false items.

Likert scales ask respondents to rate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a statement. The use of explicit item response anchors (“strongly agree”) makes is
easy to report the results in a familiar way, so Likert scales are used in opinion polling:

The drinking age should be raised to 35.

___ Strongly agree ___ Somewhat agree ___ Neutral___ Somewhat disagree ___ Strongly disagree

Seven-point scales often require the respondent to rate a concept on a bipolar scale by placing a check mark on one of the lines. Many studies use more or fewer than
seven response categories.

Pizza:good ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ bad

I would purchase a frozen pizza from Publix on a Wednesday evening on the way home after school:

Definitely would

definitely would purchase ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ not purchase

True-false measures are used in personality tests and occasionally in other types of surveys:

I am careful to step over the cracks in the sidewalk.

___ true ___ false

18 | P a g e
I wash my hands after using a Microsoft product.

___ true ___ false

Survey methods also employ interviews and focus groups. Interviews that are used to collect self-report research data are often highly structured, that is, the interviewer
follows a predetermined script and is careful to obtain usable answers.

Q: How many different tasks do you normally perform during a typical day at work? A: Really quite a few

Q:Would you say more than 10 or fewer than 10? A: I think about 6

Q: Could you please try to name those 6 tasks?

A: Well, sometimes I write exams that no one can understand, and sometimes I give registration advice that is completely wrong, and on Tuesdays I teach nonsense to
the clinical graduate students, and ....

A focus group is a small group of people brought together to determine what members of an identifiable population (“likely voters,” “people in the market to buy a car”)
think about an issue. The focus group is lead by trained facilitators who attempt to tease out the members’ real thoughts about the issue at handin a structured and
systematic manner. Focus groups present an efficient way for getting a general idea about what people think about an issue, but do not provide good research data.

Simulations

An interesting but infrequently used technique for gathering information is the controlled simulation. In a simulation, the researcher creates the main features of a real
world setting then places subjects in the setting performing activities typical of that situation. The goal of the research is to determine the effect of the situation on the
subjects’s behavior. The most famous simulation performed in psychology is the Stanford Prison Study. Philip Zimbardo, now president of the American Psychological
Association, performed this experiment in 1971 in the basementof the Stanford University psychology department. He created a prison in the basement and randomly
assigned a group of male volunteers to be inmates or guards. He found that the physical and social situation of a prison produces pris- on-like behavior in normal people:
rebellion, cruelty, and psychological dysfunction. Other simulations evidence similar findings, pointing to the power of the situation over the influence of personality in
many social behaviors.

Simulations contribute wonderful information about the possibilities of human behavior, but they do not yield systematic research data that can, in themselves, test a
theory.

19 | P a g e
 Archival Research

Sometimes the researcher can answer a theoretical question by digging up existing data from archival sources. Because humans in cultures record so much of what

they do, this accumulated information presents many research opportunities. For example, a study by Keith Simonton tested the theory that political leadership in
revolutionary times requires single-minded devotion to the cause but leadership of an established peace-time government requires complex, multifaceted thinking. He
collected the speeches given by revolutionary leaders before and after the revolution and analyzed them for the amount of cognitive complexity they displayed. He found
that successful revolutionaries were simple minded zealots and successful peacetime leaders were complex thinkers. Successful revolutionaries who become more
complex after the revolution (Fidel Castro) were successful in office but those who did not (Leon Trotsky) were unsuccessful. (Josef Stalin had Trotsky’s head cut off in
Mexico, indicating a lack of success.) Simonton’s study also illustrates the use of content analysis. In order to determine if a speech was complex or simple, judges had to
read the speech and analyze its content according to a predetermined set of rules.

Qualitative Research

Social science and psychology are suddenly becoming very interested in qualitative research, as evidenced by the many books that have been published on this topic in
the last five or so years. Qualitative research is a broad umbrella that includesa variety of methods that have in common an attempt to find the “meaning” of a
phenomenon without resorting to methods that separate the researcher from the subject or that reduce the subject to quantitative (numerical) values. Ethnographic field
research and participant observation are types of qualitative research. Other types include analysis of cultural artifacts such as art and poetry, dream analysis, analyzing
the layers of meaning in literature and myth, analyzing the hidden meanings in verbal interaction, case studies (looking at just one person’s story) and more. To most
psychologists, these methods are considered useful for generating ideas but not adequate for rigorous testing of theories or identifying causal relationships. However, a
minority of psychologists appreciate the ability of qualitative methods to reveal the richness of the human experience in a way that quantitative research cannot (and is
not intended to) do.

“How much fun you will have doing research depends much on the beliefs and expectations you hold about it. So if you carry happy thoughts and good
intentions, there is a good chance that you will enjoy this activity”.

ACTIVITIES/TASKS:
1. As a researcher, what skills do you need to be able to effectively conduct a research?
2. What are empirical questions? How will you be able to conduct a research raising various empirical questions?
3. Why is the use of statistical tool important in research?
4. Is it important for a researcher to observe the steps in the research process? Why?

20 | P a g e
 5. Give the different ways in answering questions.
6. How do you report answers to research?
7. What ethics in research should be observed by researchers?
8. What controversial ethical issues are evident in Milgram Study?
9. What are the ethical guidelines, principles, and code of conduct in research?
10. How does the guideline help the researcher become more vigilant and concerned about the ethics of research?

REFERENCES, READINGS, and OTHER Goodwin, J. (2012). Research in psychology (Eight edition). Hoboken, NY: Wiley.
PERTINENT INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:
Adanza, Estela G. Research Methods: Principles and Applications. Rex Book Store, (2005)
ASSESSMENT METHOD: Essay, Write shop, Library works
ASSESSMENT:
ASSESSMENT EVIDENCE: Matrix of Research topic
GRADING: Give the distribution of marks between coursework and examination.
60% - Coursework 40% - Examination
Grading System and Equivalency
Percent Number Descriptive
99-100% 1.00 Superior
96-98 1.25 Excellent
93-95 1.50 Very Good
90-92 1.75 Good
87-89 2.00 High Average
84-86 2.25 Average
81-83 2.50 Fair
78-80 2.75 Low Average
75-77 3.00 Pass
Below 75 5.00 Fail
Name of Professor: Dr. Hazel S. Martinez Signature
Date:

21 | P a g e