Surveying and Levelling

...
«~FACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION
In meeti"' ~ the call for a new edition, the opportunity has

been taken to revise' the supject-matter thoroughly with
further additions of a few typical problems and diagrams.
The author gratefully acknowldges his debt to the'

authors of a number of standard books and text-books on
the subject, which he has found of irnmense use in the
compilation of this ·volume. The aut/lor also desires to
'express his thanks to the authorities of the Poona, Bombay,
Karnatak and Gujrat Universities fo~ their kind permission
to reproduce questions with the answers of the numeric at
)roblems from their examination papers.
Poona
June, 1957 } T. P. KAN~TKAR
(VI)
Page'
.. Suveyor's Compass .. , 145
Bearings of Lines 147
/Examples ... 156
Local Attraction 161
Examples .. , 165
Traversing with the Chain and Compass 169
Plotting Traverse Survey 171
Magnetic Declination 177
Examples .. , 180
Precautions in Using Compass 183
Sources of Error in Compass Observations 184
Testing the Compass 185
Theodolite 187
Optics 196
Qualities of the Telescope 205
Temporary Adjustments of TheOdolite 209'
Measurement of AngLes 21Z
Lining-in ... 221
Prolonging a Straight Line 222
Balancing-in 224·
Traverse Survey with the Theodolite 229
Checks in Traversing 237
Examples ... 240
Sources of Error in Theodolite Work 248
Traverse Computations 256
Computation of Area of Closed Traverse 266
"_/' Examples ... 276,
Box Sextant 288
Testing and Adjusting the Box Sextant 295
\,./~ Problems ... 298
CHAPTER V. PLANE TABLE SURVEYIN(
Plane Table 305 '
Methods of Plane Tabling 310
The Two-point Problem 315
The Three-point Problem 316
Problems ... 325,
CHAPTER VI. COMPUTATION OF AREAS
Computation of Areas from Field Notes .' 326
Computation of Areas from Plan .,. () 327,'
IJ
( VII J
Page
/Examples ... 33a
Planimeter 341
Examples .,. 352
Problems .,. 357
CHAPTER VII. LEVELLING
Definiti'Ons of Terms used in Levelling ..r-- 360
Different Types of Level 364
Different Types of Staff 865
Temporary Adjustments of Level 369
Principles of Levelling 377
Reduction of Levels ... 380
Booking the Staff Readings 382
,Examples ... 388
. ,Classification of Levelling 393
Profile Levelling 394
Cross-sectioning 402
Curvature and Refraction 406
f'''Examples .. , 410
Reciprocal Levelling 414
:--Examples ... 416
Preci~ Levelling ... 420
Levelll(g Difficulties 421
Barometric Levelling 426
Hypsometry 42£
Errors in Levelling ... 43~
Determination of Sensitiveness of the
Bubble Tube 43f
Examples ... 481
Contouring ..., 44J
'Characteristics of Contour Lines
Locating Contours ... 44
Interpolation of Contours 44
Contour Drawing 45
Setting Grade Stakes ,.
..• ]
Shooting-in Grade ... 4~

Establishing Grade Contours 4l
Setting Slope Stakes 4:
Setting out Grades for Sewers ... 41
Boning-in 41
Problems ... 41
(VIII)
Pal
CHAPTER VIII. COMPUTATION OF vOLUMES
Measurement from Cross-sections 4681
Extent of Earthwork 478
Prismoidal Correction 483,
Curvature Correction for Volumes 484
Determination of Capacity of Reservoir 485
Volume of Borrow Pits 486
'" Examples ... ' 487
Problems .. . 510'
CHAPTER IX. ADJUSTMENTS OF J;EyELS
Adjustment of the Dumpy Level 51h
Examples '" 519'
Adjustment of Cooke's Reversible Level 531
Adjustment of Cushing's Level 534
Adjustment of the Wye Level 535
Aljustment of the Tilting Level 538
Adiustment of the Zeiss Level 540
Parallel-plate Micrometer 542
Problems .,. 543
CHAPTER X. MINOR INSTRUMENTS
The Hand Level ," 546
The Abney Level... 547
De Lisle's Clinometer 550
Watkin's Mirror Clinometer ... 552
The Foot-rule Clinometer 553
The Ceylon G;hat Tracer 555
The Indian Pattern Clinometer 557
Enlarging and Reducing plans 559
Proportional compasses ," 561
Pantagraph ." '. 562
Eidograph 563
Determination of the Meridian 566
v'" Problems ... ." .. , ." ... 568
CHAPTER XI. TRIGONOMETRICAL L~VELLING
Indirect Levelling 569
Levelling on Steep Ground 571
Methods 573
Examples ... 579
Problems 587
University Examination Questions ," I
Index . ..
SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
I'
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Definition:-4.. 3;. .~.ii...th6.ad. of making such measure-
ments as will det:ermine the relative positions of points on the
surface of the earth in order that the shape and extent of any
portion of the earth's surface may be ascertained and delineated
on a map or plan. It is essentially a process of determining
positions of points in a horizontal plane.
Levelling is the art of determining and representing the
relative heights or elevations of different points on the surface
of the earth. It is the process of determining positions of points
in a vertical plane.
Surveying and levelEng are frequently considered as dis-
tinct operations. However, in its comprehensive sense, the
,term surveying includes levelli~.
I Object of Survey :-The ~imary object of a survey is the
\preparation of a plan or map. The results of surveys when plotted
and drawn on paper constitute a plan. (A plan-is, therefore, the
representation to some scale, of the ground and the objects upon
;t as projected on a horizontal plane which is represented by the
plane of the paper on which the plan is drawn) The representation
"s called a map, if the scale is small, while it is called a plan, if the
e.
calc is large', g. a map of India, a plan of an ~state ora building.
On a plan, horizontal distances only are shown. Sometimes,
owever, vertical distances are also represented approximately
hy means of contour lines, hachures, or other systems. Vertical
l\tanceg.,are correctly shown by means of vertical sections, called
rieily, sections.
Pri~~ry Division of Surveying :-Surveying may be divi-
d into two general classes, viz. (a) Geodetic and (b) Plane.
(a) Geodetic Sun eying :-In geodetic surveying, also
,Jed tr~{:{on(metrical surveying, it- is necessary to take into
2 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
account the curvature of the earth, since large distances and

areas are covered. Since the shape ()f the earth is spheroidal,
the ]jne connecting any two points on the surface of the earth
.8
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
is curved; or an arc of a great, circle, as in Fig. 1, if the earth
is assumed to be a perfect sphere. The figure formed by the
lines joining three points on the mean surfacc di the earth -is a
spherical triangle. The lines forming its sides are arcs of great
circles and the angles are spherical. Thus in Fig. 2, ABC is
the spherical triangle, and 40' B o' and Co are the spherical/
angles. If the curvature of the earth is ignored, the figur.¢
formed is a plane triangle and the lines forming its sides afe
straight lines as represented by the dotted lines in the ~re.
The corresponding angles of the plane triangle are denoted by a,
b, and c. I!, tperefore, involves s~erical trigonometry. It is
characterized by (i) the large distances and areas, (ii) the use of
very refined instruments, (iii) the USe of very refined methods
of observation and adjustment, and (iv) high precision.
The object of geodetic surveys is to determine the precL
positions on the surface of the earth, 0.(' a system of widely distal:
points which form control stations to which surveys such
engineering, topographical, cadastral, etc., may be referr{
Such surveys are conducted only through the agencies of GOV(
ments. In India they are conducted by the Survey of II ,
Department.
(b) Plane Surveying :-In plalle surveying the cunatl
of the earth is not taken into aCCOl:lnt, as the surveys exte
over small areas. -The earth's surface is considered as a pIal
the line connecting any two points as a straight line, and
INTRODUCTION 8
angles of polygons as plane angles. It, therefore. involves

knowledge of geometry and pl£tne trigonometry. The degree of
llCcurocyreqitired in this type of surveying is comparatively low.
As a rough estimate, American surveyors put the limit at 100 sq•
. es for treatinO' the surve s as lane. However, the controlling
factor s lOul be the degree of precision rather than the extent
of areas, since plane methods are frequently employed for surveys
of areas of much greater extent when great accuracy is not
required.
It may here be noted that the difference in length between
the arc alld the subtended ,chord on the surface of the earth is
only about o· 05 ft., in II t miles, 0·5 ft. in 23 miles, and 1 ft.
in 34i miles. Similarly, the difference between the sum of the
angles of a spherical triangle on the earth's surface and that of
the angles of the corresponding plane triangle is only one second
for every 75· 5 sq. miles of area.
/Classiftcation :-Surveys may be classified in a variety
of ways:
,I Classification based upon the nature of the field of survey :
(a) Land Surveys. -
(b) Marine or Navigation Surveys. i.../""-'/
(c) Astronomical Surveys.
::11 Classification based upon the o,!.jecf__ of survey: /
(i) Arc.ha:ological Survfys, for",unea~thing relics of
antIqmty. '" ,'. t.""
(ii) Geological Surveys for determining different strata in .
the earth's crust. ,_,../'"
(iii) Mine Surveys for exploring mineral wealth, such as
gold, copper, coal, etc.
(iv) Military Surveys for determining points of strategic
importance both offensive and defensive.
Classification based upon the methods employed in survey:
(_,) Triangulation Surveys. .
(bj Traverse Surveys.
Classification based upon the instruments employed :
(i) Chain Surveys.
(ii) Theodolite Surveys.
4 SURVEYIKG AND LEVELLING
(iii) Tacheometric Surveys.

(iv) Compass Surveys.
(v) Plane Table Surveys.
(vi) PllOtographic and Aerial Surveys.
Land sllTveys may be furthcr sub-divided into the following
classes:
(a) Topographielll Surveys for determining the natural
. features ora country Such as hills, valleys, rivers, nallas, lakes,
woods, etc., and also, the artificial features such as roads, rail-
ways, canals, buildings, towns, villages, etc.
(b) Cadastral Survey( in which additional details such'
as ~undarjes of fields, hous~ and othcr properties, path ways,
!U'e determined-.
(c) City Surveys fOJ: laying out plots and constructing st.reets,
water ~ply syst_ems, al1d sC'wers-.-- -----~
(d) Engineering Survevs_ for determining quantiti~s, and
for collectii'i'g data for the design of engineering works such as
roads, railways, reseryoirs,~or works in connection with water
supply, sewerage, etc. .) ~ .
Engineering Surveys may 6e furCler sub-divided into:
(i) r:<!,eonnaissance Surveys for determining the feasibility
and rough cost of the scheme.
(ii) Preliminary Surveys for collecting more precise data
to choose the best location for the work and to
cstimate the exact quantities and costs.
(iii) Location Surveys for setting out the work on the
ground.
Uses of Surveys :--Sun'eying may be regarded as all art
and science of map making. The arts of surveying and map-
ping have been practised from very ancient times and their
application has become increasingly important as tin1e has
progressed. The earliest surveys were chiefly confined to
measurement of land and establishment of boundaries. The
engineer must be thoroughly familar with the principles and
practice of surveying, since all engineering and c'onstruction
projects extending over largc areas, such as highways, rail-
ways, irrigation, water supply, ' etc. are based upon elaborate
INTRODUCTION 5
and complete surveys. In all Engineering projects the pre-

paration of accurate plans and sections .is the first necessity.
_Princ_iplesof Su__rveyjng :-The two fundamental principles
upon which various survey methods are based are:
(1) To work from the whole to the part.
The first step in extensive surveys such as town or t~gra
phical surveys, is to establish a system of control points with high
precISIon. For horizontal control the points are established by
triangulation or precise traversing. To do this by triangulation,
the area to be sur\-eyed is divided into large triangles which are
surveyed with the greatest accuracy'
They are further sub-divided into small
triangles which are surveyed with less
GEe
accuracy. object of this system of
WQrking is to prevent the accumulation'
of error _ aud. :ta - control and h~alis~
,--
...... ......
~.--.'" .,
mmor errors. On the other hand, if
we work from' the part to the whole,
small errors are magnified in the process
of expapsion of survey and become
i uncontrollable at the end. Thus in
~\ \ the method of surveying by chain

angles, the surveyor fixes the position
Fig. 3 of a part of a line, Bb as in }'ig. 3~·
and from that he finds the direction of the whole line Be. This
method is opposed to the above principle and should be used
only in exceptional circumstances.
(2) To ascertain by at least two independent processes
the lengths "r the main lines and the positions of the most iinpor-
_tan~ __ _points. For example, the measurements and plotting of
the main lines and the station points are checked by means
of check or tie-lines.
Methods of Locatin~ a Point :-In surveying the relative
positions of points are located- by measurements from at least
two points of reference whose positions must be known. Two
points are selected in the field and the distance betw~n them
. is measured. The line is then plotted to some scaJe on the
paper. Other points can be located by two measurements
.
from these two points of reference and represented ill their
relative positions on the paper.
Fig. 4
To locate a point D with respect to two given pdints, of
reference A and B, the following methods may be employed :
(1) By the perpendicular dD and the distance Ad. The
distance Bd may be measured instead of Ad (Fig. 4a).
(2) By the two distances AD and BD (Fig. 4b).
(3) By the angle BAD measured at A and the distance.
AD. Instead, by the angle DBA measured at B and the distance
BD (Fig. 4c).
•
(4) By the angle DBA measured at B and the distance
AD ; Or by the angle BAD mea::;ured at A and the distance BD
(Fig. 4d). This method is used when it is not possible to
measure the distance to the point from the point of reference at
which the angle is measured.
.B
E B ,,
A
,,
, c A
, 1
"- ....
" ',./)",'" '"'"
" ,, "
\
\
I
I
I
,,,,{I;S',,
,C
x, B\, I ,/£ ~'"
'"'" " .... \, '0/
A/" ..... C' V
(/') D (.9)
(/') .P
Fig. 4
(5) By the two angles BAD and ABD measured at A
and B (Fig. 4e).
(6) By the intersection of two straight lines (AB and CE)
between four known points A, B, C, and D (Fig. 4 f).
(7) By the two angles ADB and BDC measured at the
point (D) to be located with respect to three known points of
reference A, B, and C (Fig. ~g).
INTRODUCTION 7
,
The first.two methods are commonly used in chain survey-
,,1.g to locate details, while the methods 3, 4, and 5 are used in
traverse surveying. The method 5 is particularly useful in
locating distant or inaccessible points, which can be seen from
both points of reference. In the methods 6 and 7 no distances
are measured. The method 7 is usually employed in minor
triangulation and hydrographic surveying.
Measurements :-There are two kinds of measurements
used in plane ·surveying, viz. (1) linear and (2) angular....
I~inear measurements may be further sub-divided into:
(i) horizontal distances and (ii) vertical distanccs_._ Similarly,
angwarrnea-stll'ements . may be (at· horizontal angles and (b).
vertical angles. In surveying all measurements of distances
are horizontal. Sometimes, however, inclined measurements
are made for convenience, but they must be subsequently reduced
to their horizontal equivalents for plotting purposes. It may
be remembered thti't the distance between any two points on
a plan or maf? is always the horizontal distance between them
irrespective of their elevations (i. e. the distance between their
projections on a horizontal plane). By vertical distance is meant
the distance between two points in a vertical plane. Thus in Fig. 5,
if A and B are two points on a slope, AB is the inclined distance,
A Fig. 5 Fig. 6
while ABI is its horizontal projection which is used in plotting.
BBI is the vertical distance between A and B, i. e. the difference
in elevation of A an~B. Similarly, a horizontal angle between
two intersecting lines is the angle between the projections of
these lines on a horizontal plane. A vertical angle to a point
is the angle between the horizontal line and the line of sight to
that point. Angles measured with a theodolite are always
8 SURVEYING AND LEYELLING
~~OE1l:!J,,_ b~_!_~~~xta~~ _~_s_<:_<ijn measuring an angle

_be_1.:_",~~J1Y_o---l]oints of_E.gferent elevation_~_ th~ I_!l~~~red ~ngle
,,!!obliq11:.e. Its horizontal projection (i. e. projection on~ hori-
zontal plane passing through the station) must be computed.
before it is used in plotting. Thus in Fig. 6, the angle between; .
Band C at A as understood in surveying is not the actual oblique.
angle BAC (6) between the lines BA and CA; but its horizontal;
projection, i. e. the angle hAc (~) lying in the horizontal plane
passing through A. Angles BAh and CAe are vertical angles.
Units of Measurement :-In India and all English-speak-
ing countries the lT~1::. _. __linear measur_ements is ~J2.!!.t, the"
decimal sub-divisions berog used instead of roches an ractions
'of an inch. Most linear distances are expressed in feet, tenths, •
and hundredths of a foot, e. g. in surveying 40 ft. 3 in. is expressed
as 40'25 ft.
Formerly the Gunter's chain was the unit of length most
commonly used in land surveying in the United Kingdom.
In France and other European countries where the metric
system is used, the~unit of lenpth i§:~e metl'e._. In construction
~~the units....Q.f length !:::.
th,e foot, the. inc~ and t~~ eig!:~h
-
of an inch.
The units of angular measure are the
second. • _ .
.
degr~, n~~R~e.!,", and
In Indir", the units of al'ea are the squal'e foot, the sguare
yard, and the ~cre. The units of vol~~~__ thi""cubic f09._t and
the cubic~ y~:rd.
Precision in Surveying :~The degree of precision required
in survey work mainly depends upon the purpose of the survey.
Suppose, for example, a survey is to be carried out for pre-
paring a rough small-scale map and the scale of t~e map is 1.00, ft.
to 1 inch. Now points can be plotted on paper WIth a permIssIble
error of -!.?;; of an inch. It is, therefore, necessary to make
1 Ou
measurements to the nearest foot. It 'IS a seer
h .waste 0f tnne
'
to take measurements to the nearest inch.
Similarly, the degree of precision required in a survey of a
.
field is not the same as that required in a survey of a city plot•
INTRODUCTION 9
Since the land in the city is much more valuable than that in
the moifussil, greater accuracy is required in a survey of urban
land and the measurements must be taken to the nearest frac-
tion of ~Joot, but in a_rvey of a field, the measurements need
not be nearer than to the nearest foot. It may be noted that
very accurate survt),Ys are expensive and take much time. Before
commencing work, the surveyor must, therefore, consider the
following factors :
(i) the purpose of the survey, (ii) the degree of precision
required for that purpose, (iii) the nature and extent of the
country, (iv' the SOilrces of error, (v) the time available for
both field and office work, and (vi) the cost of the survey.
Having considered these factors, the surveyor may decide
upon methods and instruments best suited to a particular case•
.By properly planning the survey operations and systematising
the work, he can execute the survey with the required degree
of precision at a minimum cost and in a minimum time.
Work of the SurTeyor :-The work of the surveyor may
be divided into three parts t (1) field work,' (2) office work, and
(3) care and adjustme~s of instruments.
(1) Field Work :-The field work consists in (i) measuring
distances and angles, (ii) locating the details, (iii) recording the
field notes, (iv) determining the relative altitudes of points, and
(v) setting out boundaries, buildings, roads, culverts, bridges, etc.
(2) Office Work :-The office work consists of (i) the pre-
paration of plans and sect~ from the data collected in the
field, (ii) computations of areas and volumes, and (iii) design
of structures.
(3) Care and Adjustments of Instruments :-Sm'veying
instruments particularly the level and theodolite, being delicate
and prceisc, mllst be handled with great care in order that the
various parts may not become loose or strained. It should
be borne in mind that the instrument, if onee damao-ed, needs
costly repairs and cannot be restored to its origina{condition.
Before taking the instrument out of its box, the correct positions
of the various parts should he noted, and if necessary. a rough
sketch should be mad,so that no difficulty may be experienced
10 SURV8YING AND LEVELING
in placing it in its box. It should never be lifted by the telescope,

the standards, or supporting axis, but should be lifted by
placing the hands under the levelling head. The instrument
should be firmly screwed to the tripod head. The tripod legs
should be well spread apart and should be firmly pushed into
the ground to prevent its being overturned and to make it more
stable. If the instrument has to be set up on a pavement or
other smooth surface, the tripod legs should be inserted in the
joints or cracks.. Otherwise they may slide outwards and let
the instrumcnt fall. The instrument should never be left un-
guarded when set up on a road, footpath, or in pasture, or high
wind, to prevent damage by traffc or grazing cattle, or overturn-
ing by wind. The instrument should be carried on the shoulder;
the clamping screws should be clamped lightly so as to prevent
unnecessary weHr and also. to let the instrument turn in case
it strikes against any obstacle. But Wtlen the instrument is
being carrIed through a doorway or in a place where headroom
is limited, it should be carried in the arms. The instrument
should be prot ected from the sun, dust and rain. It should
be protected from the rain and du~t by a waterproof hood.
The objective should be protected by extending the dust cap'
or sun shade. If the lenses become wet, they should be aIlowc§J
to dry. If they become very dirty, they should be wiped with
a piece of chamois leather or soft silk rag moistcned with alcohol.
They should never be rubbed with silk or muslin. Dust should
be removed with a fine camel hair bruE.'\.., The hands should
be kept off the silver graduated circles as the silver gets tarnished
quickly. When tarnished, dust should first be removed with
a camel hair brush. The tarnished portion should then be
cleaned by applying the best refined watch oil. The' screws
and other movable parts of the instrument should not be forced.
If they do not turn easily, the instrument should be taken apart
and the, parts cleaned and lubricated with watch oil. CI3JUps
should not be applied too tightly, but should be applied so tightly
that slipping of the instrument will not occur. .
The surveyor must have a thorough acquaintance with
the instrum'~nts which he will be called upon to use, which he
will gain only in the field. He must have thorough knowledge
of the methods of testing and adjusting instruments.
INTRODUCTION 11
Surveying is partly an art and partly a science. A sound

knowledge of the theory of surveying, skill in its practice, high
powers of observation, judgment, and organization are the
requisites of the surveyor, which can only be acquired by
practice in the field. The student should, therefore, realise
the importance of field practice which alone can give him the
requisite technical knowledge instead of mere reading of the
book on Surveying. The student should, therefore, aim. at
becoming as well versed in field and office practice as possible.
Useful Data and Formulre
Abbreviations :-in. = inch; ft. = foot; yd. = Yard;

chn. = cham"'; G. = Gunter's; pI. = pole; rd= rood; sq.= square;
ac. =ucre ; cub. or cu. =:=cubic ; mm. =millimetre ; cm. =centimetre;
m. = metre; kilom. = kilometre; gal. = gallon; lb. = pound.
(1) Linear Measure
I foot 12 inches. 1 metre =100 cm. =1000 mm.

I y~rd 3 feet = .36 in. 1 in. =2·54 cm.
I furlong - 2~0 yltfds =660 ft. 1 cm. =0·3937 in.
<'-
- 4..0poles, or rods. 1 metre =100 cm.=3·28lft.
I mile 8 furlongs. = 39'37 in.
1760 yards =5280 ft. 1 yard =0·9144 metre•.
80 chains (Gunter's). 1 metre =1'094 yds.
I furlong 10 chains (Gunter's). 1 mile =1' 609 kilom.
I chain (G.)= 100 links_:_'4 poles. 1 kilom.=1000 metres.
66ft.
I link (Gunter's chain) = 0'66 ft. = 7'92 in.

I chain (Engineer's) = 100 ft.
I link (Engineer's chain)= I foot.
I rod, pole, or perch=5'5 yards=16'5 ft.
I fathom = 6 feet.
I nautical mile = 6080 feet.
I knot = 1 nautical mile per hour.
12 SURVEYING AND LEVELLINC
(2) Square Meas',ure
1 sq. foot = 144 sq. in. 1 sq. in. = 6·451 sq. cm.
I sq. yard = 9 sq. ft. 1 sq. ft. = 0'0929 sq. metre.
1 acre = 48-tO sq. yds. 1 sq. yd. = O' 8:361 sq. metre.
= 43560 sq. ft. 1 are = 100 sq. metres.
I acre = 40 gunthas \ ryll~ = O' 0247 acre nearly.
= 10 sq. chains.(G)
= 101),000 sq. links.
1 guntha -:-,121 sq. yds.=1089 sq. ft.

1 guntha = 16 anna').
1 anna = 6816 sq. ft.
1 sq. mile = 640 acres = 6400 sq. chains (G).
I sq. pole or perch = 30t sq. yds. =272i sq. ft. =625 sq. links.
1 rood = 40 sq. poles.
1 acre = 4 roods = 160 sq. poles.
(3) Cubic Measure

1 cub. ft. =1728 cub. in. 1 cub. in. =16'39 C.c.
I cub. yd. = 27 cub. ft. 1 stere = 1 cub.' metre.
= 35·S:':,cub. v-.,
nearly.
1 litre = 1000 c. c. (weighs 1 kg.)
(4) Measure of Weight
1 pound (lb.)= 16 oz. 1 gallon of water =

1 stone = 14 lb. 0'1604 cub. ft.; weighs 101b.
1 quarter = 2 stones=28lb. 1 cub. ft. of water weighs
1 cwt. = 4 quarters. 62'4 lb.
= 112 lb. 1 cub. ft. of water
1 ton =, 20 cwt. =2240 lb. =6· 24 gallons.
Weight of one cub. inch of steel = 0·284 lb.
(5) Angular Measure
1 right angle = 90 degrees. 1T radians = 180°.

1 degree :== 60 minutes. 1 radian 57° 18' nearly.
1 minute = 60 seconds. 1 'radian = 3438 minutes.
1 radian = 206265 seconds.
INTRODUCTION 13
--
A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle
""',..":"
:®lJ
by an arc equal in length to the radius. It is the unit of circular
measure of an angle. The circular measure
of an angle is, therefore, equal to the number
. e of radians which it contains. In theoretical
A o
.8
work in mathematics angles are expressed
RAOMN . in radians.
In Fig. 7, 0 is the centre of a circle;
lTig. 7 OA the radius; AC the arc equal in length
to the radius. Then the angle AOC is one radian.
1i' = 3'1416; L1[ = 0'3183; 1[2= 9'87; log 1i' = 0'4972.

\
(6) Miscellaneous
Sin 1" = o· 000004848; log sin 1· = 6'. 6855749.
. log sin I' = 4,4637437.
· \1 • IF ormu1re
T ngonometr~ca
(a) Formulre in Plane Trigonometry
A
eli'
B a
Fig. 8
C B
~ a
Fig. 9 Q
C
A~
8
Fig. 10
Q ,
In the right-angled triangle ABC (Fig. 8),

AB = c; AC = b; BC = a; B = 90° = A + C.
b
sin A = ~a_ = cos C. cosec A = _ =scc C.
b a
b
cos A = !_ = sin C. sec A = - = cosec C. I
b C
b-c
tan A = !!_ = cot C. Vers A = (1 - cos A) = -b-~.
c
b-c
cot A = !__ = tan C. Exsec A = (sec A-I)
a c
a = b sin A = b cos C = c tan A = c cot C = V bS _ ell.
c = b sin C = b cos A = a tan C = a cot A = V bl _ a2 •

a ' cae --.~
b = -.~=-.- - = - - = - - "'':
S111 A S111 C cos C cos A
Va 2 + ell,
In the oblique triangle ABC (Fig. 9),
1 C
AB= c; AC= b; BC= a; A+B+C= 180 0
; _ (A+B)= 90° - _.
2 2
28 = a + b + C; 8 = ~(a + b + c).
2
Si~~ Rule : _~_ = _b_ = _e_ ,) Cosine Rule:

sin A sin B iin C as = b2 + ell - 2bc cos A.
cos A =
b2
~- _ _._
+
e2 _ as
. . A
S111 = 2
.
S111 - .
A . A
cos ~-
2bc 2 2
, A _ 1(8-b) (8-C) = 2 V8(~a)(s-= b) ($ - e).
S111
2 - ~ be ' be
sins A + cos A = l. ll
cos A = I 8 (8 - a)
a-b
2 ~ --,;c--' 1 1
.tan-(A- B)=.-tan- (A+B)
2 a+b 2 .
tan~ = /(8-b)~ a - b C
= ·--cot-.
2 ~. 8 (8 - a) a +b 2
sin (A +
B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,
cos (A'+ B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B.
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B,
(b) Formulre in Spherical Tri~onometry
In any spherical triangle ABC (Fig: Hi), ,
8 = a + + c t h e S1'des, a, b,andcbemg
---.. _b..~, ' expressed m
.
2
angular meaSUre,
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A.
sin ~ _ I sin (8 - b) sin (8 _"C)
2 - "" sin b sin c
INTRODUCTION 15
tan ~_ / sin (8 - b) sin (s__ c)

2 Aj sin 8 sin (8 - a)
(c) Expansion of Functions
2
2=1+- x --x -+ x - ....... ..
.1 3
l+w )
( 2 8 i6
liB'
t x m2 res >-
( I-x ) =1-2~-8-16-········· 0.~.

3 5 7
.
"n> _ >- :,l+~l-~+··········}* 3'400.
x x x
cos x - I - -+ ~- _ + ........... ~ ?
> 2! 4 ! 6! ~f: \
Area (6) of:- > ,,[_~(cc'!_X__~
Triangle (Fig. 11) : = 1 (base X altitude).
= Vs (s-a) (s-b) (s-c)
= ! be sin A = 1 ac sin B = 1 ab sin O.
a2 sin B sin C b2
sin C sin A e2 sin A sin B
= - 2 sin A-- - ~- 2 sin :8-----= ~inC-'
.
ill
A A
B
,,
,,
,,
~
,,
,,
.lJ
C
ADD
B J) C B C
Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13
Square (Fig. 12): = (Side)2 = t (diagonaI)2.
Rectangle (Fig. 13) : = Product of two adjacent sides.
o
A '&-0 A .D
B ~ C
L[]
B E Fe
. Fig. 14 Fig. 15t- Fig. 16
Parallelogram (Fig. 14): = (basexheight) = product of adja-
cent sides X sine of the included angle.
Rhombus (Fig. 15):= (base X height} =1 product of two diagonals.

Trapezoid (Fig. 16):=! sum of the two parallel sides X perpendi-
or Trapezium cular distance bctween them.
£)
Z!J ,.
Fig. 17
7-
A
~
C B
£)
Fig. 18
Area of Circle (Fig. 17):= 1r(radius)2= 0·7854 (diametcr)2.
F!g. 19
In Fig. 17, let 6 = the angle subtended at the centre of a

circle, in radians.
D = the angle subtended at the centre of a
. circle, in degrees.
r = the radius.
1TD
Then arc BC = radius X central angle=r9 =TX~-o.
180
1rD -
Area of sector BOCD = t (arc X radius) = t r2 () = ir2 X _ .
0
180
Area of segment BDC = area of ,sector-area of triangle formed
by the chord and radii.
= lr z6 - tr2 sin6 = ir2 (6 - sin 6)
= tr2 (11'_~ 0
_' sin D.).
180
In Fig. 18, AB = the chord, and CD = the height of the
segment ADB.
Area of segment ADB = i (chord X height of segment)
(height of scgmcnt)2
+ - - - ------ ..
2 X chord
-~ nearly.
/ . '
= i (chord X height of segment), .approxi-

mately, if the segment is flat. ~
Area of ellipse (Fig. 19): = 1r_ (major axis X minor axis).
4
Perimeter of ellipse = ,1r_(major axis + minor axis).

2
I~TRODU(,TION 17
Volume (V) of : - ,
Rectangular solid (Fig. 20). = length X breadth X height.
Cube (Fig. 21). = (side)3.
Prism (Fig. 22). = (area of base X height).
q 0
Fig. 20 Fig. 21 Fig. 22
Circular cylinder (Fig. 23). = (area of base X height).

= 1f(l'adius)2 X height.
Fig. 23 Fig. 24 :Fig.25

Pyramid (Fig. 24). = 1 (area of base X height).
C
\
\ I
\\ h I
/
\ I
\ I
J---- Jo.~
a
Fig. 26 Fig 27 Fig. 28
Cone (Fig. 25). = ~ (area of base X height)
= '!!_ (radius)2 X height.

3
Frustum of pyramid or cone (Fig. 26).= : (Ao + Al +vAOA1)'

where Ao and Al are the areas of the ends, and h is the
height of the frustum.
Prismoid (Fig. 27). = !:__

6
(A
0
+ 4Al + A 2).
where Ao and A2 = the areas of the ends; Al = the area of

the mid-section parallel to the ends; h = the height.
Wedge (Fig. 28). = bh (2a + c).
6
where a = the length of the base; b = the breadth of the

base; h = the height; and c = the length of the edge.
Sphere (Fig. 29). =~ 7T(radius)3= ~~ (diameter)8.

8 6
Spherical shell (Fig. 30). = _~ 7T(R3_ 1·3) = ~(D8 - dB).

3., 6
Fig. 29 Fig. 30 Fig. 31
where R = the outer radius; r = the inner radius; D = the

outer diameter; and d = the inner diameter.
.
Cylindrical ring (Fig. 31).= 11"2 (R+r)(R_r)2=_1_ (C+c) (C-C)2,
4 3211"
where R = the outer radius; r = the inner radius; C = ,the

outer circumference; and c = the inner circumference.
Irregular solids having opposite ends as ,plane figures lying
in parallel planes (Fig. 82). = D (6. 1 + 46. 2 + 26. 3 +... + 6.,,).

. 8
where D = the common distance between the cross sections;
6.1' 6 2
, etc. = the areas of the cross sections.
LJOODO J)
Fig. 32
Scales :-Drawings are not usually made full-sized. For
-convenience it is generally necessary to draw them to a reduced
size, this operation being known as "drawing to scale."
The scale of a m~p or drawing is the fixed proportion which
every distance on the map or drawing bears to the corresponding
distance on the ground. Thus, if one inch on the map represents
40 ft. on the ground, the scale of the map is 40 ft. to 1 inch, often
written simply as 1 ir~ch = 40 ft. The scale is also expressed by
means of a vulgar fraction whose numerator is invariably unity.
The fraction is called a "!t_epresentative Fraction" (R. F.).
It is, therefore, the ratio of map distance to the corresponding
ground distance. In forming the representative fraction botfi
numerator and denominator must be reduced to the same denomi-
nation. For example, if the scale is 40 ft. to 1 inch, the R. F. of
the scale is
1 inch 1
=---.
40 X 12 inches 480
The scale may be stated on the map graphically or by
numerical relations. It should be shown near the title of the
map so that it will be readily seen. On a graphical scale the
units of measurement should always be stated. The characteris-
tics of a good scale are: (i) it should read to the greatest accuracy
required, and (ii) it should be convenient to use. To be of use, a
scale should fulfil the following c_?nditions :
(1) It should be sufficiently long. (Usually between 6
inches to 9 inches, but not more than 12 inches ).
(2) It should be accurately divided and carefully numbered.
20 Sl_°RVEYING AND LEVELLlNU
(3) The zero must always be placed between the unit and
its subdivisions.
(4) The name of the scale together with its representative
fraction should be written on the plan.
(5) It should be easily read and should not involve any
arithmetic calculation in measuring distance on the
map. The main divisions should, therefore, represent
one, ten, or hundred units.
Scales may be classified as (i) Plain, (ii) Diagonal, and
(iii) Vernier.
Plain Scale :---On a plain scale it is only possible to read
in two dimensions, such as miles and furlongs, units and tenths,
yards and fcet, etc.
Example :-Construct a scale 9 ft. to 1 inch to read to feet,
and show on it 3 t ft.
Construction :--Assume such number of feet as is divisible
by 10, its corresponding value in inches not exceeding 9 inches,
say, 70 ft. Draw a line 7!" (~O") long and divide it into seven
equal parts. Subdivide the first division from the left into ten
equal parts, each subdivision reading one foot. Plaee the zero
between the subdivic_led part and the undivided parts and mark
the figures coun1ing away from the zero in both directions as
shown in Fig. 33. The alternate subdivisions may be marked
to avoid crowding.
,
~r----------3~~------------~.\,g
I:;
F££T 10
I I I I: I I I I
0 10 20 10
I 4 oFEEl'
PtAlA' SCAlE IINCN ;;:: $ rECTo N-r. =0'CNI
Fig. 33
Any distanre upto 70 ft. may be taken directly from the
scale without counting. Thus to take 34 ft., place one leg of
the dividers at 30 and' the othe~ at 4.
Note :-In order to draw a line 7~ inches long exactly,
draw a line 8 inches long and divide it into eight equal parts
geometrically and not by scale. Divide the eighth part into nine
equal parts and take seven of these parts. Then seven parts
plus ~ part will be the required length.
Caution :-In constructing a scale, avoid the most common
error of setting of inches and subdividing the first (or left-hand)
inch into nine parts and numbering the remaining as 9, 18, 27,
etc. From such a scale, distanccs cannot be taken dircctly
without counting.
Dia~onal Scale :-The diagonal scale is used when it is
desired to read in three dimensions, such as yards, feet, and
inches; units, tenths, and hundredths; miles, furlongs, and
chains, etc. The principle of construction of a diagonal scale
depcnds upon the fact that similar triangles have theidike sides
proportional, and is illustrated in Fig. 34. Suppose it is required
to divide a short distance AB into eight equal parts. AB being
too small, it is not practically possible to divide it in the usual
way. The following construction is, therefore, adopted.
Draw a line BO perpendicular to AB and of any convenient
length, and set off on it eight equal parts to any suitable unit.
Join OA and draw lines parallel to AB
A from each of the parts to meet OA as
m Fig. 34.
Thcn 1-1 equals i ths of AB ;
2-2 equals ~ths of AB ;
6-6 equals ~ths of AB ;
o 7-7 equals tths of AB.
Fig. 34 The method of constructing and
using the diagonal scale is illustrated in the following example.
E,rample :-Construct a diagonal 'Icale 8 ft. to 1 inch to
read to inches, and show on it 42 ft. 7 inclws.
Construction :-Draw a line 7 t" (~~Q.") long representing 60
ft. and divide it into six equal parts, each division reading lO ft.
Subdivide the first left-hand division into 10 equal parts, each
representing one foot. At the extreme left, draw a perpendicular
and on this perpendicular, set off twelve equal parts to any
suitable unit. Through each of these points, rule lines parallel
to the scale line. Project the points of subdivisions 011 the
last parallel line and join the points of subdivisions to these

points diagonally and complete the scale as shown in Fig. 35.
IHCHES
, II
,
42-7
I
I
rEET 10 o m ~ ~ ~
PMvONAl SCAlE r /NCIY =, 8 r&E?: /i'.F. == /,/96
Fig. 35
Distances may be measured on the scale as follows : Suppose
it is required to measure 42 feet and 7 inches; place one leg of
the dividers at the intersection of horizontal 7 and vertical
through 40, and the other leg at the point where diagonal 2
meets horizontal 7.
Comparative Scales :-tthe scales which have a common
representative fraction but which read in different measures are
called comparatiz'c scales, e. g. one scale reading to yards and the
other to metres. The advantage of a comparative scale is that
measurements can be taken directly off the plan in the desired
units without any calculations.
Illustration :--Suppose it is required to construct a compara-
tive scale reading to 15 seconds adapted to the paces of a horse
that trots at 6 miles per hour, given that the R. F. = ~1__ .

10560
Since 10560 inches are repre8.llPted by one inch, () miles are
6 X 5280 X 12 .
represented by -~~ '-~ - = 36 mches. Now 6 miles when
105(l0
expressed in unit of time correspond to one hour :. 60 minutes
are represented by 36 inches and 10 minutes by 6 in<jles. To
constmct the required scale, take a line 61Ilcbes long a.,;;?d divide
it into 10 equal parts, each part representing one minute. Sub-
divide the left-hand division into 4 parts, each part representing
15 seconds.
INTRODUCTION 23
Shrunk Scales :-If a scale is omitted from an old map

which is found to have shrunk, but if it is merely stated, or
its R. P. is given, it is necessary to find shrinkage of the map.
This can be done by remeasuring the distance between two
distant points shown on the map and comparing it with the
corresponding map distance as calculated from the giv.en scale
or R. F. IThe :ratio of the sh:runk length to the true length is known
as the shrinkage factor which is obviously lcss than unitY) The
correctedsCare-lor~ttle map is then obtained by multiplying the
shrinkage factor by the R. F. or by the figure preceding inch or
inches in the stated scale. For example, suppose the shrinkage
factor is~, and the R. F. = -~ 1 or the scale is 25 inches to

25 2400
one mile. Then the corrected scale for the map is : R. F. = --~--,
2500
or 24 inches to one mile.
Vernier Scale :-trhe vernier is a device for measuring
fractional parts of the smallest division of the main scale. It
consists essentially of a small scale called the vernier scale which
moves with its graduated edge along the graduated edge of
a long fixed scale called the "main or primary scale." The
vernier carries an index mark which forms the zero of the vernier
divisions and it is denoted by an arrow. The seale may be
either straight or curved.
-yerniers may be divided into two classes, viz. (i) Direct,
and (ii) Retrograde.
The "principle of a vernier may be explained thus.
Direct Vernier :-(Fig.36). In this type of vernier, if. it is
required to read ~th part of the smallest division on the

n
VERNIER
p 2 3 4 5 Ii ? 13~
r J:
9
i II
I
I[~ ~ I [~ I
2 3 4
~r ~: IiII ! ~
S ? 6 9
:J10
SCAI.6
Fig. 36
primary scale, (n - 1) primary divisions or spaces are tttken and
divided into 11, equal divisions on the vernier scale. In this

case the vernier divisions are shorter than the primary divisions.
Let d = the value, linear or angular, of the smallest divi-
sion on the main scale.
v = the vlue of smallest division aD the vernier scale.
= the number of divisions on the vermcr.
11,
Then,
The difference between the value of a Illain scale division
and that of a vernier division = d- v = d _- (~: I) d=~ d.
This difference is known as the least C01mt of the vernier.

The value of the least count of the vernier may, therefore,
be obtained by dividing the value of ~le smallest division on the·
main scale by the number of divisions on the vernier.
In the direct vernier both scales are graduated in the same
direction, both from left to right or both from right to left so
that if the zero of the vernier coincIdes with that of the primary
scale, the first diyision on the vernier falls short of the first
primary graduatioll by I_th of a primary division, and the pth

n
vernier division will lag !!__ ths of a primary division behind the
n
pth primary graduation.
Reading a Vernier :-In reading a vernier, first note the
main scale graduation beyond which the index lies (i. e. read
the number of degrees, and half degrees or ooe-third degrees the
index has passed over, which gives the approximate reading), and
then observe which division of the vernier coincides exactly with
some division on the primary scale. The nllmber of the coin-
ciding vernier division multiplied by the legst count gives the
fra,ctional part which is t.o be added to tlrllproximate reading.
Thus, suppose the index lies between the pth and (p +
I)th
division on the main scale and the rth vernier division coincides
INTRODUCTION ~5
with some division on the main scale. Then the approximate

reading = p main scale divisions;
fractional part = r X least count = r X ~ main division.

n
:: The reading =( p +: ) main divisions.
It is important to observe that the vernier is read in the

same direction as the main scale.
, , , :i , I 0)
dt
(3 7 4 3
9
f I t
c
i i i
I
, i i
I
3
I
I?ETR06RADE V£RN1£K.
Fig. 37
Retrograde Vernier :-(Fig. 37). In this type of vernier
(n+ Ij divisions or spaces on tne primary scale are taken and
divided into n divisions on the vernier scale so that,
nv = (n + 1) d or v = (n + 1) d.
n
The least count = (v - d) = (n + 1) d ~ d = ~ d.

n n
In this case vernier divisions are longer than the primary
divisions.
The scales (vernier and main) are graduated in opposite
directions, one from right to left and the other from left to right.
The advantage of the retrograde vernier is that the graduations
are not as fine as those of a direct vernier. The direct vernier
is, however, commonly used, since it is simpler tEl read.
Double Vernier :-With a simple vernier, readings can be
taken in one direction only. A double vernier is required when
the graduations on the main scale are figured in both directions
from a common zero. A double vernier consists of two simple .
verniers placed end to end, forming one scale with th .. zero in
S LIBRARY GKVK
UA \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
3400
the centre as shown in Fig. 38. One is read for clockwise motion
and the other for counter-clockwise motion. If the measure-
o /0
CIHCt.E
Fig. 38
ment is made clockwise, the figures which increase to the left
are read and vice versa.
In the case of a Vertical vernier attached to the. vertical
circle of a transit which is divided into the quadrants, two sets
of figures are marked on a single vernier instead of fitting a
double vernier. In reading the vernier, that set is used which
increases in the same direction as the figures on the quadrant
which is being read.
Extended Vernier :-This type of vernier shown in Fig. 39
is used when thc available length of the vernier is small, and
when it is required to have a small least count without having
vernier divisions too close together for convenience in reading.
This is used on the Abney level and the astronomical sextant.
It is equivalent to a simple direet vernier with only every
second division being engraved.
EA'TE/Y£1E.t7 YEI?/llfA'
Fig. 39
In this type (2n - 1) primary divisions (or spaces) are
taken and diyided into n divisions or spaces on the vernier so
that nv = (2n - 1) d or v = (2n - 1) d.
n
INTRODUCTION 27
In this case the least count is the difference between two

primary divisions and one vernier division.
(2n-l) 1
The least count = (2d - v) = 2d - ~- d = ~ d.
n n
e. g. in the case of the vernier used on the Abney level, the least
count is 10'. Eleven spaces of the main scale graduated to
n = 6;d = 1 ;
0
1 0 are divided into 6 spaces on the vernier.
. 1 1
and the least count = ~ d = - X 60' 2:: 10'.
n 6
.POUBLE FOLDED VERNIER

, Fig. 40
The extended ve,nier employed in the astronomical sextant

reads to 10". The arc divisions are 10' each, and sixty divisions
on the vernier ciTrespond to 119 arc divisions. :. n = 60;
d = 10' ; an d t h e l
east i
countd
= - = -1 X 10, = -l' = 10 "•
n 60 6
Double Folded Vernier :-Fig. 40 illustrates a special form
of the vernier known as a folded vernier. It is usually used
when it is necessary to -economise space, its length being half
of that of the corresponding double vernier, as for example,
on the small transits and compasses. There are two rows of
figures on the vernier. For angles read in a clockwise direction,
use the lower row of figures on the left-hand vernier for less than
15' and the upper row of figures on the right-hand vernier for
more than 15'. For angles read in the counter-clockwise direction,
use the lower row of figures on the right-hand vernier for less
than 15' and the upper row of figures on the left-hand vernier
for more than 15'.
The Scale of Chords :-(Fig. 41). It is used to measure
angles and set off angles with considerable accuracy. It is usually
marked on the rectangular protractor or an ordinary box wood

scale and is distinguished by "c" or "CRG" and is figured
from 0 to 90 degrees.
8
Fig. 11
Construction :-Draw a quadrant AGB and divide the arc
AB into nine equal parts of 10° each. Produce AG to C making
AC = AB. With A as a centre, describe arcs from each of the
divisions, cutting AC in the points 10, 20, 30, etc., and complete
the scale as shown. It may be noted that the distance from A
to each division on the scale is the chord of the angle containing
that number of degrees. The chord of 60° (i.e. the distance from.
A to 60°) is always equal to the radius GA.
Fig. 42
To construct angles of 40° and 70° with the scale of chords : - .

(Fig. 42).
INTRODUCTION 29
Draw a line BA. With ccntre B and a radius equal to the

distance from zero to 60° on the scale, describe an arc cutting
BA in D. With centre D and a radius equal to the distance
from zero to 40° ( chord of 40°) on the scale describe an arc
intersecting the arc in C. Join BC; LABC is then the required
angle (40°). Similarly, obtain the point E by drawing an arc
with D as a centre and a radius equal to the distance from zero
to 70" (chord of 70°). LABE is then the required angle (70°).
To measure an angle with the scale of chords :-(Fig. 42).
Let ABC be the given angle. 'With centre B and a radius
equal to the distance from zero to 60° on the scale, describe an
arc DC. Take the chord distance DC with the dividers and
apply it to the scale, noting the value of the angle.
Measurements with Wrong Scale :-If by chance,
measurements are taken with a wrong scale, the true measure-
ments can be found by using the following relations :
, wrong scale
'lrue length = --~ -- --~ X measured length (I)
correct scale
wrona Seale)2
True area = ( ~-----"'-- --- X calculated area ...... (2)
correct scale
By the scale is meant its R. F.
The following scales are commonly employed 1Il India.
I" = 25 miles for G. T. survey maps.
I = 16"
H " maps of provinces.
1" = 8 " .. geographical maps of districts.
1" = 1 " " toposheets.
or 2"= 1 "
4"= 1
" "
survey maps of towns, villages,
" )." and large estates.
or •
8"= 1 ".
16"= 1
" "
cadastral survey
"
" maps of villages.
or " "
32" = 1 " " " " ""
64" = 1 " ,. " "
"
" " towns
1" = 200 ft.. for cit.y survey maps (in Bombay State).
1" = 40 or 25 ft.. for detailed sheets.
1" = 30' or 50 ft.. for site plans of buildings.
1" = 100, 200, or 400 ft. for plans of engineering works
1" = 330 ft. for plans for land acquisition purposes.
· ··~80 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
Examples on Scales
Example 1 :-The distance between Poona General Post

Office and Pashan Tank is 6 miles and is represented on a map by
~. Construct a suitable scale for the map and mark on it 43 miles
3
and 5 furlongs.
2" .
- on the map = 6 miles on the ground.
3
6 X 3
1" "
" 2 " "
Hence the scale is 9 miles to 1"
= 9 miles .
1 1
and R. F. = - --.
9 X 5280 X 12 570240
The scale is required to read to one furlong and is, therefore,
a diagonal one.
Construction :-Take a line 8~ inches long representing 80
miles and divide it into eight equal parts. The first part from
the left should be subdivided into ten equal parts. On a line
at right angles to the graduated bot~om line mark eight equal
parts, and complete the scale as shown in Fig. 35.
Example 2 :-A plan represents an area 126,000 sq. ft. and
measures 3t inches by 2! inches. Draw the scale of the plan to
read to one foot.
Area in sq. inches = 3·5 X 2·5 = 8·75 sq. in.
8' 75 sq. inches on the plan = 126,000 sq. ft. on the ground.
126,000
1 sq. inch
" " 8'75 " "
~
- 14,400 sq. ft.
"
1 inch 'or '" " - 120 ft. on the ground.
Hence the scale of t}te plan is 120 ft. to 1 fI, and its
1
R. F. = - - . The scale is a diagonal one.
1440
INTRODUCTION
Construction :-Take a line 7t" long representing 900 ft.

and dIvide it into nine equal parts, each representing 100 ft.
The first division should be subdivided into ten equal parts,
each representing 10 ft. On a line at right angles to the graduated
bottom line mark ten equal parts and complete the scale as in
Fig. 35.
Example 3 :-A rectangular plot of ground is acquired by
a factory. It measures 18 inches X 12 inches on the village
map drawn to a scale of 660 ft. to one inch. What is its area in
acres? What will be its area on a toposheet (1 mile to one
inch)? What is the representative fraction on the village map
and also on the toposheet ?
Village map is drawn to a scale of 660 ft. to one inch.
1 sq. inch on the map = (660) sq. ft. on the ground.
The plot measures 18" X 12", i. e. 216 sq. inches on the map.
The area of the plot = 216 X (660)2 sq. ft.
216 X 660 X 660
= acres = 2160 acres.
43560
N ow on the toposheet drawn to a scale of 1 mile to one
inch, 1 sq. mile is represented by 1 sq. inch.
i. e. (5280)2 sq. ft. are" " " "
2160 acres are represented by 3·375 !Sq. in.
. 2160 X 43560 27
(No. of sq. lllches = , = ~ = 3'375):
(5280)2 8
R. F. of the scale of the village map = _ __!__~ = _1_ •

. 660 X 12 7920
toposheet = 1
= _1__
" " 5280 X 12 63,360'
Example 4 :-Construct the following scales, given their R. F.
1 1· . 1
(a) - , (b) - , and (c) - .
7920 54 1320
f
I (a) 7920 inches on the ground I" on the drawing.
660 ft. IN
i i. e. 10 Gunter's chains "" 1" "
"
The scale i~10 Gunter's chains to 1·, andR.F. =_1_.
7920
The main divisions will represent 10 chains, the subdivisions

1 chain, and the tens of links will be read diagonally.
(b) R. F.= 2_ i.e.54" on the ground correspond to l"on plan.

54
4·5 ft. =1", i.e. 1·5 yds.= 1" or 3 yds.=2 inches'-
The scale is 3 yds. to 2" and R. F. = 2_.
. 54
The maj or divisions will represent 1 yd., the subdivisions
1 ft., and the inches will be read diagonally.
(c) R. F. = -~-
1
..
1320
1820 inches on the ground are represented by 1" on pIa:!}.
110 ft." " "" 1" on plan.
Hence the scale is 110 ft. to one inch. The main division~
represent 100 ft., the subdivisions 10 ft. and single feet will be
read diagonally.
Construct the above scales as per construction for the dia-
gonal scale.
Example 5 :-A scale 1 ft. long is divided into 100 equal
p:rts. Construct a vernier for the scale by means of which it
can be read to the thousapdths of a foot.
Least count of the vernier = ~ of the primary scale division,

n
where n = the number of divisions on the vernier scale.
1 1 1
- - ft. =-X - ft. or n = 10.
1000 n 100
Construction :-A length equal to nine parts on the primary
scale should be taken and divided into ten parts.
Example 6 :-The primary scale is divided into inches and
tenths of inches. Construct a vernier to read to the hundredth .
of an inch.
Least count = ._!_ of the primary scale division.
n
~
1 Inc
. h = ~
1 X - 1.m. or n = 10.
100 n 10
INTRODUCTION
Construction : -Take a length equal to 9 smaller divisions

the primary scale and divide it into ten equal parts.
Example 7 :-A theodolite circle is divided into degrees
d half degrees. Construct a vernier to read to one minute.
f
, Least count = _2_
n
X value of the smallest division on the
tpain scale.
The smallest division on the main scale = half degree = 30'.
l' = ~
X 30' or n = 30.
n
Twentynine half-degree divisions should be taken for the
length of the vernier scale and then divided into 30 parts.
Example 8 :-A theodolite circle i~ divided into degrees
and one-third degrees. Construct a vernier scale to read to 20
seconds.
1
Least count = -~- X value of the smallest division on the
'n
main scale.
The smallest division on the mam scale = t degree = 20'.
. I
H
20 = _ X 20 X 60 or n = 60.
n
Fiftynine one-third degree divisions should be taken for
the length of the vernier scale and then divided into 60 parts.
Example 9 :-A theodolite is divided into degrees and
1me-third degrees. Construct a vernier scale to read to 30
seconds.
1
Least count = - X value of the smallest division on the
n
main scale.
::rhe smallest division on the main scale = 20'.
11 1
30 = - X 20 X 60 or n = 40.
n
Thirtynine one-third degree divisions should be taken for
the length of the vernier scale and then divided into 40 parts.
,s. r-2
PROBLK\IS
1. What do you understand by the following terms?
(i) a scale of plan, (ii). Representative Fraction of a sc
" drawing to scale".
2. Give the designation of the following scales:-
(a) ] . (b) _l__ , and (e) -.!:_.
96() 24()O 31680
(Ans. (0) 1 in.=80 ft.; (b) 1 in. ",200 ft.; (e) 2 in
3. Give the de.-;ignation and representative fraction of the followin,
(i) A line 4950 n. long is represented by a length of 241 inches (
(ii) A plan represents an area of 2184 sq. ft. and measures 4t i
3} inches.
(iii) On a map it is found that 2400 sq. miles are represented by
inches.
--~"'; (ii) 12 ft. to 1 in. v !' ;
[ Ails. (i) 200 ft. to 1 in., 2 144
. ':l
(iii) 4 miles to 1 in., _ 1__
. 253440
.J
4. Explain the construction of (a) a plain scale and (Ii) a diagonal scale
5. Describe th" construction of a scale of chords and explain its use.
6. Construct the following scales:-
(a) 12 ft. to 1 inch to read to feet and inches.
(b) 2 inches to 1 mile to show miles, furlongs, and chains.
(c) 160 ft. to 1 inch to read to single feet.
7. What is a vernier? Explain the principle On which it is constructed and
state the different kinds thereof.
8. The primary scale of a box sextant is graduated to read to 30 minutes.
Corwtruct a lirect ,-ernier to read to one minute and ,;how thereon a reading
of 45 c 12'. Assume! inch to represent 1° and draw both the scales by strai-
ght lines. (Ans. no. of vernier divisions=30.)·
9. State the pdnciple of the vernier and the different kinds thereof. How
would you determ:ne the least count of a vernier?
The primary scale of a theodolite circle is graduated to read to 30 minutes.
Construct a dIrect vernier to read to one minute and show thereon a reading
of 75° 24'. Take 1° =! inch representing both the scales by straight lines.
(Ans. no. of vernier divisions = 30.) (U. P.)
10. Explain a vernier showing by neat sketches how it is graduated and read.
Explain its importance in the construction of a theodolite. (K. U.)
11. Explain the object of the vernier, and the principk upon which it works. I
Make a sket"h of the primary and vernier scales of a theodolite for reading
to minutes. (Ans. no. of vernier divisions=30.) (U. B.)
12. Explain the principles adopted in the construetion of Vernier scales. How
would you eonstruct a vernier scale of a theodolite to read minutes and
thirty seconds and to be used with the scale graduated to one· third of
a degree? (Am. no. of vernier divisions =(0). (U. B.)
13. Construct a 'loale 8 ft. to one inch and mark thereon 44 ft. 8 inches. (U. E.)
CHAPTER II
:MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE
There are two main methods of determining distance:
(1) direct and (2) computative.i~··th~ former distances are actually
measured on the ground by means of a chain, tape, or other
instmment, while in the latter they are obtained by calculation
as in tacheometry, telemetry, or triangulation.
Direct Measurement :-Sevcral methods are available for

, measuring distance, the method to be used being largely deter~
mined by the degree of accuracy (precision) required.
(1) Pacing :-Where approximate results are required,

dista~ces may be determined by pacing. The method is chiefly
used for exploratory or reconnaissance surveys, the preparation
of military plans, locating details in small-scale mapping. It
Ii.1ay also be used for approximately checking more accurate mea-
surements of distance. 6'he method consists in walking over a
line and counting the number of paces. Knowing the average
length of pace (which may be taken as 2! ft. ), the required dis~
tance may be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by
the average length of pace) An experienced pacer will attain
results with an accuracy of 1 in 100. In order to obtain satisfac-
tory results, the average length of one's pace or step should be
ascertained by pacing over a line of known length on the level
as well as rough ground. The length of' ~~~. varies, with the
individual, and also with (i) his age, height, and pllysicalcondition,
(ii) the nature of the ground, the pace being shortened when going
up hill and lengthened down hill, (iii) the slope of the country,
and ·(iv) the speed of pacing. The method, though rapid, is
very monotonous for long distances. Also, considerable difficulty
is experienced in counting the paces.
(2) Passoineter:-The monotony and strain of c0106Pting

paces may be obviated by the use of an instrument called a
passorneter (Fig. 43). It is a pocket instrument resembling a
watch in size and appearance, and automatically records the
number of paces taken in pacing a given distance. The mecha-

nism requires that it should be carried vertically. It is
usually carried in thc waistcoat pocket
01' suspended from one of the buttons,
the mechanism being operated by the
motion of the body.
(3) Pedometer :-It is a similar instru-
ment and is used for the same purpose.
But it registers the distance traversed by
the person carrying it. The dial is gradu-
ated in miles and fractions of a mile and
is read by means of an indicator which is
rotated over the dial by a train of wheels.
It is fitted with a stud or knob, whieh,
Fig. 43 ,,:hen ,essed, releases the indicator so
that it returns to 7.ero. It may be carried in the same way as
the passometer. It can be adjusted to the length of the pace of
the person carrying it.
(4) Odometer :-Distances may be apprQximately deter-

mined by means of a simple device called an Odometer. It can
be attached to the wheel of any vehicle such as a carriage, cart,
bicyele, etc. and registers the number of revolutions of the wheel.
Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the distance traversed
may be obtained by. multiplying the number of revolutions by;
the circumferl~nce of the wheel.
(5) Speedometer :-The speedometer of an automobile

may be used to measure
distances approximately. It
gives better results than pacing,
provided the route is smooth
as along a highway.
(6) Perambulator :-An-
other method of rapid deter-
mination of distances is by an
instrument called a Perambu-
Fig. 44
lator (Fig. 44). It resembles a
single bicycle wheel previded with forks and a handle. It is
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE 37
wheeled along the line whose length is desired. Thc distance

traversed is automatically registcred in terms of miles, furlongs,
and yards to the nearest yard on the dials. The registered
readings afC too approximate on rough ground.
(7) Judging Distance :-This is a very rough method of
determining distances. It is used in estimating distances of
details in reeonnaissance survey.
(8) rrime Measuremenil-Distanccs are roughly deter-
mined by'time intervals of triVel. Knowing the average time
per mile for a person at walk or a horse at trot, the distance
traverscd may bc readily obtained.
(9) Chaining :-Of the various methods of determining
distance, the most accurate and common method is the method
of mcasuring distance with a chain or a tape, called chaining.
For work of ordinary precision a chai£(. is used. But whcre
great accuracy is required, a steel tape is invariably used.
Howevcr, in more advanced countries, all linear measurements
arc now made with the stcel tapc.
The term chaining was originally applied to mpasuring
dis(ance with a chain. It is preferable to use the te~n taping to
denote mea1;>uring distance with a tape. However, the term
chaining is still used to denote measurin~,~listance with cither the
chnin or the tape. \
Instruments for Measuring Distance
Chain :-The chain (Fig. 45) is composed of 100 pieces of
sted or iron wire of from No.8 to 12 W. G., called links. The ends
of each link are bent into a loop and connected togcth;r by means
of three oval rings which afford flexibility to the chain and make
it less liable to become kinked. The joints of the links are usually
open, but in the best chains they are welded so as to render the
chain less liable to stretch. The ends of the chain are provided
with brass handles for dragging the chain on the ground, each
with a swivel joint so that the chain can be turned round without
twisting. The outside of the handle is the zero point or the
end point of the chain, and the length of the chain is measured
from the outside of one handle to the outside of the other. The
length of a link is the distance between the centres of the two
consecutive middle rings. The end links include the handles
(Fig. 45). To facilitate reading of the chain, every tenth link

from each end of the chain is marked by ft b..!:.~s tag, also called
tell(',_r, ta.l!.h_.~ tablet. The tag having one point denotes 10
links from either end, i. e. lOth or 90th link counting in the same
~l" F(Yfr on lINk' ~

~ .~.
/0 OR 80 20 OR 60 30 OR 7'{/ 40 OR GO
Fig. 45
direction, that with two points indicates the 20th or 80th link.
The 30th or 70th link is marked by a thg with three points,
while the 40th or fiOth link is denoted by a tag with four points.
The centre of the chain or 50th link is marked by a circular tag.
This system of marking the tens of links enables either end to be.
used as the zero and allows thc fractional parts of the chain to
be-read without any difficulty .
... There are various kinds of chain in cornmon use for different
purposes. ,
" (1) Gunter's Chain :-The Gunter's (or Surveyor's) chain,
named after its inventor, is 22 yards or 66 ft. long and is divided
into 100 links, each 0·66 ft. or 7'92 inches long. Formerly
it was chiefly used in land surveying. It is very convenient
for measuring distances in miles and furlongs, and for measuring
land when the unit of area is an ~re on account of its simple
relation to the mile and the acre.
10 Glffiter's ehains = 1 furlong; 80 Gunter's chains = 1 mile;
10 square Gunter's chains = 1 acre.
Distances measured with the Gunter'iS chain are recorded
in chains and d';cimals, e. g. 9· 37 ehains, ot' as chains and links,
e. g. 9 chains and 37 links.
" .
In Engran~he word chain or link when used alone is under-
stood to m~~n the Gunter's chain .
. / (2) Revenue Chain :-The revenue chain is commonly
used for measuring fields in cadastral survey in the Bombay
State, since it is advantageous when computing areas of land
in acres, gunthas, and annas. . It is 33 ft. long and divided into
16 links, each 2}I6' ft. long.' .... -- -
c 4) Engineer's Chain:~The engineer's chain (or the 100-ft.
chain) is 100 ft. long and is divided into 100 links, each one f;;-t
in length. It is used on all engineering surveys in India and
all .English-speaking countries. (It is more convenient than
the Gunter's chain in levelling operations, since the levelling staff
is graduated in feet, tenths, and hundrcdths of a foot. When long
lines nre to be measured, it is more accuratc than the Gunter's
-chain, since, because of its greater length, it need· not be laid
down so frequently as the Gunter's chain, and, therefore,
it is less liable t~ errol' due to inaccurate marking of tIle ends
of the chain. The distances measured with the engineer's chain
are recorded in feet and decimals·.·
The 50-ft. chain may be used with advantage on account
of its lightness when chaining along steep slopes.
/(4) Metre Chain :-In countries in which the metl'e is the
unit of length, chains of 10, 20, and 25 metres are commonly
used. The 20-metre chain which is in most eommon use is
divided ii1to<ioo Ti~k~~- each 2 decimetres in length, and the brass
-tags are attached at every two metres from each end.
Fig. 46 Steel Band Chain Fig. 47

Steel Band:-The steel band, also called the hand chain,
conSists of n ribb-en of steel with a brass swivel handle ~t;acli.-end.
40 -URVEYING AND I.EVELLING
It is 100 ft. long and t in. or i in. wide. It is wound on an open

steel cross (Fig. 46), or on a metal reel in a closed case (Fig. 47).
The graduations are marked in two ways: -(1) the band is divided
by brass studs at every link or foot and numbered at every 10
links or feet, the first and last links or feet being subdivided into
lo ths. (2) the graduations are etched as feet, tenths, and
hundredths (or feet, inches, and eighths) on one side, and links
on the other. Steel survey band is divided every foot with a
numbered tally at every 10 ft. reading from one end.
It is best adapted to general field work and rough usage.

For accurate work the steel band is now preferred. It is lighter
and easier to handle than the chain. It is practically unalterable
in length. However, if sufficient care is not taken, it is easil:,
broken. It cannot be repaired in the field, as it is repaired only
by soldering or riveting. It must be protected from rust by
frequent cleaning gnd oiling. It cannot be read so easily as
the chain. On the other hand, the chain is not only heavy and
cumbersome, but also it has 600 wearing surfaces and, therefore,
it is too much liable to increase in length by stretching when
in continued use. It also gets shorte:n'l::d due to bending of the
links and mud adhering the links. Being heavier, the ehain
sags considerably when suspended. The advantages of the
chain. are (i) it is yery suitable for rough usage. (ii) it can be
easily repaired in the field, and (iii) it can be easily read.
'J Testing the Chain :-When the chain is new, it is very

nearly of the standard length. During its Hrst use the links
become bent and consequently, the chain is shortened. It is
also shortened by mud clogging the links when working oyer
muddy ground. On the other hand, it gets elongated du_e to
(i) wear of 600 wearing surfaces, (ii) stretching of the links and
joints J and opening out of the small rings unless brazed when
in continued use, and (iii) rough handling in pulling it· through
hedges and fences, or over rough ground. It is, therefore,
necessary to check its length before commencing each day's
work and at frequent intervals. Otherwise the measurements
will become unreliable. Before testing the chain, the surveyor
should see that the links and rings are free from mud, and that
there are no kinks or bent links.
The chain is tested by comparing it with (i) the chain standard

(standard chain 1el~gth) as is laid down on some public buil-
ding in large towns, or (ii) with the steel tape which should be
kept in the surveyor's office for this sole purpose. Copings
of walls, verandah floors, railway platforms, etc., are convenient
places upon which to mark the permanent chain standard. If
these are not available at hand, a test gauge should be established
by driving two stout pegs the requisite distance apart (100 or
66 ft.) aHd inserting nails into their tops to mark the exact points
., ,,
,
'
Ii
4 I
\y ) ,) ,;;
~ fOO'
Fig. 48
-----1
as in :Fig. 48. As a check, a third peg Illay be similarly driven
in the middle. It is advisable to have a permanent test gauge
rEST GAl/tiL
~ 1
~
~
/otJ.
Fig. 49
established in close proximity to the surveyor's office in which

case finely dressed stones about 9 in. square may be used instead
, pegs (Fig. 49).
of
~. Adjusting the Chain :-If the chain is found to be too long
it IJ?3Y be ~iY§t~4 (i) by closing up the joints of the connecting
rings that may have opened out, (ii) by hammering back to
shape the elongated rings. (iii) by replacing some of the worn
rings by the new ones, (iv) by removing one or more of the small
rings, if required, and (v) by the adjustable links at the handles.
If. on the other hand, the chain is found to be too short,
it may be corrected (i) by straightening any bcnt links, (Ii) by
flattening some of the small connecting rings, (iii) by replacing
42 """
SUR"VEYING AND LEVELLING
a few of the rings by those of the larger size, (iv) by means of

the adjustable links at the handles, and (v) by inserting new
rings as required.
The adjustment of the chain should, as far as possible, be
effected symmetrically on either side of the middle point so
that the position of the central tag remains unaltered.
Arrows :---Accompanying each ehain are 10 arrows. They
are also called ~!~ing_~~~haining pins (Fig. ,iO), and are used
to mark the end of each chain during #the process of chaining.
,-======--====-Q
r- Fig. 50
They are mad(~ of stout iron or steel wire of 1\0. 10 vV. G., and
are about ] 0 to 18 in. long, the common length being 12 in~
Arrows 18 in. long are advantageous in long grass. They are
pointed at one end for inserting into the ground and bent into a
ring at the other end for facility in carrying. They should
have a piece (,f white or red tape tied to the ring so that they
can be easily visible at a distance. To mark the end of each
chain length, the arrow is inserted in the ground, but when the
ground is hard, a ;-,cratch may be made with the- pointed end.
Tapes :-Tapes are made of various materials and are,
therefore, divided into four classes: (1) cloth or linen, (2) metallic,
(3) steel, and (4) invar.
(1) Cloth or Linen Tape :-The linen tape may be used
for taking subsidiary measurements such as offsets. It con-
sists of a varnished strip of woven linen i in. or ~ in. wide and
winds in a wdl sewn leather case with either folding or flush
handle. It is obtainable in lengths of 33, 50, 66, and] 00 ft.,
50 ft. heing the more common length. It is graduated in feet,
inches, and half-inches on one side, and in links and poles ou
the other. The end of the tape is provided with a brass ring
whcse length i~ included in th(' first inch. It is v",ry light and
handy. It is easily affected by damp. If wet, it shrinks.
\Vhcn the tape gets wet and dirty, care should be taken that it
MEASUREMENT OF' DISTANCE 43
is not wound up until it is cleaned and dried. It stretches very

easily and is likely to twist and tangle. It is, therefore, little
used in surveying.
(2) Metallic Tape:-The metallic tape (Fig. 51) is the cloth
tape having very fine brass or
copper wires woven into it to
prevent stretching and twisting. It
is bctter than the linen tape, but it
is not suitable for accurate and
important measurements. It is
chiefly used for taking offsets and
other subsidiary measurements.
(3) Steel Tape :-For accu-
Fig. 51 rate measurements, the steel tape
(Fig. 52) should be invariably used. It is made of steel ribbon
varying in width from i in. to i in. It is obtainable in lengths of
~"'I" '31~11~'81'1" I'~'§I'I" i "!tIE:,
. 'II!I"'-~'
. .
.' Fig. 52
from ~'o to 1000 ft. But the most common lengths are 50, 100,
and :300 ft~ It is graduated in feet, tenths, and hundredths, the
graduations being etched every hundredth of a foot, and marked
continuously from the zero point to the end. It is wound in
a well sewn leather case. It is lighter to handle, but as it is
delicate, it will not withstand rough usage. It is easily kinked and
broken, and must, therefore, be used with great care. After use
in the field, it should be wiped clean and oiled, otherwise rust
'will obliterate the graduations and make them difficult to read .
• Also, care must be taken to prevent it from twisting, kinking,
or catching under roots of trees, weeds, or stones, as a slight
jerk may result in breaking. It can, however, be readily mended
by riveting a piece of tape of the same length to its back.
(4) Invar Tape :-For work of highest precision, the
invar tape is generally used as in measurement of base lines in
triangulation, and in city work. It is made of an alloy!?! steel _)
and nickel (36%) and possesses a very low coefficient of thermal
44 SURVEYING AND .LEVELLING
expansion (0 ~,OOgq0022 for 1 0 F.). It is i in. wide and may

-be obtained in lengths of 100 ft. and 300 ft., the more -common
length being aoo ft. It is divided at
zero, 100 ft., 200 ft., and 300 ft. with
subdivisions at every fifty feet. J One
terminal division has ten raoth in.
divisions on each side of it. It is wound
on a metal reel 20 in. in diameter.
(Il) It is very expensive and extremell
delicate, and must be handled with
the greatest Care to avoid bending
6'
,md kinking. It cannot, therefore,
be used for ordinary work.
Instruments for Marking Stations .•
(a)
-Fig. 53 Pegs :-- Wooden pegs are used to
mark the positions of stations. They
are made of lUtrd timber and are tapered at one end. They are
usually 1 in. squar,c and 6 in. long (Fig. 53n). l)i
But in soft ground pegs 18 to 24. in. long _ rI
and I! to 2 in. square are suitable. They i I
should be firmly driven into the ground - I
with the steel hammer with about II inchcs If
projecting above the surface of the ground. ~
11'01) peg5 about! in. eJiameter or long l j ' I
wire nails are sometimes used instead of i
wooden pegs.
Ranging Rods :-The ranging rods

(Fig. 54) are u'>ed for marking the positions
of stations conspicuously and for ranging
the lines. They arc made of well seasoned,
straight-grained timber such as teak.
They are cireular or octagonal in cross-
section, 1 lll. to 1 ~ in. diameter and
shod with iron shoe at the lower end.
They vary in lcngths from 6 to 10 ft. ]'ig.55 ]'ig.54
and are divided into equal parts, each 1 foot or 1 link long. In
order to make them visible at a distance, they are painted alter-
MEASCREMENT OF DISTANCE 45
nat ely black and white, or red and white, or red; white, and
black successively. When they arc at a considerable distance, red
and white, or white and yellow flags about 18 in. square should
bc fastened at thc top. They are also made of steel or bamboo.
Ranging Poles :-,- The ranging poles are similar to the ran-
ging rods, but are of heavier section. They vary in length from
12 to 20 ft. or more and are used in the case of very long lines .
.Offset Rod:-The offset rod (Fig. 55) is similar to the
ranging rod, b;;_t it IS usually 10 links or 10 ft. long and is divided
into ten parts, each 1 link or 1 foot in length. The top is provided
with a stout open ring or recessed hook for pulling or pushing
,the chain through a hedge or ,other obstruction. It is chiefly
used for measuring short offsets.
Laths: -Plasterer's laths are very useful when ranging
out long lines especially over very uneven ground, or when the
forward ranging rod may not be visible due to obstructions
such ns hedges, walls, etc., or when crossing a depression. They
are light, cheap and easily procurable. Being white, they are
easily visible at a great distance. They can be easily sharpened
to a point and cut to any desired length' (usually 2 to 3 ft.).
Whites :--'fhe whites (Fig. 56) are used for the same purpose
as the laths when the latter are not available, or when the number
of ranging rods is limited. They are thin strips of bamboo,
"NOI20F.r:
R
Fig. 56 Fig. Gi
thin sticks or twigs cut from a wood or hedge, and vary
from 15 in. to 3 ft. in length. They are sharpened to a point
:at one, end and split at the other for the purpose of inserting
46 SUl'tVEYING AND LEVELLING
pieces of white 'paper. They are also useful for temporary

marking of contour points in locating contours or of points to
be levelled in taking cross-sections.
Plumb Bob :-The plumb bob (Fig. 57) is required when
measuring distances along slopes in a hilly country in order
to transfer points to the ground as in the method of stepping.
It is also used for accurate centring of a theodolite over a
station mark, and for testing the verticality of ranging poles.
vRan'ging Out Survey Lines :-In measuring the length of
a survey line, also called a chain line, it is necessary that the
chain should be laid out on thc ground in a straight line between
the end stations. If the line is short or the end station is clearly
visible, it is easy to put the chain in true alignment. But if it
is long or the end station is not clearly visible, it is necessary to
place intermediate ranging rods to maintain the directiop..
Fig. 58
Similarly, when the chain line AB (Fig. 58) crosses a valley
from which the ranging rod ~t the forward station B is not visible,
or undulating ground, it is advisable ,to establish a number of
intermediate points such as a, b, c, d, etc., prior to chaining AB.
Otherwise, it would be impossible to chain the line AB. These
points are marked by means of laths or whites. The operation of
establishing intermediate points on a straight fine between the
-termmal pomts IS known as ranging. whICh sho'uld be done prIOr
wehaining. It may be done by eye or mstrumenta1:ty""by--rrsing
Iibne ranger or' a theodolite. In important work a theodolite
may be preferably used.
Ranging is of two kinds: (i) direct ..;.~nd (ii) indirect.
It is called direct when intermediate ranging rods are placed
in line by direct observation from either end, while it is called
indirect when they are interpolated by reciprocal ranging or
rwnill-g an auxiliary line. Direct ranging is possible only when
the end stations are intervisibJe.
47
Direct Ran~in~
Rangin~ By Eye:-To begin with, the ranging rods or

poles should he erected vertically behind each end of the line,
as in Fig. 59, To do jJlis, hold the rod firmly in the hand with
its lower end about a foot above the ground and then drive it
firmly into the ground by a quick downward blow. If not
driven sufficiently, remove it and enlarge the hole with the help
PEG
c·---:·_·_·-[]oPOLE
D
Fig. 59
of the ranging rod and drive it a second time. On hard surface
it should be supported by a pile of stonee.
To range a rod in line, the surveyor stands about 6 ft.
behind the ranging rod at the beginning of the line, while the
assistant holds the ranging rod vertically at arm's length at
the point where it is desired to establish the intermediate station.
The ranging rod should be held lightly by the thumb and fore-
finger and roughly in line. The surveyor then directs the assistant
to move his rod to right or left until the thrce ranging rods
appear to be exactly in a straight line. He then stoops down and
finally checks the position of the rod by sighting over their lower
ends in order to avoid errors due to non-verticality of the rods.
He then signal" the assistant to fix the rod. The following code
?! silI!_~ may be llsed in directing the assistant into lin<.> : - -
"Rapid sweeps with right hand-
• Move considera,bly to the right.
Rapid sweeps with left hand- . '.
Move considerably to the left.
Slow sweeps with right Irnd-Move slowly to the right.
" " " left "-,, " to the left.
Right arm exte~ded' -Continue to move to the right.
Left " " ' " " " to the left.
Right arm up and moved to the right-
Plumb the rod to ~e right.
Left arm up and moved to the left-
Plumb the rod to the left.
48 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING """"
Both hands above head and then brought down-Correct.

Both arms extended forward horizontally and the hands
depressed briskly.-Fix."
The al ms should be extended clear of the body. Signals
sh0uld be so made that they can be se«n clearly. A handker-
chief may be used iu signaling when signals have to be read
from a great distance.
vRanging By Line Ranger :-The line ranger is a smali
reflecting instrument used for fixing intermediate points on
the chain lines. It consists of two right-angled isosceles triangular
prisms placed one above the other as in Fig. 60a. To establish an
I
:4'-. ff3-.-o ffij

I p
I
Fig. 60 a Fig. 60 b
intermediate point P in line with the ranging rods A and B ..

the observer stands approximately in line near P and holds
the instrument at the level of the eye. Rays of light from A
enter the upper prism and after being reflected from the
hypotenuse, enter the eye at right angles to the line AB. Similarly,
the rays of light from B entering the lower prism are reflected
from the hypotenuse and enter the eye at right angles to the
line AB. Thus the images of the ranging rods A and Bare
seen in the upper and lower prisms directly in front of the observer.
The observer moves backward~ or forwards at right angles to
the line until the two images appear one above the other exactly
in the same vertical line as shown in :Fig. 60 h. The required
point P is then vertcally under the centre of the instrument.
It may thus be seen that the instrument is useful for establishing
intermediate points on a long line without the necessity of going
to one end of the line and sighting from it.
One of the prisms is adjustable. To test the adjustment!
fix three points exactly in line. Hold the line ranger over the
middle point and observe if the images of the ranging rods at
MEASFREMENT OF D1STA'SeE 49
the other two points appear in exact coincidence. If not, adjust

the movable prism by means of the adjusting screw until they
appear exactly coincident.
v"Indirect Ranging :-Indirect ranging is resorted to when
the ends of a line are not intervi<;ible due to high ground or
a hill intervening, and also whe:r the ends of a line are not
distinctly vi<;ible from one another due to the di<;t-ince being
too great. In such a case, intermediate points can be fixed on
the line by a process known as reciprocal ranging.
Let A and B be the two stations with rising ground or a hill
between them (Fig. 61 a.). Let two chainmen with ranging rods
Fig. 61a
11,; _--- --
___ - - - -;'; - - - - _ __ Ii ~
.c;-';' -------.-== --.::-7----_
A' 11 'p -- - '"" B
'1
Fig.$b
take up positions at 1\'[1 and PI (Fig. 61b) as nearly in line as they
can judge and such that the chainman at Ml can see both the
ranging rods at PI and B, and the chainman at PI can see the
ranging rods at Ml and A. The two chainmen then proceed to
line ill each other alternately. The chainman at PI directs the
chainman at MI to M2 in line with A, and then the chainman
at M2 directs the chainman at PI to P 2 in line with B. By
successively directing each other into line, their positions will
be changed until finally they are both in the line AB ex~tly,
(i. e. the four ranging rods A, M, P, and B are in the same straight
line) when they fix their ranging rods. The positions of these
ranging rods (M and P) serve as intermediate stations for ranging
the line and enable the chainmen to measure -in a straiglit
line between A and B. This method may also be used in ranging
Ii line across a hollow as illustrated in Fig. 58,
50 SURVEYING AND LEV"ELLING
Chaining a Line :-In all chaining operations two men,

called chainmen, are required. The chainman at the forward
end of the chain is called the leader or head chainman, while the
chainman at the rear end of the chain is known as the folluwer
or rmr chainman. The duties of the leader are (i) to clr::;{g the
chain forward, (ii) to ins~rt a~rows at the end of every chain, and
(iii) to obey instructions of the follower, while the duties of the
follower are (i) to place the leader in line with the ranging rod
or pole at the forward station, (ii) to call out instructions to the
leader, (iii) nlways to carry the rear handle in his hand and not
to allow it to drag on the ground, and (iv) to pick up the arrows
inseJ ted by the leader. The chainman who is more intelligent and
experienced should be selected as the followcr, as JIpon his care
and judgment depends the accuracy of measurements.
Unfolding the Chain :-To layout the chain on the ground,
l'emol'.e tne leat};rl' 8tmp, taKe Doth the handles ill the left hand
and throw the chain well forward with the right hand. The
leader, taking Olle handle of the chain, moves forward until
the chain .is extmded to its full length. The chain may then
be examined to see if there are any kinks or bent links. This
operation is also called undoing the chain. '
\Method of Chaining I- ~T~~~in a linf', the f61lower places
the ~ero n[,ridle of the" chain in contact with the peg at the
beginning (If tte line and stands firmly on the handle with the
heels on it (not toes). The leader, taking ten arrows in one
hand, and the other handle and the ranging rod in the other,
walks off in the forward direction, dragging the chain after him.
When nearly at the end of the' chain so that the point to be
ranged will be a little short of the chain length, he stands to
one side of the line (never in the line) ~tlld holds the rod vertically
in contact with the outside of the h~tndle at arm's length and
approximately in line, and then faces the follower.
U sing the code of signals, the follower directs the leader
to moye the rod to right or left as required until it is exactly
in line, and finally checks it by stooping down and sighting
over the lower ends of the rods. The leader then marks the
position of the rod by making a holt: with it or by a scratch,
if the surface is hard. Taking the handle in both hands and
MEASUREMEKT UF DISTAKCE hI
standing in the line, he straightens the chain by jerking it and

stretches it taut over the mark. Care should be taken that the
tension just sufficient to make the chain straight is used. He
then holds the arrow against the end of the handle and in the same
hand, and inserts it vertically into the ground to mark the. e.tld
of the chain. When chaining on hard ground or road sqrface; .
he marks the end of each chain length by a cross + scratched
with an arrow, or made by chalk and lays the arrow on it.
The leader then picks up the ranging rod and the remaining
nine arrows and swinging the chain a little off the line so
that the arrow placed in position may not be disturbed, starts
off as before.
Thc follower, carrying the rear handle, comes up to the
arrow and calls out "Chain" or "Tape ,. to give a warning to
the leader that he has nearly reached a chain length and that
he should stop moving ~orward.. The follower then holds the
handle against the arrow or the cross, and placing both heels
firmly on it, directs the leader into line as before. The leader,
after stretching the chain taut, thrusts the second arrow verti-
cally into the ground. The whole process is then repeated until
the end of the line is reached. Thus the number of arrows in the
possession of the follower at any time is a record of the number
of chain lengths measured. It is always ad,'!sable to check the
number of arrows in the possession of the leader against the
number of arrows that the follower has as a precalltion against
the loss of arrows. The sum of the arrows in the possession
of the leader and follower at any moment should be ten. 'When
the leader has inserted his tenth arrow, he calls out" arrows
or ten". The follower then orders the leader to wait until he
comes up to him. The follower removes the tenth arrow and
marks the end of the lOth chain by erecting a ranging rod, or by
driving a nail. He then counts his arrows (which should be ten)
and hands them over to the leader. The surveyor then records
the transfer of arrows in the field book. Thus the counting of
arrows is a valuable check on the number of chains measured
and guards against gross errors arising from arrows being left in
the ground and lost, and dropped chain lengths. To measure a
fractional length of the chain, the leader should drag the chain
beyond the end station, while the follower holds his handle against
the last arrow. The leader then stretches the chain straight and
taut. and reads the fractional measurement hy counting the
odd links.
Reading the Chain :-Since the chain is marked at every
tenth link by means of tags, no difficulty should arise in reading
the chain. In taking measurements, observe the tag immedia-
tely before th(' point which is heing measured to, amJ count the
number of links from it in the forward direction to the poiryt in
question. In reading near the centre of the chain, great, care
must be excrc·ised to see whether the tag having four points
denotes 40 or 60 links. The correct length is, however, readily
ascertained on noticing the position of the centre or 50-ft. tag1
Observe whether the point is before or beyond the centre tagl
If before, the tag having four points indicates 40 links.
Folding the Chain :-After the work is over, the chain
should be folded jnto a bundle which somewhat resembles a
sheaf of corn or hour glass, and fastened with a leather strap.
To do this, bring the two halves of the chain so as to lie alongside
each other by pulling the chain by the middle. Commencing
from the middle, take two pairs of links at a time with the right
hand and place them obliquely across the others in the feft hand.
This operation is also known as doing the chain.
----,.._,~- -.~.......
Degree of Accuracy in Chaining :--For comparison of

precision of chaining when lines are of different lengths or
measured unller dissimilar conditions, it is the usual practice to
express the error as a' ratio (1 : n), which is called the chai~ing
ratio. It is the ratio of the error to the distance ni-e;-~;_;_~ed,
1 1
,e. g. --- ,~-
- etc. By this is meant an error of 1 unit in
1500 5000
1500 units, or an error of 1 unit in 5000 units. For example,
an error of 0'02 ft. in a measurement of 400 ft. gives a ratio
0·02 1
of -- = ----. No hard and fast rule can be given as regards
400 20000
the accuracy of work with the chain. It is, however, desirable
in practice to state some permissible limit of error. The limits
of enors under different conditions are as follows:
'"
.MEASUREMENT OP' DISTANCE 53
(1) For ordinary measurements with a steel band} .

. 1 In 2000
on flat ground and wlth careful work
(2) For ordinary measurements with a carefUllY}
tested chain on fairly level ground and with 1 in 1000
reasonable care.
(3) Under average conditions ... 1 in 500
(4) l~or measurements over rough or somewhat J' 1 in 250
hilly ground
Error in Length due to Incorrect Chain :-It may be
noted that measurements taken with a chain which is too long,
i. e. longer than the standard of length, or too short, i. e. shorter
than the standard of length ('an be corrected by calculation,
using the formula :
, True length of line = 1:,' X mea'lured length of line .. , (1)
L
where L' = the incorrect length of a chain or tape.
L = the true length of a chain or tape.
L = 100 ft. when the Engineer's chain is used.
~.", 100 links when the Gunter's chain is used.
If e is the mean elongation or shortening of a chain or tape

in ft. or links, L' = (100' ± e) ft: or links.
Use plus sign when the chain is too long. and minus sign when
it is too short.
The above formula may, therefore, bc written as under : -
True. length of line = ~oo±~ X measured length of line ... (2)
100
Note :-If the chain is too 'long, the measured length of
a line is too short, i. e. less than its true length. Consequently,
the error is negative and the correction is positive. If the chain is
too short, the measured length of a line is too great, i. e. greater
than its true length.' Therefore, the error is positii;e and the correc-
tion is negati'l'('. When the Gunter's ehain is used, the length
of a line is generally measured in links. The true length of the
line may be found by formula (2), and then converted int.o feet
by the relation 100 links =:. 66 ft., if required.
SURVEYI",G AND LEVELLING
Error in Area due to Incorrect Chain;-When an area

has been measured with a chain which is afterwards fOUll~l to
be in error, the true area may be found by the formula;
True area = ( L''D )2 X measured area (a)
H10±e)2
or . " "
= ( 100 X measured area, ... . ... (3a)
or = (l±2e') X measured area (approximate) .. (4)

" "
where e' = _f!_ ft. or links.
100
Error in Volume due to Incorrect Chain ;-The tme
volume may be ddermined, using the formula;
True volume = (-:eL')3 X measured volume (5)
= 100±e)3 X measured volume... ." (5a)

( ~--~
100
= (1 ± 3e') X measured volume (approximate).16)
where e' = -!_ ft. or links.

100
Examples on Correction of Distance and Area

Example 1 ;-Thc length of a line measured witp. an
Engineer's chain was found to be 820 ft. It was afterwards
found that the chain was 3 inches too long. Find the true length
of the line.
L' .
Tme length of line = --- X measured length of line.
L
Here L' = 100 e = 100 + + 0·25 = 100'25 ft.; L = 100 ft.
Measured length = 820 ft.
100·25
True length of the line = ---- .-~ X 820 = 822·05 ft.
100
Example 2 :-The distance between two stations was
measured by means of a Gunter's chain which was 0'4 link too
short and the result was 124.8 links. What was the true
distance between the stations ?
MEAseREMENT OF DISTANCE 55
·
T rue (1lstance ~.= L'
- - X measured d'lstance.
W L
Here L' = 100 - e = 100- 0·4= 99·6 links; L= 100 links.
Measured distance = 1248 links.
1· t ancc b etwcen t I11' statIOns

T rue (IS . = 99·6
~-- X 1248
100
= 1243 links.
Example 3 :-The length of a line measured by means of a
100-ft. chain was found to be 2~40._ft. and its true length was
known to be 224.15 ft. What was the actual length of the chain '1
Sincc the measured length of the line is less than its true
length, the chain was too long.
L'
N ow true length of line = -_ X measured length.
L
True length of 'the line = 2245 ft.
Measured" " " = 22'1<0 ft.
L = 100 ft.
r: , 2245 X 100
2245 = -- X 2240 or L = - - - - - = 100'223 ft.
100 2240
Hence the actual length of the chain = 100·223 ft.
Example 4 :-A survey line was measured by means of a
Gunter's chain and found to be 3400 links. It was also measured
..
with"a 100-ft. chain and the result was 2258 ft. If the error in the
Gunter's chain was + 0'3 link, find the error in the loo-ft. chain.
(i) Actual length of the Gunter's chain = L' = 100 + 0'3
= 100' 3 links.
Measured length of the line = 3400 links; L = 100 links.
· 100 . 3 I'
T rue 1engt h 0 f t h e Ime = - - X 3":1-00 = 3410·2 mks.
100
66
~- 3410·2X - = 2250'732 ft.
_, 100
·56 SURVEYING AND J"EVEI,LING
(ii) But the measured length of the line = 2258 ft.

Since the measured length of the line is greater than its
true length, the IOO-ft. chain was too short.
Now true l('ngth of line =~ X measured length of.line.

L
Measured length = 2258 ft ; true length = 2250' 732 ft.
L = 100 ft; I..' = the incorrect length of the chain ..
. , 2250'732 X 100
.. L = --- -~-.-= 99·678 ft.
2258
Whence, the crror in the loo-ft. chain = 100 - 99·678
= - 0·322 ft.
Example 5 :--An Engineer's chain was found to be~
inches too long after chaining 4200 ft. It was found 6 inches
too long at the end of day's work after chaining a total distance
of 6880 ft. If the chain was correct beforc commencement of
thc work, find the true distance.
(i) Since the chain was correct, i. e. 100 ft. long at the
beginning and was found to be 100'25 ft. long after chaining
4200 ft., the increase in ~ength was gradual.
. = 0+8
Mean eIongatIon ---.
.
= l' 5 Ill. wf
=== 0 '12iJ t.
2
Measured distance ="-~ 4200 ft.; L= 100ft; L'= 100·125 ft.
100·125
True distance = ------- X 4200 = , 4205 . 25 ft.
100
(ii) The remammg distance (6880 -. 4200 = 2680) was
measured with the same chain. It was 8" too long at thc com·
mencement of chaining this distance and 6" too long at the end
of chaining.
.
1\[. ean eI oncratIon = 8+6
_2_ = 4' 5'm. "''' 0'37<>~ft .
."
Measured distancc = 2680 ft.; L= 100 ft.; L'= 100·375 ft.
. 100'375
True dIstance = -- - - - '>( 2680 =.C~ 2690' 05 ft.
100
Whence, total true distance ~ 4205' 25 +2690' 05 = ',895, 3 ft.
'"i MEASUREMENT Oll' DISTANCE 57
,/Example 6 :-The surveyor measured th~ distance between

two stations on a plan drawn to a scale of 40 fee~ to 1 inch and
the result was· 2082 ft. Later, however, it was discovered that
he used a scale of 80 ft. to 1 inch . . Find ~he'true distance between
the stations.
The distance between the stations III inches, measured
, h a sca1e
WIt 0f 80 f t. t 0 1 I'nch = 2082 = 26, 025
80
The scale of the plan being 40 ft. to 1 inch, the true distance
between the stations = 26·025 X 40 = 1041 ft.
. l
Alternahve y,true
d 'Istance = (wrong scale) X measure d d'Istance
(correct scale)
= 40 X 12 X 2082 = 1041 ft.

80 X 12
1 1
Note :-Wrong scale (R.F.) = ~--.-; correct scale=-_ _ .
80 X 12 40 X 12
Example 7 ;-A certain field was rpeasured with a 100 ft.

chain and found to conta-in 38 acres. It was afterwards found
that the chain was 6 inches too short. ·What is the true area of
the field?
True area, = (L')2

L X measured area.
Here L' = 99' 5 ft. ; L = 100 ft.; measured area = 38 acres.
True area of the field = (99' 5)2 X 38 = 37,61 acres.

100
Example 8 : -The area of a field was computed from a
plan drawn to a scale of 3 dlains to 1 inch and found to be !). 6
acres. Through oversight, however, a scale of 4 chain to 1
inch was used in scaling the plan. Find the true area of the field.
(wrong scale)2
True area = X measured area
(correct scale)2
. True area of the field

•• = (~)2
4 X 9' 6 = 5·4 acres.
Example 9 :-A chain was tested before starting a survey

of field and was found to be exactly 100 ft. At the end of
the survey, it was tested again and was found to measure
100 ft. and () inches .• The area of the plan {lrawn to a scale of
1 inch = 66 ft. was 18· 50 sq. inches. Find the true area of the
field.
The scaJe of the plan being 66 ft. to I inch, .
1 sq. inch on the plan = 4356 sq. ft. on the ground.
Area of the plan =--= 18' 50 sq. inches.
Area of the field = 18·5 X 43,56 sq. ft.
N ow correct area = L(L')2 X measured a rea.
L .' = 100 + mean eI '

ongatlOIl = 0 +
I 00 -+--. -- 6
_,_ = 100·25 f t .
. 2 X 12
L = 100 ft.; measured area :=.= 18·5 X 4356 sq. ft.

100'25)2
True area of the field = ( ~-_-- X 18· 5 X 435~q. ft.
100 .
= (100'25)2 X 18'5 X 4356

100 43560
= 1 . 86 acres.
~ Example 10 :-The plan of an old survey plotted to a
scale of 660 ft. to I inch was found to ha\'e shrunk so that a
line originally 10 inches long was only 9· 82 inches. There was
also a note on the plan that the Gunter's chain used was '(). 5
link too long. If the area of the plan measured now by a priC\i-
meter is 24' 68 sq. inches, find the true area of the survey.
Measured area on the plan = 2'1' 68 sq. inches.
Since the plan has shrunk, an original area of 100 sq. inches
now measures (n· 82)2 sq. inches.
Original area on th~ plan = (_!_5!_)2 X 24·68 =25· 6 sq. inches.

9·82
The scale of the plan being 660 ft. to 1 ineh,
the area on the ground = 25· 6 X 660 2 = l11~ooll sq.
The chain being O· 5 link too long, the actual length of the
chain = L' = 100 +
o· 5 links, and L = 100 links .
.'. " True area on the ground = (10~)2 X 11150000
- 100
11260000
- = 11260000 sq. ft. = --"_ = 258·4 acres.
43560
True area of the survey = 258·4 acres.
t. Chaining on Sloping Ground :-Since the distances re-
quired for plotting purposes are the horizontal distances, all
measurements must be made horizontally. However, as a matter
of convenience, they are sometimes made on sloping ground,
but they are afterwards reduced to their horizontal equivalents
before they are used for plotting. There are two methods of
determining horili,9ntal distances when chaining on uneven or
sloping'-ground : (1) direa~ allil 1(2)" indirect.
Direct Method: By Stepping :- In this method, commonly
known as the method of stepping, horizontal distances are
directly measured on the ground by the process of stepping
which consists in measuring the line in short horizontal lengths.
For this purpose, the chain is broken, i. e. a portion of the chain,
say 10, 20, 30, or 50 links is stretched horizontally with one end
resting on the ground and the other held in line and above the
ground at a convenient height (less than 6 ft.), and the point
vertically below this end is then accurately found on the
ground by suspending a plumb bob and then marked. The'
end of the suspended length may also be transferred but less
accurately by the ranging rod, or by dropping a pebble or a drop
arrow (Fig. 62), which consists of an arrow heavily weighted
near the lower end with '~a boss of lead, or by the ring down.
The next step is then commenced from this point and the process
is continued in correct alignment until the end of the line is
reached.
Suppose it is required to measure the horizontal distance
between A and B (Fig. 63). The follower holds the zero end of
the chain or tape" at A on the ground, while the leader holds it
at a suitable length (Aa 1 ), say 30 links, and stretches it horizontally.
The follower then ranges the leader in line with B. The leader
60 SURVEYING AND LEVELUNG
then transfers his end (a l ) to the ground by means of a plum.

bob, and marks the point (a2) with an arrow. The follower: thel~"
Fig. 62 Fig. 63
moves to the point a 2 and holds the zero end of the chain at _,
The leader, holding the chain at the same length (Aa l ), strctche
it horizontally. The follower then directs the leader hlto t1'.]
alignment when the leader marks the point 04 on the gl'oun
vertically below his end (a 3 ) by suspending a plumb lin
Similarly. other points are marked. The distance AB is th
equal to sum of the lengths of the steps.
The following points should be kept in view in using th~
method. -
(1) The tape should be stretched horizontalIy~ T~
horizonta1ity of thc chain or tape should be judged b~ t~
surveyor standing clear to one side and directing the leader.
(2) Thc errol' due to sag varies directly as the square "
the weight of the chain or tape, and inversely as the square ~'
. . . (WeiO'ht)2 . . . ,.
the tenSIon (or pull), I.e. proportIOnal to --~ . To mmlIlllll
tenSIOn
the error, the chain or tape should be sufllciently stretched.
steel tape is the best fa., this kind of work as it is much ligh~
in weight.
(3) The length of steps need not be uniform throughou
It should vary inversely with the steepness of the slope an
weight of the chain or band. The steeper the slope or tl
heavier the chain or tape, the shorter the length of the ste~
"(4) It is more convenient and gives better results to chain

downhill than to chain uphill. In the latter case, the follower
has. two duties to perform, viz. (i) to hold the chain or tape
horizontal, with its zero (or free) end exactly over the mark on
the ground, and (ii) at the same time to range the leader in line
and resist the pull of the leader.
The Clinometer :-Fig. 64 illustrates the clinometer most
commonly used for measuring the angles of slope. In its
simplest form it consists of (i) a graduated semicircle resen~bling
a protractor, (ii) two pins a and b for
sighting, and (iii) a light plumb-bob on
a long thread suspended from the centre.
A mark is made on a ranging rod at the
height-of the observer's eye. In using
Fig. 64 the instrument, the surveyor sights
"long ab to the mark on the ranging rod held by the assistant
up 01' down the slope. He then clips the thread with his thumb
and notes the graduation under the string, which gives the
required angle of slope.
v' (2) Indirect Method: By measuring along slope:- When
the slope of the ground is long. and gentle, distances may be
measured more quickly and accurately along the surface of
the ground than by the method of stepping. Th(:; various slopes
are measured by a clinometer (usually by Abney level), or the
difference in elevation between successive points is determined
by a level or hand level. Knowing the angle of slope of the
A
l"ig. 65 Fig. 66
ground and the slope (or inclined) distance, horizontal_distances
may be computed in several ways.
62 SURVEYING AND LEVELLIKG
First IJlethod :-Let l = the measured distance, and () = the

angle of slope of the ground (Fig. 65).
Then the required horizontal distance ABI = D = l cos () ... (7)
If the slope of the ground is not regular, but is made up of
varying inclinations, the line should be divided into sections at
the points of change of slope. The distance is then measured
along each section and the angle of slope of each section is
determined by a clinometer (Fig. 66).
If l1' l2' etc. = the measured lengths of the various sections,
and () l' () 2' etc. = the angles of slope of the sections,
then, the required horizontal distance (D)
= II cos (}1
.+ l2 cos ()2 + etc., = klcos9 ... '" . (7a)
Second Methud :-If only the distance between the ends of
a line is required, the horizontal distance may be computed after
chaining is completed. If, however, a number of intermediate
points have to be located, a correction may preferably be applied
in the field at every chain length. The correction may be
obtained as follows:
B
~/
A,.'f-I-'_-L._____--' 0
I""f - - - - CHAIN - - - 1.....,1
Fig. 67 1•• ~. Fig. 68
In Fig. 57, let () = the angle Of slope of the ground;
AC1 = AB = 1 chain = 100 links.
Then AC = 100 sec () links.
BC = AC - AB = 100 (sec () - 1) links.
It, therefore, follows that the distance that must be measured
on the slope in order that its horizontal equivalent should be
equal to 1 chain or 100 links, is 100 sec(} links, i.e. the arrow
must be placed forward at C instead of at B. The chain is,
therefore, stretched in the pos,on AB and the arrow is placed
in advance of the end B of the <!fJ.ain by an amount 100 (sec () -1)
links or feet, care being taken to place it in the line. The amount
100 (sec () - 1) is known as the hypotenusal allowance. It can
be easily computcd from a table of n-~t~r~i ~~~a~t~. - The next
chain length starts from C and the process is continued until
the end of the line is reached. The required horizontal distance
(D) is then cqual to the number of chains measured.
When the slopes are moderate, the chainages of the in-
termediate points may be read directly along the chain, which
are sufliciently accurate for the purpose of offsetting.
Third method :--If the difference in eleyation'(h) between the
ends of the slope (Fig. 65) is determined by a levelling instrument,
the required horizontal distance ABI = D = V(12 - hi) (8)
in which I = the distance measured along the slop(·.
h = the difference in elevation (i. e. the vertical distance)
between the ends of the slope.
il Corrections for Slope :-Horizontal distances may be deter-
mined by applying corrections negatively to the distances measured
along the slope. The formulre for corrections may be derived as
follows:
(1) In Fig. 68, let I denote the slope distance (AB); h
the vertical distance (BBI) between two points A and B; D
the horizontal distance· (ABI); and Ch the correction (BIC I )
to the slope distance, all being expressed in feet.
Then Ch= BICl = AC I .- ABl = 1- D = I-Vl2--_h2 (exact) ... (9)
h2 h4 ) h2 •
= l -I ( 1 - --- - - 4 - ... = ~.- (approxImately) .. , (9a)
212 81 21
neglecting powers of [ higher than the second.
Alternatively, [2 - D2 = h2 or ([. - D) (l + D) = h2 •
h2 h2
Ch = 1- D = ----~= --- (approximately).
(I + D) 2l
The correction ,is to be subtracted from the slope distance in
order to obtain its horizontal equivalent.
(2) If the angle of slope of the ground be measured, the
correction may be obtained' thus:
Let (J = the angle of slope of the ground, in degrees.

Then h = l sinO = 0- 0175 X [0 (approximately).
2
h
Now Ch = - -
2l
(0·0175 X 10)2 = 0-00015 [02 = It X [()2
Ch = - 2l ---
10,000
(approximately) _.. (10)
(3) If the angle of slope of the ground be measured with
greater preeision (as with a theodolite), the correction may be
determined by the exact formula which may be derived as follows:
In Fig. 68, the correction Ch= BIC I = ACI-AB I = AB-ABI
= l- D = l - l cos () = 1 (1 - cOS 0) = l vel'S (J (exact) ... (ll)
since 1 - cos 0 = versine ().
The correction may be readily obtained from a table of
versed sines. If it is not available, the versed sines may be
calculated from a table of natural cosines.
Merits and Demerits of Methods of Cbaining on Slope:-
The method of stepping is more convenient and quicker, and is
to be preferred, if the ground is undulating and the slopes are
short and of varying degree. It is unsuitable when the ground
is gently sloping and the slopes, are long. Care should be taken'
to guard against the two fruitful sources of error, namely (i) the
difficulty of transferring horizontal lengths to
the ground exactly,
and (ii) the sag in the chain or tape on account of the weight
of the chain and insufficient pull. On the other hand, the in-
direct methods are quicker and more accurate when the ground
is gently sloping and the slopes are long and regular. The in-
direct method 2 in which 'each chain length is corrected by the'
hypotenusal allowance is generally employed in route surveys,l
If the slope of the ground is upto 3", the ground may be
considered as level and there is no need to use the method of
stepping, or to apply the slope corrections to the measurcJ
lengths especially when the chain is used in measurement.
Examples on Slope Measurements
Example 1 :-If in a length of one chain along a slope tl
ground rises 15' 5 ft., find the angle of slope and the hypotenusal
allowance in inches per chain, when it is (a) an Engineer's chain

and (b) lot Gunter's chain.
(a) Let 6 = the angle of slope.
'. 15·5
Then SIn 6 =-~ = 0'155 o = 8° 55'
100
Hypotenusal Mlowance per 100-ft. chain = 100 (sec 6 - 1)
= 100 (sec 8° 55' - 1)=100 (1·0122-1)= 1'22 ft. = 14·64 inches.
(b) sin 0 = 15·5 0 = 13° 35'.
66
Hypotenusal allowance per Gunter's chain = 100 (sec 6 - 1)
= 100 (sec 13,° 35' -1) = 100 (1'0288-1)= 2·88 links = 22·81 in.
Example 2 :-Find the correction in feet per 100-ft. chain
for a line measured along a slope of (a) 8° 20' and (b) 14° 40'.
Let Ch = the correction in feet per 100-ft. chain.
0' = the angle of slope.
Ch = 100 (1 - eos 8) (exact).
1'5 X 100(12
(approximate).
10,000
fa) Ch = 100 (1- cos 8° 20') = 100 (1-0'9894)
= 1· 06 ft. (exact).
1'5 X 100 (8 '333)2
~ = 1·042 ft. (approximate)
10,000
(b) Ch = 100(1-cos14°40') = 100 (1 - 0'9674)
=3·26 ft. (exact).
= 1· 5 X 100 (1~~7)2 = 3.23 ft. (approximate).
10,000
Example 3 :-The distance between two points A and B
measured alang a slope is 840 ft. Find the horizontaJ distance
between A and B, when (a) the angle of slope is 12°, (b) the slope
is 1 in 4' 5, and (c) the difference in elev~tion of A and B is 116· 9 ft.
Let D = the horizontal distance in feet between A and B.
1 = the distance in ft. between A and B measured along the slope.
(J = the angle of slope.
p.I. .. 3
66 SURVEYING AND },EVEl..LING
(a) Then D = 1 cos 6 = 840 cos 12° = 821-7 ft.

or cl: = 840 ( 1 - cos 12°) = IS'-j, ( - ve).
D == I - CA = 840 - 18' J = 821 . 6 ft.
(b) The slope being 1 in 4· 5 (i. e. 1 vertical and 4' 5 hori-
zontal ),
1
Tan 0 = - o= 12° 32'.
4',")
Hence D = I cos 6 = IHO cos 12° 32' = 820 ft.

or Ch= 840 (1 - cos 12° 32') = 19·99 (- ve.)
D = 1- Ch = 840 - 19'99 = 820·01 ft.
(c) (i) D = v' [2_ h2- = v' (S40)2- (116:-g)2= 832 ft_ (exact).
. 116·9
(ii) SIll 0 =---
840
Whence, D = 840 cos 8°= 832 ft. (exact),

h2 (116-9)2
(iii)
, -_
Correction to slope distance = Cli = _ = _ __
2l 2 X 840
= 8'134 ft. (- ve).
•4. D =, 1- C,,= S4~ - 8-134 = 831·866 ft. (approximate) .

(iv) Cli =1·5 X~ = 1·5 X 840 X 64 = 8'065 ft. (-ve).
10,000 10,000
D == 1- Ch= 840- 8'065 = 831·935 ft. (alJproximate)

Example 4 :-A survey line was measured on a falling
gradient of 1 in 8 and found to be 12·48 chains. Later, however,
it was found that the chain was o· 4 link too short. What length
should the line scale on a plan ?
The required length is the true horizontal length of. the
line, and may be obtained from the measured length by applying
the corrections for slope and error of the chain.
The gradient_ being 1 in 8,
tan6 = 1, where 6 = the angle of slope.
:. 6 = 7° 7'.
Hence horizontal length of the line = l cos ()

= 12·48 cos 7° 7' chn.
The chain being O· 4 link too short, .
its actual length = L'= 100 - 0·4 = 99'6 links.
True horizontal length of the line = 99·6 X 12· 48 cos 7° 7'

100
= 12·34 chn •
..Errors in Chaining : -The errors that occur in chaining are

classed as (i) Compensating, (ii) Cumulative.
(i) Compensating Err.ws :-The compensating errors are
those which are liable to occur in either direction and hence
tend to compensate, e. g. error due to inaccuracy in marking
the chain lengths on the ground. They are not so important
as the cumulative errors which are more serious.
(ii) Cumulative Errors :-The cumulative errors are those
which occur in the same direction and tend to add up or accumu-
late, and seriously affect the accuracy of the work, e. g. errors
due to incorrect length of chain, temperature, tension o~ c;hain,
not keeping the chain horizontal, incorrect alignment, etc.
The student should clearly distinguish between the compensat-
ing and cumulative errors. The latter, though smaller, have a
far greater effect than the former even though they are larger.
Illustration: Suppose a-line, 6400 ft. long, is measured with
a tape which is O· 02 ft. too long, and the error in marking a tape
length is, say ± 0·03 ft. The total error made in marking the
tape lengths on the ground is equal to 8 X 0 . 03 =0' 24 ft. (total
error = ± e VN, where e is tt.e error in marking a tape length
and N is equal to the number of tape lengths).
The total cumulative error in the length of the line due to
incorrect length of the tape is equal to 64 X o· 02 =1' 28 ft.
The following are the sources of error in chaining.
(1) Erroneous length of chain or tape (Cumulative) : -
The length of the chain or tape may be greater or less than the
standard of length. This is the most serious source of error,
producing a systematic error. This may be eliminated by correc-
ting the chain or by correcting measurements -taken with an
68 SURVEYING AND I.EVELLING
incorrect chain or tape. The error is positive or negative accor-

ding as the chain is too short or too long.
(2) The chain getting out of true line due to wrong
ranging (Cumulative) ;-In ordinary work it produces a negli-
gible error. The error in length due to poor alignment may be
d2
calculated from the approximate formula; Error'~ 1 --b = -- ft. or
21
links, where I is the length of the tape; b is the distance along
the straight line, and d is the perpendicular distance of the end
of the tape from the true line. The error is always positive.
J(3) Imperfect alignment (Compensating) ;-The leader is
likely to fix the arrow sometimes on one side and sometimes
on the other side of the true line, thus producing a variable
systematic error. This is the least important of the errors in
chaining. It cannot be eliminated, but can be minimised by ins-
erting the arrow on the line. The error is positive or wative.
(4) The chain or tape not being straight (Cumulative) ;--.
In chaining through grass,. bush, etc., or when the wind is blowing,
it is not possible to keep the chain or tape quite straight. This
produces a variable systematic error. The result is the same
as that of using a chain or tape which is too short. The error
is negligible, if the leader is careful enough to stretch the chain
or tape taut at the time of inserting the arrow. The error is
always positive.
(5) The chain or tape not being horizontal (Cumulative);-
This is the common source of error in the method of stepping.
This error also arises, if flat slopes are not correctly determined,
or are disregarded. When the two ends of the tape are not
at the same level, as when measurements are made on a slope.
a correction has to be applied to the measured' distance.
(Correction = -~~, where h = the difference in level between two

21
ends and I = the slope distance between them). The error is
always positive.
(6) Sag in chain (Cumulative) ;-This error arises whenever
the chain or tape is supported at intervals or stretched in the air
instead of being supported throughout its elltire length,as in chain-

ing over small obstructions or undulations, or in the process of
stepping, the tape hanging in a curyc known as the "Catenary".
On account of this curvature, the distance between the ciid points
is evidently less than the length of the chain. The amount of this
shortening due to sag varies with the weight of the chain, the
pull exerted at the ends of the chain, and the distance between
the points of support. This error can be minimised by suspend-
ing sh0rt lengths and pulling firnlly. The error is always positive.
(7) Variation in temperature (Cumulative) :-In ordinary
chaining this error is of no consequence, since a change in tempe-
rature of 15° JI: produces a change in length of about o· 01 ft.
in 100-ft. reI{gth. However, when great accuracy is req~ired:'
a correction has to be applied. The error may be positive or
negative.
V'. (8) Variable Tension in the Chain (Compensating) :--
Change in length of the chain produced by varying pull is negli-
gible except in precise work. The error becomes cumulative
when too great or too small a pull is persistently applied. If
the pull is greater than that at which the tape is standard, the
tape is too long, while it is too short if the pull is less. The
'. error may be positive or negative.
'>._.. (9) Incorrect Holding (Compensating) :-The follower
may not bring his handle of the chain to the arrow, but may hold
it to one or the other side of the arrow. The error may be posi-
tive or negative.
Mistakes in Chaining :-The following mistakes are
commonly made by inexperienced chainmen.
(1) Displacement of Arrows- :-When the arrow is dis-
placed, it may not be replaced accurately. To guard against
.this mistake, the end of each chain length should be marked
~oth by the arrow and by a cross (+2 scratched on the ground.
I (2) Failure to observe the position of the zero point of
Ithe tape :-The chainmen should see whether it is at the end of
Ithe ring or on the tape.
I (3) Adding or Omitting a full chain or tape length
:Du{' to wrong counting or ?oss,oj arrows) :-This is the most serious
mistake and should be guarded against. This is not likely to

occur, if the leader has the full number (ten) of arrows at the
commencement of chaining and both the leader and the follower
count them at each transfer. A whole tape length may be
dropped, if the follower fails to pick up the arrow at the point
of beginning.
(4) Reading from the wrong end of the chain:-
e. g. reading 40 ft. for 60 ft., or reading in the wrong direction from
a tally, e. g. reading 48 ft. f"9r 52 ft. The common mistake in
reading the chain is to confuse 40-ft. tag with 60-ft. tag. It should
be avoided by noticing the 50-ft. tag.
(5) Reading numbers incorrectly :-Transposing figures,
e. g. 37' 24 for 37' 42 or reading tape upside down, e. g. 6 for 9,
or 86 for 98.
(6) Calling numbers wrongly:-e. g. calling 40·2 as
" fortytwo ".
(7) Reading wrong footmarks :-e. g. 58' 29 for 57·29.
(8) Wrong booking ;-e. g. 345 for 354.
To guard against this mistake, the chainman should call
out the measurements loudly and distinctly, and the surveyor
should repeat them as he books them.
Tape Corrections ;-Precise measurement of distance is
made by means of a steel tape 100 ft. or sometimes 300 ft.
long. But for work of highest precision, an invar tape 300 ft.
in length is invariably used. Before use, it is desirable to as-
certain its actual length (absolute length) by comparing it with
the standard of known length, which can be done for a small
fee by the Survey and Standards department. It is well to note
here the distinction between the nominal or designated length and
absolute length of a tape. By the former is mcant its designated
length, e. g. 100 ft. or 300 ft., while by the latter is meant its
actual length under specified conditions. The tape may be
standardised when supported horizontally throughout its full
length or in catenary. The expression that" a tape is standard
at a certain temperature and under a certain pull" means that
under'these conditions the actual length of the tape is e'xaclly
equal to its nominal length. Since the tape is not used in the
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE 7I
field under standard conditions, it is necessary to apply the

following corrections to thc measured length of a line in order
to obtain- its true length :
(i) Correction for absolute length, (ii) Correction for tempe-
rature, (iii) Correction for tension or pull, (iv) Correction for
sag, and (v) Correction for slope or vertical alignment.
A correction is said to be plus or positive when the uncorrec-
ted length is to be increased, an~ ,minus or negative when it is
to be decreased in order to obtain true length.
Correction for Absolute Length :-It is the usual practice to
express the absolute length of a tape as its nominal or designated
length plus or minus a correction. The correction is given by
the formula,
Le
Ca = --- (12)
l
where Ca =
the correction for absolute length.
L =
the measured length of a line.
=
the nominal length of a tape.
e = the correction to a tape.
Thc sign of the correction (C a ) will be the same as that
of c. It may be noted that Land l must be expressed in the
same units and the unit of Ca is the same as that of c.
Correction for Temperature :-It is necessary to apply this
correction, since the length of a tape is increased as its tempera-
.ture is raised, and consequently, the measured distance is too
small. It is given by the formula,
Ct = a (Tm-To) I, (13)
in which Ct =--= the correction for temperature, m ft.
a = the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Tm = the mean temperature during measurement.
To = the temperature at 'which the tape is standardised.
L = the measured length, in ft.
the sign of the correction is plus or minus according as
Tm is greater or less than To. The coeffi,cient of expansion for
steel varies from 0'0000055 to 0'0000070 per degree }3'. and that
Let 11' 12 , etc., = the lengths of successive uniform slopes.

hI' h2 , etc., = the differences in height between the
extremities of each ot these slopes.
Cg = the total correction for slope.
If I is the length of anyone slope, and h the difference in

height between the ends of the slope.
the slope correction = 1 - Y[2 - h2
=I - 1(1 _ !!~_ h" - etc. )

212 81 4
= (h2 +~ + etc. )= ~2
21 sP 21
Whence,
Cg = (~{+ 1L1.2 + ...... + hn2) (17a)

211 212 'lIn
When the slopes are of uniform length I, we have
Cg. = - 1 (h 12 .1.
'
h22 + ...... + tin2) I _
--.
~h2. .... (17b)
21 21
This correction is always subtractive from the measured

length. If the slopes are given in terms of vertical angles
(plus or minus angles), the following formula may be used.
The correction for slope = 1- 1cos (J = 21 sin2 ~ = 1 versin (J ( -ve)

2 .
(18)
in which I = the length of the slope; (J = the angle of slope.
Examples on Tape Corrections

Example 1 :-A line was measured with a steel tape which
was exactly 100 ft. long at 65° F. and found to be 1259'24 ft.
0
The temperature during measurement was 81 Find the true }".
length of the line. Take the coefficient of expansion of tape

per 1° F.= O·OOOO()625.
'Temperature correction per tape length = Ct = a(Tm-To}l.

Here l = 100ft.; T o =65°F.; T m =81°F.; a =0'00000625.
Ct = 0'00000625 (81- 65) 100 = 0'01 ft. (+ ve).
Hence the length of the tape at 81°F.=100+ Ct
= 100 + 0'01 = 100'01 ft.
Noy·; true length of a line = .1:,' X its measured length.

L
L = 100 ft.; L' = 100'01 ft.; measured length = 1259·24 ft .
•
. 100'01
True length of the hne = - - - X 1259'24 =1259·36(fft.
100
Alternatively, Ct = 0·00000625 (81 - 65) X 1259'24
= 0 ·1259 ( +ve).
True length of thc line = 1259· 24 + 0'1259 = 1259·366 ft.
Examp1e 2 :-A steel tape was exactly 100 ft. in length
when supported throughout its length under a pull of 10 pounds.
A line was measured with this tape under a pull of 20 pounds and
the measured length of thc line was 958·64 ft. Find the true
length of the line, if the cross-sectional area of the tape was
0'003 sq. in. and the modulus of elasticity of steel 28 X 106 1bs.
per sq. inch.
Correction for pull per tape length = Cp = 1 (P -Po)
AE
First mcthod :-Here 1 = 100ft.; P= 20 pounds; P o =10 pounds;
A = 0'003 sq. in.; E= 28 X 106 pounds.
C = 100 (20-10) = 0.012 ft. (+ve).

'P 0 . 003 X 28 X 106
\
Hence the actual length of tape = 100 + Cp = 100+ 0·012~.
= 100' 012 ft.
True length of the line = 100'012.X 9;)8'

"
64 = 958·755 ft.
100
Second method :-Cp = 958'64-(20-10) = 0'114 ft. (+ve).

0'003 X 28 X 106
True length of the line = 958' 64 + 0'114 = 958_" 754 ft.
- 7~ SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
Example 3 :-A 100-ft. tape is suspended between its ends

under a pull of 20 pounds. The weight of the tape is 1 t pounds.
Find the corrected length of the tape betwef'n its ends.
. W2
f or sag = C8 =l1-
CorrectIOn -
24PZ
11 = 100 ft.; W = l' 5 Ib; P = 20 lb.
100(1' 5)2
C8 = - - - - = O' 0234 ft.
24 (20)2
.:. Corrected length of the tape = 1- Cs = 100 ,..- 0·0234
= 99·9766 ft.
Example 4 :-The downhill end of the 100-ft. tape is held
2 ft. too low.What is the horizontal length?
h2
Correction for slope = -- (- ve}.
21
Here h = 2 ft.; I = 10~ ft.
The required correction = ~- = o· 02 ft. ( -ve).

2 X 100
Hence the horizontal length= 100 -~ 0'02 = 99·98 ft. '
Example 5 :-A 100- ft. tape is held It ft. out of line. What
is the true length ?
2
.
CorrectIOn t a I'19nment
f or Incorrec,
. i = d- ( --ve ) .
21
as explained on page 68.
1'52
Here d = 1·5 ft.; 1 = 100 (t. =_._- = 0'011 ft.
2 X 100
... True length = 100 - 0·011 = 99·989 ft .

PROBLEMS 77
PROBLEMS
1. Explain the construction and use of a chain.
2. Describe the different kinds of chains conunonly used in surveying, stating
the special advantage of each.
3. Explain how a chain is tested and adjusted.
4. Describe the process of chaining and state the points to be kept in view iD
chaining.
5. What are the sources of error in chaining? What precautions would you
take to guard against them?
6. Describe the construction and use of (i) an offset rod, and (ii) a metallic.tape.
7. Sketch and describe a line ranger. How is it used in the field 7
8. Give a list of corrections to be applied to measurements made with a
steel tape.
9. Describe how you would range a chain line between two points which are
not intervisible.
10. Describe, with sketches, the various methods of chaining on sloping ground,
stating the advanta~es of each.
ll. Describe the instruments used for measuring distances approximately.
12. Explain the. following terms:-
Hypotenusal allowance, Whites, Laths, lnval' tape, Drop arrow, Cumu.
lative error, and Compensating error.
13, The distance between two points measured with an Engineer's chain
_.
recorded as 720 ft. It was afterwards found that the chain was 4 inches
W8e
too long. What was the true distance between the points?
( Ans.~2·4 ft.)
110< The length of a line measured with a Gunter's chain was found to be 5000
links. If the chain was O· 2 link too short, find the true length of the line.
( Ans. 4990 links.)
15. The true length of a line was known to be 1200 ft. The line was measured
with a 100·ft. tape and found to be 1205 ft. What was the correct length
of the tape? .,/ (Ans. 99'59 ft.)
16. The length of a line measured with a Gunter's chain was recorded as 3200
links. The same when measured with a lOO-ft. chain was found to be
2120 ft. If the Gunter's chain was 1 link too long. what was the error
in the 100·ft. chain? \..--
(Ans. - O·I4ft.)
J7. The length of a line measured with a Gunter's chain was found to be 1860
links. The true length of the line was known to be 1855 links. Find the
efror in the chain.
( Ans. - 0'27 link. )
IS. The distance between two stations was measured with a Gunter's chain
and found to be 5000 links. The same wa& measured with an Engineer's
chain and found to be 3280 ft. If the Gunter's chain was O' 2 link too short,
what was the error in thc Engineer's chain? ~ ..
(Ans. + 0'4 ft. )
19. An Engineer's chain was found to be 3" too long aft4r chaining 4000 ft.
It was found to be 6# too long at the ¢nd of the aay's work, after
chaining a total distance of 7000 ft. If the chain was correct before
the commencement of chaining, find the true distance. ~
(Ans. 7016' 25 ft.)
20. A Gunter's chain was tested before the commencement of t,he day's work
and found to be correct. After chaining 4:100 links, the chain was found
. to be 0'4 link too long. At the end of day's work, after chaining a total
distance of 6880 links, the chain was found to be O' 6 link too long. What
was the true distance chained?
" ( Ans. 6901' 8 links. )
21. A chain was tested before starting a survey and was found to be exactly
100 ft. At the end of the survey, it was test~d again and found to measure
lQQ·'2.5 ft, Theal'ea ofthe \llan ofthe tietddrawn to a scale of linch=4Q ft.
was 20'4 Kq. inches. Find the true area of the field in square yards.
\. ( Ans. 3635' 74 sq. yds.)
22. The plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 80 ft. to 1 inch was found
to have shrunk so that a line originally 10 inches long was found to
measure 9' 75 inches. There was also a note on the plan that the 100-ft.
chain used in the survey was 3 inches too short. If the area of the plan
measured now with a planimeter is 18' 85 sq. inches, determine the trur-
area of the survey.
(Ans. 2' nacres. )
23. The area of a field as calculated from measJlrement~ taken with a Gunter'8
chain 0'5 link too short, is found to be 120 acres. What is the true area
of the field?
( Ans. 118' 8 acres. )
24. A survey was made with a chain 0'4 link too short and plotted toa scale
of 1 in. = 400 ft. The plan was found to have shrunk so that a line originaRy
6 inches long was found to be 5' 8 inches. If the area of the plan measured
now is 20 sq. inches, find the true area of the survey.
(Ans. 78' 02 acres.
25:" If iu a length of 1 chain along a slope the ground rises 10'S ft., find the-
angle of slope Rnd the hypotenusal allow[lnce per chain, when it'is (a)
an Engineer's chain, and (b) a Gunter's chain.
,_/ (Ans. (a) 6° 12'; 7·08 in.; (b) 9° 25..,. 10'77 in.)
:..('. What correction in ft. must be applied per 100-ft. chain for a line measured
'along a slope of (i) 10° 12', and (ii) 16° 36' ?
(Ans. (i) 1'58 ft.; (ii) 4'17 ft.)
J
PROBLEMS 79
27. The distance between two points A and B measured along a slope was 1980 ft.
Determine the horizontal distance between A and B when (a) the angle of
slope is 80 , (b) the slope is 1 in 5, and (c) the difference of level of A and B ill
80 ft.
(An~. (a) 1961 ft.; (b) 1941 ft.; (c) 1978'38 ft.
approximate; 1978 ft. exact.)

28. The length of a line measured on a slope of 120 was recorded as 1680 links.
It was Rubsequently found that the chain was 0'5 link too long. Calculate
the true horizontal length of the line.
(Ans. 1651 links.)
2\). The folinwing slope distances were"'measured hy means of a 100-ft. stee
tape: 310 ft. on a 4° 30' slope, 218'6 ft",on a 6 0 40' slope, and 244'4 ft.,
on a 9° slope. What was the total horizontal distance? '
( Ans. 768'2 ft. approx. 767'6 ft. exact.)
M. The following slope distances were measu~d with a 300-ft. tape :
Slope distance. Difference in elevation
of the ends of the tape.
295 ft. 20 ft.
Z2(j'4 ft. 4(} ft.
260'8 ft. 80 ft.
Finr1 the total horilontal distance.
{Ans. 759.62 ft. (approx.); 759'3 ft. exact.}
31. In chaining down hill with a lOO-ft. chain, the leader held his end 2'5 ft.
out of level. What was the resulting error per chatn length!
(Ans. 0'03 ft.)
32. A 100-ft. tape i1< held 2 ft. out of line. Find the re~ulting error per tape
length.
( Ans. 0'02 ft.)
33. A steel tape was exactly 100 ft. long at 64° F. when supported throughout
its length under a pull of lOlbs. Alinewasmeasuredwiththistapeunder
a pull of 20 Ihs. and found to be 2406 ft. The mean temperature during
the measmement was S4° F. Assuming the tape to be supported at every
100 ft., c'ompute the true length of the line, given that the cross·sectional
area of the t.'lpe= 0'006 !'q. in., the weight of 1 cnbicinch of steel = O' 28 lb.,
the coefficient of expansion = O' 0000065 per 1° F., and the modulus of
elasticity =30,000,000 lbs. per sq. in.
(Ana. Ot= + 0'3127 ft.; Op= + 0'1337 ft.; 0s= -1'019 ft.; True length
= 2405 . 427 ft. )
34. A line wa1! measured on a rising gradient of 1 to 10 altd found to be 1045 ft.
It waR afterwards found that the loo-ft. chain used was 2 inches too long.
Fiud the correct length of the line. (K. V.)
(Ans. 10'42 chn.)
CHAPTER III
CHAIN SURVEYING
Land Surveying :-Land surveys are made for one or more
of the following purposes:- ----- -.- ---- -------'------
t~l To s~~Ee.£~ta for c,~~.a.Qt descripti.Qn .()(!E~"boundar; s

of a piece of land (or tract), t2} to determine its area, (3) to secure
"Hie necessary
-.-'
d~ta _.' f2r _makil,ltl1=:p,fun, (4) .,..---------..
'i-~"------'---
__._. ~
tore-establ'rsh- -
the .
. DounaarIes of a piece of land which has been previously surveyed.
s'no (5) to._dh:fde _~~ce"_<2.f !.fl:_~d into a nunl~er of units.
There are two general methods of land surveying:
t- /<r!) Triangul~tionand (2) !r~~:t:~.
(I) Triangulation Survey:-Triangulation is the basis
of trigonometrical or geodetical surveys. The term "triangu-
lation" when used without qualification, denotes a system
of surveying in which the sides of the various triangles are
computed from (t) a. single line measured directly, called the
base line, and (ii) the three angles of each triangle measured
acciirately . with a theodolite.
Chain Triangulation or Chain Surveying :-It is the system
of surveying in which the sides of the various-triangles" are
measured directly in the field and no angular measurements
are taken~ Jhe simplest kind of surveying is the chain surveying.
It is most suitable when
~ ~he .lIT0lln~ ~s fairly ll?!~l_ ~~~_ ()pe~ with,simple detail.
(ii) Plans are required on a large scale such as th0l'!e of
estates, fields,
-- ---_-_ ----_.
--
"etc.
(iii) The area is small in extent.
It is unsuitable for large areas, and areas crowded with
many details, or difficult or wooded country. The principle of a
~hain suryey is ...trian~lation. It ~o~~t~ _of the arrangement
of framework of triang es, since a man Ie is the onl sim It:_plane
figure, whicli-can be poe fr9m the lengths of its sides alone.
The exact arrangement of triangles to be adopted depends upon
CHAIN SURVEYING 81
the ~hape and configuration. Sly the ground, and the natural
_?.P3tacles met with. J If a point is located by th~ .intersection of
. ~~_o!!:rcs:_its displacement due to errors in the radii is a minim'um.
if the arcs intcrsect at 90:. 1:'he three sides of a triangle being
equally liable to error, each of the three angles of a triangle
should be nearly fOo, i. e. the triangle should be equilateraC
An equilateral frTangle can, therefore, be more accurately plotted.
than an ~tuse-angled triang!~.. Hence the best shaped triangle
is equilateral and it is desirable to approximate to this form in
order that the distortion due to ertors in measurement and plotting
should be a minimum. (The framework should, therefore, consist
of triangles which are as nearly equilateral as possible, such
triangles being known as well conditioned, or 'ti:ell shaped. A
triangle is said to be well conditioned
~b
oX; "-well proportioned when it contains
no angle smaller than 30°_ and no angle
greater than 120°. III-conditioned
lJ 1
(0)
C triangles Fig. 70 b h~vr~g'angles less
than 30° or greater than 120° should
Fig. 70b alway;-be avoided. If, however, tlley
are unavoidable, great care must be taken in chaining and plotting.
Survey Stations :-A survey station is a point of import-
ance ~t the beginning' amfend of a chain line. Stations are of
two kinds: (1) main, an!! (2) subsidiary'o!- tie. ~ain station~
are the ends of the lines which command the boundariel> of
the survey, and the lines joining the main stations are called
I
the main survev or chain lines. Subsidiary or tic stations are
the p~ints selected on the main ~ur;ey lines where it is nece~sary
to run auxiliary lines to locate the interior detail such as fences,
hedges, buildings, etc., when they are distant from the main
lines. They are conveniently fixed while the chaining of the main
lines is in progress. The lines joining the subsidiary or tie
stations are called the subsidiary, or more commonly, tie lines.
Stations are usually denoted"with' a small circle round th~ station'
point thus O. They are lettered or numbered, capital letters
being used to denote main stations and small letters tie stations,
e. g. A, B; a, b; or 1, 2; etc. Sometimes the letters denoting
stations are written within the circlc thus (A), (b). Survey lines are
indicated by the letters of the stations, e. g. AB, Be ; ab, bc ; etc.,
or by figures within a circle, e. g.-(3}-. The system of lines or

triangles covering the area to be surveyed is called the skeleton
or' framework of a survey. ~=---
Q:5- ~~!~~tiOl! of Stations :-Thefollowingpoints should be kept

in vie!" in arranging the framework of a survey:
(iy _!lain _stations should be mutually visible (i!:ltcrvisible}~
(2) The ma--rn--principle of surveying, viz. working f""lm
the whol~_ to_ the part and not from the part -to _the whole shvuW.
be strictly observed. If it is found necessary to produce any
line on paper after it is plotted, the part produced should be
as short as possible. Otherwise small errors in plotting will be
magnified when the line is produced.
(3) I~ssible, a long line should be run roughly through,
the centre- and-thewlloleTength of thc_ area: --It should be laid
off, as far as possible, on level ground~- It- ~s regarded as the
base 1.iE-!.211- which is built up the _fra_t:rlew~rk-of triangles coveri_Eg •
the niaj6t portiofiof the area. -. -.
(4) - All triangles should be well conditioned.
--
v
(..- (5) Eaeh triangle should be provided with at least one
check line ..
-,.._-._
(6) l:he survey lines should be as few as practicable:

(7) A number of subsidiary lines, called "tie lines,'~
should be run to locate the detail and to avoid long offsets_:
_Co _.- --- .. _ .__ ______
-
-
~
,
,
(8) The survey lines should be so arranged as to avoiel
obstael~s to ranging and chaining.
-(9)-The surveYliEes.should lie~ ()ver as lev_e~~~nd as possil:>le .
.. (10) The sides of the larger triangles should pass as clOSt
as possible and as parallel as possible to the-boundarIes, roads,
buffiIings, ~etc., to be -i~~ateam.-6rder-to -have
short offsets.
Similarly, tie or subsidiary lines should be placed ~lo~~ to the'
detail to be picked up.
Base Line :-(Fig. 71). This term, though it is app1i~d to
the prime linear measurement in a trigonometrical survey, is
often used in chain surveying. The longest of the chain lines
used in making a survey is generally regarded as the b_ase line.
It is generally the most important line. It fixes up the directi?IlS
of all other lines, as on the base.lliHLi~.J)Ui!Ll,lp the framework
of a survey. It should be laid off on as_kvel ground as possible
CHAIN SURVEYING 83
through the centre and the length of the area. It should be

correctly measured horizontally. To obtain its accurate length,
it should b;measured twice ()r thrice. Since the accuracy of
the whore 01 the detail depends upon~ the straightne~s and
accuracy of the base line t great care should, therefore, be taken
to ensure the straightness of the base line. If convenient, two
-ba~~-lines in the form anne-Telfer -'X' should be'laid out. The
Obrectofse1.:e5:'~fng -The:2a?e:tifil:j;IT-_11E~s<e_ri~r-e -- of - the are"f under
~!'.~is_!_o__a~~id accumulation of ~t:9rshlhe system of triangles
formed on it, as tlle-llaoilitytOTnaccuracy--i~ 'the triangulation
increases with the distance from the base.
Check Line :-A check line such as Ed (Fig. 71), also termed
~,!_~10l{fJ~ !s_ a line jQini!l_g_t~e apex of a triangle to sOm:,
fixed point on the side opposite, or a line joining some fixed points
'"On-any 1:\\;0 sides-of it trian:gIC. ~\ check line is measured to
check the accuracy of the :ITa~ework, as the length of a check
lI;e;;s measured 01;- the ground sh~;Td agree with its length on
the plan. Thus there is a complete check on the field measure-
ments as well as on the accuracy of the plotting work.
, , Tie Line :-A tie line such as ab (Fig. 71) is a line joining
some fix~~oinJs__te;rmed-;srre- stations on
the main survey lines.
A tie ih~ usually fulfils a dual Pl~~P~S~, -~iz.-itchecks the accuracy
._.----"'---
]!'ig. 71
84 SURVEYING AND LEVELLlNG
of the framework and enables the surveyor to locate the interior

details which are far away from the main chain lines. r.
-' Offsets :_i_In a survey the positions of the details such as'
boundaries, buildings, fence's:roaa~" naHas, etc. areTocatcd with
respect' fe) the' su~vey -To'; chai:;{) li~~; by means of ,lateral
'ineasurements (T.e~·dis~nc~!?_,!!l~sured from the chain lin,es)
to such objects right -or left of the chain lines. These _,lat~.al
measureme~t-;-are called offsets. There are two kinds-ofoffsets :
Tty perpendICUlaroffsets, and ~) oblique offsets. In the strict
sense, offsets are always taken 'at right angles to the survcy_
line. Theyare -also called perpendicular Or right-angled offsets.
The measurements which are not made at right angles to the survey
line are called oblique offsets or tie-line offsets. Thus in Fig. 72a,
pP is an offset,' \~hile aP '~~d tip are the 'Oblique offsets.
~~~
f ,1., I'
: '" I I WOODEN
A_,_i_~~~QUA~
f .,' ,
_ : ,/
_.J...._'--._.~_
"-
A /z a "B C h
l!'ig. 72a Fig. 72b
The offsets are usually measured with a metallic tape. But
if the scale is large and great accuracy is required, a steel tape
should be preferably used. For taking short measurements,
an offset rod is sometimes used.
Every offset involves two measurements: (i) the distance
along the chain line called chainage (Ap), and (ii) the length of
the offset (pP). These are taken ~~d' noted in a field book. This
eoeration is known as taking offset. The offsets are called short
wnen they are less than"'50 'ft. in' length, and long when their
lent_rths exceed 50 ft. When the offsets are short, the perpendi·
culli,. direction is judged by eye only, or laid out by swinging
the ~ape on the chain and noting the point of the minimum
reading on it. If great accuracy is required, a large builder's
square (Fig. 72b) may be used. When the offset is long o~ impor-
tant, tJle right angle should be set out by means of a cross-staff,
or preferably an optical square or a box sextant.
The offsets should be as short as pOSSible, since they are
less liable to error due to incorrect length of tape or incorrect
CHAIN SURVEYING 85
direction, if short, than if they arc long. Besides, short offsets

may be measured more quickly and accurately than long ones.
Oblique Offsets :-When the object to be located is at a
long distance from the chain line, or when it is an important
one, such as the corner of a building or the intersection of the
two adjoining properties, oblique offsets should be taken. They
are also taken to check the accuracy of perpendicular offsets.
Th:us in Fig. 73, P is the point to be accurately located with
rcspect to the chain line AB. The perpendicular offset pP
iii taken and as a check, the oblique offsets eP and dP are mea-
!bred from the points e and d suitably chosen on AB, care being
taken that the triangle Ped is well proportioned.
f
p
_.. _ .. -le- .. _ .. -
I
,,
/
/'
, ,
A·t-·-jz·-7i'B
, ,/1
I ',
I
]<'ig. 73
"
,Y,,
_ • ...c.,.;;.-,
A
Fig. 74
I \
X'
-::'
it--zr
\ ,
rui_1!.g_Qff~ets :-When an offset is to be taken to a point,

say P, the leader-Tl-olds the zero end of thc tape at P and the
follower, carrying the.t.ape box, swings it along the chain in a short
arc about the point P as a centre and finds the point (p) of
the minimllm reading, which is the foot of the perpendicular
from P to the line AB (Fig. 74). Such an offset is called a 8wing
offset._ The follower inserts thc arrow at- tl{c' poinqp) so found
and measures the distances Ap and pP. He then calls out both the
chainage of p (Ap) and the length of the offset (pP) which the
surveyor, after checking, records in a field book.
Fig. 75
Long Offsets :-Where much accuracy is desired, long
86 SURVEYING AND LEVELl
offse~s §D.Quld_a.s_far a§ p..Qssible be avoi~ed.

They can be avoided
-by jUdieiously-arranging the main chain lines or by ru~ 'ling
subsidiary lines from the main lines. \\Then there is a considerable
bend in the outline of a fence or nalla, it is more convenient to
run a subsidiary traingle to locate it as shown in Fig. 75. The
triangle DCE is so formed on the main chain line AB that it is
well-proportioned and the subsidiary lines CD and DE run
sufficiently close to the nalla. The offsets to the nalla are then
taken from the lines CD and DE instead of taking long offsets
to it from the chain line AB. It may be noted that it is less
laborious and quieker to run a few extra lines and to locate the
detail by short offsets than to locate it by long offsets. To
check the accuracy of the work, the check line Dd_ should be
invariably measured.
Number of Offsets :-Offsets should be taken in the order of
their chainages. Care should be taken that no offsets arc missed.
The number of offsets to be taken depends upon the nature of
the object. The rule to be kept in mind is : take as many offsets
as are sufficient to define the outline of the object clearly and
accurately. However, it is advisable to err on the safe side, i.e.
on the side of taking too many offsets than too few. Offsets
shGuld not he taken at closer intervals, if the scale of the plan is
small, as they cannot be usefully plotted. If the boundary is
indefinite, e. g. the margins of wood, or subject to much variation,
c. g. shore lines, a few offsets are sufficient. Offsets should be
taken at all points of divergence in the outline of the objects.
(1) If the object is round, an offset should be taken to
the centre only and its radius measured.
(2) If the object is hexagonal or octagonal, one of its
sides nearer the chain line should be located by offsets and its
length measured.
Fig. 76
CHAIS SURVEYING 87
(3) If the boundary is straight, an offset to its each end

is sufficient. But if long, a few additional offsets may be taken
as in Fig. 76.
(4) Whenever the outline of the,object changes direction,
an offset should necessarily be taken at each change of direction
(Fig. 76).
{5) If the boundary is irregular, it is divided into a series
of lengths each sensibly straight, and a sufficient number of
offsets is taken to locate them (Fig. 77).
I •
, , , I
. ....t-. .L-.L'B
I •
Fig. 77
(6) If the boundary is a fair curve such as a railway line,
offsets should be taken at regular intervals. In the case of
curved foot paths or roads, offsets should necessarily be taken
to the beginning, middle, and the end of the curve and to the
points in between as in Fig. 7H.
}'ig. 78
(7) When the object such as a fence, hedge, road, etc.
crosses the chain line, the chainage of the point of intersection
must be noted. To determine the direction of the outline of
the object, offsets should be taken to the points in it on either
side of the point of intersection as in Fig. 79. ',,c-
(8) To locate a gate, both posts or pillars should be located
accurately by offsets and tieS; and the width of the gate and the
dimensions of the post or pillar should be measured. The thick-

ness of the wall should also be measured.
~
,
I
:
I
I
I
.~. -.-l-.--.~
I~I
I
I
I 8
I
\
Fig. 79
Locating Corners and Positions of Intersections :-A cornel
of a field is IQ(~ated in the usual way by an offset. But as it h
an important point, an additional measurement called check tic
is necessary to fix its position accurately as shown in Fig. 80, ill
which the corner a of the fence is fixed by the offset a' a and bJ
the check tie Aa. The intersection b of the fence dividing tWI'
Fig. SO
properties ma1 be accurately fixed by the offset b'b and the checl
tie db, or by an offset and two oblique offsets as shown in Fig. 73,
Locating Buildings :-(i) The corners of buildings must be
~~o
0,
,i Ie
I
..rI
a~p
: 71
1 : ! ',~,~':
• I t I ",' ........ I
_-1..-t;-.- .-l:r._, . -J,,: -.~.--
1/ a' u C a J
1/ 8
Fig. Ria Fig. SIb
fixed very carefully and the right angle must be accura~ely
CHAIN SURVEYING 89
set out. In locating a building, offsets are taken to the cor-

ners only and in addition the dimensions of the building should
be measured and recorded as in Fig. 81a. The bUilding is plotted
on plan by means of running measurements, i. e. measurements
taken round the building commencing from one corner. If
the building is extensive, its plan should be drawn on a separate
page of the field book with measurements shown in detail.
(ii) Another method of locating a building when it is near
the chain line and nearly parallel to it is to locate the face by
taking offsets to the corners a and b and measuring the diagonals
a'b and b'a as shown in Fig. 81 b.
(iii) When the building is near the chain line, but slightly
oblique to it, the corners of the building are located by a combi-
.~
U
,\~ ~I~'
\"2.
5),. I...."," ,
d , \~ I ">', f
IUNtiE a ,~~I \ """ I ./...... I
TIE, .... ""~ olv / \ - I,'" " ,
' ....~ (y.l \~ I ,,;'" '.... \
"'.... \ 'I , ',.'" ' ... ,
Ae-~·--·-·J-~·--·--· ')1
Fig. 82a Fig 82b
(iv) When the building is considerably oblique to the
chain line, it may be located by range ancI/check ties (Fig. 82a).
The position of a corner of the building may be checked by the
lines known as the range lines, which form the continuation of
the sides of the building. The points at which they intersect
90 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING ,
the chain line may be obtained by sighting along the sides of

the building. The distance measured from the point of inter-
section of the range line and the chain line to the respective
corner is known as a range tie. Thus in Fig. 82a, a'a, ea, and
b'b are the range ties.
(v) W.\1en the building is at a long distance from the chain
line, it may be located by taking oblique offsets to its corners,
as shown in Fig. 82b, e. g. the corner a is located by oblique
offsets ea and fa.
Degree of Accuracy:-The accuracy required in la~';I)g
down the perpendicular direction of offsets and in measuring
them· depends upon (i) the seale of plotting, (ii) the length of the
offset, and (iii) the importance of the object to which the offset
is taken. Before starting the work, the question as to what
accuracy, i. c. to what fraction of a foot or link offsets should
be measured, should be decided. It mainly depends upon the
scale to which the survey is to be plotted, which is usually known
before the eommencement of the survey. Now taking the
degree of accuracy in plotting, i. e. the smallest distance on the
paper which can be distinguished in plotting, as O· 01 in. and
knowing the scale of the plan, the degree of accuracy required in
measuring ofrsets may be easily decided.
Illustration :-(i) suppose the scale of the plan is 40 ft. to inch.
1 in. on the paper = 480 in. on the ground.
1 .
~-m. " " = 4·8 in.
100 " " " "
Hence, the offsets should be measured to the nearest 3
inches or half a link.
(ii) If the scale of the plan is 1" = 60 ft.
1 . 720.
~ m. on the paper = - Ill. = 7, 2 in. on the ground.
100 100
The offsets should be taken to the nearest 6 inches or
a link, the offsets less than 3" being ignored, and those between
3 in. and 6 in. being taken as 6 in.
If, however, the surveyor a part of it is required on a
larger scale than was originally adopted at a future date, it is
better to be over-accurate than under-accurate.
CHAIN SURVEYING 91
1~/
' It may here be noted that the larger - t h ie, the greater
e sca
the number of offsets which can be usefully plotted, but shorter
must be the offsets, as the error in estimating the perpendicular
direction will have a considerable effect in distorting the detail.
On the other hand, the smaller the scale, the less the number
0f offsets and longer may be the offsets, as the error in laying out
the perpendicular direction will have less effect in displacing
the detail.
Error due to Incorrect Ranging :-As a result of incorrect
ranging, the length of the line between two stations is increased.
In ordinary work, however, inaccurate ranging produces a
relatively small error. Thus, if a chain length gets out of the
corr~ct line by a perpendicular distance d ft. or links, the error
in length is!!_ ft. or links. Very refined ranging is,. therefore,

200
unnecessary, if only the distance between two points is required.
It is, however, necessary if offsets are to be taken, since the
·.offsets and the chainages' of the points at which they occur are
thrown in error resulting in the distortion af the map.
Thus in Fig. 83, AB is a straight line joining two stations
A and B. It J, the shortest
distance between A and B, and
A any other line such as ACB
diverging from the correct line
will /. ~cessarily be longer. Let
P be a point to which an offset
p is to be taken. PI and P 2 are
Fig. 83 the feet of the perpendiculars
from P to AB and AC respectively. It will be seen from the
figure that the offset PP 1 on the true line and the offset PP 2 on
the diverging line AC dre neither equal, nor are the chainages at
which they occur, vi:M API and AP 2 equal.
That the offsets should be as short as possible may be
evident from Fig. 84. Suppose AB is the correct line and P
and Q are the points to which the offsets arertaken. PI is the
foot of the perpendicular from P and Q. AC is the line, which
deviates from the true line AB due to bad ranging. P 2 and
SURVEYING AND LEVELLI~G
Q 1 are the feet of the perpendiculars from P and Q to the

line AC re~pectively. Thus, the offsets from P and Q occur
at PIon the line AB, and at P 2 and Q I on the lin .• AC
respectively. It is evident that the difference between "'AQ1
and API is greater than the difference
C betwcen AP 2 and API so that the
error is greater, if the point is more
distant from the chain line than if
A B it is nearer.
Limiting Length of offset:-
As already stated, the offset should
q not be longer than 50 ft., when its
direction is set out by eye or by
Fig. 84 swinging the tape on the chain line
and noting the point of the smallest tape reading on the chain
line. Howrver, the limiting length of offset depends upon (i) the:
accuracy desired, (ii) the scale of plotting, (iii) the maximuml
error in laying out the direction of offset, and (iv) the nature of!
the ground.
Thus in Fig. 85, suppose an offset is taken to a point P andJ
is measured from a point C on the chain
line AB, C being the foot of the perpen 11,
cular. The perpendicular direction (l'
is estimated by eye and is in error I II
0( 0. D is the correct position of the j
of the perpendicular from P and PD
A the correct length of the offset.
J<'ig, 85 draughtsman plots the measured length.
(l) of the offset CP at right angles to AB at C so that th~
point P is displaced to PI' the amount of displacement PP 1 beind
'z sin 0( approximately. Now the length of the offset should he'
such that this displacement should not be appreciable on
paper. It i" assumed that the smallest distance on the pa
which can be distinguished in plotting is O· 01 inch.
Now the displacement of the end of the offset on the papel
'1'me = PP 1 = -
parallel to t h e eluvn I sin
-- Inc h .
0(,
p
CHAIN SURVEYING 93
where 1 = tbe length or the offset (CP), in ft.

0< = the angular error in direction.
1" = P ft. = the scale.
Maximum allowable displacement on the paper = 0'01 inch.
lsino< 1
P 100
Whence, the maximum length of offset = 1 = L cosec 0< ••• (1)

100
The displacement on the paper in a direction perpendicular
to the chain line = ~he difference bet~een CP I and PD
=
1 (1 - coS 0<) •
_~ ____--- m • (2)
P
Errors in Length and Direction Combined :-(Fig. 86). Let
CP = the true kngth 01 Ollset in It.
CPI = 1 = the measured length of offset in ft.
CP 2 = 1 = the offset as plotted in ft.
A c
Fig. 86

1 in r = the accuracy with W11k11 t11C 1ength of offset is measured.
P PI = the displacement due to incorrect measurement. 5
P 1P 2 = " " "" direction.
"
P P 2 = the totitl displacement.
Then P 1P 2 =' 1 sin 0< : and PP 1 = !_.

r
In order that the displacement of a point on the paper due
to error in measurement of the offset shou~d be the same as that
due to angular error in direction, the two errors should be equal
:.
.
1 SIn 0< = -1
or r = cosec 0<. ... , (3:
r
Since the two errors are equal, P 1P 2 = PP 1 •
PP2 = V (P1P 2)2 + (PP 1 )2 = V2 XP 1P 2= V2 xl sin 0(,
- - l
taking LPP 1P 2 as 90°. = V2 X PP 1 = V 2 X -~-.
r
If the scale is p ft. to 1 inch,
V2 X 1 sin 0< V2 X 1
PP 2 on the paper = = -~- in.
p pr
But this should be equal to O· 01 in.
,,/2 X l sin 0<
=0·01=---
V2 X l
P pr
p cosec 0< pr
or
I = 100 V 2 = 100 V 2 ft.
If the error (PP 1 ) in the length of offset = k ft.,

the total displacement (PP 2) = V 12 sin 2 0< +k 2
.. • (5
PP 2 on the paper =
V WSi~2 0< -+= k 2 ) •
. m. = 0'01 m.
•
Hence (6
or sin 0< -
-
{11,2 (p2 _k2)} l
100 2 •
(6a
Examples on Limiting... Length of Offset

Example 1 :-Find the maximum length of offset so tha
the displacement of a point on the paper should not excee(
O' 01 inch, given that the offset was laid out 3° from its trw
direction and the scale was 100 ft. to 1 inch.
Let 1 = the limiting length of offset in ft.
c< = the angular error in direction.
Then
Displacement of the point on the ground= I sin 0< = 1 siz. V 'I
CHAIN SURVEYING 95
Since the scale is 100 ft. to 1 inch, its displacement ;m the paper
1 sin 8° .
= _._- mches, and this should cqual 0'01 inch.
100
I sin SO
.___ = 0·01 or 1 = eosec 8°.
100
Whence, the limiting length of offset = 19'11 ft.
Example 2 :-If an offset is laid' out 5° from its true direc-
tion on the field, find the resulting displacement of the plotted
point on the paper (a) in a direction parallel to the chain line
and (b) in a direetion perpendicular to the chain line, gIVen
that the length of thc offset is 50 ft., and the scale is 80 ft. to
1 inch.
I~et I = the length of the offset, in ft.
(0) Displacement of the point on the ground
= I sin 0< = 50 SIl1 5°.
The scale being 80 ft. to 1 in.,
I
Displacement of the point on the paper
= 50
-- sin - 0 0545'Inc h .
5°.Inch . =.
80
(b) Di:>placement of thl) point on the ground perpendicular
to the chain line '
= 1(1 - cos 0<) = 50(1 - cos 5°) = 50 (1 - 0'9962) ft.
Displaeement of the point on the paper
= 50 (1 - 0'9962). h 0 0024 Inch.

Inc.=· .
80
Example 3: -To what accuracy should the offset be
measured if the angular error in laying off the perpendicular
directi9n is 4°, so· that the maximum displacement of the point
on the paper from one source of error may be the same as that
from the other source.
Let I = the length of the offset in ft.
1 in r = the accuracy with which the offset must be measured.
,
Then the displacement of the point due to the angular
~
0
error in direction = I sin 0( = I sin 4 •
Displacement of the point due to the error in measureme~t= l,

r,
· 40
I <;In = -I
or r = cosec 4 0 = 14 . 33 • lI
r 1
Hence the offset must be measured with an accuracy ofl
about 1 in 15. I
Example 4 :-Find the maximum length of offset so that
the displacement of the point on the paper from both 'Sources of
error should not exceed 0·01 inch, given that the offset is measured
with an accuracy of 1 in 40, and the scale is 1 inch = 200 ft.
Let I = the maximum length of offset feet. in
1 in r = the accuracy with which the offset is measured.
Then the displacement of the point on the ground from both
V2 X I V2- X I
sources of error = = ft.
r 40
Since the scale is 200 ft. to 1 inch, the corresponding dis-
V 2- xl.
placement on t h e paper = - --~- mch.
40 X 200
But this should be equal to O· 01 inch.

V~- X I 80
_____ = 0'01 or 1= --~ = 56·56 ft.
40 X 200 V 2
Example 5 :-Find the maximum permissible error in

laying off the direction of the offset so that the maximum dis-
placement may not exceed o· 01 inch on the paper, given that the
length of the offset is 50 ft., the scale 330 ft. to one inch, and the
maximum error in the length of the offset 1·5 -ft.
Let 0(= the allowable angular error in direction. _
k = the maximum error in measurement of the offset=l' 5 ft.
Then displacement of the point due to incorrect direction
= I sin 0< = 50 sin 0(.
Error in measurement = 1·5 ft.
CHAIN SURVEYING 97
Displacement of the point due to both errors

t
= V (50 sin 0()2 +
(1'5?} ft.
Displacement of the point on the paper due to both errors
= v'[(50 sin 0()2 + (1'5)2J inch.
330
But this must equal O' Ol inch.
V { (50 sin 0()2 + (1·5)2} = 0'01.
330
or (50 sin 0<)2 = (3'3)2- (1'5)2 i. e. sin

2
0( = :~~~.
/ 8·64 0( = 3° 22'.
sin
or 0(
- V 2500
Booking Field Notes :-The b2_Cl.k. in which survey work is
Precorded by measurements anClsketches isc~iled the field book.'
. It" Ts-a:n-oblong book- o{-aconvemenCslze-::tT::iouT- 8-1u.-X 4l in.
and opening lengthwise. There are two forms of the field
book: (1) single line and (2) double line. In the former a single
red line is ruled down the middle of each page and represents
the surveyor chain line. On this line are written the dif>tances
along the chain lines (chainages), while the offsets are written
opposite them to the right or left according as they are right
or left of the survey line. The double line field book is similar,
but instead of a single red line, two blue lines about t in. to
i in. apart are ruled down the centre of each page. In this
column, which represents the chain line are entered the chainages.
The space on either side of the column is utilised for drawing
sketches of the objects located from the chain line, and for
writing offsets and notes. The single line field book is convenient
for large-scale and much detailed dimension work, while for
ordinary work, the double line field book is most commonly
uscd. The pages of the book are blank and machine numbered.
In booking the field notes, we start at the bottom of the page
and work upwards as if we are writing them on the actual chain
line. At the commencement of the line in the book is written
(i) the name or number of the survey line, (ii) the name
lor number of the station, and (iii) the symbol 6 denoting the
p.I. .. 4
station. The directions of the survey lines starting off from

or ending at the station should be shown clearly lettered or
numbered. The in~tial and closing chainages should be enclosed
in the symbol as shown in Fig. 87. Tie or subsidiary stations
should be indicated by a circle or an oval round their chainage
figures. All distances along the chain line (chainages) are
entered in the central column and the offsets written opposite
them on the right or left of the column according as they are
right or left of the survey line, close to the object and inside,
i. e. chain side. As the work proceeds, the nature and form
LINE A BENDS
STAT/QND
~
/62
155
146
142 .,,
134
125
120
TIE STATION 'l
STAT/ONA
(tHE A B BE6tNS
Fig. 87
of the objects to which offsets are taken should be sketched
with conventional signs given in Fig. 129 and with name;
CHAIN SURVEYING 99
written along them. The sketch is not drawn to scale. But

it is merely to show the draughtsman how the points to which
offsets are taken should be joined. The sketch should not be
drawn much ahead of the measurements, but gradually advanced
as the offsets are taken. 'When any feature such as a fence,
road, wall, etc., crosses the chain line, the chainage of the point
of intersection is entered in the column and the direction ,of
the feature sketched. The line representing the object should
not be carried across the central column. But it should be
drawn meeting one side of the column. To continue it on the
other side of the column, a line parallel' to its direction should
be drawn from a point directly opposite on the other side of
the column as shown in Fig. 87. It is advisable not to crowd
the entries. But they should be spread out over a large portion
of the page. At least half-inch space should be left between
two entries. At the end of the line the closing chainage should
be enclosed in the symbol 6. and the name or number of the
station, and the name or number of the line should be written.
At the commencement' of a tie line in the book, the position of
the tie station should be described, e. g. Tie station Tl on AB
at 260 ft. from A. Similarly, it should be described at the
finish of the line, e. g. Tie station T2 on Be at 155 ft. from B.
The following points should be kept in view in booking the
field notes:-
...,/{l}! Each chain line should be recorded on a separate page.
.../(2) All measurements should be recorded as soon as they
are taken. The recorder should always face the direction of
chaining---While booking the field notes .
./
/(3) The notes should be complete. Nothing should be

left to memory. They should be clear, neat, and accurate so
that the draughtsman who is quite unfamiliar with the area
surveyed, can plot them without any difficulty. They should
contain/all information necessary for plotting the survey.
v(4') Figuring should be neat and writing legible. There
Shoul,'be no 9verwriting of the figures.
,(5) Sketches of the various features located should tv
neat and lucid.
(6) Explanatory notes and references to other pages where

necessary should be added.
(7) Entries should be recorded in pencil for which a pencil
of good quality may be used.
(8) The book should be kept dean. No elltries slwuld
be erased. If any entry is wrong or any change in the notes
is necessary, a line should be drawn through it and a correct one
written above it. If an entire page is to be discarded, it should
be crossed and marked " cancelled" and a reference to the other
page on which the correct notes are written should be mad(' on
this page.
t; (9) The complete record of the survey should include (i) the
title of the survey, (ii) a general sketch of the area surveyed,
(iii) location (reference) sketches of the main as well as tie
stations, (iv) record of the chain lines, (v) the date' of the survey,
(vi) the names of the members of the party, and (vii) the page
index of the chain lines and stations.
Field Work
Equipment :-The equipment required for a chain survey
should include the fol1owing :--
(i) A chain and 10 arrows, (ii) a 50-ft. metallic tape, (iii)
ranging rods 12 nos., (iv) an offset rod, (v) an optical square or
a cross staff, (tVt) a plumb bob, (vii) a survey field book, -(viii)
pegs, (ix) 2 pencils of good quality and a penknife, (x) a good
field glass, (xi) sundries, such as chalk, stout string, hammer,
axe, nails, tar, etc. Occasionally a box sextant is very useful.
A chain survey may be executed in the following steps ;-
__
(1) Reconnaissance :-The preIiminau inspection ilLthe
.-----to be surveyed is called reconnaissance _or _reconnoitre .
area
It is essential that the surveyor should have thor()~h
knowledge of the ground to be surveyed and its principal feat~fes.
On arriving at the ground, the surveyor should, therefore, walk
over the whole area and thoroughly examine the ground so a!
to decide upon the best possible arrangement of the work.
He should note the various boundaries, the positions of build·
ings, roads, streams, etc., the various difficulties that nia)
CHAIN SURVEYING 101
intervene the proposed chain lines, and the suitable positions of

stations. He should test the intervisibility of the selected stations
by using ranging rods. The sizes of angles and the lengths of
the survey lines may be estimated by eye. The lengths of the
main boundaries may also be determined by pacing where
'feasible. Thus by careful reconnaissance the surveyor obtains
a fairly intimate knowledge of the shape and extent of the area
to be surveyed, which will h~lp him to form a fairly accurate,
idea of the difficulties in the work, time required for the work~
and the most suitable positions for the main lines free from
obstacles on the level ground. During the reconnaissance the
surveyor should prepare a neat hand sketch called an index
sketch or key plan fairly resembling the plan of the ground,
showing the boundaries, the principal features such as buildings,
road!", naUas, etc., the positions of the stmtions and chain lines
which should be lettered or numbered, and the directions in
which the chain lines are to be measured by the arrow heads.
The sketch is drawn in the field book.
(2) Marking Stations :-Having completed the reconnais-
sance and the index sketch, survey stations should be marked
on tPe ground so that they can be readily discovere,d when
required:
(1) By fixing vertically a ranging rod or pole at each station,
if the survey is of only a temporary character and can be
finished in a single day. If the ground is hard, the rod may
be supported by stones.
(2) By, driving in firmly a wooden peg at each station
with about 1 to It in. standing out of the ground, if the survey
is 6'xtensive. In ordinary ground wooden pegs 1 in. square
and 6 in. long are suitable, while in soft ground they should be
1t' in. square and 18 in. long.
In pasture land, the turf should be cut round the peg in the
form of a triangle as shown Fig. 53 b.
(3) By filling a hole made by pressing the shoe of the
ranging rod into the ground, with cement mortar and driving
a nail, if the ground is infested with white ants; alternativeiy,
wooden pegs treated with solignum or creosote mny be used.
By driving flush nails or spikes about 4 in. long and

(4)
1 in. square or round, or by cutting a cross, if the surface is hard
1
(e. g. roads and pavements).
(5) By embedding a stone below the surface of the ground
with a cross marked on its top 1 if stations are to be marked
permanently as in villages and towns.
(3) Reference Sketches ;-After the stations are marked,
they should be referenced, i. e. located by measurements, called
tics, taken from three permanent points which are definite and
easily recognized, such as corners of buildings, gate posts or
pillars, blazed trees, boundary stones, fence posts, etc., in the
vicinity of stations. The measurements should be taken to
the nearest ! in. and carefully recorded by means of a sketch
called a reference or location sketch as shown in Fig. 88.
Idt-fT/(J1fI SKETCH Or STATION /I.

Fig. 88
Reference sketches are necessary to find the positions' of
stations in case the station marks are displaced or lost, or re-
quired at a future date. They should be neatly drawn in the
field book.
Two measurements are sufficient to recover the position
of a station, but the third serves as a check. The station, if
thus referenced, can be easily restored by swinging arcs with
reference points as centres and the respective measurements
as radii. The intersection of arcs gives the required position of
the station mark.
elI.UN SURVEYING 103
If it is required to replace the cxact position of a station

mark ( a tack il,l the top of the peg ), measurements must be taken
1
to -- ft. and the exact reference points must be marked
100
carefully byfnails.
To draw a lo~ation sketch, th~ surveyor, facing the north
direction~should draw the direction of the north line and show
~he relative positions of the reference pawts and the station, and
~ecord the tie measurements between the arrows, the arrow heads
touching the station point and the reference points as in Fig. 88.
(4) Running Survey Lines :-'--Having finisheq the preli-
minary work, chaining may be commenced from the. base line
and carried throughout all the lines of the framework as con-'
tinuously as possible. The routine of running a survey line
consists in chaining the line and locating from it the nearby
detail. To do this, the chain, after it is stretched in the tl'_ue
alignment and the arrow inserted, is kept lying on the ground.
Offsets are then taken tv the adjacent ohjects as already
explained, and are then booked by the surveyor in the field book
after checking them. The process of chaining and offsetting
is repeated until the end of the line is reached. Other lines are
similarly dealt with.
Instruments for Setting-out Right Angles
The following instruments may be used for (i) finding the
foot of the perpendicular from a given point to a line, and
(ii) setting out a right angle at a givcn point on a line.
Cross Staff :-There are three forms of cross staff, namely,
(1) the open, (2) the French, and (8) the adjustable, the first
one bcing in common usc. .
(1) Open Cross Staff :-The simplest
form of cross staff is the open cross sta1r
shown in :Fig. 89 a. !t ~onsists of two parts:
(1) the head and (ii) the leg. The head is
simpl_I a wooden block squar~or round about
6 in. side or diameter and 1 t in. deep with
Fig 8gb two fine saw cu_!,~a_!_ right angles to each
other. The disc IS furnished with two pairs of;,erti~ai;iits at
the ends of the saw cuts, giving two lines of sight at righ
to each other. In its better form the head consists of fot
arms with vertical slits for sighting through at right an
each other as in Fig. 89 b. The head is fixed to the top
iron-shod wooden staff or pole about 1 in. diameter and 4 to
long, which is driven into the ground.
To find the foot of the perpendicular from a given pc

to a given chain line, i. e. to take offset, ~e cross staff is plan~
o!:_ held vertically on the chain line where the offset is likely t(
ocCUr, and-tu.rned until one pa.ir of opposite slits is directed to
a ranging rod at the forward end of the chain line. Looking
through the oth~~its, it is seen if the point to which
.- ., M:
~
Fig. 89a Fig. 90 Fig. 91

the offset is to be taken is bisected. If not, the cross staff is
moved forward or backward on the chain line until the line of
sight through the pair of slits at right angles to the chain line,
does bisect the point. Care must be taken that the cross staff
is not twisted round when looking through the other pair of slits
to bisect the object and that it is held vertically.
CHAIN SURVEYING 105
In setting out a right angle at a point on the .chain line, it

is held vertically over ·the given point on the chain line and
turned until the ranging rod at either end of the chain line is
bisected by the line of sight through one pair of the opposite
slits. Then the line of sight ~rough the other pair of slits, which
is at right angles to this, IKay be marked by fixing a ranging
rod in line in a convenient position.
(2) French Cross Staff :~Fig. 90 illustrates the octagonal
form of cross staff. It consists of an octagonal brass tube with
slits on all eight sides. It has an alternate vertical sight slit
and an opposite vertical wihdow with a vertical horse hair
(or a fine wire) on each of the four sides. These are used for
setting out right" angles. On the other four sides are vertical
slits, which are at 45° to those previously mentioned, for setting
out angles of 45°.
The base carries a socket so that it may be fitted on the
pointed staff when the instrument is to be used. The sights
being too close (only 3 in. apart), it is inferior to the open type.
(3). Adjustable Cross Staff :-Fig. 91 shows the adjustable
type of cross staff. It consists of a brass cylindrical tube about
3 in. in diameter and 4 in. deep and is divided in the centre. The
upper cylinder can be rotated relatively to the lower one by a
circular rack and pinion arrangement actuated by a milled-headed
screw. Both are provided with sighting slits. The lower part
is graduated to degrees and subdivisions, while the upper
one carries a vernier. Thus it may be used for setting out
angles of any magnitude. However, the results are only appro-
ximate owing to the closeness of the sights (only 3 in. apart).
It has a magnetic compass at the top, which may serve to take
the bearing of a line.
Of these three types, the open one, being light and strong,
is the best and is commonly used for settting out long offsets. The
cross staff is a non-adjustable instrument and is not capable of
high accuracy. For more accurate work the optical square is
to be preferred.
Optical Square :-The optical square (Fig. 92a) is used for
the same purpose as a cross staff, but it is more accurate. It
is a small compact hand instrument. It consists of a circular
/"
metal box about 2 in. in diameter and ! in. deep. It is protected

by a metal cover, which slides round so as to cover the
openings and thus protects the mirrors from dust when not in
o 0'
.Fig.92a :l!'ig.92b
use. Fig. \)2 b shows the sectional plan of the essential parts (.1
the instrument.
(1) II alld I are the two mirrors placed at an angle of 45 0

to each otlH:r. The mirror H, called the horizon glass, is half
silvered and half un silvered (or plain). The mirror I, known
as the ,index glass, is wholly silvered. The horiwn glass is fitted
in a frame which is rigidly attached to the bottom (or sole) plate
of the box, while the index glass is fitted in a frame which 'is
attached to bottom plate and adjusted by a screw placed behind
it, whenever nccessary. In some forms of the instrument both
mirrors are pE'rmancntly fixed by the maker.
(2) Three openings arc cut alike in the rims of the box
and coyer: (i) a is a pin hole for the eye (or sight hole), (ii) b is
a small rectangular slot or aperture for horizon sight, placed
diametrically opposite to the pin hole, and (iii) c is a large
rectangular slot for index sight placed at right angles to the line
joining the pin hole and the small rectangular slot.
(3) A small circular hole is provided on the top of the

cover for inserting the key, by means of which the index glass is
adjusted.
CHAIN SURVEYING 107
The line (ab) joining the centrcs of the sight hole and small
slot or window is called the eye horizon sight, while the line cI is
called thc index sight, both being at right angles to each other.
The horiz.on glass is placed opposite the eye-hole and in line
0
with the slot at b at an angle of 120 to the horizon sight, while
the index glass is sct diametrically opposi~ to the slot at c
at an a_ugle-6f-105" 'to the index sight, the angle between the two
mirrors being 45° (Fig. 94).
A ray oflight from the ranging rod 0 on the line 01 (Fig. 92 b)
strikes the in(~ex glass (I) and is reflected along HI. The re-
flected ray again strikes the silvered portion of the horizon glass
o 0' t (II) and is then
reflected along HE.
NAiF'
N"iF
B
( Q )
SilVERa
UN.f/lV~A'S
W Thus the observer,
looking through the
sight hole in the
B . . . , direction EH, sees
( ") the ranging rod at
Fig. 93 Fig. 93 B directly, through
the unsilvered portion of the horizon glass and at the same time
sees the image of the ranging rod at 0 in the silvered portion
of the horizon glass exactly above (or below), i. e. coincident
with the ranging rod at B as in Fig. 93 a. If the ranging rod 0'
is not exactly on the line 01, i. e. if LBPO' is not a right angle,
the image of 0' will be seen to one side of the ranging rod B as in
Fig. 93b ..
The optical square belongs to a class of reflecting instru-
ments, which measure angles by reflection. Other reflecting ins-
truments are (i) the line ranger, (ii) the box sextant, and (iii)
the prismatic compass.
The principle underlying the construction of reflecting
instruments may be stated as follows: "If there are two plane
mirrors whose reflecting surfaces make a given angle with each
other, and if a ray of light in a plane perpendicular to the planes
of both the mirrors is reflected successively from both, it un-
dergoes a deviation of twice the angle between the reflecting
surfaces." In other words, The angle between the first incident
ray and the last reflected ray is twice the angle between the two
..."
mirrors. ~ll the. case of the optical squarc the an~le. between I
the two mIrrorS IS 45°, while that between the first mCIdent ray
and the last reflected ray is 90°.
The optical principle underlying the construction of the
optical square may be explained as f()llows :--(Fig. 94).
A ray of light from an object °
on the line 01 strikes the
index glass I and is reflected along III at an equal angle on the
other side of the normal to the index glass (the angle of
reflection being equal to the angle of incidence). It then strikes
Fig. 94
the horizon glass H and is then refleoted along HE at an equal
angle on the other side of the normal to the horizon glass. The
index sight and eye horizon sight are at; right angles to each other.
Let 0( =" LIXH = the angle between the mirrors.
(J = L OIZ; • ---: L.KHY.
Since the angle of incidence is equtl1 to the angle of reflection,
LOIZ = LHIZ 1 =(}.
Similarly, LIHY 1 = LEHY = "'.
0
Now in the LHPI, LHPI = 90°; LPHI = 180 - 2",;
LPIH = 180 0 - 28.
CHAIN SURVEYING 1011
.~ LHPI + LPHI+ LPIH = 180°

i. e. 90° + (180° - 2</l) + (180° - 26) = 180° or 6 + </l = 135°.
Similarly, in the L\.XHI, LHIX + LIHX + LIXH = 180°.
6 +- </l .+ 0( = 180°. But 6 + t/J = 135°.
Hence 0( = 180° - 135° = 45°.
i. e. the angle between the two mirrors (IXH) = 45° = t of
90°, which is the angle between the objects 0 and B.
'---tise of Optical Square :-(1) To find the foot of the per-
pendicular to the chain line AB from a given point D (i. e. to
take offset to D), the observer, holding the instrument to his eye
quite horizontal, and walking along the chain line towards B,
observes the ranging rod at B through the unsilvered portion of'
the horiwn glass and the image oIthe ranging rod at D through
its silvered portion. He walks along the chain forward or back-
ward until the ranging rod at B seen by direct vision and the
image of the ranging rod at D appear exactly coincident, when the
point vertically beneath the instrument will be the foot of the
perpendicular required.
Note :-(i) If the object lies on the right hand side of the
chain line, the instrument is held in left hand, and vice versa.
(ii) When the perpendicular lies on the other side of the
chain line, the instrument is held upside down.
(2) To set out a perpendicular to a line AB at a given
point D on it, the observer stands on the line holding the ins-
trument over the point D and observes the ranging rod at B
,-,' through the unsilvered portion of the horizon glass. He then
directs the chainman to move his ranging rod C to right or
left as required until its image seen by reflection in the silvered
portion of the horizon glass appears exactly coincident with
the ranging rod at B. The line DC will then be perpendicular
to the line AB.
In using the instrument, care must be taken that it is held
quite horizontal. It is, however, almost impossible to hold it
horizontal when the ground is uneven and one ranging rod is
higher than the other. The observer then tilts the instrument
und sets out a right angle in a plane approximately parallel to
110 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING ..
the surface of the ground, but its horizontal projection will not
be a right angle. To set out a right angle on side-long ground,
a ranging rod should be fixed in the chain line at a short
distance, say 50 to 100 ft. from the point at which the right
angle is to set out. Similarly, a rod to be fixed in the per-
pendicular direction should also be placed at a short distance
from the chain line so that the threc points are ncarly in the
same horizontal plane. However. the usc of the optical square
is restricted to fairly level ground. .
It may here be noted that a right angle can be correctly
set out on sloping ground with the optical square, if either .the
chain line or the offcst is horizOJlial.
A !l Testing and adjusting the Opti-
cal Square ; -To test the accuracy
of the optical square, i. e. to verify
if the mirrors are cxactly at 45° to
each other, range out a straight
line upon a fairly level ground and
fix three points A, B, and C on
4 it (Fig. 95). Standing at C, sight
Fig. 95 a ranging rod at B and set out a
right angle BCD t • Now holding the instrument upside dow·n,
turn round and sight a ranging rod at A. If the instrument is in
adjustment, the ranging rod at Dr will appear coincident with that
at A. If not, mark the point D2 opposite D 1 , so that the ranging
rod at D2 appears coincident with the ranging rod at A. Fix a
ranging rod at D exactly midway between Dl and D2 to mark
the true perpendicular CD. By means of the key, rotate the
adjustable (index) mirror until the image of the ranging rod at D
is made coincident with that at A. Turn round and again sight
the ranging rod at B when that at. D should appear coincident.
If not, repeat the test and adjustment until correct.
Prism Square ;-Fig. 96 illustrates diagrammatically a more
reliable and modern instrument called the prism square. It
is very useful for setting out right angles. It is based on the
same principle as the optical square and is used in the same
manner. It requires no adjustment, since the angle betwcen
the reflecting surfaces of the prism (45°) is fixed. It is unaffected
CHAIN SURVEYING III
by dust and can be used in poor light. In tl1.king offset to an

object such as 0, the observer holds the instrqment in his hand
Eig. 96 Fig. 97
and si.!:!'hts directlv over the .prism a ransinj! rDo .at It lJe
then walks along the chain line until the ima&,e of the object 0
seen in thc prism appears coincident with the ranging rod at B.
Indian Optical Square :-Another form ()f optical square,
called the Indian optical square, is shown in Fig. 97. It is a
brass wedge-shaped hollow box of 2 in. sides and about It in.
deep with a handle 3 in. long. 1nl and 1n2 ar~ the two mirrors
fixed at an angle of 45 0 to the inclined sides ot the box; ab and
cd are the two rectangular openings above these mirrors for
sighting. pqrs is the open face of the square which is to be
directed towards the object to which the offset is to be taken.
Use of Optical Square :-In taking offSet to an object;
say C, the observer, holding the instrument in hi~ hand quite erect,
. stands on the chain line AB and turns the open face pqrs tow&ds
the object C. He then sights the ranging rOd at the forward
station B by looking through the openings in the direction of ad
or cb according as the object C is to his right or left and walks along
AB forward or backward until the image of Hie objcct (ranging
rod at C) appears exactly in line (i. e. coincident) with the
ranging rod at B. The point vertically und(\r the instrument·
is the rcquired point. In using the instrum(\nt, the following
rule should be followed.
Rule :-Always apply the eye to lower corner of either

opening which is nearer the open face pqrs, and always look
diagonally to sight the forward ranging rod. Thus, if the object
is to the right of the chain line, apply the eye at a and look in
the direction of ad. If to the left, apply it at c and look in the
direction of cb.
In setting out a right angle at a given point on a -line, the'
procedure is exactly the same as that followed when using the
optical squarc.
Ri~ht An~le with Chain or Tape
A chain or tape may be used for setting out a right angle,
There are two methods, of whi~h the first is based on the faet
that a triangle whose sides are in the proportion of 3, 4, and
5 is right-angled.
D
Fig. 98&
AA.
A£
Fig. 98b
C' 4 A£C
Fig. 99
F6
To erect a perpendicular to a chain line from a point

on it :-(a) Let AB be the given chain line and C the point on
AB at which it is desired to erect a perpendicular (Fig. 98a).
Measure off CE = 40 links or ft. Pin one end of the chain or
tape at C and the 80th link or ft. mark of the tape at E, the
remaining portion of the chain or tape hanging free. Hold
the chain or tape at the end of the 30th link or ft. mark,
and pull it until both the segments DC and DE are taut. Fix
an arrow or a stake at D. CD will be the required perpendiclllar,
~
A steel tape cannot be bent sharply at D and, therefore.

a variatiori in this method is necessary.
\
Pin the ring or zero mark at C and hold the loo-ft. mark
at E (Fig. 98b). Holding together the 30-ft. and 50-ft. marks
with a 20-ft. loop between and stretching it so that the two
parts of the tape are taut, the position of D is obtained.
CHAIN SURVEYING 113
(b) Select two points E and F on AB on either side of, and

equidistant from the given point C as in Fig. 99. Pin the ring
of the tape at E and hold the lOO-ft. mark
( at F. Holding at the 50-ft. mark, stretch until
\ hoth halves ar~ taut, and mark the point D.
" " CD is then the required perpendicular.
,..-~_---:~/_ (c) Select any convenient point D so that
AcE .... __ ......C .B CD is less than the length of the tape (Fig. 100).
Fig. 100 With D as a centre and DC as a radius, swing
an arc of a circle, cutting the line AB at E. l"ind the point F
on the arc in line with E and D. CF is then the required
perpendicular. •
To drop a perpendicular to a given chain line from a
point outside it :-(1) When the Point is Accessible: (a) Let
AB be a given line and D a given point (Fig. 101). With:O as
a centre and any convenient length of tape as a radius, describe
. the arc EF cutting the given line at E and F. Fix arrows at E
and F. Measure the distance EF and bisect it at C. DC will
then be the required perpendicular.
JJ
Fig. 101 Fig. 102

(b) Select any point E on the chain linc AB and measure
DE (Fig. 102). With E as a centre and a radius equal to DE, swing
an are, cutting the line AB at F and measure FD. Obtain the
FD2
point C on AB by measuring the distance FC equal to~_
2DE
}<'])2\
( or 2E}<-:;)' DC is then the required perpendicular.
(c) In Fig. 100, let F be the given point and AB the given
chain line. Choose any convenient point E on AB. Measure EF
and mark the point D exactly midway. With D as a centre,
describe an arc of radius DF, cutting AB at C. C is then the foot
of ;~e required perpendicular.
II. When the Point is Inaccessible :-In Fig. 103, let D be

the inaccessible point. Choose suitable points E and F on
the line AB. Set out EG and FH perpendicular to FD and ED
respectively, and mark the point K at their intersection. Find
the point C on AB in line with K and D. DC is then the required
perpendicular. Alternatively, from K drop a perpendicular KC
to AB. CK when produced will pass through D. ~
c IJ.
I
Fig. 103 Fig. 104
To run a parallel to a given line through a given point:-
I. When the Point is accessible:
(a) Let AB be the given line and C the point through
which a parallel is to be run (Fig. 10/1,). From C drop a perpendi-
cular CE to AB and measure CEo Select any convenient point
F on AB and erect a perpendicular FD, making it equal to ~E.
CD is then the required parallel.
(b) Take any convenient point E on the givcn line AB
(Fig. 105). Measure CE and bisect it at K. Select another con-
venient point F on the line AB. Join FK and prolong it to D,
making KD equal to FK. The line joining C and D is the
required parallel. .
II. When the Point is Inaccessible :-In Fig. 104, let C be
the inaccessible point. Locate the foot E of the perpendicular CE
on the line AB as already described, and find the obstructed per-
pendicular distance CE by one of the methods described on pages
116-120. Choose any convenient point F on AB and erect a per-
pendicular FD, making it equal to CEo CD is then the required
parallel.
To run a parallel to the given inaccessible line through
a givln point :-In Fig. 106, let C be the given point and AB the
given inaccessible line. Fix allY convenient point E in line with
A and C. Fix another c~nvenient point F. Through C run a
parallel CG to AF, cutting EF at G. Through G run a parallel
CHAIN SURVEYING 115
GD to FB, intersecting EB at D. Then CD is the requir~d parallel

through C.
A B
C .0
~ \..... ,,1
AF
>%:
~Fig.
£B
105
\1?J51
E G
Fig. J06
F
Obstacles in Chaining : -Various obstacles or obstructions

such as woods, hills, pcmds, rivers, buildings, etc., are continually
met with in chainin~. It is, however, essential that chaining
should be continued in a straight line. Special methods are,
therefore, employed in measuring distances across the obstructions.
The various obstacles may be classed as : -
(1) Those which can be chained across but cannot. be
seen across.
(2) Those which can be seen across but cannot be chained
across.
(3) Those which can neither be seen across nor be chained
across.
0 1 ) Chaining Free, Vision Obstructed :-e.g. rising groulld
or a hill intervening. In this type of obstacle, the ends of a
line are not intervisihle. There are ~wo cases to be considered:
(I) Both ends Inay be visible from intetmediat$: points
on the line.
(II) Both ends may not be visible from any intermediate point.)
Case I :-In thif1 case the difficulty may be got over by
reciprocal ranging as ftlready described on page 4,9. The method
of reciprocal ranging may also be used in rangirlg a line across
a hollow.
~ase 11:-This (~ase occurs when it is desired to run a line
across a wooded field, the trees, and underbrush preventing
the fixing of intermediate stations. In such a (~ase, the method
of the random line is the most suitable.
In Fig. 107, let AB be the line whose length is required

From A run a line (AB 1 ) , called a random line, in any convenienl
C; RANDOM -4 UNE. 4
4~ c- 'iF' L"",,~
.4 •
.I
Fig. 107
direction, but as nearly towards B as can be judged and ('on·
tinue it until the: point B is visible from Bl" Chain the line to
BI where BBI is perpendicular to ABI and measure RBI" Then
AB = V (ABI)2 +(BB;)~
If any other 1ength AC I is measured along AB I , a point C
is located on the line AB by measuring the perpendicular distance
CIC = AC
--.I ffi .
X BIB. In this manner a su Clent number of points
ABI
can be located. The line is then cleared and the distance
measured.)
(2) (9haining Obstructed, but Vision Free :-e. fl. a pond,
plantations, tank, river, etc. The problem is to find the distance
between two convenient points on the chain line on either side
of the obstacle. There are two eases :
(I) In which it is possible to chain round the obstacle,
•
e. g. a thorny hedge, a pond, a bend in the river, etc.
(II) In which it is not possible to chain round the obstacle,
e. g. a river.
Case I :-Several methods are available. However, a few
will be described.
(a) Select two convenient points A and B on the chain
line PR and on either side of the obstacle (Fig. 108). Erect
equal perpendiculars AC and BD by the 3, 4, 5 method, or th~
optical square, and measure the length CB. Then AB = CD)
CHAIN SURVEYING 117
(b) "'As before, select A and B (Fig. 109). Set out a perpendi-
cular AC of such a length that ~ clears the obstacle, and measure
AC and Cl). Then AB = V(BC2 - AC2).
l~i
PA~8R
{*
l!'ig. 108 Fig. 109
(c) The measurement may be effected by constlUcting a

right-angled triangle. Select a point A (Fig. 110) on the chain
line on one side of the obstacle and set out AC to clear the obstacle•
. P A R
Pig. l.lO I!'ig. III

At C erect a perpendicular CB with the optical square to clear
the obstacle, and determine the point B on the chain line on the
other side. Measure AC and CB. Then
AB = yAC2 + CB2.
(d) Select two convenient points A and B on the chain line
PR on opposite sides of the obstacle (Fig. HI). Select a point 0
so that AC and BC clear the obstacle. Produce the line AC to E
so that CE = AC. Similarly, continQ~ BC to D so that CD
equals BC. Measure DE. The triangles CDE and CBA being
equal in all respects, AB = DE.
(e) Choose two convenient points A and B on the chain line
PR on opposite sides of the obstacle as in Fig. 112. Set out a
line CAD so that the lines CB and DB clear the obstacle. Measure
AC, AD, CB, and DB. The obstructed distance AB may be
obtained by calculation as follows
Referring to Fig. 112, let the angle BCD be denoted by

Then in the!:::" BCD, DB2= CB2+ CD2-2CB X CD cose
CB2 -+ CD2- PB2
or cos e= -~ __ ------~--
2CB X CD
Similarly, in the !:::" BCA, AB2= CB2+ CA2- 2CB X CA COSI
CB2+ CA2- AB2
or cos (J = ------ ----~---
2CB X CA
Equating the values of cos (), we get
CB2 CD2- DB2+ CB2 + CA2- AB2
-2CB X CD - = ~--2CB-xCA
On reduction, we have
/ CBs X AD -+ DB2 X AC ~-
AB=y ~~~~-~--~-AC x AD.
R
9
.Ii"
RIVER
P p
Fig. 112 Fig. 113
Case II :-The typical example of this class of obstacle
.
is a river. There are several methods, of which a few are given
below:-
_-
Select two points· A and B on the chain line PR on

': (a)
opposite banks of the river (Fig. 113). Set out a perpendicular
AD and bisect it at C. At D ereet a perpendicular DE and
mark the point E in line with C and B. Measure DE. Since
the triangles ABC and CED are similar, AB = DE. )
CHAIN SURVEYING l.llf
(b) Select two points A and B on the chain line PR on

!&ther side of the river (Fig. 114). Mark another point E on
the chain line. At A and E erect perpendiculars AC and ED
such that D, C, and B are in the same line. Measure AC, AE,
R
D
(
RIPER lI ... I
I
\
\
I RIJI£H I ~
I ).
Fi g. 114 Flg. 115

and ED. If a line CF is drawn parallel to AE, meeting ED
in F, the triangles ABC and CFD are similar.
All CF
-~= -_- ; but CF = AE and FD = ED - AC.
AC FD
AB AE
or -- --= ----~--- ; whence AB = -AC X AE
------.
AC (ED - AC) , (ED - AC)
(c) As before, select two points A and B (Fig. U5). Set off
a perpendicular AD at A. 'Vith a cross staff or an optical square,
erect a perpendicular to DB at D, cutting the chain line at
C. Measure AD and AC. Since the triangles ABD and ACD
are similar,
AB AD . AD2
Hence, AB = --- .
AD -AC' AC
(d) If a box sextant is available, the following method
may be used. Fix two points A and B (Fig. 116) as before. At
A erect a perpendicular AC of any convenient length so that
the triangle ABC is well conditioned. Measure AC, arid the
angle ACB with the box sextant. The distance AB may then
be calculated from
I = AC tan ACB = AC tan ().
120 SURVEYING AND LF.VELLING
(e) This method is used when a survey line crosses a river

obliquely. Set out a line AE (Fig. 117) at a convenient angle
with the survey line PR and range a point D in line with E and
J) -------
"
/!
",..
\ ".
I '\
"
/1II1EII :
I
~
\
p.. ~~
1',
~
c
Fig. 116 Fig. 117

A, making AD = AE. Using an optical square, set out per--
pendiculars DB and EC· to the line DE at D and E, intersecting
the survey line PR at Band C respectively. Measure AC. The
triangles ADB and· ARC being c~)I\gr\lent, the req\lired length
AB is equal to AC.
Alternative Method :-Choose points A and B on the chain
line PR on opposite banks of the river (Fig. 117). Set out a
line DAE. With the aid of an optical square, locate D so that
BDA is a right angle. Measure AD, tJ.nd make AE equal to AD.
Erect a perpendicular at E and locate the point C where it inter-
sects the chain line PR. Measure AC. Then AB = A<;f..
(f) Select three points C, A, and B on the chain line PR as
in Fig. 118. Take aJ1Y point :ti and measure CD
and AD. Continue CD to E and AD to F,
making DE = CD, and DF= AD respectively.
Establish G in the line EI~ produced and
£ at the same time in line with B and,D. Measure
FG. Then FG = the required length AB.
Any of the foregoing metl,lOds may be used
if the position of an inaccessible point such as
a tree on ari island has to be determined.
p
a3) Chaining and Vision both Obstruc-
ted :-In this case the problem consists in
:Fig. 118
prolonging the line beyond the obstacle and
determining the distance across it. A building is a typical
example of this class of obstacle.
CHAIN SURVEYING 121
(a) Choose points A and B (Fig. 119) on the chain line PR

At A and B erect perpendiculars AE and BF of equal length.
£' F tl H Check the diagonals BE and
AF, which should be equal,
. ~ At B I1------ I I I c}J
R
~:de:~~l ~:,:;.iChp:~~:~
the line EF past the obsta-
Fig. 119 cle and select two points G
and H on it. At G and H set out perpendiculars GC and HD
equal in length to AE. The pQ.!nts C and D are obviously on the
chain line PR and BC = FG.J
(Great care must be taken in setting out the perpendiculars
very -accurately and to see that their lengths are exactly equal.
~. (b) Select a point B (Fig. 120) on the chain line PR and
erect a perpendicular BE. Mark another point A on PR, so
that BA = BE. Join AE
and produce it to a point F.
With the help of an optical P Ii'
square, set out FD at right
angles to FA, making FD
= FA. On FD mark a point
G so that FG = FE. With
D as a centre and a radius Fig. 120
equal. to BE, swing an arc. Similarly, with G as a centre and
a radius equal to BE, swing another are, cutting the first one
in C. C and If are then on the chain line PR. Measure EG.
Then the obstructed length BC = EG. )
(c) Select two points A and B
on the chain line PR (Fig. 121).
On AB lay down the equila-
E
teral triangle ABE by swinging
arcs with the tape. Produce
AE to F. Mark any point
H on FA and construct the
equilateral triangle FHK on
FH in the same way. Prolong
Fig. 121 the line FK to D, making
FD = FA. Choose a suitable point Q on FD. Determine a
122 SURVEYING AND LEV'ELLING
second point C on the chain line PR by forming tbe equilateral'

triangle DQC on DQ as the base. If possible, make DQ = AE.
The line joining the points C and D thus determined, determines
the direction of the chain line past the obstacle.
Then the obstructed length BC = AD - AB - CD.
= FA - AB - CD.
(d) Choose two points A and B on the chain line PR and
R
set out a line DBE as in Fig. 122. Prolong
AD and AE to F and G respectively, making
h',---f-"'---,A' AF == n X AD and AG = n X AE. Join FG
F '[; and mark the point C on it so that FC = n X BD.
In order to locate the second point on, PR,
continue AF and AG to Hand K respectively,
making AH = n ' X AD and AK = n ' X AE.
Mark the point M on HK so th~t 11M = n ' X DB.
The points C and M are then on the chain line.
The obstructed distance BC IS equal to
AC - AB. But by similarity of triangles ABD
p
AC AF
and ACF, - = --_ = n. :. AC = n X An.
Fig. 122 AB AD
Hence, BC = (n - 1) AB.
To determine the distance between two points when
both are inaccessible :-Referring to Fig. 123, let A and B be
..0 the two inaccessible points. It is
r----j------'7 required to determine the distance
An. Choose any convenient point C.
Determine the obstrueted distances CA
and CB by any of methods described
on pages 119 and 120. Take any con-
venient point a on CA ahd measure
Ca. Layoff alcmg CB a length Cb equal
c Ca X CB ~
to . Measure abo Then
Fig. 123 CA
the required distance AB = 9!'_><__CA = a!!__><_ cn. •

Ca Cb'
If it is required to determine the perpendicular distance from
the given point C to the inaccessible line, proceed as follows:
Drop a perpendicular Cd ~n the parallel ab (Fig. 123) as deter-
CHAIN SURVEYING
mined by the above method and measure Cd. Then

. d perpend'ICU1ar d'lstance CD
t he reqUIre =
Cd X CA
Ca X CB
- Cd Cb
Examples on Chaining past Obstacles
(1) To continue a survey line past an obstacle in the form

of~a pond, stations A and B on the main line were taken on
opposite sides of the pond. A line
c AC, 1050 ft. long, was laid down
on the left of AB, and a second
line AD, 900 ft. long was laid
down on the right of AB, the
points C, B, and D being in the
same straight line. CB and BD
were then measured and found to
be 520 ft. and 580 ft. respectively.
Fig. 124
Find the length of AB.
In the triangle ADC (Fig. 124), let L ADC = O. AD = 900 ft.;
AC = 1050 ft.; and DC = DB +
BC = 580 +
520 = noo ft.
2
AD2+ DC2 - AC2 900 + 11002 - 1050~
Now cosO = ---------~= ,
2 X AD X DC 2 X 900 X HOO
or -
Log cos6 = l' 6660
() = 62° 23' 30".
In the 6 ABD, BD = 580 ft. ; AD = 900 ft. ; and
LADB = () = 62° 23' 30".
Then AB2 = BD2 + AD2 - 2BD X AD cos ADB
= 5802 + 9002 - 2 X 580 X 900 cos 62° 23' 30"
= 662600.
AB = V662600 = 814 ft.
(2) A chain line ABC crosses a river, Band C being on
the near and distant banks respectively. The respective bea-
rings of C and A taken at D, a point 150 ft. measured at right
angles to AB from B" are 300° and 210°, AB being 80 ft. Fin~
the width of the river. Draw a sketch similar to Fig. 115.
Bearing of DC = 300°; bearing of DA = 210°; BD = 150 ft.~

AB = 80 ft. L~ ADC = bearing of DC - bearing of DA
= 300° - 210° = 90°.
Let BC = the width of the river.
Since the L s BCD and ABD are similar,
BC BD BD2 150 2 '
~ == - -or BC =- = - = 281· 25 ft.
BD AB AB 80
(3) A survey line PQ intersects a tall building. To continue
the line PQ, (~R of length 400 ft., was set out at right angles
to PQ. From R two lines RS and RT, maki'ng angles of 45° and
60° with RQ, were ranged. Find the lengths of RS and RT in
order that the stations Sand T may be in PQ produced, and the
length of QS past the building.
R
. ]!'ig. 125 Fig. 126
In the triangle TRQ (Fig. 125), RQ = 400 ft.; LTRQ= 60°.
and L TQR = 90°.
..
RT == RQ sec TRQ = 400 sec 60° = 400 X 2 = 800 ft.
In the triangle SRQ, RQ = 400 ft.; LSRQ = 45°,
RS == RQ sec 45° = 400V2 = 565·6 ft.
and QS == RQ tan 45° = 400 X 1 = 400 ft.
Example 4 :-A and B are two l?oints 500 ft. apart on the
, l1earer bank of a river, which flows east and west as in :Fig. 126.
The bearings of the tree on the other bank of a river as observed
from A and Bare N. 30° E. and N. 45° W. Find the width of the
river.
Let b be the width of the river and tV the distance from A
to the foot of the perpendicular from the tree to AB.
\..,.:l1.A.ll."'II ...:;Jv .u,. ~ ___ ,_
b .- -
'JLen - = tan 60° = V 3 or b = V 3 X x.
x
b
. = tan 45° = 1 or b = 500 - x.
(500 - x)
V:3 X x = 500 - x or ( va + 1) x = 500.
Whence x = .50~ = 183 ft., and b = 183 tan 60° = 317 ft.
2·732
Also, b = 500 - x = 500 - 183 = 317 ft.
Cross Staff Survey :-The object of a cross staff survey is to
locate the boundaries of a field or plot, and to determine its area.
General Principles :-Measurement by a chain and cross
staff is based upon two formulae (1) ,that the ar~ of a ri!@t-
~angle ~_.~q~ll.l__l_<!_ _tht! ?ase__~llltiplieg _b)' _halLlli~__p_~r~
penQj~_1Jlar~_a~1;I_l_~t tlte area of a t!"ap_e~oid is equal to the
bas~___!!!ulti~ by _half the_~_~m. of _the_peITi~ndiculars. ~)1'(r
In order, therefore, to calculate the area of allY piece of
ground, it is only necessary to divide the area into right-angled
triangles and trapezoids, and measure their bases and perpendi-
culius. Two instruments are, therefore, required: (1) a cross
staff to divide the area into triangles and trapezoids, and (2) a
chain to measure the lengths of bases and prependiculars.
The instruments required for a cross staff :rurvey are: two
chains, arr~s, ran~rods~a cross staff, and a plumb-bob. T:wa
clmins arc usually provided, one for measuring distances along
~ain line and the other for measuring long offsets. A cross-
staff is' usecC to set out the perpendicular directions of offsets
which are usually more than 50 ft. in length. For accurate
work, an optical square or a prism square is perferable.
In this method of surveying a chain line is run through the
centre and the whole len th of the_Iu'ea under survel". so that
the offsets to the boundaries on either side of it are fairly equal.
The offsets are taken as th~y .ocC\lr (in the order of their chainages),
and care should be taken ~hat no offsets are overlooked before
the chain is movcd forward. To check the accuracy of the field
work, the chainages of the points of intersection of the chain
line and the boundaries should be noted, and the lengths of the
bounda!Y_ lines determined by direct me~ent:--After the
field-;orkis over, the survey is plotted to a suitable scale.
The figure thus formed by the boundary lines is divided

into a number of triangles and trapezoids, the areas of which
may be computed by the above formulre. The computations
for areas should be written in a tabular form as given below.
Example 1 :-Plot the following cross staff survey of I
field and calculate its area.
E /"'" I
_(~20 "'" D
r'\
E 160 240
I 5
I \ 160 150 C
I I
If{ /( 1M
A _t_:_:_ -r--- ~ P ,'It') 100
II
J
59 100 B
\
II
C
Fig. 127
Fig. 127 shows the field ABCDEF. Enter the given chaina-
ges and offsets as shown in the following table : •
Serbl :I!'igure. Chainage Base Offset Mean Ares in sq. ft. ~

No. in ft. in ft. in ft. offset
1 2 3 4 5
in ft.
6
~ ;;\ -sv; ~
1 ! II ABG 0& 50 50 I 0&100 50 2500
2 GBCK 50 & 160 110 1100 & 150 125 13750
3 II KeD 160& 320 160 150& Q 75 12000
4 /ll DEM 320 & 240 80 0&160 SO 6400
5 MEFH 240 & 100 140 160 & 120 140 19600
6 II HFA 100 & 0 100 120 & 0 60 6000
TotaJ 60250
CHAIN SURVEYING
Area of the field = 60250 sq. ft. = 60250

-_ = l' 3832 acres
48560
= 1 acre, 15 gunthas, & 5·25 annas.
Example 2 :-Plot the follwing cro;s staff survey of a field
ABCDEFG, and calculate its area.
-~Q-I
/389'" I
369 139F
364 37 E
1)63
842
804-
IK
200 187G
C 142 194
:a 92 99
6~ M
4l 48 A
//"-._
~_o "
p
~---~--
~(l Fig. 128 is shown the field ABCDEFG. Enter the
-0-'-
)
I
I
I
,
J' :
I
>
..Qi : :&
:0 ("9 (/'
-'-'---. ::..cr- --~I
-
I
f
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,,
I
I
I
Fig. 128
The figure thus formed by the boundary lines is divided

into a number of triangles and trapezoids, the areas of which
may be computed by the above formulre. The computations
for areas should be written in a tabular form as given below.
Example 1 :-Plot the following cross staff survey of a
field and calculate its area.
E /"'- :
~~20 "'- D
f
E 160 240
160 150 ~
A
F l'lO 100
50 100 B
/"'- I
C
Fig. 127
/ 0 "'-I A
Fig. 127 shows the field ABCDEF. Enter the given chaina-
ges and offsets as shown in the following table :
Serial Figure. Chainage Base Offset Mean Area in sq. ft. .,;
No. in ft. in ft. in ft. offset ~
1 2 3 4 5
in ;t. I~~;~-I -sve ~
1 6. ABG 0& 50 50 0& 100 50 2600
2 GBCK 50 & 160 110 100 & 150 125 13750
:3 6. KCD 160 & 320 160 15Q & 0. 75 12000
4 6. DEM 320 & 240 SO 0&160 80 6400
5 MEFH 240& 100 140 160 & 120 140 19600
6 A HFA 100 & 0 100 120 & 0 60 6000
Total 160250
CHAIN SURVEYING
... ,
Area of the field = 60250 sq. ft.
43560
= 60250
,-- = 1'3832 acres
= 1 acre,15gunthas,
& 5·25 annas.
Example 2 :-Plot the follwing cro;s staff survey of a field
ABCDEFG, and calculate its area.
~7""-Q--
/ !~9 ""-
369 139F
364 37 E
342 K
D63 30J.
200 187 G
C 142 194
B 92 99
61 M
4l 48 A
//""-
1/ 0 "
_ __!_I
In Fig. 128 is shown the field ABCDEFG. Enter the
i
, .I : .> I
'" i ~ :
:b c:g ",: G
-=--- - . :...c;- - - --=--.L.. .
I
I
,
I
~ 1
,
I
..,
I
I
I
Fig. 128
given chainages and offsets' in the tabular form as given under:
Serial
No.
I Figure. Chainage
in. ft.
Base
in. ft
Offset
in ft.
Mean
offset
Area in sq. ft. ~
.,'"..
~
_""
in ft.
+ve -ve ~
! I 2 3 4 5 6 7 )
8 9
I
1 I 6. aAM 41 & 61 20 48 & 0 24 l
480
2 aAGg 41 & 200 159 48 & 187 117'5 18683
3 gGFf 200 & 369 169 187 & 139 163 27547 <C
4 1364 & 369 37 & 139

'3C>
eEFf 5 88 440
X
5 6. eEK 364 & 342 i 22 37 & 0 18'5 407 .".
1
6 6. KDd 342 & 304 38 0& 63 31'5 1197 '3
Q
7 dDCc 304 & 194 110 63 & 142 102'5 11275 II
8 "CBb 194 & 99 95 142& 92 117 11115 '"

f
<
9 6. hBM 99 & 61 38 92 & 0 46 1748
~tal '71565 1327
Net area I 70238
70238
Area of the field = 70238 sq. ft. = --_ = l' 6124 acres.
43560
= 1 acre, 24 gunthas, & 8 annas.
Plotting :-Next to survey work, office work is of great
importance. It consists of preparation of plans and sections,
computation of areas, etc. The surveyor should give, in a minia-
ture form, a true reproduction of his field notes. The following
drawing instruments and materials are generally used in drawing
office work. •
Drawing Instruments :-(1) A drawing table with an even
surface made of good timber and of a convenient size 8 ft. X 4 ft.
(2) A drawing board of good quality. It.is obtainable
in various sizes : (i) Half Imperial 23 in. X 16 in., (ii) Imperial
32 in. X 23 in., (iii) Double Elephant 42 in. X 29 in., and (iv)
Antiquarian 54 in. X 32 in.
A board of imperial size is useful for many purposes and
is in common use. A board of double elephant size is useful
for large plans.
CHAIN SURVEYING 129
(3) A Tee square of polished mahogany with ebony edge

and of the corresponding length (available lengths being 24, 36,
42, and 54 in.).
(4) Sct squares made of vulcanite or celluloid, the latter
being preferable on account of their transparency. Only one
pair of 45° and 60° is required. They are required for drawing
parallel and perpendicular lines. They are obtainable in various
sizes, a convenient size being 10 in.
(5) A rolling parallel ruler for drawing parallel lines
obtainable in various lengths (12, 18, 24 in.).
(6) An instrument box of good quality containing a bow
pen ( or drawing pen), dividers, spring bows, compasses with pen
and pencil points, lengthening bar, pricker, etc. The bow pen
should not be dipped into the ink, but should be filled by means
of a quill.
(7) A protractor made of celluloid and of a circular or
semi-circular type.
(8) A steel straight edge 6 ft. long for drawing lo'ng lines.
(9) Beam compasses consisting of wooden T-shaped lath
and the needle, pen, and pencil holders required for striking arcs
of large radius, which cannot be done by the ordinary compass.
They are very useful in plotting a chain survey.
(10) A set of French curves required for drawing irregular
and curved figures. They are made of celluloid. A set of
railway curves made of strips of pearwood, celluloid, or vulcanite
is very useful for drawing railway lines.
(11) A rotator which is very useful for drawing very small
circles.
(12) A set of scales consisting of six boxwood scales 12
inches long with 6 corresponding offset scales. The scales
in common use are 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 ft. to one inch.
Offset scales are 2 inches long and are divided in exactly the
same way as the long scales. They are very uS<;ful for plotting
offsets. In some offset scales, the zero of the scale is marked
at the centre of its length and the scale is divided in both direc-
tions so that offsets can be plotted on either side of the chain line.
p.I-5
(13) Proportional compasses for enlarging and reducing

plans.
Drawing Materials:- (1) Paper :-The best hand-made
paper with a fairly smooth surface such as Whatman's paper
either unmounted or mounted on cloth should be used. I
(2) Drawing pins or clamps :-They are necessary for
attaching the paper to the drawing board.
(3) Weights :-They are made of lead, 3" X 2" X I", covered
with cloth, paper, or leather. They are necessary for holding
down the drawing paper, or holding the plotting scale in position
while the plotting is being done.
(4) Pencils :-Pencils of superior quality such as Verius
or Kohinoor should he used. The suitable grades are 2H, 3H,
or 4H. If the drawing is to be finished in pencil, a pencil of
grade F or H is most useful. A chisel-pointed pencil may be
used for drawing lines, while a conical-pointed one for all other
work. The pencil should be sharpened with sand paper or a
file (not with a penknife).
(5) India rubber :-It is necessary for rubbing out con-
struction lines or other lines wrongly plotted. The soft white
rubber is the best. It should be sparingly used, care being
taken to use it gently and not to damage the surface of the paper.
(6) Ink :-It should be of the best quality. Indian or
Chinese ink is the best. It may be prepared fresh each day
from the cake or stick. Waterproof bottled inks are quite
satisfactory. For inking in the drawings, black, blue, and crim-
son lake inks are required.
(7) Colours :-They are necessary for colouring the draw-
ings. They should be of the best quality. The best colours
are in cake's which are rubbed down in water as required in
dishes. They are also obtainable in tubes. For the list of
colours most used by the surveyor, the student should refer
to the chart given in Fig. 129.
(8) Brushes :-They should be of the best quality, the
sable brushes being the best, but expensive. The camel hair
brushes are cheap and equally satisfactory.
CHAIN SURVEYING 131
Ol?Ject Outhne Colour Illu5tratlon.
Cenrre line. Dash &

Dof Line Black -_ .. -,_---_-
l/.r'J5hor Convtmkon, 1----- _______

Doffed line Doshe5 Colour. ..._---_-._----
continuou, CrimJonLQ_A
1>/".4.,n p~2S'~
but broken #ri[):rr~rn,I{Ci
Dimension -" al Centre Wdh
Choln Line wltl; Oash.&DD!

line &- ,/.. '01, "",Crim.san
0.;:.-._._.;@
Surv~.sli:r/i'on Clrcl~. fQr RJ. I..ok.f,.;· -':50" ~.
~
:M.(Cllle~ ,sf .5/ennu
Rond.s:U"m,dafl d Black lSI' /.Imbu:
~~~
Co,.., n-ack Do/t~d/3/lle =.-;...._-: -""~'::'z('....
F~orPalh ooug{~nf; 13t.lJmhv. ... ~ ....... ~
"..
RIVer. Canal PrM5sioif ~.,.y ~ i

0,.. No/la. Black
C ..nlr~-ZI"'C
/Slue.
I~~
Railwuys Co"Ii'''uou,;
oleachh-..c.
-lJo- ~
8uildings Blac.k C. LaJce. ~~
c:=::::::::J CJ
Cqm/>olJndJId!1 -Do - /lfdijO L.:"qt. <>===a
AB{!OEEGH:'
IJKLMN:
OPQRSI
UVWX
YZ&
12345
6789
Fig. 129
132 SURVEYING AND 1.EVELLING
- .
Object Outline. . C%ur. Illustration.
Are Rail/!1J. 7.f~]~'t.o.t4~

P. Blue.Jl<
1IcsmQIISr:;"'orll . BlackS'lu
..
I,.. 8J .. ~!, Q'b~y~ r~~
M're Fencin9. [J';(shs.Dot P Bille.
--..._ .c::-' __1/
e---~
_._--_::!-
Ii ~t1 ~ l"-;
It Green. .:
Trees. _ Black. f). .ft .1".
.. _5.", ... ---~--/ ... ~
Conlburs. j]olled. ~ .-, ' . ' , '
P BIlle. :. . . ~:.z . . ~'-B-
BorrenLond FamtBJack. !3/: LImbe-: /~~~::_.~~
::'Q~'2- .' ~
..
HGre-en.
Clii/(vo/erilam
l--.
-Do· ~1;1f1i:
Po • o ~W
.• •
fled.5le. • DD. -Do -

~~f~
.. ,,'V
Bridge. Black. Bt,5lennu ~o.--~---
-~-
Fi9ures wi
Benchmlllrk markas t /'hC Lake. t COT.S. B ..,
X".L"l64'T6
Wo'1h Oli-ee!lon 8lack. Black.

~
Fig. 129
CHAIN SlJRVEYING 13:~
(9) Saucers :-They are required for preparing inks and

colours.
Plotting a Chain Survey :-Before commencing to plot a
survey, tlw scale of the· plan should be chosen. It is usually
selected before the field work is commenced and will determine
the size of the paper required to contain the plan.
,A border line may be drawn on the paper leaving a margin
of 1 to l~ inches round the sheet with plain or ornamental corners.
In the rectangle so drawn, the position of the survey, north line.
scale, title, etc., should be so arranged that the completed plan
will appear to the best advantage. A survey should always
be plotted looking north, so that the top and bottom, right and
left reprcsent north, south, cast, and west respectively. When-
ever possible, it is well to arrange the plan so that the north side
of the survey should be towards the top of the paper.
To determine the best position of the plan so that it will
be in the centre of the papcr leaving suflicient space for the
title, scale, north point, the framework of the main lines of the
survey should first be plotted on a piece of tracing paper to the
scale of the plan and then ·moved on th~ drawing paper until
it is arranged symmetrically on the paper. Having asecrtained
the best position for the plan, the direction of the base line and
the position of one of its extremities should be pricked through.
To begin with, the base line, being the longest line of the survey
is first drawn in its propel' position and its length accurately
scaled. The intermediate stations on the base line arc thpn
marked with a pricker or with a fine pencil point by accurately
measuring their chainages. They are lettered or numbered, and
are enclosed in a small circle. The triangles built on the base
line are then drawn in position by describing short arcs with
the ends of the base line (or intermediate stations) as centres
and the lengths of the sides as radii, using the beam compasses,
if the radii are large. Before the point of intersection is finally
marked, the lines should be carefully tested with the scale to
ensure that the sides of the triangle are correctly plotted. The
traingles are then checked by drawing the tie or check lines.
If it is foun~ that the check line does not fit in accurately! and
if the error is within the limit of permissible error, it may be
ascertained which of the sides is likely to be in errol', taking
into consideradon the field conditions under which the lines

were measured. Accordingly, the plotted lines are lengthened or
shortened until the check line or tie line fits in exactly, care being
taken that the distortion of the original triangle is the least
possible. If the error is greater than the allowable limit of error,
the lines must be remeasured. Other triangles are similarly
drawn and checked by the check lines.
Having plotted the framework and verified its accuracy,
the offsets are plotted. There are two methods of plotting the
offsets. In the first method the chainages of the points from
which the offsets were measured are marked along the chain
line, and the perpendicular lines are then drawn by the aid of a
set-square, and the lengths of the offsets scaled off. In the &econd
method which is more convenient and common, the offsets are
plotted by the use of an offset scale.
In plotting offsets, the long or 'plotting scale is placed in
coincidence witll the chain line with its zero exactly at the
OFFS£T SCAlE
WEI6NT
v- __ - .......
Fig. 130
beginning of the line and hel(down in position by means of lead
CHAIN SURVEYING 135
weights at both ends as in :Fig. 130. The oif:sct scale is then

placed at right angles to the long scale. It is thcn moved along
the long scale to the required chainages as r~ad 011 the long
scale and the offset lengths are then m:;;'rked with a pricker. If
the zero of the offset scale is placed by the maker at the centre
of its length, the long scale is laid down parallel to the chain
line and at a distance equal to half the length of the offset scale
so that the zero of the scale coincides with the chain line. The
offsets can now be marked on both sides of the chain line. The
plotted points are joined by the straight or curved line, the
kind of the line depending upon the nature ()f the object re-
presented. Great care should be exercised in guarding against
the common mistakes in plotting the detail such as scaling
chain ages from the wrong end of the line, omitting offsets,
plotting offsets on the wrong side of the chain litle or from wrong
chainages, and joining up wrong points.
Inking in ;-JVtf'J" complpting and checking t}1t~ plan, jt is
inked in. It is always convenient to work froTn the top of the
plan downwards or from left to right. The ink(~d-in lines should
be finer. Curved lines should be first inked in with the help
of the French curves and then the straight lines, so that the
joinings may be made more neatly. The chain lines are shown
in crimson lake; the outline of the existing surface features is
shown in black; railway lines, iron railings ar(~ shown in 'blue.
Surface features are indicated on plan with ccmventional signs
shown in Fig. 129.
Erasing an ink line should be avoided as fal' as possible. But
if it is necessary, an eraser should be first appliecl, then a piece of",
soft rubber, and finally the erased surface should be polished by
rubbing it with a hard smooth substance such 11,s cauri.
Colouring :-The following points should be borne in mind
in colouring a drawing.
(1) Clean the drawing thoroughly with a pi(~ce of soft rubber
or bread crumbs before commencing colouring.
(2) Always mix more colour than is required for the whole
of the wash.
(3) Mix all colours light and not too dark as light colours
Can be handled more easily than dark ones.
(4) In laying on a flat wash, tilt the drawing board so

that the colour floats evenly downwards.
(5) If a large surface is to be coloured, first moisten the
surface with water with the help of a sponge or brush and take
off any superfluous moisture by placing a piece of blotting paper
over the moistened surface.
(6) Commence colouring from the top left-hand corner
of the surface, working from left to right and downwards.
(7) Take care that the edges of the part to be c(~loured
are not overstepped by the colour. If overstepped, remove
the excess with a clean brush or a clean pieee of blotting paper.
North Point :-The north point must be shown on plan in
any convenient blank space on the paper preferably at the top
pointing upwards. It may be plain or ornamental.
Title :-Thc title should be printed in the lower right
hand corner. It should include the name of the 'area, owner's
name, etc. Vertical or sloping block letters may be used for
printing the title, sloping italics of uniform thickness for minor
printing.
Scale : -The scale should be drawn under the title or just
inside the border at the bottom of the drawing.
PROBLEMS
1. Explain the following terms:-
Swing offset, Oblique offset, Random line, Reference sketch, Key plan,
Base line, Check line, Tie line, Tie station, and Well conditioned triangle.
2. Describe two methods of setting out a right angle with a tape at a point in
the chain line.
3. Describe, with a neat sketeh, the optical square and explain its principle.
H ow is it used in the field? H ow is it tested and adj usted ?
4. Describe the construction and the use of different forms of Cross Staff.
5. What is meant by chain surveying? Explain the principle on which it is
based.
When is a chain survey preferred? When does it become inconvenient?
6. What are the points 'to be borne in mind in arranging the survey lines in
a ohain survey?
PROBLEMS 137
7. What are the instruments req uired in making a chain survey? How is a
chain survey executed in the field?
S. What are offsets? If aware they taken and recorded? Why is it desirable
that the offsets should be as short as possible? To what fraction of a foot
would you measure the offset~, if the plan of the survey is to be plotted to a
scale of (a) 1 in. = 10 ft., (b) 1 in. = 50 ft., and (c) 1 in. = 200 ft.
1 1
( An8. (a) - ft.; (b) _ ft.; (c) 2 ft.)
10 2
9. Describe a field book and show how the field measurements are entered in it?
H ow is a chain survey plotted?
10. In chaining a line, you come across (a) a pond, (b) a tall building, and (c)
a hill. Describe how you lVould continue the line with the chain only.
11. Describe the methods of determining the width of a ri"er, (i) with the chain
only, and (ii) with the chain and optical square.
12. If an offset is laid out 4 0 from its true direction on the field, find th(' resulting
displac('ment of the plotted point on the paper, (a) in a direction parallel to
the chain line, and (b) in a direction perpendicular to the chain line, given
that the length of the offset is 50 ft. and the scale h 1 in. = 100 ft.
(Ans. (at O'034{J inc}j; (b) 0'0012 inch.}
13. Find the maximum length of offset so that the displacement on paper should
not exceed O' 01 in., given that the offset was laid out 50 from its true direction
and the scale is 1 inch = 200 ft. (Ans. 22' 94 ft.)
14. To what accuracy should the offset be measured, if the angular error in
laying off the direction is 3 0 80 that the maximum displacement of the point
on the paper from one source of error equals that frolll the other source?
(Ans. 19'1 ft.)
15. Find the maxi'1lum length of offset so that the displacement on paper from
both sources of error should not exceed _-.!_- of an inch, given that the offset
100
is measured with an accuracy of 1 in 25 and the scale is 500 ft. to 1 inch.
( Ans. 8S'4 ft. )
16. Find the maximum permissible error in laying off the direction of the
offset so that the maximum displacement may not eli:ceed _I_ of an inch,
100
given that the length of the offset is 50 feet, the scale is 1 inch = 660 ft.,
and the maximum error in the length of offset is 2'5 ft.
.( Ans. 7 0 1'.)
17. A survey line PR intersects a pond. To continue the line past this obstacle,
stations A and B were taken on the line on opposite ~ideA of the pond. A'
line, AC, 900 ft. long, was set out on the left of AB llnd a second line AD,
1100 ft. in length, was laid down on the right of AB, the points C, B, and
D being in the same straight line. eB and BD were then measured and
found to be 500 ft. and 550 ft. respectively. Calculate the length of AB.
(Ans. 851' 7 ft. )
138 SURVEYING AND I"EVELLINO
18. A chain line CDE crosses a river, D and E being on the near and distant
banks respectively. A perpendicular DF, 180 ft. long, is set out at D on the
left of the chain line. The respective bearings of E and C taken at F are
67 0 30' and 157° 30'. Find the chainage of E, given t,hat CD is 90 ft. and
the chainage of D is 1255 ft.
(Ans. 1615 ft. )
/'- 19. A chain line PQR crosses river, Q and R being on the near and distant
banks respectively. A line QM, of length 250 ft., is set out at right angles
to the chain line at Q. If the bearings of QM and MR are 287 0 15' and
62° 15' respectively, find the width of the river.
( Ans. :50 ft. )
20. A and D are two points 450 ft.. apart on the near bailk of the river, which
flows east and west. The bearings of the tree on the far bank as observed
from A and Bare N. 50° E. andN. 40° W. Determine the width of the river.
( Ans. 221. 6 ft.)
21. A survey line CD intersects a high building. To prolong the line beyond
this obstacle, a perpendicular DE, 500 ft. long, is set out at D. From E two
lines EF and EG are set out at angles of (5° and 60 0 with ED rel"pectively.
Determine the lengths of EF and EG in order that tht, points F and G may
lie on the prolongation of CD, and also the obstructed distance DF.
(Ans. EF = 707 ft.; EG = 1000 ft.; DF = 500 ft. )
22. A survey line BAC crosses a river, A and 0 being on the near and dis·
tant banks respectively. Standing at D, a point 200 ft. measured per·
pendicularly to AB from A, the bearings of 0 and Bare 305 0 30,'and 215 0
30' respectively, AB being 100 ft. Find the width of the river. (K. V.)
( Ans. 400 ft.)
23. (a) While chaining a line, you come across (i) a riwr and (ii) a building.
Describe how yon would continue the line with the chain only.
/< (b) A survey line BAC crosses a river, A and 0 being on the near and
opposite banks respectively. A perpendicular AD, 120 ft. long, is set
out at A. If the bearings of AD and DO are 38° 45' and 278 0 45' respec-
tively, and the chainage at A is 2586 ft., find the chainage at C. (V. P.)
(Ans. 2793' 84 ft. )
24. (A) Make sketches to show the following cases of obstacles met with in
chain surveying:-
(a) Those which obstruct ranging but not chaining.
(b) Those which obstruct chaining and ranging.
(B) Describe with sketches how you would overcome the above obstacles
in carrying out a chain survey, assuming that the obstacles are unavoid-
able. State clearly how the line is carried on and how the length is obtained.
(V.P.)
(CHAPTER IV
-TRAVf~E SURVEYING
TraVEJWJJg djJIEJ'S from chain slJrFeying iA th;t the dj~eetiom,·
of survey lines are fixed by angular measurements instead of 2
arranging them so that they can be plotted from their lengths
alone (i. e. so as to fOfm a network of triangles).
\ i (A trav~rse survey is one in which the framework consists
of a'se~ies of connected lines, the lengths and directions of which
are measured with a chain or a tape, and with an angular instru-
l!1ent respectively.)} The routine of chaining and offsetting is
the same as in chaIn surveying. The running of check lines is
not necessary.
A traverse may be classed as (a) closed, and (b) undosed
or open.
(a) Closed Traverse :-A traverse is said to be dosed
when a complete circuit is made, i. e. when it returns to the
starting point forming a closed polygon as in Fig. 131a, or when
it begins and ends at points whose positiom on plan are known
£ ~-- j;)' A B
8 t(ll) (h)
Fig. 131a Fig. 131b
(Fig. 131b). The work may be checked and "balanced. " .It__
is particularly suitable f')r locating the boundaries of lakes,
'woods, etc:, mid for the survey of moderately large areas.
(b) Unclosed or Open Traverse :-A traverse is said to
be open o~ unclosed '\\rhen it does not form a closed. polygon as
shown in Fig. 132. It consists of a series of lines extending in the.
same general directiorl and not returning to the starting point.
Similarly, it does not !Start and end at points whose positions on
140 SURVEYIXG AND LEVELLING
plan are known. It is most suitable for the survey of a long

narrow strip of country, c. g. the valley of a river, the coast line,
F
a long meandering road, or railway, etc.

Methods of Traversing :-- -The chief methods by which the
directions of the survey lines may be determined are as follows:
(1) By the chain angles.
(2) By the free or loose needle method.
(3) By the fast needle method.
( 4) By the measurement of angles between successive lines.
(1) Method of Chain Angles or Chain Traversing:- In
this method the entire work is done with the chain and tape only.
When the survey of an area such as a lake, wood, standing crop
etc., is required, it is evident that the area cannot be divided
into triangles. A traverse has, therefore, to be run round. the
area, and in the absence of an angle-measuring instrument, the
angles between the successive lines are fixed by measuring tie
lines with the chain. Angles fixed by tie measurements are
known as chain angles. ---
Great care must be taken to secure good tie lines at the
stations. They must be sufficiently long.
The angles at the stations
are fixed by internal tie
lines such as a 1G 2 or by
external ones such as b1 b2 ,
CtC2' and d1 d2 as in Fig. 133.
For example, the angle at
A is fixed by measuring
the distance atG2 between
two points a 1 and a 2 suitably
chosen on AD and AB respe- ,
Fig. 133 ctively. To fix the angle at
B, AB is produced to bl . A suitable point bz is chosen on Be and
TRAVERSE SURVEYING 141
the distance b1b2 is then measured. To check the accuracy of the

work, the line CB should be prolonged to ba and the tie line bab t
measured. Fig. 134 illustrates the method of ':running an open
traverse with a ehain alone. The angles at B, C, etc., are fixed
by means of tics ab, cd, etc., as described above.
Measurement of Angles :-The chain 'angles are measured
by the chord method. Suppose it is required to measure the
angle between AB and AC at A (Fig. 135). Then with A as a
centre and radius equal to one tape length (100 ft.), an arc is
swung, intersecting the lines AB and AC at band c. The chord
distance be is then measured.
Fig. 134
~ e
Fig. 135
.6 b
The angle BAC ( o() may be calculated from the relation,

. 0( bc
SIn --- = _-.
2 200
Proof: sin ~
2
= ~~- but bA
bA
= 100 and bd = ~be
-g
.
••
•
Sln~
0( be
=-.
2 200
Angles measured with a tape are less accurate than those
measured with an angle-measuring instrumed't.
The method is objectionable as it is liable to serious error.
In this method we are working from part to whole, contrary to
the fundamental principle in surveying, viz. "work always
from whole to part." Therefore, the smallest error in the measure-

ment or plotting of the tie line ala 2 (Fig. 133) will be magnified
at the end of AB or AD and throw out the direction of AB
or AD, resulting in the distortion of the position of B or D, the
error in the position of B or D being proportional to the length
of AB or AD. It is, therefore, always advisable to use an an£le-
measuring instrument to determine the directions of lines.
(2) Free or Loose Needle Method :-In this method an
angular instrument such as a compass or theodolite, is set up
at each of the successive stations and the bearing of each line
is taken with reference to the magnetic meridian and not with
reference to the adjacent lines. Hence the errors are not cumu-
lative, but compensating. The results obtained are not generally
so accurate as those obtained by methods (3) and (4).
(3) Fast Needle Method :-In this method a theodolite
is used to determine the bearing of each line. The method of
observing bearings will be described later.
(4) Method of Measurement of Angles :-In this method
a theodolite is used for measurement of angles. The horiz~m.
tal angles measured in a traverse may be (i) included angles,
or (ii) deflection angles between successive lines. The method
of included angles is the most accurate one and is generally
used for large surveys and accurate work.
Instruments for Measurement of Angles :.:_In order to plot
a survey line on paper, its length and direction must be known.
The direction of a survey line may be defined either (i) by the
horizontal angle between the line and the line adjacent to it, or
(ii) by the angle, called the bearing, between the fixed line of
reference called the meridian and the line.
For measuring angles in survey work, the instruments
commonly used are (i) the compass, and (ii) the theodc>lite.
Sometimes a box sextant is also used. .
The compass does not measure the angle betweeli two lines
directly, but measures the angle between the magnetic meridian
and the line; the theodolite, on the other hand, measures the
angle between two lines directly, and also, the bearing of the line.
Compass :-The compass consists essentially of (a) a
magnetic needle, (b) a graduated circle, and (c) a line of sight.
There are two forms of compass in common use: (1) the

prismatic compass, and (2) the surveying or
surveyor's compass. The former is a very
valuaule instrument and is commonly used
• ~ for rough surveys, where speed and not
(a.) accuracy is the main ,consideration.
c=:=:AIT====:J (The Prismatic Compass :-The prisma-
tic compass shown in Fig. 137 consis~s of a
~==4JF=~-=- circular box about 2t to 6 inchesd{ameter !.!!.
( b) thc-c~ntre of-which is balanced a maw_et!c
Fig. 136 needle {)n a hard steel pointed pivot 2. The,
needle 3, which is ofb~~ad form (Fig. 136a) carries an alumini~~
ring 5 graduated to deg~;es and half degr~~~ The graduations
start -from zero marked at the south end of the needle and run
clockwise so that 90° are marked at the west, 180 0 at the
north, and 270 0 at the east. The figures are written inverted.
1. Compass box. 11. Focussing stud

2. Pivot. for prism.
3. Needle. 12. Hinged strap.
4. Agate cap. 13. Object vane.
5. Compass 14. Horse hair.
ring. 15. Adjustable
6. Glass cover. mirror.
7. Prism. 16. Brake pin or
8. Prism cap. Knob.
9. Eyevane. 17. Spring brake.
10. Hinged sun 18. Lifting pin.
:3 glasses. 19. Lifting lever
Fig. 137
Diametrically opposite are fixed to the box the sighting van

and the reflecting prism
with a sighting slit at the top. The
sighting ( or object) vane 13 consists of a hinged metal frame

in the centre of which is stretched a vertical horse hair 14,·
fine silk thread, or fine wire. When the instrument is not
in use or when it is being carried from point to point, the sight-
ing vane is folded on the glass lid 6, which covcrs the top of the
box. It presses against a lifting pin 18, which lifts the needle
off the pivot and holds it against the glass lid, thus preventing
undue wear of the pivot point. To damp the oscillations of the
-~-~
needle when about to take a reading and to b'ring It to rest
........ _ _ ._, _ _ _ ~. _ ._----"'--- _. "_~_,_ _,,-_, , _ , ' ,,_ _,,' , _ . ..... ~. c , ___ • ,' __
quickly, a lIght spring 17 is fitted inside the box . .' It can be

brought into contact with the edge of the ring by gently pressing
inwards a knob or brake pin 16 placed at the base of the object
vane. By means of the reflecting prism 7, which can be adjusted
to the eyesight of the observer by raising or lowering the frame
carrying it by means of the stud II/the graduations on t~e ring
below, being reflected from the hypotenusal side of the .prism
to the eye can be read. The faces of the prism both horizontal
and vertical being convex, the graduations are magnified.
When not in use, the prism can be folded ovcr the edge of
the box and is held by the hinged strap 12. The top of the box
is covered with a glass lid so that the graduations on the ring
may be visible. It also protects the instrument from dust.
A metal cover fits over the glass lid and the sighting vane when
not in use. Sometimes the sighting vane is provided with a
hinged mirror 15, which can be placed upwards or downwards
on the frame and can also be slided along it as required. The
mirror can be made to incline at any angle so that objects too
high or too low to be sighted directly can be sighted by reflection.
Dark glasses 10 are sometimes provided. They are interposed
into the line of sight, when luminous objects are to be sighted or
sun observations are required.
When the needle .p_Qints..nru:th,. th~a.clil!~~der _!11~ prism
should' be zero. But since the prism is placed exactly opposite
the sight va;~,-·the south end will be under the prism. Consequ-
ently, the zero graduation of the ring must be placed at the south
end of the needle. By this means bearings are obtained clock~
wise from north.
The prismatic compass is used for surveys in wooded country,
rough traverses, filling in details, preliminary survey for a road.
military purposes such as sketching and night marching, etc.

It is unreliable in places abounding in magnetic ro'ck or iron ore.
It is less accurate than a theodolite. "
Method of Using the Prismatic Compass :-The compass
may be held in the hand, but for better results, it is usually
mounted on a light tripod which carries a vertical spindle in a ball
and sockeCjoint to which the box is screwed. By means of this
arrangement the instrument can be quickly levelled and also
rotated in a horizontal plane and clamped in any position.
Centring :-The compass should be centred over the station
where the bearing is to be taken (i. e. the centre of the com-
pass placed over the station) by dropping a small piece of stone
so that it falls on the top of the peg marking the station.
Levelling : -The compass should then be levelled by eye, by
meanS of a ball and socket joint so that the ring may swing quite
freely. It should be clamped when levelled.
Observing Bearings :-To observe the bearing of a line AB,
(i) centre the compass over the station A and level it.
(ii) Having turned up vertical the prism and the sighting
vane, raise or lower the prism until the graduations on the ring
are clearly visible when looked through the prism.
(iii) Turn the compass box until the ranging rod at the
HOh'e5E NA/R statio«' B is bi.sected by the hair when
looked through the slit above the prism.
(iv) When the needle comes to rest
(bring the ring to rest by pressing the
knob, if necessary), look through the
prism and note the reading (42° 30').
Fig. 138 at which the hair line produced appears
to cut the image of the graduated ring as in Fig. 138, which
gives the required bearing of Hie line AB. Readings are usually
estimated to the nearest 15'.
It may be noted that the sighting of the object and reading
of the graduated ring are done simultaneously.
The Surveyor's Compass :-The surveyor's compass was
formerly much used in land surveying, but now it is little used.
In general, it is similar to a prismatic compass except that it

has another plain sight having a narrow vertical slit in place of
the prism, and that it carries an edge-bar needle (Fig. 136b) on
a pivot.
The following are the essential points of difference between
the prismatic compass and the surveyor's compass:
(1) In the prismatic compass the reflecting prism carries
a sighting slit, and, therefore, the sighting of the object and
reading of the graduated ring are done simultaneously; while
in the surveyor's compass the obscrver has to sight the object
first and then go round to read the graduation on the card
pointed to by the north end of the necdle with the naked eye.
(2) In the prismatic compass the needle and the graduated
ring are attached together and remain in constant position when
the box is rotated; whereas in the surveyor's compass the gradua-
ted card is fixed to the box and moves with the sights when the
box is turned, while the needle remains stationary constantly
pointing to the magnetic north.
(3) In the prismatic compass the graduations are numbered
clockwise from zero at the south end of the needle so that 90°
are marked at the west, 180° at the north, and 270° at the east
as shown in Fig. 139a. The figures are written inverted.
Whereas in the surveyor's compass the card is divided into four
quadrants and the graduations are numbered from 0° to 90°
in each quadrant. The zero points are marked with the letters N
and S, and 90° points with the letters E and W in as Fig. 139c.
............
N N ~
Ie'
Fig. 139
The letters E and Ware interchanged from their true position
in order to read the bearing in its proper quadrant. Suppose,
for instance, the bearing of a line AB is N. 45° E. Since the gra-
duated card is attached to the box, and, therefore, moves with the
TRA VERSE SURVEYING 147
sights, the north and south points on the card and the sights
revolve through 45° from left to right when the point B is sighted.
If the letters E and Ware reversed from their natural position,
the proper quadrant (N. E.) can be read. But if they are not
interchanged, the quadrant read will be N. W. Alternatively,
the graduations are numbered counter-clockwise from 0° to 360°,
the zero point being marked with the letter N. The figures
are written ordinarily.
(4) The prismatic compass may be held in the hand, while

the surveyor's compass must be supported on a single pointed
rod 5 ft. long, called a Jacob staff, or on a light tripod.
The compass attached to the level is similar to the pris-
matic compass except in the following respects: (1) no sighting
vane is provided. Instead, the telescope is used to sight the
object, and (2) the prism is placed exactly at right angles to
the line of sight. Hence the graduations are turned c~ise
through 90° so t~O is marked at the west, Jillo at the north,
~80°atihe~~!: and _~ at 1;.~~out~lustrated in Fig. 139b.
(3)llelow the prism i~~_needle point or an index fixed to the side
of the bOX to indicate the reading.
,_..
\....!learings of Lines :~he bearing of a line as already
stated, is the horizontal angle which the line makes with some
reference direction or meridian. The reference direction employed
in surveying may be (i) a true meridian, (ii) a magnetic meridian
or (iii) an arbitrary or assumed meridian. The true meridian
is usually employed in geod_etic surveys, while the magnetic
meri~ian is used in plane surveys)
I.... .. /'
(' True Meridians :-The points of intersection of the earth's

axk-and the surface of the earth are known as the north geogra-
phical pole and the south geographical pole. The true or
geographical meridian passing through a point on the earth's
surface is the line in which the plane passing through the given
point, and the north and south poles intersects the surface of
the earth) The direction of a true meridian at a station is
invariable. The true meridian~ through the various stations
are not parallel, but converge to the poles. However, for
ordinary small surveys, they are assumed to be parallel to each
other. The horizontal angle between the true meridian and a

line is called a true bearing of the line. It is also known as an
azimuth:")
',Meg netic Meridian :--·The direction indicated by a freely
suspended and properly balanced magnetic needle, unaffected
by local attractive forces is called the magnetic meridian or the
magnetic north and south line. The angle which a line makes
with the magnetic meridian is called a magnetic bearing of the
line, or simply a bearing of the line.)
(Arbitrary Meridian :-For small surveys any convenient
direction may be taken as a meridian. It is u,>ually the direc-
tion from a survey station to some well-defined permanent
object, or the first line of a survey. The angle between this
meridian and a line is known as an arbitrary or assumed bearing
of the line. ') .
Designation of Bearings :-There are two systems of nota-
tion commonly used to express bearings, viz. (1) the whole circle
system, and (2) the quadrantal system.
",-~'~hole Circle System :-In this system the bearing of a line
is always measured clockwise from the north point of the re-
ference meridian tow:;-ds the line right round the circle. The
angle thus measured is called the whole circle bearing (W. C. B.).
It may have any value between 0° and 360°. Thus in Fig. BO,
the W. C. B. of AP1 is 6 b that of AP2 is 6 2 ; and so on. In this
system the bearing is completely specified by the angle, and
the noting of the cardinal points N, E, S,- and W is not required
The bearings ob'lerved with a prismatic compass or a theodolite
a~e whole circle bearings.)
(Quadrantal System :-In this system the bearing of a line

is measured clockwise or counter-clockwise from the north point
or the south ptirit whichev;;- is nearer the line, towards
the east or west. It is, therefore, absolutery necessary--to state
the point from which the angle is measured, and also the direc-
tion in which it is measured. The plane around a station is
divided into four quadrants by the two lines at right angles to
each other, of which one is the north and south line and the
other the east and west line.') The letters N. (north), S. (south),
E. (east), and W. (west) are used to show the quadrants. Thus
Fig. 141, the first quadrant is denoted by the letters N. E.,

the second one by the letters S. K, the third one by the letters
N
N
P., .~
If It
III' E ., -E
1
1
s s
Fig. 140 Fig. 141
S. W., and the fourth one by the letters N. 'V. On this system
the bearing is reckoned from 0 0 to 90 0 in each quadrant. The
quadrantal bearing, therefore, never exceeds 90°. There are
two notations in which the bearing of line is expressed. In the
first notation the l~tters showing the quadrant in which the
line falls are put after the numerical value of the angle. Thus
the beaPi.ng of AP1 i!j 6 1 N. E.; that of AP 2' 6 2 S. E.; and so on.
In the second flotation which is more commonly used, the
numerical value of the bearing is preceded by the letter N. or S.
and followed by the letter E. or W. Thus the bearing of AP 3
is S. 6 3W.; that of Al"4N.6 4 W.; and so on. It must be remembered
that the quadrantal bearings are never reckoned from the
east and 'It'cst linc. 'They are often called the reduced bearings.
The qua,irantal syst~m is an advantage when finding the values
of the trigonometri(~al functions from thc logarith~~ tables.
But the disadvantag(~s of the system are: (i) the bearing is of no
value, if either of the letters showing the quadrant is omitted,.·,
and (ii) the noting llf the cardianal points is inconvenient, and
may cause mistakes, The bearings observed with a surveyor's
compass are the qUHdrantal bearings.
(Reduced Bearings :-Whcn the whole circle bearing of a
lineexceeds 90°, it Inust be reduced to the corresponding angle
less than 90°, whi('h has the same numerical values of the tri-
gonometrical fupctions. This angle is known as the reduced
bearing (R. B.) \To obtain the reduced bearings from the whol~
circle bearings (i lines, the following table may be referred to =...
Case
I W. C. B. between
I Rule for R. B. \ _~uadrant
" ------- ----- "------_._-- -- - -- --- --
I 0° and 90° =W. C. B. I N.E.

II 90 0 and 180 0 180 0 - W.e.B.
I S. E.
I
I
III 180° and 270° W. C. B.- 180 G S. W.
IV 270° and 360° 0

360 -W. C. B. N.W.
l Fore and Back Bearings :-~very line has ~wo bearin.gs,

one' observed at each end of the lme. Q'he bearmg of a Ime
in the direction of the progress of survey is called the fore ot
forward bearing (F. B.), while its bearing in the 9Pposite direction
is known as the back or reverse bearing (B. B.). \ The end of the
line at which the bearing is taken is indicated by the order in
which the line is lettered (i. e. given first). Thus in Fig. 142,
N "
B
A s
$ S
Fig. 142
the bearing from A to B is the forebearing of the line AB, and
that from B to A is the back bearing of the line AB, or the bearing
of the line BA. It will be noticed here that the fore and back
bearings of a line differ exactly by 180~. In the wh?le circle
bearing system the back bearing of a line may be obtained from
the fore bearing by the following rule :
Back bearing = fore bearing ± 180°. ... (1)
Use plus sign, if the given fore bearing is less than 180°, and
minus sign, if it exceeds 180°.
In the quadrantal system the fore and back bearings are

numerically equal but with opposite letters. The back bearing
of a line may, therefore, be obtained by simply substituting N.
for S. or S. for N., and E. for W. or W. for E. Thus, if the fore
bearing of a line CD is N. 40° 15' E., the back bearing of CD is
S. 40° 15' W.
Examples on Bearings
Example 1 :-Convert the following whole circle bearings
to quadrantal bearings.
(i) 6So 32,' ; (ii) 132° 12';° (iii) 236 0 37'; (iv) 334° ,52'.
Using the rule for R. B., we have
(i) W. C. B= 68° 32'.
Quadrantal bearing = N. 68° 32' E.
(ii) W. C. B. = 132° 12'.
Quadrantal bearing = 180° - W. C. B.
= 180 0 - 132 0 12' = 47"J8.' S. E.
= S. 47°48' E. -
(iii) W. C. B. = 236° 37'.
Quadrantal bearing = W. C. B.- 180°=236° 37'-180°
= 56° 37' S. W. = S. 56° 37' W.
(iv) W. C. B. = 334° 52'.
Quadrantal bearing = 360 0-W. C. B.=3600- 334° 52'
= 25° 8' N. W.= N. 25° 8' W.
Example 2 :--:-Convert the following reduced bearings to
whole circle bearings:
(a) N. 36° 16' E. ; (b) S. 28° 14' E.; (c) S. 47° 26' W.;
and (d) N. 5So 24' W.
(a) R. B. = N. 36° 16' E.
:. W. C. B. = R. B. = 36° 16".
(b) R. B. = S. 28° 14' E.
:. W. C. B. = lS0°,.-R. B. = 180°- 28° 14' = 15JO 46',
(c) R. B. = S. 47° 26' W.
:. W. C. B. = 180° +
R.B. = 180° + 47° 26' = 227° 26'.
(d) R. B. = N. 58° 24' W.
:. W. C. B. = 360 o -R. B. = 360°- 5So 24' = 301° 36',
Example 3 :-The following are the observed fore bearings

of the lines:-
AB, 38° 14'; BC, 142° 18'; CD, 208° 37' and DE, 318° 26'.
Find their back bearings.
By the use of Rule 1, we get
F. B. of AB = 3So 14'.
B. B. of AB = 38° 14' +
IS0 0 = 218° 14'.
F. B. of Be = 142° IS'.
B. B. of BC = 142° IS' +
IS00 = 32r 18'.
F. B. of CD = 208° 37'.
B. B. of CD = 208° 37' - 180° = 28° 37'.
F. B. of DE = 318° 26'.
B. B. of DE = 318° 26' - 180 0 = 138 0 26'.
Example 4 :-The fore bearings of the lines are as follows:
AB, N. 32° 12' E; BC, S. 43° IS' E; CD, S, 26° 30' W. ;
and DE, N. 65° 24' W. Find their back bearings.
When bearings are expressed on the quadrantal system,
the back bearing of a line is numerically equal to its fore bearing
but with opposite letters. Therefore, we have
F. B. of AB = N. 32 0 12' E. F. B. of CD = S. 26° 30' W.

B.B.ofAB = S.3r12'W. B. B. of CD = N. 26° 30' E.
F. B. ofBC = S. 43° IS' E. F. B. of DE = N. 65° 24' W.
B. B. of BC = N. 43° 18' W. B. B. of DE = S. 65° 24' E.
Calculation of Angles from Bearings :-When two lines

meet at a point, two angles (interior and exterior) are form-
ed. The sum of these two angles is equal to 360°. By the
interior angle is usually meant the smaller of these two angles.
Sometimes, however, the smaller angle is the exterior one. The
following rules may be applied to find the included (interior)
angle between two lines whose bearings arc given.
Case I :--Given the Whole Circle Bearings of Lines : -
(a) When the bearings of two lines as m,easured from, the
point of intersection of the lines are given : -
Rule : - ub act the smaller from the grcate. The differ-
ence will give tlfe interior angle, if it is less t lan IS00. If the
difference exceeds 180°, it will be the exterior angle. Obtain

the interior angle by subtracting the difference ffom 360°.
For example, in li'ig. 143, if the bearings of AC and AB
are given, the difference between their bearings gives the exterior
N
c N 8
D
s 5
Fig. 143 Fig. 144
angle BAC and the required interior angle CAB is then equal
to 360° - the difference.
In Fig. 144, the observed whole fi~c!:e bearings of AB, AC,
AD, and AE are: AB, 41°; AC, 115° ;,\210°; arid AE, 325°. AE.
Applying the above rule, the included angles between the lines
may be obtained thus :
.J
• I
LBAC = bearing of AC ~ bearing of AB,
= 115
0
- 41 0 =74°.
LCAD = bearing of AD - bearing of AC
= 210° - 115° = 95°,
LDAE = bearing of AE - bearing of AD
= 325° - 115°,
210° =
LBAE == bearing of AE - bearing of AB
= 325°- 41° = 284°
LEAB = 360° - 284° = 76°,
(b) When the bearings of two lines are given:-

Express both bearings as if measured from the point where
the lines meet and then apply the above rule.
For example, if the bearings of the lines QA and 1\,B (Fig. 143)
are given, the bearing of AC must be obtained, Now the bearing
of AC is the back bearing ~f C~ and is equal to the fore bearing
of CA + 180°. The included angle CAB is then obtained by the

applic!1tion of the above rule.
Case II :-Given the Reduced Bearings of Lines : -
In this case draw a line in the direction of the north and
south line through a station, say, 0 and call the north end of
this line the north meridian (ON), and its south end the south
meridian (OS.)
Rule :-(a) If the lines are on the same side of the same
meridian as in Fig. 145a, '
the included angle = difference of the two bearings.
AOB = difference of the bearings of OA and OB. ~
(b) If the lines are on the same side of the different meridill:nlf
1Fig. 145b), the included angle = 180° - sum of the two bearings.
N
5 $
(a)
N N
8
Fig. 145
AOB = 180 0
-sum of the bearings of OA and OB.
(c) If the lines are on different sides of the different meridians
as in Fig. 145c,
the included angle = 180° - difference of the two bearings.
:. BOA = 180°- difference of the bearings OB and ~A.
(d) If the lines are on opposite sides of the same meridian
(Fig. 145d), the included angle = sum of the two bearings.
BOA = sum of the bearings of OB and ~A.
To avoid confusion, the student should always draw a

sketch showing the directions of the lines when computing the
included angles.
Calculated Bearings :-Bearings of lines may be either
observed or calculated. Observed bearings are those which
are directly obtained by field observations, while those obtained
by computation are called the calculated bearings. They can
be easily obtained from the observed bearing of anyone line
and the included angles measured clockwise between the
various lines by the rule,
Bearing of a line = given bearing + included angle.:\t-
Thus in Fig. 146, if the observed whole circle bearing of
AB is 30°, and the angle BAC= noo, the angle CAD = 100°, and
the angle DAE = 65°, then the calculated bearings of AC, AD,
and AE are
Bearing of AB = 30°.
" of' AC = 30° + noo = 140°.
" ... of AD = 140° + 100° = 240°.
" of AE = 240° + 65° = ~05°.
In Fig. 147, if the observed reduced bearing of AB is N.35° E.
and the angles BAC, CAD and DAF are 95°, noo, and 75°
~"",.
N
R. B. of AB = 35° CAD = 110°

BAC = 95° R. B. of AC = 50°
Sum = 130° difference ~-~Oo'
R. B. of AC = 180° -:- 130° :. R. B. of AD = S.600 W.
0
= S. 50 E. DAF = 75°
R. B. of AD = 60°
sum = 135°
R. B. of AF = 180°-135°
=N. 45° W.
A sketch showing the given relations shoul<! be drawn, as it
often aids in the calculations. '
Examples on Computation of Included Angles
\,
Example 1 :-Find the angle between the lines OA and
OB, if their respective bearings are (a) 32° 15' and 148 0 45';
(b) 16° 10' and 332° 18'; and (c) 126° 12' and 300° 15'.
(a) LAOB = bearing of OB - bearing of ~A.
= 148° 45'- 32° 15' = 116°/30'.
(b) LAOB = bearing of.OB - bearing of OA
= 332° 18' __ 16° 10' ~-'" 316° 8' = exterior angleo
Since the difTerence is greater than 180°, it must be sub-
tracted from 360° to obtain fne interior angle BOA.
LBOA = 860° - 316° 8' = 43° 52'.
(c) LAOB = bearing of OB - bearing of OA
= 300° 15'- 126° 12'= 174 0 3'.
Example 2 :-Find the angle between the lines AB and

BC, if their respective bearings are (a) 146° 12' and 68° 24';
(b) 70° 38' and 126 0 18'.
Express both bearings as if measured from the point of
intersection (B) of the lines AB and BC and then find'their
difference.
(a) Bearing of AB = 1.46° 12'
Bearing of BA = l46° 12' + 180° = 3260 12'.
Bearing of BC = 6So 24'.
Difference between the two bearings = 326° 12' - 68° 24'.

= 257° 48' = exterior angle CBA
LABC = 360°- 257° 48' =10r 12'.
(b) Bearing of AB = 70° 38'
Bearing of BA = 70° 38' + IS0° = 250° 38'.
Bearing of BC = 126° IS'.
Difference between the two bearings = 250° 38' _ 126° 18'
= 124° 20'.
LCBA =" 124° 20'.
Example@-The bearing of a line AB is 152° 20' and the
angle ABC is 124° 38'. What is ;;the bearing of BC ?
Bearing o~ AB =;= 152° 20'. _
Bearing 'of
.
BA = 152°
~
20' + 180°
.>,
= 332° ,
20'.
N ow bearing of BC = bearing of BA L ABC. +
= 332° 20' + 124° 38' = 456° 58'
= 456° 58'- 360°= 96° 58'.
Example 4 :-The following are the bearings of the lines
AB and AC :,
(i) AB, N. 15° 15' E. (ii) AB, N. 12° 24' E.
AC, N. 87° 10' E. AC; S. 52° 30' E
(iii) AB, S. 58° 50' E. (iv) AB, N. 48° 24' W.
AC, S. 22° 45' W. AC, N. 38° 18' E.
(r) AB, N. 62° 45' E. (vi) AB, S. 36° 12' W.
AC, S. 28° 15' W. AC, N. 67° 48' W.
Calculate the angle BAC in cach case.
Using the rule given on page 154, we have
(i) ?BAC = difference of the bearings
= 87° 10' - 15° 15' = 71 ° 55'.
(ii) L_BAC = 180° - sum of the bearings
= 180° - (12° 24' + 52° 30')
= 180° - 64° 54' = 115° 6'.
(iii) LBAC = sum of the bearings
= 58° 50' + 22° 45' = 81 0 S5',
15S SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
(iv) LBAC = sum of the bearings

= 4So 24' + 3So IS' = 86° 42'.
(v) LBAC = IS0° - difference of the bearings
= lS00 - (62°,45' - 2So 15')
= lS00 - 34° 30° = 145° 30'.
(vi) LBAC = lS00 - sum of the bearings
= lS00 - (36° 12' +67° 48')=180-104\')=76°.
Alternatively, convert the given reduced bearings to the
whole circle bearings and then calculate the angle BAC by find-
ing the difference of the two bearings in each case.
(i) W.C.B. of AB = 15°15' (iv)W.C.B. ofAB=3600- 4So 24'
W.C.B. of AC = S7° 10' =311° 36'
W.C.B. of AC=3So IS'
LBAC = 71° 55'. LCAB=273° IS'
=exterior angle.
(ii) W.C.B.of AB = 12° 24'. Whence, LBAC=3600-273°1S'
W.C.B.of AC=IS00-52°30'. =86"t42'.
=127° 30' (v)W.C.B. of AB =62° 45'
W.C.B. of AC=2So 15' +lS0°
LBAC = 115° 6'. =20S0 15'
LBAC =145° 30'.
(iii)W.C.B. of AB =180° -5S050' (vi)W.C.B.of AB=36° 12' +IS0°
=121 ° 10' =216° 12'.
W.C.B. of AC=22°45' +180° W.C.B.of AC=3600-67°48'
=202° 45' = 292° 12'.
LBAC=81 °35'. LBAC= 76°.
, Exam~he bearings of the sides of a traverse ABCDE
Side.
AB
I
!lore as follows :
Fore bearing.
107° 15'
22° 0'
Back bearing.
287° 15'
202° 0'
BC ,
CD ' 2S1 ° 30' 101 ° 30'
DE lS9° 15' 9° 15'
EA 124° 45' 304° 45'
Compute the interior angles of the traverse.
In working out examples of this kind, it is always helpful

to draw a rough sketch of the traverse.
Bearing of AE = B. B. of EA = 304° 45'
- F. B. of AB = 107° 15'
difference = 197° 30' = exterior angle.

LA= LEAB = 360°-197°30' = 162° 30'. .'
Bearing of BA = B. B. of AB = 287° 15'
:F. B. of BC = 22° 0'
difference = 265° 15' = exterior angle.
LB=LABC =360°-265°15'= 94° 45'
Bearing of CB = B. B. of Be = 202" 0'
F. B. of CD = 281 0 30'
difference = 79° 30' = interior angle.
LC=LBCD = 79° 30'. '
Bearing of DC = B. B. of CD = 101 30'
0
F. B. of DE = 189° 15'
difference = 87° 45' = interIor angle.
LD=LCDE = 87° 45'.
Bearing of ED = B. B. of DE = 9° 15'
F. B. of EA = 124 0 45'
difference = 115° 80' = interior angle.
LE=LDEA = 115°30'.
Check :-The sum .of the interior angles of a closed figure
must equal (2n- 4) right angles, where n is the number of the
~ides of the figure. In this case the sum of the angles must
equal (10 - 4) X 90° = 540°.
LA + LB + L C + LD + LE = 162° 30' + 94° 45' + 79° 30'
+ 87° 45' + 115° 30' = 540°.
Examp10-The following are th.e bearings of the lines of
a closed traverse ABCD :
Linp. Fore bearing. Line. Fore bearing.
AB N. 46° 10' E. CD . S. 9° 50' W.
BC S. 60° 40' E. DA N. 80° 40' W.
Calculate the interior angles of the traverse.
The fore bearings of the lines being given, their back bearings
may be determined. In the case of the quadrantal system,
the back bearing of a line is numerically the same as itsfore
bearing, but the cardinal points are reversed. Therefore, we
have
Bearing of AB = N. 46° 10' E.
Bearing of BA = B. B. of AB = S. 46° 10' W.
Bearing of BC = S. 60° 40' E.
Bearing of CB = B. B. of BC = N. 60° 40' W.
Bearing of CD = S. 9° 50' W.
Bearing of DC = B. B. of CD = N. 9° 50' E.
Bearing of DA = N. 80° 40' W.
Bearing of AD = B. B. of DA = S. 80° 40' E.
From the sketch of the traverse, it is evident that
LA = 180°- (bearing of AB + bearing of AD)
= 180°- (46° 10' + 80° 40') = 53° 10'.
LB = bearing of BA + bearing of BC
= 46° 10' + 60° 40' = 106° 50'.
LC = 180° - (bearing of CB + bearing of CD)
= 180°- (60° 40' + 9°50') = 109° 30~.
LD = bearing of DC + bearing of DA
= 9° 50' + 80° 40' = 90° 30'.
Check :-LA+ LB+ LC+ LD= 53°10' + 106° 50' +109° 30'
+ 90° 30' = 360°.
Example-The bearing of one side of a plot in the shape
of a regular pentagon is 80°. Find the bearings of the remaining
sides taken in a clockwise order the same way round.
The interior angle of a regular pentagon ,,-= 108°.
The deflection angle, i. e. the angle between any side pro-
•
duced and the side following (equal to 180°- the interior angle)
= 72°.
Draw a sketch of the regular pentagon ABCDE. Suppose
the bearing of AB is 80°. It will be seen from the sketch that
the bearings of each of the remaining sides taken in a clockwise
order may be determined by adding 72° to the bearing of the
preceding side. Thus we have
Bearing of AB = 80° Bearing of CD = 224°

Add 72° Add 72°
Bearing of BC = 152° Bearing of DE = 296°
Add· 72° Add 72°
Bearing of CD = 224° Bearing of EA = 368°
80.
Add 72°
Check :-Bearing of AB 80°.
Example 8 :-What will be the bearings of the sides of the

plot in the preceding example, if the bearing of AB is S. 30° E. ?
Bearing of BC 72° - 30° = 42°= S. 42° W.

Bearing of CD _ 42° + 72° = 114°
= 180° _114° = 66°= N. 66° W.
Bearing of DE 72° - 66° = 6°= N. 6° E.
Bearing of EA 6° + 72° = 78°= N. 78° E.
Check :-Bearing of AB 78° + 72° = 150°= 180°-150°=30°
= S. 30° E.
, Local Attraction :-The magnetic needle does not point to

the magnetic north when under the influence of the external
attractive forces. The magnetic needle is seriously deflected
from its normal position if placed in the vicinity of masses of
magnetic rock or iron ore, and is also affected by the proximity
of steel structures, rails, electric cables, conveying current, iron
pipes, railings, iron lamp-posts, etc. Care must be taken to see
that the observer has no sources of attraction such as a bunch
of keys, knife, iron buttons, steel-rimmed, spcctacles, etc., about
his person, and that the chain, arrows, clearing axe, etc., removed
away from the instrument. Such a disturbing influence is
known as local attraction. The term is also used to denote the
deviation of the needle arising from sources of attraction. It
is much greater' in cities than in the country. Compass bearings
cannot, therefore, be relied upon unless means are taken to detect
the presence of local attraction and eliminate its effects. To detect
its presence, it is only necessary to observe the bearing of each line
P. 1-6
from both its ends. If the fore and back bearings differ by 180°,
there is no local attraction at either station, provided the compass
is free from instrumental errors, and no observational errors are
made. If the fore and back bearings of a line differ by 180 0 nearly,'
the back bearing should be increased or decreased by 180°
in order to obtain the corresponding fore bearing, and the mean is
then taken between this and the observed fore bearing; e. g.
the observed fore and back bearings are 96° 10' and 276° 16'. The
fore bearing calculated from the back bearing = 96° 16'. The,
mean of the observed and calculated fore bearings = 96° 13',
which is the corrected bearing of the line.
If the back bearing does not agree with the fore bearing
within the limits of permissible error of reading, the discrepancy
may indicate (i) an error in observing either the fore bearing or I
back bearing, or (ii) local attraction at the station. On checking
both the bearings, if the discrepancy still persists, it may be
taken that local attraction exists at one or both stations. The
amount of local attraction is the same for each of the bearings
observed at the affected station. It may, therefore, be reo
membered that the differences between the bearings of the lines
observed at the station will give the correct values of the angles
between the lines even though the station is affected by local
attraction, provided they are taken at the same time with the
same instrument.
If the fore and back bearings of no line differ within the
limits of permissible error of reading, the mean value of the
bearing of that line in which there is least disagreement between
the fore and back bearings should be found and the corrections
made therefrom.
There are two methods of correcting the observed bearings
of the lines. '
(1) In the first method the ,true included angles at the
affected stations are computed from the obs«rved bearings.
Commencing from the unaffected line and using these included
angles, the correct bearings of the successive lines are computed
as already explained. /
Illustration :-Suppose, for example, the observed bearings
of the lines AB, BC, CD, and DA are
Line. Fore bearing. Back bearing.

AB 46° 10' 226° 10'
BC 119° 20' 298° 40'
CD 169° 30' 351° 10'
DA 280° 20' 99° 20'
On examining ,the values of the observed bearings of the
lines, it will be seen that the fore and back bearings of the line
AB only differ by 180°. Stations A and B are, therefore, both
free from local attraction, and the observed fore and back bearings
of AB are correct. Now the true included angles between the
lines as computed from the observed bearings of the lines are:
LA= 53° 10'; LB= 106° 50'; LC= 129° 10'; LD = 70° 50'.
Check:- LA+ LB + LC + LD = 53° 10' + 106° 50'
+ 129° 10' + 70° 50' = 360°.
Commencing from the unaffected line AB, the correct bear.
ings of the other lines may be computed as follows:
B. B. of AB = 226° 10' F. B. of CD = 170° 10'
Deduct LB = 106° 50' Add 180° = 180°
F. B. of BC = 119° 20' B. B. of CD = 350° 10'
Add 180° = 180° DeductLD = 70° 50'
B. B. of BC = 299° 20' F. B. ofDA = 279° 20'
DeductLC = 129° 10' Deduct 180° = 180 0
F. B. of CD = 170° 10' B. B. of DA 99° 20'
Deduct LA 53° 10'
Che~k :-F. B. of AB = 46° 10'
If the traverse is a closed one, the interior angles of the
polygon are computed from the observed bearings. If their
sum does not equal (2n- 4) X 90° due to instrumental and
observational errors, they are corrected by distributing the
error equally amoBg the angles. Starting from the line whose
observed bearings are correct and applying these corrected angles,
the correct bearings of the successive lines are then obtained.
Illustration :-The following bearings were observed on a
closed compass traverse. Calculate the interior"angles and correct
them for observational errors. Taking the bearings of BC as
correct, find the corrected bearings of the remaining sides of
the traverse :
I,ine. Fore bearing. Back bearing.

AB 191 ° 15' 10° 15'
BC 120° 45' 300° 35'
CD 349° 5' 169° 00'
DE 339° 35' 160° 40'
EA 296° 00'. 115° 00'
(i) The difference between the fore bearing of the line
and the back bearing of the preceding line at the point of their
intersection gives the interior angle at the point. Thus we have
LA = F. B. of AB - B.B. of EA = 191 ° 15' - 115° 00' = 76° 15'
LB = F. B. ofBC - B.B. of AB = 120° 45' - 10° 15' = 110° 30 i
LC = F. B. of CD - B.B. of BC = 349° 5'- 300° 45' = 48° 20'
LD = F. B. of DE - B.B. of CD = 339° 35' - 169° 00' = 170° 35 f
LE = F. B. ofEA - B.B. of DE = 296° 00' - 160° 40' = 135° 20'
Total = 541 ° 00'
(ii) The theoretic sum of the interior angles of the five-
sided traverse = (2 X 5 - 4) right angles = 540 their 0
;
actual sum = 541°.

The discrepancy (or error) = 541 0 _ MOo = 1°. +
Distributing this error equally among the five angles, we get
corrected ~ngle A = 76° 15' - 12' = 76° 3'
B = noo 30' - 12' = noo 18'
" " C = 48° 20' - 12' = 48° 8'
" " D = 170 0 35' - 12' = 170° 23'
" " E = 135° 20' - 12' = 135° 8'
" "
Check: Total = 540'" 00'
(iii) Starting from the correct back bearing of BC, the
corrected bearings of the remaining sides may be found by
applying the rule given on page 155 thus :
B.B. of BC = 300°45' IF .B.of DE = 339°16' IB.B.of EA = n4°24,'
AddLC = 48° 8' Deduct = 180° Add LA = 76° 3'
F.B. of CD = 348°53' B.B.of DE = 159°16' IF.B.of AB = 190°27'
Deduct = 180° AddLE = 135° 8' Deduct = 180°
B.B. of CD = 168°53' F.B.ofEA = 294°24' B.B.of AB = 10°27'
AddLD I
= 170°23' Deduct = 180° Add LB = noolS;
F.B. of DE = 339°16' B.B.of EA = 114°24' F.B.of BC = 120°45'
TRAVERSE SURVEYI-:-;G 165
(2) In the· second'method, which is in most common use,

the included angles are not computed, but the amount and
direction of error due to local attraction at each of the aITeeted
stations is found. Starting from a bearing unalTectcd by local
attraction, the bearings of the successive lines are adjusted by
applying the coreections to the observed bearings.
I11ustration
~ '(\r~
• Example 1 : -The following bearings were taken in runn-
ing an open traverse with a compass in a place where local

attraction WaS suspected:
Line. Observed bearing. Line. Ob8erved bearing.
AB 44° 40' CD 30° 40'
BA 225 0 20' DC 212° 2'
BC 96° 20' DE 320° 12'
cn 274° 18' ED 140° 12'
At what stations do you suspect loeal attraction ? Find
the corrected bearings of the lines.
If the difference between the fore bearing and the back
bearing of a line is exactly 180°, it may be taken that there is
no local attraction at eith.er end station.
On examining the values of the observed bearings of the.
lines, it will be noticed that the fore bearing and the back
bearing of the line DE differ exactly by 180°. Stations D and E
~
may, therefore, be taken as both free from local attraction.
Consequently, the bearings observed at D and E are correct.
Therefore, the observed bearing of DC, viz. 212° 2' is correct.
Hence thc fore bearing of CD must be 212° 2' - 180°'-=0 32° 2'.L...-
But its ohserved value is 3<)° 40', which shows that statjo~-is
affected hy local attraction, the needle being deflected 1 ° 22'
from its true position towards the east. A correction of -+- 1 ° 22'
must, therefore, be applied to all bearings observed at C. There-
+
fore, thc corrected beariqg of CB is 274° 18' 1 ° 22' = 275° 40',
and that of BC is 275° 40' - 180° = 95 ° 40'. But the observed
value of the bearing of BC is 96° 20'. Station B is, therefore,
affected by local attraction, the needle being deflected 40' from
its true position towards the west. A correction of - 40' must,
therefore, be applied to all readings taken at B. Hence the
corrected bearing of BA is 225° 20' - 40' = 224° 40' and thatr

of AB is 224° 40' -180° = 44° 40', which agrees )'Vith the observed
bearing of AB. Station A is, therefore, free fJ"6m local attractio?(.
The results may be tabulated as under : ../
Observed I Corrected
Line. Correction. Remarks.
bearing. bearing.
------ I
ft
AB 44° 40' 0 44° 40' I Stations B

BA 225° 20' -r4o'at B 224° 40' and Care
BC 96° 20' - .040'at B 95° 40' affected by
CB 274° 18' +1°22'at C 275°40' local
CD 30° 40' +ro22'at
.. C 32° 2' attraction.
DC 212° ·2' 0, 212"< 2'
DE I 320° 12' 0 320° 12'
ED I 140° 12' 0 140° 12'
[ \
II
~ Example 2 :-Below are given the observed bearings of the
, lines of a traverse ABCDE with a compass in a place where
local attraction was suspected:
l,ine. Fore bearing. Back bearing.
AB 191 0 45' 13° 0°
39° 30'
EO
BC 222° 30'
CD 22° IS'
DE
EA ~ 5';
5'
Find the corrected bearings of the lines.
On examining the values of the observed bearings 9f the
lines, we find that the fore bearing and the back bearing of
the line DE differ exactly by 180°. Stations D and E are, there-
fore, free from local attraction. Consequently, the observed
bearing of-EA, viz. 330° 15' is correct and, therefore, its back
bearing must be 150° .15'. But the observed back bearing of
EA is 147° 45', which shows that the needle at A is deflected
2° 30' from its true position towards the east. Hence the corre-
ction to all readings observed at A is + 2° 30'. The corrected

0
fore bearing ofAB, is, therefore, 191 45' + 2° 30'= 194° 15', and
its back bearing is 194° 1'5' - 180°= 14° 15'. The back bearing
of AB observed at B is, however, 13°. This indicates that sta-
tion B is affected by local attraction, the needle being deflected
from its trUt~ position towards the east by an .amount 14° 15'-
13°=1°15'. Hence a correction of+1° 15' must be applied to
all bearings taken at B~ConseSluently, the corrected forebearing
of Be must be /39° 30' + 1 ° 15' = 40° 45', and its back bearing
is, therefore, ---f·------_
220° 45'.. __But the observed back bearing of BC
~
0
is 222 30', Station C is, therefore, influenced by local attraction,
the needle being deflected from its true position towards the west
by an amount 222 0 30' - 220 45' = 1° ~'. Hence the correction
0
to be applied to all bearings observed at C is - 1 ° 45'. Therefore,

the corrected fore bea~ing of CD is 22° 15' - 1° 45' =20 30', 0
and consequently, its back bearing must be 20° 30' + 180 0 =

200° 30', which agrees with the back bearing of CD observed at
the station D, which is free from local attraction. The results
may be tabulated as shown below:
Observed Corrected
~ -;~·r-:-I Bac~- Correction. Fore Back

bearing.. bearing. bearing. bearing.
I
I I :to 30' I I
AB 2::1 045~. 18:~ +~ at A 19~,,¥' 14°15'
Be 39°30'! 222°30' +1°15' at B 1 40°45' 220°45'

. I .' "
CD 22°15' 1 200°80' I-I °45' at C I 20°80' 200°80'
DE 242°45' 62°45' I 0 at D 1 242 45'

0
o I·
at E I 330°15' 150°15'
I
Example 3 :-The following bearings were taken in run·

ning a compass traverse. At what stations do you suspect
local attraction? Find the corrected bearings.
f
Line. Observed bearing. Line. Observed bearings,
AB N. 46° 10' E. CD S. 10° 30' E.
BA S. 46° 10' W. DC N. 8° 50' W.
BC S. 60° 40' E. DA N.79° 40' W.
CB N. 61° 20' W. AD S. 80° 40' E.
If the bearings of the lines are expressed quadrant ally, the

corrected bearings may be obtained by using the following rule:
"Positive corrections are applied clockwise, and negative
corrections counter-clockwise."
It may be noted that the numerical values of bearings
increase clockwise in the first and third quadrants, and counter-
clockwise in the second and fourth quadrants.
Since the fore bearing and back bearing of the line AB
differ exactly by 180°, there is no local attraction at stations
A and B. Con&equently, all bearings taken at A and B are correct.
Therefore, the observed bearing of BC, viz. S. 60° 40' E. is correct.
Hence the correct bearing of CB must be N. 60° 40' W. But the
bearing of cn as observed at C is N. 61° 20' W. This means
that the needle at C is deflected 40' from its true position towards
the east. The observed bearing of CD being S. 10° 30' E., the
correct bearing of CD is, therefore, (10° 30' - 40' = 9°50')
S. 9° 50' E., and that of DC is N. 9° 50' vV. But as the observed
bearing of DC is N. 8° 50' W., station D is influenced by local
attraction, the needle being deflected I ° towards the west.
Hence the correct bearing of DA must be N. 80° 41)' W.

instead of N. 79° 40' W. as observed at D. The correct b~r)ng
of AD, is, therefore, S. 80° 40' E., which agrees with the obse ved
bearing of AD, since station A is free from local attractio .
Alternatively, the quadrantal bearings may be expressed

as the whole circle bearings (W. C. B.), and the necessary correc-
tions applied. The corrected bearings are then reconverted into
the quadrantal bearings.
TRAVERSE SURVEYIXG 169
The results may be tabulated as under
I Observed bearings 0'""'

! Corrected bearings ~
'.0 ...
...:<:
~
~
I - --- - - --~---~ --
~
<J.)
....
------,---- --- ---" --~--- ---
S
~
;:i W.~ W.C .

Quadrantal :3 Quadrantal <J.)
p::;
B. u B.
~-----
!
46~10' I
I
AB N. 46° 10' E. () 46°10' IN. 46° 10' E.
I
BA S. 46° 10' W. 226°10' I 0 226°10' S. 46° 10' W.
BC S. 60° 40' E. 119°20' I 0 llU020' S. 60° 40' E.

Stations
CB N. 61° 20' W. 298°40' +40' 299°20' N. 60° 40' W. C andD
are
I
CD S. 10° 30' E. 169°30' +40' 170°10' S. 9° 50' affected KI
by local
DC N. 8° 50' W. 351"10'!-10 350°10' N. gO 50' W. attrac-
. I
, tion.
t
DA N. 79° 40' W. 280°20' I -'l ° 279°20' N. 80° 40' W.
I
[
AD S. 80° 40' E. 99°20' I 0 99°20' S. 80° 40' Eo

I
Traversing with the Chain and Compass :-In traversing
with the compass, the free or loose needle method is employed
to determintl the directions of the survey lines. The compass is
set up at each of the successive stations, and the fore a,nd back
bearings of each of the lines are observed and entered in the
field book. Each bearing being observed independently of the
others, the errors do not accumulate, but tend to compensate. The
field work consisting of reconnaissance, marking and referencing of
stations, runping of survey lines, picking up of the detail, and
booking of field notes is executed in the same manner as was
already explained in chain surveying. Stations should be so
selected that (i) they are visible from each other, (ii) chaining
between them is easy. (iii) the lines joining them are as near the
boundaries and the objects to be located as possible, and (iv) they
are as long as possible. Suppose, for example, it is required to

run a traverse ABCDEFGHJ (Fig. 148). The compass is centred
APP, M£CH LAB.

I" ~ '_
" ,
.....
MECH L.AB
E Y
Fig. 148 ~
over station A, and is ~d~ The fore bearin of the line AB
and the back bearing of the line JA are then ken by sighting
the ranging rods at Band J respectively./ The line AB is
chained and offsets to the objects on either side of the line AB
taken in the usual way. On arriving at station B, the back
bearing of the line AB and the fore bearing of the line BC are
observed. The line BC is next chained and the offsets taken
as usual. These operations are repeated at each of the rlmain-
ing stations C, D, E, F, G, H, and J. If the error between the
fore and back bearings of a line exceeds the limit of permissi-
ble error of reading (15'), the fore and back bearings of the
line should be redetermined. If, on checking, the error still
persists, it may be taken that local attraction exists at one or
both stations, provided there are no other errors. The bearings
TRAVERSE SURVEYING
should be corrected as already explained before they are used

~
in plotting. It may be noted that in this method the accuracy~
of .w~r~ _d~J.)cnds upon the accuracy with which the bearings of

theTifies ~al'e observed, and that there is only one check upon
the work, yiz. that the fore and back bearings of each line should
agree within the limit of permissible error of reading. The
bearings should, in consequence, be as few as possible. It,
therefore, follows that the lines should be as long as possible.
For rough work, the compass may be set up at alternate stations.
The traverse may be run in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
\~ ·/Plotting a Traverse Survey:-Before commencing the
,/ plotting of a traverse survey, the observed bearings must be
corrected. The following are the several methods of plotting
a traverse survey. It is always advisable to draw a sketch of
the lines roughly to s.cale in order to ascertain the size and shape
of the plan and how best to arrange it on the paper.
? - B Y Parallel Meridians Through Each Station:-
(Fig. 149). HaVing fixed the posItion of the starting station A
suitably on the paper, ~. line representing the magnetic meridian
is drawn through it. The bearing of the line AB is plotted with an
ordinary protractor and its length is marked off with the scale,
thus fixing the position of station B. Through B a meridian is
drawn, the bearing of Be is set off and its length measured off with
o
Fig. 149 Fig. 150
the scale. The process is repeated at each station until all the
lines are drawn. If the traverse is a closed one, the last line
should end on the starting station A ; if it does not, the discrep-
ancy is referred to as the "closing error"_
~y Included Angles :-(Fig. 150). In this method

the meridian is drawn through the starting point A and the
bearing of the line AB plotted and its length laid oiT with the
scale, thus fixing the point B. At B the included angle ABC
as calculated from the bearings of AB and BC, is plotted with
a protractor and the length of BC is measured off with the
scale. The operation is repeated at
each of the succeeding stations.
(3) By Paper Protractor :-(Fig.
151). This method consists in plotting
the bearings of all the lines at any
point in the centre of the paper with
reference to the meridian by' using
a large circular paper protractor,
and then transferring these directions
to their proper positions by drawing
Fig. 15l parallel lines with the help of a
parallel ruler. Having marked the point 0 in the centre of the
paper, draw a line through 0 to represent the meridian. Place
the protractor with the 0 0 and 180 0 graduations coinciding
with the line. At 0 plot the bearings of all the lines with reference
to the meridian. Having settled the position of the starting
point A, draw a line AB through it parallel to its bearing marked
at 0 with the help of a parallel ruler and measure its length
with the scale, thus fixing the point B' as in Fig. 152. Proceed
E similarly until all the lines are drawn.
This method is usually JlSed in plotting
a compass traverse.
(4) By Rectangular Co-ordinates :-

(Fig. 153). In this method eaeh of the
c points of the traverse is plotted byAts
co-ordinates with reference to two1ines
drawn through some convenient point at
right angles to each other. These lines
are known as the axes of co-ordinates
A and their point of intersection is called
Fig. l.')2 the origin of co-ordinates. One of the
axes OX called the X axis represents the north and south line
(true, magnetic, or arbitrary) and the other OY known as the

Y axis is a line at right angles thereto, and represents the east
X and west line. Any point
4 S may be plotted by mea-
C suring with a scale X or
Y co-ordinate along the
X or Y axis and laying
~ off the other co-ordinate
on the line drawn at right
angles at this point,
The advantage of this
method is that each
o~--:a~I!-~~/:--~62----d':-I-C~/-Y point is plotted inde-
pendently with refererlce
Fig. 153 to the meridian and
the line at right aIlgles to it through a common origin and not
with regard to the preceding one. Consequently, if any point
is wrongly plotted, the position of any of the succeeding points
is not thereby affected. The errors of plotting cannot, therefore,
accumulate. Also, the position of each point can be checked
by scaling the dista.nce between the point and the preceding one
and by comparing it with the length measured in the field. The
tnethod of calcula.ting co-ordinates will be explained later.
This method is mainly used in plotting a theodolite traverse
both closed and open.
(5) PIottin~ by Tan~ents :-In this method the angles

petween the variol1s lines are plotted by geometrical constru-
ction with the help of a table of natural
tangents. Having fixed the posi-
tion of the starting point A, a line
~epresenting the meridian is drawn
through it (always pointing to the
top of the paper) as in Fig.
154. To plot the bearing of the
first line AB, a length ABI of 10 in.
is marked off on the meridian and
Fig. 154 a perpendicular is erected at Bl
on the proper side of the meridian. X length BIB, equal to
10 X tangent of the bearing of the line AB (in.) is then laid off

on this perpendicular. The line joining the points A and B z
determines the direction of the first line AB. On this line is
scaled off the length of AB, thus fixing the position of the
point B. The l!ne AB is then produced to Cl making BC l equal
to 10 in. At Cl a perpendicular is erected and the distance
Cl C2 equal 10 X tangent of the deflection angle at B (in.) is
scaled off on the perpendicular. The line connecting the points
Band C2 gives the direction of the line BC. To mark the
point C, the length of BC is marked off with the, scale on BC 2•
Other lines are similarly plotted. If there is no room for a
10 in. base, a shorter base of 10 units on any engineer's scale
may be used. The tangent method is commonly used in plotting
an open traverse.
(6) Plotting by Chords :-Fig. 155 illustrates the method
of plotting by chords. In this method the angles between
the various lines are plotted by geometrical construction
with the aid of a table of natural sines. Having selected the
position of the starting point A, a line representing the
meridian is drawn through it. With A as a centre and 10 in.
or 10 units as a radius, an arc BlB2 is described, cutting the
meridian in B 1 • The chord length BIB2 for the angle BIAB2
(i. e. the bearing of the line AB) is obtained from a table of
chords, or computed by the relation, chord BIB2=2 X 10 X sine
of half the angle BIAB2 in. (or units).
From Bl the chord distance BIB2 is
then scaled off, thus marking the point
B2 on the arc. Alternatively, with BI
as a centre and the chord distance as
a radius, another arc is swung, inter-
secting the arc BlB2 at B 2 • The former
is the more accurate method. ~'
line joining the points A and B2 gi es
the direction of the first line B.
Fig. 155 To locate the point B, the h;ngth of
AB is marked off with the scale on AB 2 • With B as a
centre and 10 in. (or 10 units) as a radius, an ~rc ClC a
is struck, intersecting AB produced at Cl' The chord distance
C1C2 equal to 2 X 10 X sine of half the deflection angle at B
in. (or units) is scaled off from Ct , thus fixing the point C2 on
the arc. The point C2 when connected with B determines
the direction of the second line BC. On BC 2 is laid off with the
scale the length of BC, thus locating the point C. Other lines
are plotted in a similar manner. This method is generally used
in plotting an open traverse.
Of these methods, the method by rectangular co-ordinates
is the most accurate method of plotting a traverse.
vGraphical Adjustment of Closing Error in a Closed
Tra verse :-The closing error, also termed as the error of closure
is the actual distance by which the traverse fails to close. If
the- closmg error is large, it indicates that an error has been
made in chaining, and the lines require to be remeasured.
If it is small, it may be eliminated, and the traverse is j:ade
to close by slightly modifying the shape of the polygon. l The
closing error is distributed among the stations of the traverse
by shifting each station by an amount proportional to the total
distance of that station from the starting point ~ the traverse
and parallel to the direction of the closing error) This adjust-
ment or the traverse is kn~wn as adjustment of tne closing error,
It can be easily done graphically as follows : -
Fig. 156 a represents a traverse ABIC1DIEIAI as plotted
by bearings and distances. It wiH be seen from the figure that
the end point does not coincide exactly with the starting point
A. But it is at Al and the line AAI represents the closing error
of the traverse. To adjust the closing error, draw a horizontal
line -tAl equal to the length of the perimeter of the traverse
(Fig. 1~6 b) and set off along it the distances AR I, BIC l , CID l •
cal
.. II II
\~
~ C*
s:4 ~
• i
156 b
~
• •I ,
Fig. 156 a
t# j i
Fig. 156 c
4
I
4 1
DIEl and EIAl equal to the lengths of the sides to any conve-
nient scale. The scale need not be the same as that of the
176 SURVEYING AND I.EVELLING
plan, but is usually much smaller. At A, draw a line Ala

l!arallel and equal to the closing error AA;. Join Aa and from
B I , CI , D I, and E I , draw lines BIb, Clc, DId, and Ele parallel
to Ala, intersecting the line Aa at b, c, d, and e respectively
as shown in Fig. 156 b. The in~pts BIb, C,c, DJd, and
Ele, which represent the corrections both in magnitude and
direction givethe dIstances through wInch: the stations Bb Cit
:D;a'na EI ar~ to be shifted. It will be noticed here that
the stations will have to be shifted downwards. To do this,
draw short lines through each of the stations Bl' CI , Dl' and
EI parallel to the closing error AAI and set off along them on
the proper side, the distances BIB, CIC, DID, and EIE equal
to Bib, Clc, DId, and Ele respectively. ABCDEA then represents
the adjusted traverse.
When finding the magnitudes of the corrections to be app·
lied at each of the stations, the line Ala may be drawn perpen~
dicular to -AA0rtA~t made equal to the closmgerfor AAl
as-shown in Fig. 156c. The intercepts Bib, Clc, etc., the~
represent the corrections in magnitude hut not in direction. ~-
This method is the graphical application of Bowditch's rule.
The Magnetic Needle :-The magnetic needle is an essen~
tial part of the various forms of compass. It is of various types,
the common types being (i) the broad needle and (ii) the edge-
bar needle. The former is used in the prismatic compass, while
the latter is employed in the surveyor's compass and trough
compass.
The needle is balanced at the centre of its length on a hard
steel pivot so that it swings freely in a horizontal plane. The
pivot point must be extremely fine in order that the needle
should come to rest in the magnetic meridian. The centre
of the needle is fitted with a cap, also called cup, which con-
sists of an agate or other hard stone such as rubby'l or
sapphire, mounted in a light brass or. aluminium cell. To. pre~nt,
undue wear," the needle, when not m use, should be lIfted off
the pivot by means of a leyer or cam which is always provided.
Dip of the Needle :--If the needle is perfectly balanced
before magnetization, it will not remain so after it is magnet~
ized on account of the magnetic influence of the earth. But
it will b~ indined downward towards the pole. This inclination

of the needle with the horizontal is known as the dip of the
needle. In the northern hemisphere the north end of the needle
is deflected downward, and in the southern hemisphere the south
end of the needle points downward. The amount of dip is not
constant, but varies in different parts of the earth. It is 0°
at the equator and increases as the magnetic poles are approa-
ched until it is 90° (i. e. the needle is vertical) at the magnetic
poles. In order to counteract the dip of the needle, a sliding
weight or rider in the form of a fine brass or silver wire coil is
placed over the higher end of the needle at a suitable point so
that the needle will be properly balanced so as to maintain a
horizontal position.
Magnetic Declination :-(Fig. 157). The magnetic meridian
(i. e. the horizontal direction adopted by the geometrical axis
of the needle unaffected by local attraction) at a place does not
coincide with the true meridian at that place except in few
places. The horizontal angle which the magnetic meridian
makes with the true or geographical meridian is known as
the megnetic declination or the declination of the needle. When
the north end of the needle points to the east of the true
meridian, the declination is said to be east (nO E,); when the
north end of the needle points to the west of the true meridian,
the declination is said to be west (n° 'V.) In some places the
needle is deflected east of the true north and in others it points
to the west of the true north. Since the magnetic meridian
varies from place to place on the earth's surface, the amount and
direction of the declination is different in different localities. If
'\] li·
/'1.N. T./Y.' T.II. I'f.N. B T.N. e
A A A A
(a) (0) (a) (b)
Fig. 157 Fig. 158

the true bearing of a line is determined by astronomical observa-
tions, the declination at any place can be found by observing
the magnetic bearing of that line and finding their difference, or

can be obtained approximately from isogonic charts published
from time to time.
Isogonic Charts :-Isogonic charts are maps upon which
are drawn (i) isogonic lines and (ii) agonic lines. They are
published by the Survey of India. The lines passing through
points at which the declination is the same at a given time are
called isogonic lines. I..ines, connecting points at which the needle
points to the true north, i. e. the declination is zero are known
as agonic lines. The charts also show lines of equal annual change
in declination.
Variations in Magnetic Declination :-Since the magnetic
needle does not constantly point in the same direction, the
declination at any place is not constant, but is subject to changes
in the value of the declination, which are known as variations
of the declination. They are (i) secular, (ii) annual, (iii) diurnal
or daily, and (iv) irregular.
Secular Variation :-The magnetic meridian swings like a
pendulum. It swings in one direction for a long term of years
(100 to 150 years), gradually comes to rest, and then swings in
the opposite direction.
Annual Variation :-If observations of the direction of the
needle are continued throughout the year, it will be found that
there is a deviation of the needle of about 1 to 2 minutes from
its mean position.
Diurnal Variation :-On continuing observations of the
direction of the needle, it will be noticed that the needle swings
slightly from its mean position during the day. The amount
of variation is from 3 to 12 minutes. It varies with (i) the time
of the day, (ii) the locality (greater in high latitudes and less
near the equator), and (iii) the season of the year (more in summer
than in winter at the same place). It also varies from year to
year. /
Irregular Variations :--The declination of the needle is
subject to variations more or less irregular, which are caused
by magnetic disturbances or storms, which may occur at any
time. They are uncertain in character and cannot be predicted.
Magnetic storms occur when there are such phenomena as the

Aurora Borealis, earthquakes, volcanic erruptions, etc. The
0
variations due to magnetic storms may amount to 1 or 2°.
It is, therefore, evident that, since the magnetic meridian

is constantly varying, the compass cannot be regarded as an
instrument of precision. Of these variations, the secular varia-
tion is most important in survey work. Other variations,
being very smaU, are usually ignored. On many of the old
surveys, the directions of survey lines were determined with
the compass. If these lines are to be retraced now, it is necessary
to know the value of the declination when the survf:'y was made
and the present declination. On account of secular variation,
it is always necessary to note on the plan the date of the survey,
and the magnetic declination and its annual variation on that
date, when magnetic bearings are used in a survey.
Determination of True Bearings :-All revenue survey

maps are plotted with reference to the true meridian. If a survey
is made with a compass, the readings observed are the magnetic
bearings. Knowing the magnetic declination at a place, the true
bearings may be deduced by the following rule (1) :
Rule 1 : -True bearing of a line = magnetic bearing of the

line ± declination.
Use plus sign, when the declination is ea.st, and minus sign,
when it is west (Fig. 158).
If a line of an old survey is to be relaid on the ground with

a compass, the magnetic declination now must be known to
obtain the magnetic bearing of the line, which may be deduced
by the following rule (2) :
Rule 2 :-Magnetic bearing of a line= true bearing of the
line =F magnetic declination.
Use minus sign, when the declination is east, and plus sign,
when it is west.
Note :-These rules are applicable in the case of whole circl'e

bearings only.
L80 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
Examples on Declination
Example 1 :-The magnetic bearing of a line AB is 184 0 45'.

Find its true bearing, if the magnetic declination is 100 15' W.
Since the magnetic meridian is to the west of the true meri-
dian, true bearing of AB=magnetic bearing of AB-declination
= 184 45' - 10 0 15' = 124 30'.
0 0
Example 2 :-The magnetic bearing of a line AB is S. 82°E.

and the magnetic declination is 8° 16' E. What is the true
bearing of the line?
True bearing of AB = magnetic bearing of AB - declination
= S. 82 0 E. - 8° 16' = S. 23° 44' E.
Check :-Convert the given quadrantal bearing to the whole
circle bearing and then apply the Rule (1).
W. C. B. of AB = 180° - 32° = 148°.
True bearing of AB = magnetic bearing of AB, + magnetic
declination
= 148
0
+
8 0 16' = 156 0 16'
= S .. 23° 44'·E.
Example 3 :-The true bearing of a line is 225 0 38' and the
magnetic declination is 12° 14' W. Find the magnetic bearing
of the line.
Since the north end of the needle points to the west of the
true meridian,
magnetic bearing of the line = true bearing of the line + decli-
nation.
= 225° 38' + 12° 14' 0
= 237 52'.
Example 4 :-A line was drawn to a magnetic bearing of

234 0 40' on an old map when the magnetic declination was
4° 16' E. To what bearing should it be set now, if the present
magnetic declination is 2° 20' W.?
True bearing of the line = magnetic bearing of the line +decli-
nation.
= 234 0
40' + 4° 16' = 238° 56'.
The present declination = 2° 20' W.

Magnetic bearing of the line = true bearing of the line
+ declination
= 238° 56' + 2° 20' = 241° 16'.
0
The line should be set now to the bearing of 241 16'.
Example 5 :-The true bearing of a tower as obseryed from
a station A is 348 0 38' 12", and the magnetic bearing of the
tower as observed by a theodolite is 2° 15' 44". The magnetic
bearing of the line AB is also observed with the same instru-
ment and found to be 148° 26' 10". What is the true bearing'
of the line AB ?
Draw a sketch showing the relative positions of the true
meridian, the sight to the tower, and the magnetic meridian.
Since the true bearing of the tower is 348 0 38' 12", it is to
the west of the true meridian. Also, its magnetic bearing is
2° 15' 44". The magnetic meridian is, therefore, to the west of
the tower.
. ,I', Magnetic declination = 2° 15' 44" +(360° -348° 38'12')
= 2° 15' 44"+11° 21' 48"
= 13° 37' 32" W.
Now the magnetic bearing of AB= 148° 26' 10".
;Since the d~elination is west,
true bearing of the line AB = 148 0 26' 10" -13 0 37' 32"
= 134° 48' 38",
Example 6 :-Find the magnetic declination, if the magne-

tic bearing of the sun at noon is (a) 186 0 30' and (b) 356 0 42'.
(a) At noon the sun is exactly on the geographical meri-
dian. Since the magnetic. bearing of the sun is 186° 30', it is
at the south pole. The magnetic bearing of the south pole is,
therefore, 186 0 30'. Hence the magnetic bearing of the north
0
pole is 6 30'. It, therefore, follows that the magnetic meri-
dian is 6 0 30' to the west of the true or geographical meridian.
Magnetic declination = 6° 30' W.
(b) The magnetic bearing of the sun at noon being 356°42',
the magnetic bearing of the north pole is 356° 42'. The
182 SURVEYING AND' LEVEL:LING
magnetic meridian is, therefore, 860° - 356° 42' = 3° 18' to the

east of the true meridian.
Magnetic declination = 3° 18' E,
Example 7 :-The following bearing!> were observed III
running a compass traverse:
-.__ -1-..· - --_._-

Line.jFore bearing.1Back bearing.
~ -~. -
AB 66° Hi' 2~14° 0'
BC 1 129° 45' 0'
CD 218° 30'
DA 306° 45' 126° 45'
Find the corrected fore and back beilrings, and the true
bearings of the lines, 6iven that the magnetic declination is 8° 40' E.
In solving ttn example of this type, it should first be ascer-
tained if there is local attraction at a station or stations by ex'
amining the values of the observed fore and back bearings of
eacl00f the lines. Having detected local attraction, the nece-
ssary ~rrections may be obtained and applied to the observed
bearings at the affected station or statiOltS, in order to obtain
the correct bearings of the lines. Finally, knowing the ma~·
netic declination, the true bearings of the lines may be deter- .
mined by the application of the Rule (I).
On examining the values of the observed bearings of the
lines, it will be seen that the fore and back bearings of the line
DA differ exactly by 180°. There is, therefore, no local attrac-
tion at stations D and A. Since the difference between the
fore and hack bearings of each of the lineS AB, BC, and CD is
not equal to 180°, stations Band C are affected by local attrac-
tion. The amount of correction at B is +
2° 15' and that at
C is _ 1°.
Having corrected the bearings of the lines, their true
bearings may be determined by adding 8° 40' to the corrected
bearings of the lines, since the magnetic declination is east. The

results may be tabulated as under :
I
Observed Correc- Corrected True
beariD~. tion. bearing. bearing.
f I
AB
BA 244° 0' 0
+2° 15' 246 15'
66 0 15'
-
8 a 40'E. 74 0 55'
254 0 55'
I
BC 129° 45' +2° 15'1 132 0 0' 140 0 40' Stations
B andC
CB 318 0 0' _ 1°
I 812 0
0' 820 0 40' are
affected
CD 218° 80' _ 10._ 217 0 30' 226 0 10' by local
attrac-
DC S7° 30' 0
0
37° 30' '\ 46° 10' tion.
DA 306 0 4,5' 0
0
306 0 45' I 315 0 25'
AD 126° 45' 0° I
126° 4.1j' I 135 0 25'
I I I i I
Precautions in Usin~ the Compass :-The following
precautions should be taken in using the compass :
( 1) (a) When it is not possible to observe the bearing of a
line from its end, the compass may be set up over
any intermediate point on the line.
(b) When it is not convenient to take the bearing
of a
line on account of obstructions, set out a
parallel to the required line as near to it as
practicable by means of offsets and then take the
bearing of the parallel line.
( 2) Tap the compass box after the nee l~ come to
rest~.?_~'.'.:r_come t e flctlOn o~ the__p_i'y~ - - - -
( 8) If the glass has been dusted with a handkerchief,
the glass is thereby charged with electricity. Conse·
quently, the needle adheres to the glass. This may

be obviated by applying a moist finger to the glass.
( 4 ) Stop the vibrations of the needle by gently p.;:eS'Sing
the knob or pin so that it will come to r~~early.
(5) Set up and level the compass properly.~
(6 ) Release the needle after it has been turned approxi-
mately in the magnetic meridian so as to reduce
wear of the pivot.
(7) Always read the north end of the needle. In reading
the needle, always look along the needle and not
across it, thus avoiding parallax.
(8 ) Take duplicate readings at each station for important
lines. After having taken the first reading, displace
the needle and then take the second reading.
(9 ) To detect local attraction, take the fore and back
bearings of important lines.
(10) Avoid taking a reading in the wrong direction, e. g.
from 25° to 15°.
(11) Avoid keeping iron or steel things ( sources of attrac-
tion) such as a chain, arrows, an axe, in close proxi-
mity of the compass, or having iron things such as a
bunch of keys, iron buttons, etc., about the person.
(12) Protect the pivot in every possible way. If the pivot
is not sharp and perfect, the needle may be sluggish
and unreliable. The needle should, therefore, be kept
off the pivot to prevent undue wear when the compass
, is not in use or when it is transported from one station
\ to the other .
.... Sources of Error in Compass (Surveyor's or Prismatic)
Observations :-The errors may be classified as (1) instrumental
errors, (2) errors of manipulation and sighting, and (3) errors
du~ to external influences.
(1) Instrumental Errors :-(a) The needle not being per-

fectly straight, (b) the pivot being bent, i. e. not being at the
centre of the graduated circle. (c) the needle being sluggish, i, ('.
the needle having lost its magnetism, (d) the pivot point being
dull, (e) the needle neither moving quite horizontally nor moving
freely on the pivot due to the dip of the needle, (f) the plane
of sights not being vertical, (g) the graduated circle not being
horizontal, (h) the line of sight not passing through the centre
of the graduated ring, and (i) the veritcal hair being too thick
or loose.
(2) Errors of Manipulation and Sighting :-(i) Inaccu-
rate centring of the compass over the station occupied.
(ii) Inaccurate levelling of the compass box (the compass
box not being horizontal) when the instrument is set up.
(iii) Imperfect bisection of the ranging rods at stations
or other objects.
(iv) Carelessness in reading the needle or in reading the
graduated circle through the prism in a wrong direction.
(v) Carelessness in recording the observed readings.
(3) Errors due to External Influences :-(i) Magnetic
changes in the atmosphere on a cloudy or stormy day.
(ii) Irregular variations due to magnetic storms, earth-
quakes, sun spots, lunar perturbations, etc.
(iii) Variations in declination, viz. secular, annual, and
diurnal. ~
(iv) Local attraction due to proximity of steel structures,
electric lines, etc.
Testing the Compass :-The compass (surveyor's or·
prismatic) should be tested in the following manner to see
if it is tr~worthy (i. e. in good working order).
(1yf To see jf the needle is horizontal when the compass
is QI.:0perly levelled. If not, slide the rider (small c~il of brass
wire) towards the high end so as to make it perfectly horizontal.
In the case of the prismatic compass, the dial shOuld be balanced
by correctly setting the rider.
(2) To fin9_ if the needle is straight aI)Q.Jh& pivot is at
the ~~~t~~o~ j!<~ .g~;dua:ied ~~iQ~~.i~d l,?_oth, ~ .()i the
ne~dl~,/;t_rhe difference in the readings pointed to by the North
and South ends of the needle will be exactly 180°, if the needle
be straight and the pivot in the centre. If the difference is
not equal to 180°, it may be due to the pivot not being in the
centre, or to a bent needle, or to both. If the difference between

the two end readings for differen! I>ositiQns o!.th~ compass is
cQnstant, it may +6e ta¥enth~~ -the pivot is in the centre an.a
t~'~'r~~r is 'aile to th~ needle not being straight.. To correct
it., bend the needle straight.! If the difference in the readings
is not conibint, the correCj-ro' is made by bending the pivot and
straightening the needle.
(3) To ascertain. if the needle is sluggish. If the needle
is sluggish~r;;ot' be -~iaciIy on -tl~e n;_agrieti~ meridian when
it comes to rest. Sluggishness of the needle may be caused by
the loss of magnetism, or by the bluntness of the supporting
pivot, but it is more often due to the dullness of the pivot
rather than to the loss of magnetism. To detect it, sight any
object and take the reading. Turn the sights aW,ay and imme-
diately bring them back and resight the same 0;;tb'e t and observe
the reading. The two readings will be the sa , provided the
needle is sensitive and the pivot point sharp.
Alternatively, after the first reading is taken, displace the
needle by means of a piece of steel, say, a key and again take
the reading. The reading will be the same as before, if there
is no friction on the pivot and the needle is not sluggish. ~
(4) To find if the sights are vertical and fixed diametri-

cally opposite to each other. Suspend a plumb line in front of.
' - " - .............._ ------....:>
the compass. I,evel the compass and sight the string. If the
sights are vertical, the eye vane, object vane, and the string will
be parallel and in the same line.~ .
'(5) To see if the line of sight passes over the zer%n the
circle. Stretch a fine horse hair between the slits and see whether
it passes over the Nand S marks (zeros).
(6) To detect if there be any observational error or errors
due to external influences. Take the fore and back bearings of
a line. These will differ exactly by 180°, if the working is correct
and there are no external influences.
Limits of Precision :-In the case of the prismatic compass,
the least value that can be estimated is 15 minutes and, there-
fore, the permissible error per bearing should never exceed tws
amount. \l'he angular error of closure or summation errou~
TRAVERSE SURVEYING
minutes should not exceed 15V N, where N is the number of

stations or sides of a traverse.
The relative error of closure should be between 1 in 300
to 1 in 600.
The Theodolite :-The theodolite is the most intricate and
accurate instrument used for measurement of horizontal and
vertical angles. It consists of a telescope by means of which
distant objects can be sighted. The telescopt; has two distinct
motions, one in the horizontal plane and the other in the vertical
plane, the former being measured on a graduated horizontal
circle by means of a set of verniers, and the latter on a graduated
vertical circle by two verniers. It can also be used for various
other purposes such as laying off horizontal angles, locating
points on a line, prolonging survey lines, establishing grades,
determining differences in elevation, etc.
Theodolites are primarily classified as (i) Transit, and
(ii) Non-transit:
There are three main types, viz. (i) the Transit, (ii) the
Plain or Y, and (iii) the Everest. A theodolite is called a
transit theodolite, when its telescope can be revolved through a
complete revolution about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane.
The first type is transiting and the other two are non-
transiting. The transit type is largely used, while the other
two types have now become obsolete.
Theodolites are also classed as (i) vernier theodolites, and
(ii) micrometer theodolites, according as verniers or mICro·
meters are fitted to read the graduated circles.
Theodolites are made of various sizes-4 inch, 5 inch, 6 inch.
8 inch, 10 inch, 12 inch, etc., the diameter of the graduated circle
on the lower plate defining the size.
4 in. to 6 in. instruments are used for general survey and
engineering work, while 8 in. to 12 in. instruments are used for
triangulation work.
The 1:'ransit Theodolite :-A transit theodolite or simply
a transit essentially consists of
(1) The Levelling Head :-It may consist of (i) two circular
plates called parallel plates kept at a fixed distance apart by a
1. Lower plate. 14. A Frame.

2. Foot screw. 15. Vertical circle tangent screw.
3. Upper parallel plate. 16. clamp screw.
4. Lower tangent screw. 17. Verti~al cI;cle.
5. Lower clamp. 18, Reading glass.
6. Outer axis. 19. Telescope.
7. Scale plate. 20. Object glass.
8. Upper clamp screw. 21. Sun shade.
9. Upper tangent screw. 22. Focussing screw.
10. Vernier plate. 23. Eye-piece.
11. Plate bubble. 24. Telescope Level.
12. Compass box. 25. Capstan headed nuts.
13. Clip screw. Fig. 159
TRAVERSE SURVEYING
ball and socket arrangement and four screws called the levelling
or foot screws, or (ii) a tribrach plate with three arms, each
carrying a levelling screw.
The lower parallel plate has a central aperture through which
a plumb bob may be suspended. The upper parallel plate or
the tribrach is ;;upported by means of four or three levelling
screws by which the instrument may be levelled.
In the case of four-screw instruments there is uneven dis-
tribution of pressure on the screws and consequently, the wear
of the screws is excessive. For stability three points of supp-
ort are sufficient. Besides, the three-screw instruments can be
more quickly levelled. Hence the three-screw type is preferred.
In the modern instruments the shifting head is provided
to center the instrument quickly and accurately. It consists of
two plates movable relatively to each other and to the tripod
head. By this arrangement the whole instrument can be rotated
through a small horizo~ltal distance relatiyely to the tripod.
(2) The Two Spindles :-There are two spindles or axes.>",
(also called centrcs) one inside the other. The outer axis is
hollow and its interior is ground conical to fit the central
vertical axis, called the inner axis, which is solid and conical.
It is essential thflt the two axes should be co-axial, i. e. have
a common axis which forms the vertical axis of the instrument.
(3) The Lower Plate :-The outer axis is attached to the
lower plate, also called the scale plate, having its edge bevelled.
'l'he edge ( or limb) is silvered (i. e. covered with silver) and
graduated from 0 0 to 360 0 in a clockwise direction. The hori-
zontal circle may be graduated to (i) degrees and half-degrees,
(ii) degrees and thirds of a degree, or (iii) degrees and sixths of
a degree, depending upon the size of the instrument. The diameter
of this circle designates the size of the instrument, e. g. 4 inch,
5 inch, etc. The lower plate is provided with a clamp and tan-
gent or slow motion screw (Fig. 160a.), by means of which it can
be fixed accurately at any desired position. When the clamp
screw is tightened, the lower plate is fixed to the upper tribrach
(or parallel plate) and on turning thc tangent screw, the lower
plate and with it the upper part of the instrument are rotated
slightly.
(4) The Upper Plate : -The upper plate, also called the ver·
nier plate, is attached to the inner axis. A clamp and tangent or
Fig. 160 b
Fig. 160 a Fig. 160 c

slow motion screw (Fig. 160 b) are provided for the purpose
of accurately fixing the vernier plate ~~o the scale plate. When
both plates are clamped together and the lower clamp
is loosened, the instrument can be rotated about its outer axis;
while if the lower plate be clamped, and the vernier plate be
loosened, the instrument can be revolved about the inner axis.
Before either of the tangent screw is turned, the corresponding
clamp must be tightened. The upper plate carries two verniers
with magnifiers placed 180 0 apart (in large instruments three
0
verniers placed 120 apart) for reading horizontal_ltngles to
one minute or 20". ~
The vernier plate complete with the standards and tele-
scope is sometimes called the alidade of the theodolite.
(5) The Level Tubes :-Two spirit levels called the plate
levels placed at right angles to each other are fixed on the upper
surface of the vernier plate for levelling the instrument. Of
the two plate levels, one is parallel to the horizontal axis.
(6) The Standards :-Two uprights called standards or
A frames (resembling the letter A in shape) stand upon the ver-
nier plate to support the horizontal axis.
(7) The Compass :-The compass box may be either of a
circular form or of a trough type.. The former is mounted on the
vernier plate between the standards, while the latter is either atta-
ched to the underside of the scale or lower plate, or screwed to one
of the standards. Modern theodolites are fitted with a compass
of the tubular type and it is screwd to one of the standards.
(8) The Telescope : -The telescope is rigidly fixed at the
centre of and at right angles to the horizontal axis.
(9) The Vertical Circle :-The vertical circle is rigidly
attached to the telescope and moves with it. It is silvered and
is usually divided into four quadrants, but in some instruments
it is graduated continuously clockwise from 0° to 360°. The
graduations in each quadrant are numbered from 0° to 90° in
opposite directions from the two zeros placed at the ends of
the horizontal diameter of the vertical circle so that the line
joining the zeros is parallel to the line of collimation of the
telescope when it is horizontal. The subdivisions of the vertical
circle are similar to those of the horizontal circle. By means
of the vertical circle clam;' and tangent screw, the telescope
and with it the vertical circle can be accurately set at any
desired position in a vertical plane.
(10) The Index Bar (or T Frame) :-The index bar is
T-shaped and centred on the horizontal axis of the telescope
in front of the vertical circle. It carries two verniers at the
extremities of its horizontal arms or limbs called the index arm.
The vertical leg called the clipping arm is provided with a fork
and two screws called the clip or clipping screws at its lower
extremit~ By means of these screws, it is secured to a piece
of metal projecting from the cross bar of either A support.
The index arm and the clipping arm are together known as the
T frame. A long sensitive bubble tube called the altitude or azi-
muthal bubble tube is attached to the top of the frame. It
can be centred by means of the clip screws. In some instruments
it is set on the top of the telescope.
The Plumb Bob :-To center the instrument exactly over
a station mark, a plumb-bob is suspended from the hook fitted
to the bottom of the central vertical axis.
The Compass :-The compass fitted on theodolites may
be (i) the circular box compass, (ii) the trough compass, or
(iii) the tubular compass.
(i) The circular box compass consists of (i) a circular box in

the centre of which is balanced the magnetic needle of the edge-
bar type, and (ii) a graduated circle fixed to the box on which
approximate bearings are read. The graduations are numbered
counter-clockwise from the zero placed at the north end of the
Fig. 161
needle. It is fitted in the centre of the vernier plate between

the standards, and the line joining the N. and S. graduations
is parallel to the line of collimation.
(ii) Fig. 161 shows the trough compass which consists of

a long narrow rectangular box (or trough) about 6" X I'
having a long needle at its centre, the needle being balanced
upon a steel pivot. Inside the box and at its ends is fixed
level with the needle, a small flat curved scale of only a few
degrees (about 5° ) on each side of the zero. The direction of
the magnetic meridian is defined when the ends of the needle
are opposite the zeros.
It is usually attached to the underside of the lower plate,

being slid into the grooves on the plate. In this case the line
joining the zeros of the scales is parallel to the line of collima-
tion only when the verniers of the horizontal circle are set to
0° and 180°. In some instruments the '~gh compass is fixed
to one of the standards. In this case the ~e joining the zeros
of the scales is parallel to the line of collim~'tion.
(iii) Tubular compass :-The tubular compass consists of
(i) a magnetic needle fitted inside a cylindrical metal tube, the
north ,end of which carries a pointer, and (ii) a circular glass
disc fitted in the end of the tube facing the pointer. On the
disc are etched two fine vertical parallel lines.
The direction of the magnetic meridian is defined when

the pointer is exactly midway between the two vertical lines.
Tripod :-The theodolite is supported on a tripod when

in use. The tripod consists of three legs, which may be solid
or framed for lightness. The solid leg tripod is commonly used.
The legs are usually made of mahogany (sometimes of yellow
pine for lightness) and fitted at their lower ends with pointed
steel shoes in order that they may be firmly pressed into the
ground. They are fixed to the tripod head by means of hinged
joints which can be tightened when there is any slackness in
the joints. It is absolutely necessary that the tripod should be
rigid. If there is any looseness in the joints, it will disturb the
position of the instrument and lead to inaccurate work. The
tripod head carries at its upper surface an external screw to
which the internal screw of the instrument may be fitted. When
the tripod is not in llse, the cap is screwed to protect the exter-
nal screw from injury.
The following terms should be well understood when
manipulating a transit theodolite:
Centering :-It means setting the theodolite exactly over
a station mark. It can be done by means of a plumb bob
suspended from a small hook attached to the underside of the
vertical axis of the theodolite.
Transiting :-(Also termed as Plunging or Reversing).
By transiting is meant the process of turning the telescope
over its supporting axis (horizontal axis) through 180 0 in a
vertical plane, thus bringing it upside down and making it point
exactly in the opposite direction.
Face Left:-When the vertical circle of the instrument
is on the left of the observer when taking a reading, the
position is called face left. '
Face Right :-When the vertical circle of the instrument is
on the right of the observer, the position is called face right.
Face Left (F. L .) observation :-It is an observation of an
angle (horizontal or vertical) made with the "face" of the
vertical circle on the left of the observer.
Face Right (F. R.) observation :-An observation made with
the "face" of the vertical circle on the right of the observer
is called a face right observation.
P. 1-7
Swinging the telescope :-It means turning the telescope in

a horizontal plane. A swing is called right or left, according
as the telescope is rotated clockwise or counter-clockwise.
Telescope Normal :-It implies "Bubble up" and the
"face" of the vertical circle left. It is also called Telescope Direct.
Telescope Inverted :-It means "Bubble down" and the
" face" of the vertical circle right. It is also called Tdescope
Reversed.
Changing Face :-It is the operation of bringing the verti-
cal circle to the right of the observer, if originally it is to the
left, and vice versa.
There are two ways of changing face:
(i) In the case of a transit instrument, it can be done by
0
revolving the telescope through 180 in a vertical plane (i. e.
on its horizontal axis) and through 180 0 in a horizontal plane.
(ii) In the case of a non-transit instrument, it can be done
by lifting the telescope from its supports, and reversing the
telescope and replacing it in its supports. The eyepiece end
of the telescope should be brought to its original position, by
revolving the telescope in azimuth (i. e. in a horizontal plane).
This method is also applicable in the case of a transit
instrument.
If observations are taken with both faces, the errors due
to imperfect adjustment of the instrument, viz. (i) the line of
collimation not being at right angles to the trunnion axis, (ii)
the horizontal axis ( trunnion axis) not being perpendicular to
the vertical axis, and (iii) the line of collimation not being
parallel to the axis of the altitude level or telescope level, are
eliminated.
Changing Pivots :-To change the pivots, lift the telescope
from its supports, rotate the instrument through 180 0 horizon-
tally, thus reversing the positions of the pivots and replace the
telescope in its supports.
Line of Collimation :-The line of collimation. also called
the line of sight, is the imaginary line joining the intersection
of the cross-hairs of the diaphragm to the optical centre of the
object glass and its continuation.
It may be noted that the intersection of the cross-hairs is

the index by means~f which we bisect the objects.
Axis of Telescope :-The axis of the telescope is the line
joining the optical centre of the object glass to the centre of
the eyepiece.
Axis of Level Tube :-The axis of the level or bubble tube
is the straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
level tube at the centre of the tube. It is also called the bubble
line.
Vertical Axis :-The vertical axis is the axis about which
the telescope can be rotated in a horizontal plane.
Horizontal axis :-The horizontal axis is the axis about
which the telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane. It is
also called the trunnion axis or transverse axis.
The fundamental lines of a transit are
(1) The vertical axis.
(2) The axes of plate levels.
(3) The line of collimation ( also called the line of sight ).
(4) The horizontal axis (also called the trunnion or
transverse axis).
(5) The bubble line of the altitude ( or azimuthal) level
or telescope level.
Conditions of Adjustment:-When the transit is in
perfect adjustment, the following rdations between the
fundamental lines should exist :
(1) The axes of the plate levels must be perpendicular
to the vertical axis.
(2) The line of collimation must be at right angles to
the horizontal axis. (The optical axis, the axis of
the objective slide, and the line of collimation must
coincide for any position of the objective, and each
should be at right angles to the horizontal axir. ).
The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the
vertical axis.
;(4) The axis of the telescope level or the altitude level
must be parallel to the line of collimation.
(5) If the transit has a fixed vertical vernier, the ver-

tical circle vernier must read zero when the telescope
level is centred (i. e. when the line of collimation is
horizontal).
(6) If the transit is provided with a striding level, the
axis of thc· striding level must be parallel to the
hori7.0ntal axis.
Optics
Lenses :-A lens is a body made of transparent substance
and bounded by two surfaces of spherical form. Sometimes one
of the surfaces of the lens is plane. Lenses may be divided
into two classes: (a) convex and (b) concave. Convex lenses are
thicker at the middle than at the edges, while concave lenses
are thinner at the middle than at the edges. A lens is called a
double convex lens, if its two surfaces are convex, but if both
surfaces are concave, it is known as a double concave lens. If
one of the two surfaces is plane and the other convex or con-
cave, it is called plano-convex or plano-concave lens. Fig. 162
shows the various types of lenses: (a) double convex, (b) plano-
a. 6 t! d e f
Fig. 162
convex, (c) concavo-convex, (d) double concave, (e) plano-concave,
(f) convexo-concave, and (g) compound. Of these, a, b, c, and g
are converging, while d, e, and f are diverging. Convex lenses
are in most common use.
The line passing through the centres of curvature of the
faces of the lens is known as the principal axis. It passes through
the centre of the lens and is perpendicular to its central plane.
The optical centre of a lens is such a point on the principal
axis that all rays passing through it will have their directions
after refraction parallel to their original directions. A ray
passing through the optical centre is laterally displaced, but
in the case of thin lenses this displacement is negligible, and
it may, therefore, be assumed that all rays passing through the
TRAVERSE SURVEYING lU7
optical centre emerge without deviation, the original and em-

ergent rays being along the same straight line.
All rays of light entering a convex lens in a direction para-
llel to the principal axis will converge on the other side to a
point on the principal axis after passing through the lens. This
point is known 'as the principal focus (F) of the lens (Fig. 163).
There will be one such point on each side of the lens and they
are called the principal foci. Such a lens is called a converging len8.
In the ease of a concave lens, the parallel rays, after paSS-
ing through it, are divergent, each ray appearing to come from a
point on the principal axis, called the principal focus of the
lens. Such a lens is called a diverging lens (Fig. 164). In the
case of a diverging lens, the principal focus is on the same side
of the lens as the incident rays, and is virtual, while it is real
Fig, 163 Fig. 164

in the case of a converging lens. The distance of the principal
focus .om thc optical centre of the lens is called the focal len-
gth o"'_lens. The focal length of a convex lens is positive, and
that of' concave lens is negative.
To determine it with sufficient accuracy for all practical
purposes, a distant object (say, about 600 ft. or more away)
is focussed and the distance from the lens to the image is measured.
The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens gives its power.
If several lenses are in contact, the reciprocal of the focal length
of the combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
focal lengths of the lenses, with due regard to the signs of the
focal lengths.
Conjugate Foci :-If rays of light emanating from a point
A on the principal axis (Fig. 165) pass through a lens, the emergent
rays converge to a second point A', also on the principal axis.

A' is then the image of A. The two points A and A' are reci·
I..- _I procal, i. e. the rays of light
,- f ~ --~ from A' converge to a point
: i A after passing through the
,q A' lens. They are known as
conjugate foci. If f1 and fa
Fig. 165 denote the distances from
the optical centre 0 to the conjugate foci A and A' respectively,
and f the focal length of the lens, then from the well known
principle of optics,
~=!- +~.
1 11 12
It will be noticed from the equation that 11 and 12 must
both be greater than the focallengthJ.
Images :-In Fig. 166, let CD be the distant Object such
as a levelling staff or a ranging pole. All rays of light from
the point C will, after
passing through the lens,
converge to a point C1 on
the other side of the lens.
e l is thus the image of C.
The points C and Cl are
Fig. 166 known as the conjugate
foci. Similarly, the rays of light from D after passing through
the lens will meet at the point D I , thus forming the image at
Dr CID l is thus a complete image of CD. When the object is
at a very great distance, its image is formed at the principal
focUS F.
The distances of the object and its image (CD and CIDl )
from the centre of lens are called the conjugate focal lengths.
Let f I = the distance of CD from the lens.
12 = " of CIDI "
f = the focal length of the lens. "
Then __:_=2_+~.
I· 11 f",
TllA VERSE SURVEYING 199
.,
From the similarity of the triangles COD and ClOD l , the ratio
. CD
of the size of the object to that of the lmaae = - - = -".
II
'" ClD l 12
In the case of a converging lens, the image is real and
inverted, but if the object be inside the principal focus, i. e. if
the distance of the object from the centre of the lens is less than
tne focaf fength of t6e lens, the image is virtual, erect, and
magnified. It can be seen by the eye placed on the opposite
side of the lens.
Thus in Fig. 167, PQ is the object inside the principal
focus and P1Ql the virtual image of PQ. It is evident from
the figure that the rays pF and PO will not meet after passing
through thc lens. But if they are intercepted by the eye, they
will appear to come from the point Pl' Similarly, the rays
qF and QO will appear
to come from the
point Ql' P IQ l is thus
.
p .F;
the virtual image of
PQ. It is erect and
magnified.
Spherical Aberra-
tion :-Rays of light
. I' Fig. 167 from a given point
passing through a lells whose surbaces are truly spherical will
Fig. 168 Fig. 169

not converge exactly to one point, those passing through the
outer edges of the ]e11S falling short, i. e. thcy are brought to
a focus nearer the lens than are the rays entering near its centre
as in Fig. 168. This defect is known as spherical aberration, and
can be corrected by finally "figuring" by hand. This defect is
not so serious, since lenses are rarely ground truly spherical.
Ch~oma~Abetration :-This is the most serious defect
of a SImple Ie '" White light is not homogeneous, but it is
\
200 SURVEYIMG AND LEVELLING
composed of different colours - violet, indigo, blue, green,

yellow, orange, and red, which are refracted by varying
amounts. The violet colour ~s refracted
+ I
J,
I
most and the red colour least. Hence
when white light passes through a simple
lens, it is broken into its component
colours which will each converge to a
different focus. The violet rays will have
a focus nearer the lens, while the red rays
farthest from the lens as shown in Fig. 169.
Thus a number of blurred and coloured
images are formed instead of one definite
image of the object. This dispersion of
white light by a lens is known as the chro-
matic aberration. This defect is corrected
by using two lenses of different qualities
I
\ of glass. Such a compound lens shown in
\
1 1 Fig. 162, consists of a convex lens of hard
I I 1 crown glass and a concave lens of flint
'tl--- ...
'I
I
/1 \
glass so that the dispersion produced by the
\ \ convex lens is neutralised by the concave
\, I
lens. Thus the variou& colours are reassem-
bled and brought to a single focus as white
light. Such a compound lens is known as
an achromatic lens.
The Surveying Telescope

There are two types of the surveying
telescope of levels and theodolites, viz.
(1) external focussing or draw tube, and
(2) internal focussing. The fil'st type is
used in the older types of levels and theodo-
lites, while the latter is used in modern
instruments.
The External Focussing Telescope!-
(Fig. 170). The principal parts of the
Fig. 170 telescope are (a) the body, (b) the object
1 Object Glass. 2 Ray Shade. 3 Stops. 4 Focussing Screw. 5 Pinion.
6 Rack. 7 Diaphragm. 8 Diaphragm Screws. 9 Eye-piece.
glass or objective, (c) the eye-piece, and (d) the diaphragm. The
subsidiary parts consist of (i) the ray shade or dust cap, (ii) the
rack and pinion arrangement actuated by a focussing screw,
(iii) the diaphragm screws to support the diaphragm ring, and
(iv) the stops for cutting off extraneous light. The main dis-
advantage of this type is the greater length for a given power.
(2) The Internal Focussing Telescope :-(Fig. 171). It
mainly differs from the above type in that the slide carries a
double concave lens, which is moved by the focussing screw, and
that the objective is fixed in the end of the telescope tube.
Otherwise its arrangement is similar to that of the first type.
The main advantages of this type are (i) that the interior of the
telescope is free from dust and moisture, since both the ends are
12 f,
3-, .~
'l,
,'51 ~ 1'12
HI
~Ji' ~I
~I
i • ::-:~
-M,'
~ ~I
O·
.J
H
~ d
~
Fig, 171
closed, (ii) that it is well balanced, and (iii) that the errors due
to faulty construction are much less serious than those in the
first type. The main disadvantage is reduction in brilliancy of
the image owing to an additional lens.
(a) The Body :-It consists of two tubes one of which slides
within the other. The tube that is moved in and out by means
of a focussing screw is called the slide or focussing tube. In some
instruments the slide carries the objective and the outer tube
carries the diaphragm and the eye-piece
while in others the slide c~uries the eye-piece
INN~ rT\rTER
LENWENJ
and diaphragm, the objective being mounted
on the outer tube. It is essential that the
movement of the slide should be axial,
smooth, and free.
(b) The Object Glass or Objective: -
Fig, 172
(Fig, 172). It is invariably a compound lens
consisting of (i) an outer double convex lens of hard crown glass
and (ii) an inner concavo-convex lens of dense flint glass. The

two serious optical defects, viz. spherical aberration and chroma- I
tic aberration are nearly eliminated by the combination of these
two lenses. This lcns is called an achromatic lens. The image of
the object formed in the plane of the cross-hairs by the objective
is real and invertcd.
(c) The Eye-piece :-The object of the eye-piece is to
magnify both the image and the cross-hairs. There are two
types of the eye-piece, viz. (1) non-erecting and (2) erecting. The
former is the most commonly used type for surveying telescopes
(1) The Non-erecting or Inverting Eye-piece :-(Fig. 173).
It is the Ramsden or positive eye-piece. It is
composed of two equal plano-convex lenses
called an eye lens and a field lens, with their
convex surfaces turned towards one another,
at a distance of two-thirds the focal length of
either lens. It is placed at a distance equal to
Fig. 173 one-fourth the focal length of either lens from
the diaphragm. The inverted image formed by the objective,
though magnified, appears still inverted to the eye, and the object
as seen through the telescope is upside down (inverted). This is
the only disadvantage of this type of the eye-piece. It possesses
two advantages, viz. (i) that the object is more brilliantly illu-
minated, and (ii) that the telescope is shorter.
(2) The Erecting Eye-piece :-(Fig. 174). It consists of
four plano-convex lenses, viz. (a) an eye lens, (b) a field lens,
(c) an amplifying lens, and (d) an object lens. It reinverts the
image of the object so that the object is viewed in its normal
position. The disadvantage is the loss of light owing to two
additional lenses.
PIA(i(}NAf. cY!'PIECI
d
Fig. 174 Fig. 175
Diagonal Eye-piece :-(Fig. 175). It is of the Ramsden type.
Between the two lenses, a reflecting prism or a mirror is fitted
TRA VERSE SURVEYING' 203
at an angle of 45 0 with the axis of the telescope. By this arrange-

ment objects can be viewed in a direction perpendicular to the
axis of the telescope. It is very useful for astronomical work
and for observing high terrestrial objects when the telescope is
greatly inclined. .
(d) The Diaphragm :-(Fig. 176a). The diaphragm consists

of a brass ring called the cross-hair ring carrying cross-hairs. The
cross-hairs appear magnified when viewed through the eye-piece
and must, therefore, be very fine. The cross-hairs fastened to the
ring may be (i) spider webs, (ii) lines on glass, (iii) very fine
platinum wires, and (iv) platinum-iridium points. The cross-
hair ring is held in plaee by four capstan-headed screws, which
pass through smooth holes in the telescope tube. The holes are
unthreaded and a little larger than the screws, so that when the
screws are loose, the whole ring may be rotated slightly by
moving the capstan heads simultaneously. The diaphragm
may be moved vertically ( upward or downward) by means of
two vertical screws, loosening one screw and tightening the
opposite one. Similarly, it may be moved horizontally (sideways)
by means of two horizontal screws. It may be noted that
(i) one screw must be loosened before the opposite one is tightened
otherwise the diaphragm cannot move, (ii) the diaphragm is drawn
iowards the tightened screw, and (iii) the diaphragm is moved
vertically or horizontally without turning it. This type of
diaphragm called the "floating diaphragm is fitted in the telesco-
pes of theodolites and certain makes of levels. In the majority
Fig. 176a Fig. 176 b

of levels, however, the cross-hair ring is held in place by means
of two vertical screws only and can be moved vertically by
slackening one screw and tightening the opposite one. This type
of diaphragm shown in Fig. 176b is called the slide diaphragm.
Fig. 177 shows the different arrangements of cross-hairs
or lines, of which 1, 3, and 4 are used in levels. The horizontal
EBEB@@
1 2 J 4
®®Ows If
Fig. 177
7
hair is used to read the staff and the two vertical hairs enable
the surveyor to see if the staff is vertical laterally. Most teles-
copes are also equipped with two additional horizontal hairs
called the stadia hairs or subtense lines one below and the other
above the horizontal hair and equidistant from it to determine
distances by stadia. 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are generally used in
theodolites.
Magnification :-The magnification or magnifying power
of a telescope is, strictly speaking, the ratio of the angles
subtended at the eye by the virtual image of the object and
the object (i. e. the ratio of the angular size of the image of
the object to the angular size of the object). This ratio varies
in the same telescope slightly with the distance of the object.
However, the value of the ratio for an infinitely distant
object is taken as the magnifying power of telescope. The
angles being proportional to the focal lengths of the object
glass and the eyepiece, the magnifying power of a telescope is
the ratio of the focal length (f) of the objective to the focal
length (il) of the eye-piece and equals j_ . The magnifying power

_ 11
of telescopes of levels and theodolites intended for ordinary
work varies from 20 to 30 diameters.
The practical method of finding the magnifying power of a
telescope is as follows:-
(1) Set up the instrument and hold a levelling staff about 20

ft. away. (2) Observe the image in the telescope with one eye
and at the same time observe the staff with the other by direct
VlSlon. (3) Find how much of the staff is covered by a given
length of image. (4) The magnifying power is then equal to
the length of actual staff covered divided by the length of the
image; e. g. 0'1 of a foot = length of image; 2·6 ft. = length
of actuaI staff covere d ; t h e magm'fymg
. power = 2·6
~ = 26.
0'1
The magnifying power obtained by this method is some-
what greater than the actual power.
Qualities of the Telescope :-The qualities of the telescope
are as follows:-
(1) Aplanatism by which is meant the absence of sphe-
rical aberration.
(2) Achromatism by which is meant the absence of chro-
matic aberration.
(3) Definition by which is meant the power of a telescope
to produce a sharp image. It depends upon the accuracy with
which the lenses are ground and polished. The image will not
appear clear and distinct, if the definition is poor.
(4) Illumination by which is meant the brightness of the
image. If the illumination is poor, the image will appear faint.
The brightness of the image varies inversely as the square
of the magnifying power. A high magnification produces a
dull image, while a lower magnification produces a bright image.
(5) Size of Field. The field of view means the whole circular
area seen through the telescope. It is measured by the angle
formed at the optical centre of the object glass ( objective) by
the diameter of the field of view. It should be borne in mind
that (1) this angle does not depend upon the size of the object
glass, but (2) it increases as the size of the eyepiece increases,
(8) it decreases as the distance between the objective and the
eyepiece increases, and (4) it decreases as the magnifying power
increases. A wide field of view is desirable, since it facilitates
the discovering of distant objects before bisecting them exactly.
This angle varies from about 1° to 2°.
(6) Magnification. The magnification or magnifying power

of a telescope is the ratio of the focal length of the objective
to the focal length of the eyepiece. It should be proportional
to the aperture, i. e. to the amount of light admitted. If the
magnifying power is too high for the aperture, ordinary objects
will appear too faint (especially under unfavourable atmospheric
conditions), while if it is too low for the aperture, the objects
will appear too small for accurate sighting. The magnifying
power should be such that for the least noticeable movement
of the bubble or the circles, there is a readily perceptible move-
ment of the cross-hairs over the object sighted. For transits
the magnifying power is from 20 to 24 diameters, while for
levels it is about 30 diameters. In precise instruments it is about
40 to 80 diameters.
The Level Tube :-(Figs. 178a & b). The level tube, also
called the bubble tube, consists of a sealed glass tube set in a brass
tube with plaster of paris. It is nearly filled with alcohol or
ether, or a mixture of both, the remaining space being occupied
BUBBLE L1N::S
{ II I I 'C::::>, I I I I
)
Fig. 178~ Fig. 178b
by a bubble of air which always occupies the highest part of

the tube, the centre of the bubble always coming to rest at the
highest point of the tube. The whole of the interior surface or
the upper half is accurately ground to a curve so that a longitu-
dinal section is the arc of a circle. The outer surface of the
tube is graduated in both directions from the centre so that
the bubble may be centred, i. e. brought to its mid-position by
observing its two ends. The length of the division is usually
0'1 inch or 2 mm. The line tangential to the circular arc at
its highest point (middle of the tube or zero of the graduations)
is called the axis of the level or bubble tube. It is also termed
as the bubble line. The axis is horizontal when the bubble is
central, i. e. in the centre of its run. The bubble varies in length
with changes in temperature. It is shortened with rise in
temperatur~ and thus its sensitiveness is reduced.
. The level tube is attached to the top of the telescope tube

by means of capstan-headed nuts.
Sensi ti veness : -The sensitiveness or sensitivity of a level
tube means its capability of showing small angular movements
of the tube. It depends upon the radius of curvature of the
tube which may vary from 30 to 1000 ft. The larger the radius
of curvature, the greater the sensitiveness ( or the longer the
bubble, the more sensitive it is). The sensitiveness is some-
times expressed in terms of the radius of curvature, but it is more
usually expressed in terms of the angle through which the axis of
the level tube must be tilted to cause the bubble to move through
.one division of the scale, (i. e. the angular value of one division),
.or in terms of the angle subtended at the centre by an arc of
.one division of the scale.. When so expressed, the sensitiveness
varies inversely as the number of seconds.
The angular value of one 2 mm. division of the tube may vary
from 8 to 45 seconds, depending upon the type of the instru-
ment. For example, the sensitiveness of the spirit levels fitted
to the levels varies from 20 to 30 seconds; that of the plate
. levels from 40 to 45 seconds, and that of the altitude level from
8 to 20 seconds.
Reading with the Micrometer Microscope :-The fractional
parts of the smallest division of a graduated circle are read
either by the vernier or by the micrometer microscope. By
means of the vernier, the readings can be taken to 20", but by the
micrometer, they can be taken to a finer degree of accuracy,
i. e. 10", 5", or 1". Verniers and their construction have been
explained on pages 23 to 27.
The micrometer microscope consists of (i) an achromatic

.object glass, (ii~ a diaphragm, and (iii) a Ramsden eye-piece.
The diaphragm consists of a slide carrying two parallel hair-
lines. The slide is moved by a finely pitched screw to the end .
.of which is attached a small drum so that the screw and the
drum are rotated by means of a milled head on the outside of
the micrometer tube. One revolution of the micrometer moves
the hair-lines through one division (10') on the main scale. The
drum is divided into 10 primary divisions, each representing
one minute, and each division is divided into six equal parts
so that the value of each subdivision is 10 seconds.
In the field of view of the microscope, there appears a portion
of the graduated circle and above it two parallel hair-lines w, w,
which enclose a small V notch when the micrometer drum reads
zero as in Fig. 179 a.
Prior to measurement of an angle, we set the instrument
to zero. To do this, we first set the micrometer head exactly
to zero, bringing the hair-lines over the V shaped index mark
so that the interval between them is bisected by the vertex of
the V notch. We then bring the index mark ( V notch) nearly to
0 0
360 by unclamping the upper plate, and make the 360 line
bisect the space between the hair-lines (i. e. bring it exactly
midway between the hair-lines), by using the upper clamp and
tangent screw. We then measure the angle and read the micro-
meter thus.
In the case illustrated in Fig. 179 b, the horizontal circle
is graduated to degrees and sixths of a degree, the value of the
Fig. 179.'
Fig. 179b
subdivision being 10 minutes. To take a reading, we look
through the microscope and note the position of the index mark
on the main scale. Here it is between 348 0 30' and 348 0 40'.
The approximate reading is, t~fore, 348" 30'. To measure
the fractional part of the subdivision of the main scale, i. e. the

distance between the next lower division (30' division) and the
index mark, we turn the micrometer, thus moving the hair-
lines (w, w) until the next back division (30' ttvision) is exactly
midway between the hair lines as shown in Fig. 179 b, and read
the drum. In this case the reading on the drum is 4', which, when
added to the approximate reading, gives the required reading.
+
The total rcading is, therefore, equal to 348 0 30' 4' = 348 0 34'.
Temporary Adjustments of Theodolite
The adjustments of a theodolite may be divided into two
classes : (1) temporary, and (2) permanent. The former are
the adjustments which have' to be made at every set up of the
instrument and preparatory to taking observations with the
instrument; while the latter establish fixed relationships between
the fundamental lines of the instrument and are essential for
accuracy of observations. They remain permanent for a consi-
derable length of time.
There are three temporary adjustments of a theodolite:
(1) Setting up the theodolite over a station, (2) Levelling up;
and (3) Elimination of parallax.
,',
Setting up :-This includes t~o operations, viz. (a) center-
ing a theodolite over a station, and (b) approximately levelling
it by the tripod legs only. By centering of a theodolite over a
station is meant the setting of its centre over a station mark
such as a tack or wire nail in a station peg. This can be done
by means of a plumb bob suspended from the hook and the
chain beneath the centre of the instrument. To do this,
(i) place the instrument over the station by spreading
the legs of the tripod well apart, keeping the telescope at a con-
venient height, the plumb bob approximately over the station
mark, and the levelling head (or the tribrach sprang) approxi-
mately level.
(ii) Lift the instrument bodily without disturbing the re-
lative positions of the legs and move it until the plumb bob
hangs about 1 in. alJove and within about t in. or less horizon-
tally of the station mark.
(iii) Move each leg radially as well as circumferentially
so as to bring the plumb bob exactly over the station mark and
to approximately level the instrument. Press the legs firmly

into the ground.
It may be noted that moving the leg radially shifts the
plumb bob in the direction of the leg without seriously affecting
the plate levels, while moving it circumferentially or sideways
tilts the instrument considerably without seriously disturbing
the plumb bob. Much time is saved, if the instrument is nearly
levelled by means of the tripod legs. If the instrument has
a shifting head, it is first roughly set over the station mark by
moving the legs of the tripod and is then moved in the required
direction by means of the shifting head until the plumb bob
is exactly over the station mark. The plumb bob should hang
about i in. above the station mark when the shiftir>g head is
used. On a hillside, place two legs downhill and one leg uphill
to insure greater stability.
Levelling up :-Having centered and approximately leve-
lled the instrument, it is accurately levelled with reference to the
e
~, <pci
~b
fo, J
/
/
" ",\ , pta r
C
/
~------~J
,fa I ~ uGe--t--- Br
I
6
c
Fig. 179 c
plate levels by means of levelling (or foot) screws so that the
vertical axis shall be truly vertical. To level the instrument,
(i) turn the instrument about either of its axes until ;he
longer plate level is parallel to any pair of levelling screWS; the
other plate level will then be parallel to the line joining the third
screw and the mid-point of the line joining the first pair. In the
case of a four-screw levelling head, each of the two plate levels
will be parallel to a pair of diagonally opposite levelling screws.
(ii) Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by turning
both screws uniformly. The two screws should be grasped
between the thumbs and forefingers and turned so that the
thumbs move either towards each other or away from each
other.
(iii) Similarly, bring the other bubble to the centre of

its run by turning the third levelling screw (or the other pair
of levelling screws).
(vi) Repeat the process until finally both bubbles are
exactly centred.
Now rotate the instrument about the vertical axis through
a complete revolution. Each bubble will now traverse, i. e.
remain in the centre of its run, provided the plate levels are
in correct adjustment. The vertical axis will then be truly
vertical.
For greater accuracy the instrument should be levelled
with reference to the altitude level fixed either on the index
arm or on the telescope, since it is more sensitive than the plate
bubbles. To do this,
(i) first level the instrument by the plate levels. Set the
vertical circle vernier to zero by means of the vertical circle
clamp and tangent screw. Turn the telescope so that the altitude
level is parallel to the line joining a pair of levelling (or foot)
screws. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means of
these screws.
(ii) Unclamp the vernier plate. Turn the telescope through
90° and bring the bubble exactly to its mid-position by the
third levelling screw. Repeat until the bubble remains central
in these two positions.
(iii) Bring the altitude level over the third levelling screw.
Turn the telescope through 180°. If r.he bubble is no longer
central, corred half its deviation by the clip screws and the other
half by the third levelling screw. Turn the telescope through
90° so that it is parallel to the other two foot screws, and by
means of these screws, bring the buhble exactly to the centre
of its run. The bubble should now traverse in any position.
If not, repeat the whole process until the bubble traverses
as the telescope is rotated about the vertical axis.
In the case of instruments having no clip screw fitting, the
telescope bubble may be brought half-way back by the vertical
circle tangent screw. Since the vertical vernier is displaced.
read the vernier and record it. This reading is known as the
index error.
Elimination of Parallax :-Accurate work is impossible
if parallax is not eliminated. To eliminate it, the, image formed
by the objective, must lie in .the plane of the cross-hairs. It
is done in two steps : (1) by focussing the eye-piece, and (2) by
focussing the object glass.
(a) Focussing the Eye-piece :-The object of focussing
the eye-piece is to make the cross-hairs distinct and clear. Point
the telescope towards the sky or hold a sheet of white paper
in front of the object glass, and move the eye-piece in and out
until the cross-hairs are seen quite distinctly and clearIy(appear
sharp and black).
(b) Focussing the Object Glass :-The object of focussing
the object glass is to bring the image of the object formed by
the object glass in the plane of the cross-hairs. Otherwise there
will be an apparent movement of the image relatively to the
cross-hairs when the observer moves his eye, the apparent
movement being called the parallax. To eliminate it, direct
the telescope towards the object and turn the focussing screw
until the image appears clear and sharp (i. e. in sharp focus)
when it lies in the plane of the cross-hairs. It must be noted
that the correct position of the eye-piece depends ouly upon
the eyesight of the observer. It is, however, necessary to move
the objective by using the focussing screw for each distance
sighted, i. e. whenever the distance of the object from the i1stru-
ment is changed. )
It should be remembered that (i) if the object sighted is
farther away, the distance between the objective and the cross-
hairs is less; while if the object sighted is nearer, the distance
between the objective and the cross-hairs is greater; (ii) for
long sights the movement of the objective is small irrespective
of the distance; while for short sights it is considerable for a
comparatively small change in distance.
Measurement of Angles
To Measure a Horizontal Angle :-(Fig 180)
A B
V o (4) A
Fig. 180
B
To measure the horizontal angle AOB,

(1) set up the instrument over 0 as previously described
and level it accurately.
(2) Set the vernier A to the zero (usually marked 360°)
of the horizontal circle. To do this, loosen the upper clamp,
turn the upper plate until the index (the arrow) of the vernier A
nearly coincides with the zero of the horizontal circle. Clamp
both plates together with the upper clamp, and by turning the
upper slow motion or tangent screw, bring the two zeros into
exact cojncidence. This may be judged by observing the divisions
each side of the zero and noting that they are symmetrically
placed with respect to the coinciding lines. Both plates being
clamped, the instrument will now revolve upon the lower motion
(the outer axis).
(3) Loosen the lower clamp. Turn the instrument and
direct the telescope approximately to the left-hand signal (A)
by sighting over the top of the telescope. Tighten the lower
clamp and bisect A exactly by using the lower slow motion screw.
The point of intersection of the horizontal and vertical cross·
hairs should be brought into exact coincidence with the station
mark whenever possible by means of the vertical circle clamp
and tangent screw. Otherwise the vertical cross-hair should
be brought exactly on the lower portion of the arrow or the
ranging rod marking the statiq.n in order to minimise the error
due to non-verticlliity of the signal. l,
(4) Check the setting of the vernier' A to detect the error
caused by turning the wrong tangent screw. Read the vernier B
and record both vernier readings.
(5) Unclamp the upper or vernier plate and turn the tele-
scope clock'wise until the line of sight is set nearly on the right-
hand signal (B). Tighten the upper clamp and by turning the
upper tangent screw, bisect B exactly. It may be noted that
during this movement of the telescope, the lower clamp and
the lower slow motion or tangent screw are untouched.
(6) Read both verniers. The reading of the vernier A which
was initially set at 360° gives thc value of the angle AOB directly
and the other vernier B by deducting 180°. The mean of the
two vernier readings (after deducting 180 0 from the reading on
vernier B) gives the value of the required angle AOB. Both
verniers should always be read (i) to detect the mistake in
reading the vernier A, and (ii) to eliminate errors of eccentricity
of centres and verniers.
(7) Change the face of the instrument and repeat the whole
process. The mean of the two vernier readings gives the second
value of the angle.
On all important work, face left and face right observa-
tions should be made to eliminate the errors due to imperfect
adjustment of the instrument. The mean of the two observa-
tions gives the value of the required angle free from all instru-
mental errors.
It may be noted that the vernier A is initially set to the
zero of the circle for convenience only. It may be set at any
other reading which should be noted. The difference between
the initial and final readings of the vernier A will then give the
value of the required angle.
To Measure a Horizontal A\gle by Repetition :-For very
accurate work the method of repetition is used. In this method
the angle is added several times mechanically, and the value
of the angle is obtained by dividing the accumulated reading by
the number of repetitions. In repeating the angle several times,
the vernier A is kept clamped each time at the previous reading
when the back sight is taken. The method of repetition consists
in measuring the angle clockwise any desired number of times
( usually six ), half of which are made with the telescope normal
and the other half with the telescope inverted. By this means,
angles can be determined to a finer degree of accuracy than

that obtainable with the least count of the vernier.
Note :-It should not be supposed that any desired degree
of accuracy can be obtained by making a very large number
of repetitions on account of the systematic errors introduced
by the clamping apparatus. There is, therefore, no advantage
in increasing the number of observations beyond a certain limit.
Three repetitions with the telescope normal and three with the
telescope inverted are quite sufficient for any thing except very
precise work.
To measure the horizontal angle AOB by the method of
repetition, proceed as follows:-
(1) Set up the instrument over 0 and level it accurately.
(The face of the instrument should be left and the telescope
in the normal position).
(2) Set the vernier A to 360°. Loosen the lower clamp,
direct the telescope to the left-hand station (A), and bisect A
exactly by using the lower clamp and lower tangent screw.
(3) Check the reading of the vernier A to see that no slip
has occurred, and,._. read
.-- the other vernier B.
(4) Unclamp the upper (or vernier) plate, turn the tele-
scope clockwise and bisect the right-hand station (B) exactly
by using the upper clamp and upper slow motion screw.
(5) Read both verniers) The object of reading the verniers
is to obtain the approximate value of the angle. Suppose the
mean reading is 60° 2'.
(6) Leaving the verniets.. unchanged, unclamp the lower
plate and turn the telescope clockwise until the station A is
again bisected accurately, using the lower clamp and lower
tangent screw. Check the vernier readings which must be the
same as before.
(7) Releas the upper plate, turn the telescope clockwise
7
and again bisect the station B exactly, using the upper clamp
and its slow motion screw. The verniers will now read twice
the value of the angle.,
3,
(8) Repeat the process until the angle is repeated the
required number of times (usually
(9) Read both verniers. The final reading after n repe·

titions should be n (60 0 2'). Add 360 0 for every complete reo
volution to the final reading and divide the sum by the number
of repetitions. The result gives the correct value of the angle
AOB.
(10) Change face. (The telescope will now be inverted
and the face will be right). Repeat the whole series of obser·
vations in exactly the same manner.
The average of the two values of the angle thus obtained
gives a very precise value of the angle (AOB).
By this procedure the following errors are eliminated or
minimised.
(1) The errors due to the eccentricity of the centres and
of the verniers are eliminated by reading both verniers and
averaging the readings.
(2) The errors due to the imperfect adjustment of the
line of collimation and the horizontal axis of the telescope are
eliminated by face left and face right observations.
(3) The errors of graduation are minimised by measuring
the angle on different parts of the circle.
(4) The errors in the pointings tend to compensate each
other and the remaining error is minimised by the division.
It must be remembered that the error due to dislevelment of
the bubble cannot be eliminated. It can, however, be minimised
by care in levelling the instrument.
To Measure Horizontal Angles by Reiteration: (Fig.181).
Reiteration is another method of measur·
A B
ing horizontal angles with high precision.
It is less tedious and is generally pre-
ferred when several angles are to be
measured at a station. In this method
serveral angles are measured successively.
and finally the horizon is closed, i. e. the
Fig. 181 angle between the 111st station ~nd the
initial station is measured. The final reading of the leading
vernier (vernier A) should be the same as its initial reading.
If not, the discrepancy is equally distributed among all the
-------
measured angles.
Suppose it is required to measure the angles AOB, BOC,

and COD.
(1) Set up the instrument over 0 and level it correctly.
(2) Set the vernier A to zero.
(3) Direct the telescope to some well-defined object P or
say, the station point A, . which is known as the
" Referring Object" and bisect it accurately by using
the lower clamp and lower tangent screw. Note the
vernier readings.
}
(4) Loosen the ';lpper plate and turn the telescope clock-
wise until the point B. is exactly bisected by turning
the upper tangent screw. Read both verniers. The
mean of the two vernier readings will give the value of
the angle AOB.
(5) Similarly, bisect C and D successively, reading both
verniers at each bisection.
(6) Finally, close the horizon by: sighting the referring
object (P) or. the station point A.
(7) The vernier A should now read 360~. If not, note the
reading and find the error (due to slip, etc.). It may be
noted that the lower clamp and lower tangent screw re-
main untouched during the revolution of the telescope.
If the error be small, it is equally distributed among
the several observed angles. If large, the readings
should be discarded and a new set taken.
Notes :-(i) The theodolite should be turned clockwise from
the back station to the forward station.
(ii) Bring the cross-wires into exact coincidence with
the signal from left to right with the upper tangent screw.
(iii) The mean of the vernier readings is taken in each
case, and the differences between these means will give the
required values of the angles•
.--
To take the second set,
(I) change face, i. e. transit the telescope so that it is
upside down and swing it through 180°, so that if the
vertical circle of the instrument be on the left of the

observer before reversing face, it will be on the right
after doing so (or vice versa), to eliminate the effects
of the instrumental errors.
(2) Set the vernier A to 60° or 90°.
(3) Again measure the angles in the same manner by turning
the telescope this time in a counter-clockwise direction
to compensate for slip and errors due to twisting of
the instrument. Bring the cross-hairs into exact
coincidence with the signal from right to left, with the
upper slow motion screw to eliminate the effects of
back lash. Read both verniers at each bisection.
(4) Further procedure is the same as in the first set.
(5) The mean of the two results is taken as the true value'
To Measure Direct Angles :-Angles measured clockwise
from the preceding line to the following one are called direct angles,
or angles to the right as in Fig. 182. They are also called azimuths
Fig. 182
from back line. They may vary from 0° to 360°. They are
usually doubled, i. c. repeated twice once with the telescope
direct and once with the telsecope reversed to eliminate the
instrumental errors and to guard against mistakes. To measure
the angle ABC,
(1) set up the instrument over B and level it carefully.
(2) Take a back sight on the preceding station A with the
vernier A set to zero. Unclamp the upper plate, rotate the
telescope clockwise (to the right) and bisect the forward station
C' exactly. Read both verniers.
(3) Plunge the telescope; turn the instrument on its lower
motion and again take a backsight on A without disturbing th <:
vernier setting. Loosen the upper plate, turn the telescope to

the right and bisect C accurately. Read both verniers.
Find the mean of the final readings of the verniers. Since
the angle is doubled, one-half of this average value gives the
value of angle ABC.
To Measure Deflection Angles :-(Fig. 183). The method
of measuring deflection angles is more commonly used in railway
s
Fig. 183
and highway work. A deflection angle is the angle which a
survey line makes with the prolongation of the preceding line and
is equal to the difference between the included angle and 180°.
Deflection angles may have any value between 0° and 180°.
never exceeding 180°. But they are usually employed for
angles less than 90°. Deflection angles are designated as right (R)
or left (L) according as they are measured to the right (clock-
wise) or to the left (counter-clockwise) from the prolongation
of the preceding line. Thus in Fig. 183, the deflection angle
at B is 0< 1 ~ and that at C is 0< 2 L. The direction of measurement
of the defle~tion angles must be carefully noted in the field book.
Deflection angles are usually doubled to eliminate the errors
caused by the imperfect adjustment of the instrument. The
procedure is as follows : -
(1) Set up the instrument at B. Level it accurately.
(2) With both plates clamped at 0° (the vernier A reading
360°), backsight on A. Read the other vernier B.
(3) Transit the telescope. Unclamp the upper plate, turn
the telescope, and bisect C exactly (foresight on C). Read both
verniers. The mean of the two vernier readings gives the appro-~
ximate value of the deflection angle at B.
(4) Loosen the lower clamp. Turn the telescope hori-
zontally and again sight back on A with the verniers still reading
the approximate value of the deflection angle, and the telescope

inverted.
(5) Plunge the telescope. Unclamp the upper plate and
again take a foresight on C. Read both verniers.
(6) Find the mean of the final vernier readings. Since the
deflection angle is thus doubled, one-half of this average value
gives the value of the deflection angle at B.
In this process errors of adjustment of the instrument are
eliminated, since the telescope is transitted twice; errors of
eccentricity of the centres and verniers are eliminated, as both
verniers are read. A check is also provided against mistakes,
since one-half of the mean of the final readings of the verniers
should agree very closely with the approximate value previ-
ously obtained.
To Observe a Magnetic Bearing of a Line :-(Fig. 184).
To observe the bearing of a line AB,
(1) set up the instrument over A and level it accurately.
(2) Set the vernier A to the zero of the circle.
Unc1amp the lower plate and release the magnetic
needle. Rotate the instrument about its outer
axis until the magnetic needle takes its normal
position, i. e. the zeros of the small scales in the
trough compass or the N. and S. graduations in
the circular box compass are opposite the ends
of the needle. Clamp the lower plate and by
Fig. 184 turning the lower tangent screw, bring the
zero graduation into exact coincidencc with the north end of
the needle. The telescope is now pointing to the magnetic
north, while the vernier A reads zero. The instrument is then
said to be oriented on the magnetic meridian.
(3) Loosen the upper plate. Turn the telescope and bisect
he station B exactly by using the upper clamp and its tangent
crew.
(4) Read both verniers. The mean of the two readings
gives the magnetic bearing of the line AB.
Observations should be made with both faces of the instni.
ment especially when a round of bearings is to be taken.
TRAVERSE SURVEYING
221
To Measure a vertical Angle :-A vertical angle is the

angle between..the inclined line of sight and the horizontal. Since
the vertical angle to a point is measured from the horizontal
plane passing through the horizontal (or trunnion) axis of the
instrument, it may be an angle of elevation (+angle) or an
angle of depression (- angle) according as the point is above or
below the horizontal plane.
To measure the vertical angle of an object A at a station 0,
(1) set up the instrument over 0 and level it accurately
with reference to the altitude bubble.
(2) Set the zero of the vertical vernier exactly to the zero
of the vertical circle by means of the vertical circle clamp and
tangent screw.
(3) Bring the bubble of the altitude level to the centre
of its run by means of the clip screws. The line of collimation
is thus made horizontal, while the vernier reads zero.
(4) I~oosen the vertical circle clamp and direct the telescope
towards the object A and when it is sighted approximately,
clamp the vertical circle and bisect A exactly (the horizontal
cross-hair set exactly on A) by turning the tangent screw.
(5) Read both verniers. The mean of the two readings
gives the value of the required angle.
(6) Change the face of the instrument and repeat the process.
The mean of the two vernier readings gives the second value of
the required angle.
The average of the two values thus obtained, gives the value
of the required angle which is free from instrumental errors.
To measure the vertical angle between two points A and B,
(1) bisect A as before, and note the reading on the ver-
tical circle.
(2) Similarly, bisect B and note the reading on the ver-
tical circle.
(3) The sum or difference of these readings will give the
value of the angle between A and B according as one of the
points is above and the other below the horizontal plane (in
which case one reading will be above and the other below the
zero), or both points are on the same side of the horizontal plane
is to be prplonged with high precision or when the instrument

is in poor adjustment.
Fig. 187
Suppose the line AB is to be prolonged to some point M.
(1) Set up the theodolite over B and level it very carefully.
(2) With both upper and lower motions clamped, back-
sight on A by using the lower clamp and tangent screw
(the telescope being in its normal position).
(3) Transit the telescope and establish a point Cl ahead
in line.
(4) Unclamp the lower plate, revolve the telescope about
its vertical axis and backsight on A by means of the
lower clamp and tangent screw, the telescope being
in its inverted position.
(5) Transit the telescope and set a point C2 in line beside
the point Ct. The point C2 will be as far on one side
of the true prolongation of AB as Cl on the other.
Hence the true point C will be exactly midway between
Cl and C2 •
(6) Measure Ct C 2 and establish a point C exactly midway,
which will be on the true prolongation of AB.
(7) Move the instrument to C, double-sight on Band
establish the points Dl and D 2 • Set the true point D
exactly midway. ,
(8) Repeat the process until the point M is established.
Balancing-in :-When it is required to establish an inter-
mediate point on the line whose ends are not intervisible, but
visible from some intervening point on the line, the intermedi-
ate point may be located by trial as follows : -
In Fig. 188 a, A and B are the ends of the line AB, which
are not visible from each other, but which can be seen from the
intermediate point C. To locate the point C on the line AB.
TRA TEItSE SURVEYING
-
., ---------------- -------- 1
~·-------------14
!I.e- ' ,
Fig. ISS a
(1) set up the theodolite at a. point CI as nearly in line as
can be estimated.
(2) Take a backsight on A and transit the telescope. Locate
the point Bl where the line of sight strikes.
(3) Measure or esti~ate the distance BBl' Estimate
the amount (CCI) by which the instrument has to be shifted
laterally.
(4) Move the instrument the estimated amount CCI and
repeat the process until the line of sight strikes B when the
telescope is transited. The point vertically beneath the centre
of the instrument is the required point.
(5) Check its location by double-reversing. If the in-
strument is not in perfect adju~tment, a second point will be
found. The correct point will then be halfway between the two.
(;
o-=----------~;----:~~~
A - - --_---- .B
C'e
Fig. 188 b
Thus in Fig. 188b, CI is the first position of the centre of
the instrument when the telescope was normal, and ClI the second
position when the telescope waS inverted. C is the correct
point on the line AB.
Random Line :-To run a straight line between two points
which are neither intervisible nor visible from any intermediate
point : -
P. I-8
Fig. 18~1
In Fig. 189, An is a straight line along whIch it is requited t

establish intermediate points d, e, and f. But because of the
ground being thickly wooded or hilly, it is neither possible io
see B directly from A nor to find any intermediate point from
which both A and B can be seen. In such a case, the random·
line method is employed.
Procedure :-(1) Run a straight line AC, called a trial or
random line by the method of double-sighting to a point C from
which B is yisible as nearly towards B as can be jUdged.
(2) Set up the transit at C and measure the angle BCA (e)
(3) Measure AC and CB.
(4) To locate d on AB, set up the instrument at D on
AC. Layoff tIie angle ADd equal to (J and set the point d f' ,
a distance (Dd) equal to CB X_~~ •• The point d is then on t

AC
line AB.
(5) SimHarly, set other points e and f.
(
Ee = ~_J3
X AE_; Ff = CB X AF).
AC AC
Alternative Method :-Steps 1 to 3 are the Same as in thl
above method.
(4) Compute the angle CAB ( o() from the known lengths
of AC and CB, and the angle BCA «(J).
(5) Set up the instrument at A and bisect C exactly. Turn
off the computed angle ( o() and establish the points d, e, and j
at the desired positions. If this line fails to strike B exactly,
the intermedittte points d, e, f. are proportionally shifted laterally
so as to bring them on line.
Intersection of Two Straight Lines :-To locate the
point of intersection P of the two lines AB and CD (Fig. 190 a),
proceed as follows : -
Fig. 190 a. Fig. 190 h.
(1) Set up the theodolite at A, and bisect B exactly.
(The theodolite may be set up at B and A bisected).
(2) Set stakes a and b (with wire-nails or tacks) a short dis-
talll~e apart on either side of the estimated position of P on AB.
(8) Shift the instrument and 1>et it up at C. Bisect D exactly.
(4) Stretch a string between a and b, and mark the point
P where the line of sight strikes the string.
When the point of intersection P falls on the prolongation
of both the lines of AB and CD (Fig. 190b), the following proce-
dure is adopted.
(1) Set up the theodolite at A, and bisect B exactly.
(2) Drive stakes a and b on the prolongation of AB close
enough on opposite sides of the estimated position of the point
of intersection P.
(8) Shift the instrument and.set it up at D. Bisect C exactly.
(4) Stretch a string between a and b, and mark the point
P at the intersection of the line of sight and the string.
If the lines AB and CD are long, the instrument is set up
at B, and the stakes a and b are set by the method of double-
sighting. Similarly, the instrument is set up at C, and a back
sight is taken on D. The telescope is then plunged to mark
the point P.
To layoff a Horizontal An~le :-Suppose it is required to
layoff the angle APB, say, 45°~34'. Proceed as follows:-
(1) Set up the instrument at P. Level it accurately.
0
(2) Set the vernier A to 360 by means of the upper clamp
and slow motion (or tangent) screw.
\
\
-- . .---~"'''_~'''
.
i «
(3) Turn the instrument and direct the telescope to A.
Tighten the lower clamp and bisect it exactly by turning the lower
tangent screw. (Check the vernier reading, which should be zero).
(4) Loosen the upper clamp and turn the upper plate
until the index (the arrow) of the vel'llier A m:arly reads the
angle to be set out (i. e. 45° 34'). Clamp the upper plate and
set the vernier exactly t.o the given reading (45° 34') by turning
the upper tangent screw. The line of sight is thus set in the
required direction PB.
(5) Depress the telescope and establish the point B in
the line of sight as explained in Lining-in.
Laying off an Angle by Repetition :-There is no direct
method of laying off an angle by repetition. The following
indirect method is, therefore, commonly employed.
In Fig. 191, PA is a fixed line, and the angle APB, say 54°
23' 36" is to be laid oft' with a transit
reading to the nearest minute. Then
the procedure is as follows:-
(1) Set up the transit at P, and
p~~~----~--~
with the vernier A set to 0°, bisect A
Fig. 191 exactly.
(2) Unelamp the vernier plate, and set the vernier A{exactl Y
to 54° 23' by means of the upper clamp and tangen screw.
Establish a temporary tacked stake at the point C on the line
of sight. This angle APC laid oft' by a single setting is 54° 23'.
(3) Measure this angle (APC) by repetition as precisely
as required (say, 6 repetitions). Suppose the value of the APe
as obtained by repetition is 54° 23' 12".
(4) Find the difference between the desired angle and this
value (54° 23' 36" - 54° 23' 12" = 24"). This difference gives the
angular correction to be applied to the angle APC in order to
layoff the desired angle APE. The correction cannot be made
by angular measurement, as it is too small. It is made by linear
measurement.
(5) Measure PC; suppose it is 500 ft. Calculate the per-
pendicular offset CD. CD =PC tan 24" = 500 tan 24" = 0·06 ft.
It is well to remember that tan I' = o· 0003 very nearly.
(6) Establish the point D by measuring the offset CD
(0·06 ft.) very carefully beside C. The anglc APB is then the
desired angle (54 0 23' 36").
(7) As a check, measure the angle APB by repetition.
Traverse Survey with the Theodolite
In theodolite· traversing, the field work eonsisting of (i)
reconnaissance, (ii) selection, marking, and referencing of stations,
(iii) running of survey lines, (iv) picking up of the detail, and
(v) booking of field notes is much the same as for compass
traversing. For linear measurements, the steel tape is generally
used.
The methods by which the relative directions of the lines
of a traverse may be determined are:
,
(1) By the meaSUrel?ent of angles between successive lines.
(II) By the direct observation of bearings of the lines.
The former is generally used for long traverses, or where
high precision is required, while the latter is uscd f()r short traverses
where great precision is not required, and for topographical
surveys.
In the first method the angles between successive lines
are measured, and the bearing of the initial line observed. The
bearings of the remaining lines are t!len calculated from the
observed bearing and the measured angles.
The angles measured at the different stations may be
(1) includcd angles, (2) direct angles or angles to the right, and
(3) deflection angles.
1. Direct Obsenation of Angles
Traversing by the Method of Included Angles :-This
method is chiefly used in land surveying. Where great accuracy
is requircd, it is invariably used as the angles (~an be measured
by the method of repetition to any desired degree of precision.
In this method the bearing of the initial line, and the included
angles of a traverse are measured. In a closed traverse the angles
measured are either interior or exterior according as the traverse
is run in a counter-clockwise direction (Fig. 192a) or in a clock-
wise direction as in Fig. 192b. It is, however, customary to
run a closed traverse in a counter-clockwise direction.
s s
Fig. 192 a Fig. 192 b
Procedure :-In running the traverse ABCDEFGH, the

theodolite is set up over the first station A and the bearing of the
line AB is observed as already explained. The angle HAB is
then measured by taking a backsight on the preceding station H
and a foresight on the forward station B, turning the telescope
clockwise. Both verniers are then read. The mean on the
two vernier readings gives the required angle HAB. Face left
and face right observations should be made to eliminate t~e
instrumental errors. The theodolite is then moved to each 01;
the successive stations B, C, etc., and the angles ABC, BCD, etc.,
are measured in a similar manner. The lines AB, BC, etc., are
measured with the tape or chain, and the offsets necessary to
locate the boundary and other details are taken in the usual
way and recorded in the field book. Where great accuracy is
required, the angles should be measured by repetition (three
repetitions with the telescope normal and three with the tele-
scope inverted) as already described. The angular obser-
vations are recorded in the t~ form given below:
TRA VERSE SURVEYING
Theodolite Traverse Survey Near
2 3 5
Reading on verniers
Mean
A I B
Instrument Object "Face.
TTT
Station. I
o 1/ I 0 I II o /I
"'_-~---I---'-;--------'-~II~II~ I
Observer Date : -
6 7 8 9
Angle. Mean Angle. Whole Circle Remarks.

Bearing.
- /I o 1/
I I
I
I
I r
Locating Details :-On nearly all theodolite surveys, especi-

ally in city surveys, the details such as the frontages of buildings,
distant and inaccessible .. objects, etc., are located from traverse
lines with the transit and tape. The following angular methods
are in most common use:
(1) Locating by Angle and Distance from Transit Station:-

In this method the transit is set up at the given transit
station A, and the angles between the traverse line AB and the
corners of the building such as a, b, etc., are measured, and the
corresponding distances Aa, Ab, etc., are measured as shown in
:Fig. 198 a. Curves of large radii or irregular curves are located by
,if!
,... I J
, .... , \', I " / '

'.::&:"
A T O .sTATION..8
.-
Fig. 193 a Fig. 193 b
SURVEYIKG AND LEVELLING
A
Fig. 194 Fig. 195
angles and distances as in Fig. 193 b. For each angle two points
such as 1, l' ; 2, 2' ; etc., are located by measuring the distances
AI, AI'; A2, A2'; etc., from the transit station A.
(2) Locating by Angle from one Station and Distance from
Another : -
This method is useful when the direct measureinent of the
distance from the transit station at which the angle to the object
is measured, is not possible owing to some intervening obstacle.
In such a case, the transit is set up at the given station A, and
the angle between the traverse line AB and the corn~r f of the
building is observed, and the distance from some convenient
intermediate station a to the corner f is measured as in Fig. 194.
(3) Locating by Anglesfrom Two Stations :-Fig. 195 illustra-
tes the method of locating distant or inaccessible objects visible
from at least two transit stations. The transit is set up at the
transit station A, and the angle to the object such as t is mea-
sured. Similarly, the angle to t is measured at another tran-
sit station B. It may be noted that in this method no linear
measurements except of the traverse line are required.
(2) Traversing by the Method of Direct Angles:-
This method is mostly used on open traverses. To run an open tra-
verse shown in Fig. 182, the theodolite is set up at the starting
station A and the bearing of the line AB is observed. The
theodolite is then moved to B. With the vernier A set to zero.
a backsight is taken on the preceding station A. U nclamping
the upper plate and turning the telescope clockwise, a foresight is
taken on the following station C, and both verniers are read. The
mean of the vernier readings gives the required angle ABC.
The other angles are read in a like manner. The traverse angles
are checked by doubling as explained on page 218. The lines
AB, BC, etc., are chained and)the necessary offsets taken in the
usual way. )
(3) Traversine by the Method of Deflection Ang,les:-

This method is chiefly employed on open traverses. It is most
suitable when the survey lines make small deflection angles with
each other as in the case of surveys for roads, railways, canals,
and pipe lines.
Suppose it is required to run a traverse from the station
A as in .Fig. 183. The theodolite is set up at the station A and
the bearing of the line AB is observed. The instrument is then
moved to station B and a backsight is taken on A with the vernier
A set to zero. The telescope is then transited and a foresight is
taken on e by releasing the upper plate and turning the telescope
clockwise. Both verniers are then read, and the mean of these
readings gives the deflection angle of Be from AB. The direc-
tion of its measurement is carefully noted in the field book
thus,.-< 1 R. The theodolite is then set up at each of the successive
stations e, D, E, etc., and the deflection angles are observed as
already described, and recorded in the field book. The routine of
running survey lines and ofTseting is the same as already
explained.
It must be remembered that in this method the deflection
angles are measured to the right (clockwise) or to the left (anti-
clockwise) of the back line produced and the direction of their
measurement must be very carefully noted in the field book.
To eliminate errors of adjustment and possible mistakes, the
angles are usually doubled as already explained on page 219.
II. Direct observation of Bearing,.
Traversing, by the Fast Needle Method :-There are three
methods of Observing bearings
directly in the field :
(a) Direct rnethod in which
the telesope is transited.
(b) Direct rnethod in which
the telescope is not transited.
(c) Back bearing method.
(a) First method : -
(Fig. 196). (1) Set up the theo-
Fig. 196 dolite at A and level it. Set the
vernier A to zero. Point the telescope to the magnetic north

as indicated by the needle of the trough compass by using the
lower clamp and tangent screw.
(2) Loosen the upper clamp and sight B exactly by the
upper clamp and tangent serew, and read the vernier A which
gives the bearing of AB, say 55°. The bearing of the last line
is also observed and noted as a check, if the traverse is closed.
(3) Move the instrument and set it up at B. See that the
vernier A still reads the bearing of AB, i. e. 55°. If the rea-
ding differs due to slip of the plates during transfer of tIie in~tni
ment, correct the reading with the upper tangent screw.··
. (4) Using the lower clamp and tangent screw, backsight on A.
(5) Transit the telescope. On transiting the tel~scope I
the line of sight is directed along AB produced and the vernier
A still reads the bearing of An. Hence the instrument is correctly
oriented. Release the upper clamp, turn the telescope, and bisect
C exactly by means of the upper clamp and tangent ~crew.
(6) Read the vernier A. This reading equals the bearing
of BC, say noo.
(7) 1Vith the vernier A clamped at 110° , transfer the
instrument to C and repeat the process.
As a check upon the accuracy of work in a closed traverse,
the bearing of the last line, say NA is observed at the first sta-
tion A and its bearing taken at the last station, say N must
differ exactly by 180°.
It is well to note here the following points:
(1) The telescope is inverted for alternate back sights and
foresights. Thus, for a foresight from A to B and a back sight
from B to A, the telescope is normal, for a foresight from B
to C and a backsight from C to B, the telescope is inverted;
for a foresight from C to D and a backsight from D to C, the
telescope is again normal, and so on.
(2) The line of sight (or collimation) must be in perfect
adjustment, i. e. exactly perpendicular to the horizontal (or trun-
nion) axis of the transit. If not, the inner included angles will
be too large or two small alternately. Thus suppose the line
TllA VERSE SURVEYING 235
of sigh~ is a little to the left of the longitudinal axis of the tele-

scope when the telescope is normal, and the error is 0(. Then
(a) The inner included angle at B will be too small by 2 0( ;
that at C too large by 2 0(; that at D too small by 2 0(, and
so on; and vice versa.
(b) The bearings of alternate lines are correct. Thus the

observed bearing of BC will be too small by 2 0( ; that of CD
correct; and so on; ~nd vice versa.
(3) The total displacement of the last point of the traverse

will bc roughly equal to perimeter of the traverse X sin 0(, if
the sides of the traverse are nearly equal.
(4) This method is to be preferred for an unclosed or open

traverse, as the distortion is small and remains undetected.
Alternative method :--The routine is exactly similar except

that at each station the telescope is transited before a back-
sight is taken on the preceding station.
The following points should be noted:
(1) The telescope is in its normal position for each fore-

sight, and inverted for each backsight. Thus the foresight
from A to B is taken with the telescope normal, and the back-
sight from B to A with the telescope inverted ; the foresight
from B to C is taken with the telescope normal and the back-
sight from C to B with the telescope inverted, and so on.
(2) The line of sight must be exactly perpendicular to the

horizontal axis. Otherwise a constant angular error is intro·
duced at each station.
If not, (a) the inner included angle at each of the stations

will be too large by 2 -< .
(b) Assuming the bearing of AB td be correct, the bearing

of BC is too large by 2 -<, that of CD by 4 0(, and so on.
(3) The total angular error in a closed traverse will be

N X 2 0( , where N is the number of the sides of the traverse.
(4) The total displacement of the last point of the traverse

will be approximately equal to perimeter X 2 sin 0(.
(5) This method is preferable for a closed traverse even

though the distortion is greater, as (i} the total angular error
can be obtained by finding the difference between the actual
sum of the angles and their theoretic sum, or by finding the
difference of the bearings of the last line as observed at the first
and last stations, and (ii) the error can be accurately adjusted
by distributing it equally among all 'the angles.
(b) Second Method :-(Fig. 196). The procedure is similar

to that followc>d in the first method except that the telescope
at B is not transited after the backsight is taken on A, but
rotated in a horizontal plane to bisect C. The orientation at
B being 180° out, a correction of 180° has to be applied to the
0
reading of the vernier A taken at B. Add 180 if the reading
is less than 180°, and subtract 180 0 if the reading is greater than
0
180°. At C the orientation is 360 out and is, therefore, correct.
Hence there is no need to apply the correction of 180°. This
correction is necessary only at the even instrument stations,
i. e. 2nd, 4th, (ith, etc.
Instead of a,pplying the correction of 180 0 , opposite verniers
are read alternately. Thus, at A the vernier A is read; ~mhe
veTnieY B is yead', at C the VeynieT A. i", Tead; and at D, the
vernier B is read, and so on.
However, it is more convenient to read one vernier A throu-
ghout to guard against confusion, and apply the 1800 correction
than to read opposite verniers alternately.
It may be noted that in this method the telescope is rota-

ted in a horizontal plane to take a foresight on the forwarcl
station. This method is preferable in the case of a non~transit
instrument such as the Y or or Everest theodolite, or in the case
of the transit instrument when it is in poor adjustment.
(c) Back Bearing Method :-(Fig. 196).
(1) Set up the instrument at A and level it. Observe the

fore bettring of the line AB.
(2; Move the inf>trument, and set it up at B and level it.

(3) Set the vernier A to the back bearing of AB.
(4) With the vernier A kept clamped at the reading, back-
sight on A by using the lower clamp and tangent screw.
As the vernier A is set to the back bearing of AB, and
the line of sight is directed along BA, the instrument
is correctly oriented.
(5) Loosen the upper clamp and rotate the telescope in a
horizontal plane until it is directed to C. By using
the upper, clamp and tangent screw, bisect C exactly.
(6) Read the vernier A, which gives the bearing of BC.
(7) Repeat the process at each of the subsequent stations.
It may be remembered that in this method (i) the vernier
A is set to the back bearing of the preceding line at each station.
for orientation before a backsight is taken on the preceding
station, and (ii) the telescope is never transited, but simply rota-
ted horizontally for taking a foresight on the forward station.
In respect of speed there is little difference between the three
methods, while in point of accuracy, methods 2 and 3 are satis-
factory. The first method, though mechanical, is liable to errors
caused by imperfect adjustment of the line of collimation.
On the whole, the second method is the best.
Checks in Closed Traverse
(1) Check on Angular Measurements :-(a) Traverse by
included angles:
(i) The sum of the measured interior angles should equal
( 2N - 4) right angles.
(ii) The sum of the measured exterior angles should equal
( 2N + 4) right angles.
where N is the number of sides of the traverse.
In practice it seldom happens that the sum of the measured
angles is exactly equal to their theoretic sum. 'But there will
always be a small discrepancy which is called the angular error of
closure. It should not exceed least count of the instrument

X YN. This discrepancy is distributed equally among all the
angles. The angles thus corrected should satisfy the above
condition. If some of the lines of the traverse are· short, it is
• the correction to the angles adjacent to these
advisable to apply
lines, as they are more liable to errors than others.
(b) Traverse by deflection angles ;-The algebraic sum of the

deflection angles should equal 860°, considering the right-hand
deflection angles as positive and left-hand ones as negative.
(c) Traverse by direct observation of bearings :-The work

is checked by comparing the fore bearing of the last line with
its back bearing observed at the intitial station.
(2) Check on Linear Measurement :-As a precaution
against error in chaining, each line should be measured twice.
The two measurements should be made with the same accuracy
on different days and in opposite directions. In a closed traverse
the sum of the northings (distances measured north) should equal
the sum of the southings (distances measured south). Similarly,
the sum of the eastings (distances measured east) should be
equal to the sum of the westings ( distances measured west). If
there be any discrepancy, it indicates an error in chaininH'
Checks in Open Traverse :-In the case of an open traverse,
the measurements as a whole cannot be checked. However,
the field measurements can be checked approximately by the
following methods:
(1) The angular errors can be determined by astronomical
observations for azimuth at regular intervals during the progress
of the traverse.
(2) By running Cut-off lines between certain· intermediate
stations. Thus in Fig. 197, AF and FM are the cut-off lines, Both
angular and linear measurements of the part of the traverse
ABCDEF can be checked by observing the direction of AF both
at A and F and seeing if the difference between these hearings
is 180°, and also by measuring distance AF. Similarly, the
part of the traverse from F to M can be checked by taking the
fore and back bearings of the cut-off line FM and,by measuring it.
(3) . By observing at intervals the bearing of a well-defined

p:rominent object lying on one side of the traverse. Thus in
o Fig. 197, the bearing of the
. ( ~11 /"'1', object 0 is observed from
, .' \',
.'mit \ " stations A, F, and M. The
II
_;__ _ _ E \ \ " , " co-ordinates of 0 can be
, ... obtained from the observed
A , i}
~ measurements of the tra-
verse ABCDEFO. Knowing
Fig, 197
the co-ordinates of 0 and
M, the bearing of MO can be calculated. The traverse from A
to M can be checked by comparing the computed bearing of
MO with its observed bearing, or by comparing the two computed
values of the co-ordinates of O.
The methods 2 and 3 of checking the open traverse are
employed wherever practicable. The method 1 is used for
he eking a long open traverse where great precision is required.
- Calculation of Bearings from Angles :-(a) Included Angles
Fig. 198
(Fig. 198) : In a traverse run by the method of included angles,
the whole circle bearing of the initial line is observed, and the
various included angles between the successive lines are measured
clockwise. The angles measured may be interior or exterior angles
according as the traverse is run in a counter-clockwise or clockwise
direction respectively. In both cases the W. C. bearings of
the remaining lines may be calculated by the following rule :
Rule :-(i) To the known whole circle bearing of any line,
add the included angle between that line and the next line.
240 SURVEYING AND LEVEI,LING
(ii) If the sum is greater than 180°, subtract 180 0 (Figs.l

C 198a &, b); while if the sum is less thn 1
180", add 180°. (Fig. 198c).
(iii) The result gives the whole
circle bearing of the next line.
N In some cases it so happens that
the sum of the bearing and the
included angle is greater than 540·.
A In such a case, 180 0 should be
subtracted as usual; the result being
greater than 360°, 860· should be sub-
tracted from it to get the bearing of
Fig. 198 0 the line. It may be noted that the
value greater than 360° is quite correct, e. g. a hearing of 400"
means one complete revolution plus 40°, (860° + 40").
Check on Calculation work :-Calculate the bearing of the
initial line, which should agree with its observed bearing.
The rule is applicable for included angles measured clockwise
from the back station.
Example 1 :-The following are the interior angles of a
closed traverse ABCDE:
LA, 87° 50' 20·; LB, 114 0 55' 40"; LC, 94° 88' 50" ;
LD, 129 0 40' 40"; LE, 112° 54' 30·.
If the observed bearing of AB is 221 0 18' 40", calculate the
bearings of the remaining sides of the traverse.
By the Rule, we have
Bearing of AB = 221 0 18' 40" Bearing of DE = 20° 33' 50"
Add LB = 114 55 40 Add LE = 112 54 30
836 14 20 133 • 28 20
Deduct 180 0 0 Add 180 0 0
Ii
Bearing of BC = 156 14 20 Bearing of EA = 313 28 20

Add LC= 94 88 50 Add LA= 87 50 20
250 53 10 401 18 40
Deduct = 180 0 0 Deduct 180 0 0
Bearing of CD = 70 53 10 Bearing of AB 221 0 18' 40~
Add LD = 129 40 40
200 33 50 which agrees with the observed
Deduct = 180 0 0 bearing of AB and, therefore,
Bearing of DE = 20 83 50 checks the arithmetical work.
Example 2 :-The following angles were measured in run-

ning a closed traverse ABCDE in a clockwise direction:
Station. Included angle (exterior).
A 291° 33'
B 225 13
C 211 36
D 300 26
E 231 12
Compute the bearings of the remaining sides of the tra-
verse, given that the observed bearing of AB was 100 12',
Applying the Rule, we get
Bearing of AB = 10° 12' Bearing of DE = 207 0 27'
Add LB = 225 13 Add LE = 231 12
235 25 438 39
Subtract 180 0 Subtract 180 o
-~~~
Bearing of BC - 55 25 Bearing of EA = 258 39
Add LC = 211 36 Add LA = 291 33
267 1 -5-5-0-~12~
Subtract 180 0 Subtract 180 o

Bearing of CD - 87 1 370 12
Add LD = 300 26 Subtract 360 o
387 27 Bearing of AB _ 100 12'
Subtract 180 0 which agrees with the obser-
ved bearing of AB and checks
Bearing of DE = 207 27 the arithmetical work.
Example 3 :-Below are given the Lack angles:
station B : 164 0 36' ; station C: 196 0 12' ; station D : 170 0 24',
Find the azimuths of the remaining lines, given that the fore
azimuth of AB is 36° 18'.
Azimuth of AB = 36° 18' Azimuth of CD 37° 6'
Add LB = 164 36 Add LD 170 24
200 54 20730
Subtract 180 0 Subtract 180 0
Azimuth ofBC = 20 54 Azimuth of DE - 27° 30'
Add LC = 196 12
217 6
Subtract. 180 0
Azimuth of CD = 37 6 J
(b) Deflection An~les :-From the known whole circle

bearing of the initial line, and the deflection angles, the whole •
circle bearings of the' remaining lines of the traverse may be calcu-
lated by the following rule :
W. C. B. of any line = W. C. B. of the preceding line± d
where d = the deflection angle.
Use plus sign when the deflection angle is right (clockwise),
and minus sign when it is left ( counter-clockwise ).
Add 360° if the result is negative, and subtract 360° if it
is greater than 360°.
Thus, in Fig. 199,
bearing of BC = bearing of AB + 0( l'
bearing of CD = bearing of BC - 0( 2'
IV
s
Fig. 199
Note :-Quadrantal bearings should be converted to whole
circle bearings before the application of the rule.
Check on Calculation Work :-Considering the right-hand
deflection angles as positive and the left-hand ones as negative,
the computations may be checked by the following relation:
Bearing of the last line = forward bearing of the initial line
+ (the sum of positive deflection angles)
- (the sum of negative deflection angles).
Example 1 :-A traverse is run from A to G and the de-

flection angles are as follows :
At station B, 32° 16' L; C, ISO 34' R; D, 22° 12' L;
E, 42° 24' R; F, 52° 42' R.
Compute the bearings of the remaining lines of the traverse,
given that the forward bearing of the AB is 110° 6'.
~
"
The bearings of the remaining lines may be calculated by the

application of the Rule :
,
Bearing of a line = bearing -of the preceding line ± deflection
angle.
Therefore, we have
Bearing of AB = llO° 6'
Deduct deflection LB= 32° 16' (left deflection)
Bearing of BC 77° 50'
.;' "
Add deflection LC ISo 34' (right deflection)
Bearing of CD 96° 24'
+',
(t, : Deduct deflection LD= 22 0 12' (left deflection)
i
eyh, Bearing of DE 74° 12'
tJ Add deflection LE= 42° 24' (right deflection)
j;,:, Bearing of EF = 116° 36'
<'
~! Add deflection LF= 52° 42' (right deflection)
ct, Bearing of FG = 169 18' 0
Check : -Bearing of the last line = bearing of the first line

+ ~ Right deflection angle - ~ left deflection angle.
~ right deflection angle = 18° 34' + 42° 24' + 52° 42' = 113° 40'
~ left deflection angle = 32° 16' + 22° 12' = 54° 28'
Bearing of AB
Add ~ right deflection angle = 113° 40'

Sum = 223 0 46'
Deduct ~ left deflection angle = 54°2S'
Bearing of FG = 169 0 IS'
Example 2 :-The following deflection angles were mea-

sured in running a traverse from A to G.
244 SURVEYING AND LEVELLIl'G
Station. Deflection angle. Station. Deflection angle.

B 23° 47' R E ~: i/
15° 38' R.
C 18° 19' L F !l,
10° 12° L
D 37° 20' R
If the true bearing of AB is N 62° 18' E, calculate the true
bearings of the remaining sides.
By the rule, we get
True bearing of AB = N. 62° IS' E. :. W. C. B. of AB = 62° IS'.
. "
ofBC +
= true bearing of AB deflection angle at B.
= 62° 18' + 23° 47' = 86° 5' = N. 86° 5' E.
of CD = true bearing of BC - deflection angle at C.
" "
= 86° 5' - 18° 19' = 67° 46' = N. 67° 46' E.
of DE = true bearing of CD + deflection angle at D.
" " = 67° 46' + 37° 20'= 105° 6'=8. 74° 54' E.
ofEF = true bearing of DE + deflection angle at E.
" "
= 105°6'+ 15° 38;= 120° 44'=8.59° 16' E.
ofFG = true bearing ofEF - deflection angle at F.
" " = 120° 44' _10° 12' =110° 32' = d. 69°28' E •
•
Check :-Bearing of the last line = bearing of the first line
+ ~ right deflection angle - ~ left deflection angle.
~ right deflection angle = 23° 47' + 37° 20' +15 0 38' = 76° 45'.
~ left deflection angle = 18° 19' + 10° 12' = 28° 31'.
Bearing of FG= 62° 18' +76° 45' - 28° 31' =1l0° 32'
= S. 69° 28' E.
Calculation of Deflection Angles from Included Angles:-

The deflection angles may be calculated from the included
angles measured clockwise from the back station by the appli-
cation of the following rules : -
(i) If the included angle is greater than 180°, the deflection
angle is right·hand or positive, and is given by
d = 6 - 180°,
where d = the deflection angle; 6 = the included angle.
(ii) If the included angle is less than 180°, the deflection

mgle is left-hand or negative, and is given by
d = 180° - e.
Example 3 :-The interior angles of a closed traverse
ABCDEF are as follows:
LA, 60° 40'; LB, 201° 38'; LC,93° 19'; LD, 69° 48' ;
{£, 'noo 13' ; and LF, 84° 22'.
What are the deflection angles of. tile traverse ~
It will be seen from the sketch of the traverse that the
deflection angle at station B = 201 0 38' -180° = 21 ° 38' R.
C = 180°- 93° 19' = 86° 41' L.
" " " D = 180 0
69° 48' =110 12' L.
0
" . " " E =

-
210° 13'-180° = 30° 13' R.

" " F =
180°- 84° 22' = 95° 38' L.
'( " " " A = 180°- 60° 40' =119° 20' L.
," " "
". Check : -The algebraic sum of the deflection angles of a
"closed traverse must equal 360°.
~ right deflection angle = 21° 38' + 30° 13' = 51 ° 51',
~ left deflection angle = 86° 41' + HO° 12' + 95° 38' + 119° 20'
= 411 051'.
Algebraic sum = ~L- ~R = 411° 51'- 51° 51' =360°,
(considering right-hand deflections ~"l of sign opposite to left-
hand deflections).
Example 4 :-The following are the back angles (included
angles) of part of an open traverse ABCDE :
At a station B, 246° 32'; C, 158° 24'; D, 171° 38'; E.199° 48'.
Compute the deflection angles.
l; It is evident from the figure that the
,deflection angle at station B = back angle - 1800
=
246° 32' - 180 0 = 66° 32' R.
.. " " "
C = 180 0 - back angle
= 180° - 158 0 24' = 21° 36' L.
.. " " "
D = 1800 - back angle
= 180° - 171° 38' - 8° 22' L.
deflection angle at station E = back angle-180°

= 199° 48' -180° = 19° 48' R.
Example 5 :-The following bearings were observed in a
compass traverse:
Line. Bearing. Line. Bearing.
AB N. 52° 't5' E. DE N. 46° 45' E.
BC N. 34° 30' E. EF S. 82° 0' E.
CD S. 85° ]5' E.
Calculate the deflection angles.
Draw a sketch showing the relative positions of the lines
of the traverse from which it will be seen that the
deflection angle at B = bearing of AB - bearing of BC
= 52° 45' - 34° 30' = 18° IS' L.
at C = 180°- (bearing of BC + bearing of CD)
" " +
= 180° - (34° 30' 85° 15') = 60° 15' R.
" "
at D = 180°- (beariI'lg of CD + bearing of DE)
= 180° - (85° 15' + 46° 45') = 48° 0' L.
" "
at E = 180° - (bearing of DE + bearing of EF)
= 180 0 - (46° 45' + 82° 0') = 51 ° IS' R.
Relation between Precision of Angular and Linear
Measurements :
As already explained, the choice of instruments and methods
to be used for angular and linear measurements depends
mainly upon the degree of precision required, which depends
upon the purpose of the survey. Having decided this it should
be seen that the precision of angular measurements corresponds
with the precision of linear measurements, i.e. the effect of error
in angular measurements will be the same as that of error in
linear measurements. Thus in Fig. 200,
suppose the point D is to be located with
respect to the line AB by the angle BAD
and the distance AD. If both angular
and linear measurements are without an
B error, the point D represents its true posi-
Fig. 200 tion. But due to the angular error 30
and the linear error n, the point D is displaced to D 1 •
~
N ow the displacement of the point D due to the angular

error (36) = DD2 = I tan 06, where I is the distance AD.
The error in the measured distance AD = n = D 2D 1 •
In order that the precision of angular measurements should'
be consistent with that of the linear measurements,
DD2 O=~ D2Dl or I tan 06 = n.
Tan R6 = ~-.
1
The allowable error in linear measurement is usually
expressed as a ratio. If the precision of linear measurements-
be given, the corresponding allowable error in angular measure-
ments can be determined by the above relation. Thus for
example, if the precision of linear measurements is , __1, __ , the

5000
allowable angular error is tan- l 1___ or 41". The angle should,
__
5000
therefore, be measured to the nearest 30". If the allowable
angular error is 1', the corresponding precision of linear measure-
ments is tan I' or _ 1_ (i. e. about 0-3 ft. per 1000 ft.).
3440
The following table gives (i) the allowable linear error in ft.
in 1000 ft. for a given angular precision, and (ii) the permissible
angular error for a given ratio of precision.
~n~l:~_~~r~~t~inear error r__~~tio. _

l
I' 0'291 1
3440
1
30" 0·145
6880
1
20" 0-097
10300
1
10" 0-049 20600
Precision of Theodolite Traversing
Angular error Total linear

'"'" Traverse for of cloBure not error of closure Remarks.
D to exceed not to exceed
----_-_.
i
1 \ (i) land surveys, I I'VN 1 in 3000 • N = number of
~ angles.
, (ii) location of I
I ~"'.
etc. nillW'Y"~ Linear measure·
ments are taken
I with a tape.
I
2 (i) surveys ofim· 30* VN 1 in 5000

portant boun·
daries,
(ii) survey work in
cities,
--
3 I (i) important sur· WVN 1 in 10,000
veys,
(ii) accurate survey .
work in citieR,
. I
Sources of Error in Theodolite Work:-The sources of error

in theodolite ob&ervations may be elassified as :-(1) instrumental,
(2) personal (or observational), and (3) natural.
Instrumental Errors :-The instrumental errors are due to
(i) imperfect adjustment of the instrument, and (ii) structural
defects in the instrument. The adjustments of a theodolite
being very delicate, perfect adjustment of the instrument is not
possible in spite of utmost care taken in making the adjustments.
Consequently, very small errors remain unadjusted and these are
called residual errors. It is, therefore, essential to conduct the
field work in such a manner that the effects of residual errors
of adjustment are eliminated. The following are the errors
due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument.
(i) Error due to non-adjustment of plate levels :-When the
plate bubbles, which are not perpendicular to the vertical axis
are centred, the vertical axis of the instrument will not be truly
vertical, and errors will be introduced in the measurements of
TRAVERSE SURVEYING ~49
both horizontal and vertical angles. As a result, the horizontal

circle is inclined. Hence angles are measured in an inclined
plane and not in a horizontal plane. The error is serious when
horizontal angles between points at considerably different
elevations are to be measured. The error may be minimised by
levelling the instrument carefully with reference to the altitude
bubble or the telescope bubble.
(ii) Error due to the line of collimation not being perpendicular
to the horizontal axis :-If the line of collimation is not perpendi-
cular to the horizontal axis, it will not revolve in a plane, but will
trace out the surface of a cone instead of a plane when the tele-
scope is revolved on the horizontal axis (i.e. raised or lowered).
The trace of the intersection of the conical surface with the
vertical plane containing the point sighted will be hyperbolic.
As a result of this error, horizontal angles when measured
between points at widely different elevations will be in error. In
Fig. 201, suppose the angle between two points P and Q is being
measured and P is considerably higher than Q. P is the point
to which a sight is taken from A and 0( the
p vertical angle to P. PI' a point vertically
below P, and Q are assumed to be at the
same level as the horizontal axis. Suppose
the cross-hairs are a little on the left of the
-4-";":".J;..--
axis. Then if the telescope is lowered down
after bisecting P, the hyperbola traced out
will cut PIQ in a point P 2 to the right of
PI as shown in the figure. Thus the
Fig. 201, measured angle will be that between P 2
and Q instead of the true horizontal angle between PI and Q,
and is, therefore, too small. The error (e) thus introduced is
given by e = f3 sec 0(, where f3 is the error in collimation and
0( is the vertical angle to P. On changing face of the instrument,
the telescope becomes inverted and the cross-hairs are now
on the right of the axis. The hyperbola will now cut P 1 Q in a
point P a to the left of Pl. Consequently, the measured angle
will be that between P 3 and Q and is, therefore, too large. How-
ever, the correct angle between PI and Q may be obtained by
averaging the two observed values. A similar error (e' = f3 sec 0( ')
is introduced in the direction of the inclined sight AQ, 0( 'being the
vertical angle to Q. The to1(ii1 error involved in the measurement

of the angle between P and ~ is, therefore, equal to {3 (sec" -
sec" '). It is evident that the error is zero when 0( = 0(' or
both " and ,,' are each equal to zero, i. e. when both sights are
at the same.altitude (P and Q are at the Same level), or horiz~tal.
It may be noted that the error may be eliminated by taking
face left and face right observations of the angle and taking and
the mean of the observed values. The error introduced in the
measurement of vertical angles is negligible m ordinary
observations.
(iii) Error due to the horizontal axis not bcin!!, perpendicular
to l'ertical axis :-If the horizontal axis is not perpendicular to
the vertical axis, the line of collimation will not revolve in a ver-
tical plane as the telescope is raised or lowered. The resulting
angular error affects both horizontal and vertical angles, and
depends upon (i) the inclination of the horizontal axis to the
perpendicular to the vertical axis, and (ii) the vertical angle
to the point sighted. The error is considerable when points
between which horizontal angles are to be measured are at
very different elevations. The magnitude of the error may be
obtained thus.
In Fig. 202, P is the point to which a sight is taken from
r' A. 0( is the observed vertical angle to P. {3 if;
• the inclination of the horizontal axis to the
perpendicular to the vertical axis (error in the
horizontal axis). PI is the point vertically below
P. AP 2 is the direction of AP or API wrongly
recorded by the horizontal circle. (The hori-
zontal line of sight has to be placed along AP 2 in
order to bisect P when the telescope is raised).
A Then the angular error in direction = e = the
Fig. 202 angle P IAP2 •
PP
Now Tane = -!~; but P I P 2 = PPI tan {3, and PP1=AP1tan ".
API
AP I tan " tan {3
Tan e = .- _ - = tan {3 tan 0(.
API
or e = {3 tan ", since e and {3 are small.
If the vertical angle to Q be 0( I, the angular error in
l
direction =. e = {J tan 0(I.
Whence, the error in the horizontal angle P AQ = e- e =

l
{J (tan 0( - tan 0( I), with due regard to the signs.

It is obvious that no error is introduced, if the two points
between which a horizontal angle is to be measured, are at
the same level. This error is more serious in its effect upon
horizontal angles than the preceding one.
The error is eliminated by making double face observa-
tions of the angle and by taking the mean of the two values.
(iv) Error due to non-parallelism of the axis of the telescope
level and the line of collimation :-If the line of collimation is not
parallel to the axis of the telescope bubble, the zero line of the
vertical verniers is not a true line of reference and consequently,
an error is introduced in the measurement of vertical angles.
The error is eliminated by taking the mean of two observations
of the required angle, one with the telescope normal and the
:other with the telescope inverted.
(v) Error due to eccentricity of centres (the inner and outer
axes) :-If the centre of the vernier plate
does not coincide with the centre of the
graduated circle, the angle read on either
vernier will be incorrect. In Fig. 203,
o is the centre of the graduated circle and
0
1
the centre of the vernier plate. d is
the position of one of the verniers when a
t, backsight is taken, and b its position when
Fig. 203 the telescope is turned through an angle
dolb. The arc db measures the angle dob and not the true
angle dolb.
Now do'b = deb - o'do and deb = dob +
o'bo.
dolb = dob+ o'bo - 0' do.
Similarly, co'a = coa+ o'co - olao.
But o'do = oleo; olbo = o'ao; dolb = cola.
Adding the two equations, we get
2 dolb = dob+ coa
or dolb = I (dob+ coa ).
•
i. e. the true angle is the mean of the values given ~ the ver-
niers. The error is eliminated by reading both verniers and
averaging the two values.
(vi) Error due to eccentricity of verniers :-This error arises
when the zeros of the verniers are not at the ends of the same
diameter. The verniers are eccentric, if there is a constant
difference other than 180 0 between their readings taken on
different parts on the graduated circle. The error is eliminated
by reading both verniers and taking the mean of the two values,
(vii) Errors of graduations :-This error arises when the

graduations on the scales are not exactly equidistant. The
error is minimised by measuring the angle several times on
different parts of the horizontal circle and taking the mean of
serveral observations.
(viii) If the vertical hair is not exactly vertical and stra-

ight, the part of the vertical hair nearer the horizontal hair
should be used in bisecting a signal.
'..
Personal Errors :-The personal errors include (1) errors

of manipulation, and (2) errors in sighting and reading.
Errors of Manipulation :-They include:
(i) Inaccurate Centering :-This error is introduced in

all angles measured at a given station, if the centre of the instru-
ment is not exactly over the station. The magnitude of the error
8 depends upon (i) the error of cen-
tering, (ii) the length of the sight, and
(iii) the position of the instrument
with respect to the station and the
object sighted. Thus in Fig. 204 if
the centre of the instrument is over
C' instead of over the station point C,
Fig. 204
the angle AC'B will be measured in-
stead of the required angle ACB. Now
LACB=LAC'B- 0< - {j, where 0< and,Bare the angles subten-
ded by CC' at A and B respectively. The value of 0< is maximum
when CC' is at right angles to CA. Similarly, the value of f3 is
maximum when CC' is perpendicular to CB. In this case, tan 0<
= CC'
___ and tan f3 = . wh'IC h CC" IS t h e error 0 f
CC' In
~--, t ermg.
cen '
CA CB
If the centrc of the instrument is over C",
LACB = LAC"B + 0< + f3.
It is well to examine the nature and extent of the error
due to inaccurate centering for all possible positions of the
centre (or axis) of the instrument. Referring to Fig. 205, C
represents the station
point at which it is desi-
red to measure the angle
between A & B. If the
instrument is not correct-
ly centered, the centre of
the instrument may fall
any where within the
cirele drawn with C as a
__------~I--~;---I"" centre and the maximum
displacement of the centre
of the instrument as a
radius. C1 , C2 , C3 , and C,
Fig. 205 represent the centre of
the instrument in the sectors aCb, b1Ca1, aCb 1 , and bCa l respec-
tively. The nature and amount of error, and also the value of
the required angle are given in the following table, 6 being the
observed a,ngle:
No error will be introduced if A, B, C, and the centre of
the instrument (C Ii) are eoncyclic.
It will be noticed that the error due to defective centering
varies inversely as the lengths of the sights. Great care must,
therefore, be taken in setting up the instrument exactly over
the station mark when the sights are short. A convenient
relation to remember is that the error in a sight is about 1', when
the error of centering is 1 inch and the length of sight is 300 ft.
It is about 3' when the error of centering is about 1 inch and the
length of sight is 100 ft. The error is reduced to a negligible
amount by carefully setting up the instrument over the station
mark.
For positions
Error. I Sign of I Required angle.
In the sector-. I error.
\
aCb sum of +ve I (J- sum of 0< and p
I,
0< and fJ
blCal sum of -ve ((J + sum of 0< and {J
0< and {3
aCb l and bCal difference +ve I (J - difference of
within the arc of 0< and f3 0< and {3
he circle passing
ugh A, C, and B.
aCb l and bCal difference -ve I (J + difference of
without the arc of 0( and ft I 0( and {3
le circle passing
ugh A, C, and B.
I
(ii) I naccurate levelling:- This produces a serious error
Jrizontal angles when the p\lints sighted are at very different
s. The effect of this error is similar to that of the error
to non-adjustment of the plate levels. If the points sighted
learly at the same level, the error is small. The error due
lslevelment of the bubble cannot be eliminated, but can be
nised by levelling the instrument carefully, using the long
tive telescope bubble (or the altitude bubble).
(iii) Slip :-The error due to slip may occur, if the instru-
is not firmly secured to the tripod head, or the shifting
is not properly clamped, or the lower clamp is not suffi-
ly tightened. As a result of this error, the orientation of the
lment is disturbed and the observaitons are in error.
iv) Manipulation of wrong tangent screw:-This is a
lon mistake on the part of the beginner. If the upper
fit screw is turned in taking a backsight, the mistake can
~tected by checking the vernier reading before taking a
ght. But if the lower tangent screw is turned in taking a
ght, the mistake cannot be discovered. The mistake is
ed by care in using proper tangent screws. Always use
,wer tangent screw for a backsight, and the upper tangent
for a foresight.
(2) ,Errors in Sighting and Reading :-(a) Inaccurate

bisection of the point observed to : -The error from this source may
arise when it is not possible to bisect the tack in the centre of
the station peg owing to an intervening bush, high gr;mnd,
low compound wall, etc. In such a case, only the upper part
of the ranging rod held at the station is visible. Care should,
therefore, be taken to bisect the lowest point visible, using the
point of intersection of the cross-hairs. On short sights, the
point of a pencil or the plumb line may be used instead of a
ranging rod. The error varies inversely with the length of
sight, and its magnitude may be obtained from the relationship
previously given (Vide error due to inaccurate centering).
(b) Non-verticality of ranging rod :-This is a common source
of error when the upper paf:; of a ranging rod has to be sighted
owing to intervening obstacles. The error (e) is inversely propor-
tional to the length of sight and is given by the relation,
error of verticality
tane = .--.
length of sight
To guard against this error, the rod should be held exactly
vertical and the lowest point visible should be bisected.
(c) Displacement of ranging rod or peg :-A similar error
is introduced when the ranging rod is not erected exactly at
the station. The effect of the error is the same as that of the
error due to non-verticality of the rod. The error is eliminated
by accurately fixing the rod above the station point. The sta-
tion peg may get displaced without the movement being noticed,
while the observations to it are being taken. 'to guard against
this error, the instrument stations should be chosen on firm
ground and the pegs driven firmly into the ground.
(d) Parf!,llaaJ :-This error is caused by imperfect focussing.
To eliminate parallax, the eye-piece and object glass should be
properly focussed.
(e) Other errors :-They are (i) mistakes in setting the
vernier, (ii) mistakes in reading the scales and the verniers.
( iii) mistakes in reading wrong verniers, and ( iv) mistakes
due to wrong booking of the readings. These errors can be
avoided by habitual checks and precautions.
For positions
In the sector.
Error. I Sign of I
error.
Required angle.
I
i ,
(i) aCb sum of +ve 10- sum of 0( and fJ
0( and f1 I
I
(ii) blCa! sum of -ve 10+ sum of 0( and f3
0( and fj
(iii) aCb! and bCa! difference +ve I 0 - difference of

but within the arc of 0( and f3 0( and f3
of the "cek pa<sing i

through A, C, and B.
(iv) aCb! and bCa! difference -ve 16 + difference of
but without the arc I of 0( and f3 0( and f3
of the circle passing II
through A, C, and B'I
I
(ii) I naccurate levelling:-This produces a serious error
in horizontal angles when the points sighted are at very different
levels. The effect of this error is similar to that of the error
due to non-adjustment of the plate levels. If the points sighted
are nearly at the same level, the error is small. The error due
to dislevelment of the bubble cannot be eliminated, but can be
minimised by levelling the instrument carefully, using the long
sensitive telescope bubble (or the altitude bubble ).
(iii) Slip :-The error due to slip may occur, if the instru-
ment is not firmly secured to the tripod head, or the shifting
head is not properly clamped, or the lower clamp is not suffi-
ciently tightened. As a result of this error, the orientation of the
instrument is disturbed and the observaitons are in error.
(iv) ManipUlation of wrong tangent screw:-This is a
common mistake on the part of the beginner. If the upper
tangent screw is turned in taking a back sight, the mistake can
be detected by checking the vernier reading before taking a
foresight. But if the lower tangent screw is turned in taking a
foresight, the mistake cannot be discovered. The mistake is
avioded by care in using proper tangent screws. Always use
the lower tangent screw for a backsight, and the upper tangent
screw for a foresight.
(2) Errors in Sighting and Reading :-(a) Inaccurate

bisection of the point observed to : -The error from this source may
arise when it is not possible to bisect the tack in the centre of
the station peg owing to an intervening bush, high gl',mnd,
low compound wall, etc. In such a case, only the upper part
of the ranging rod held at the station is .visible. Care should,
therefore, be taken to bisect the lowest point visible, using the
point of intersection of the cross-hairs. On short sights, the
point of a pencil or the plumb line may be used instead of a
ranging rod. The error varies inversely with the length of
sight, and its magnitude may be obtained from the relationship
previously given (Vide error due to inaccurate centering).
(b) Non-verticality of ranging -rod :-This is a common source
of error when the upper part of a ran'ging rod has to be sighted
owing to intervening obstacles. The error (e) is inversely propor-
tional to the length of sight and is given by the relation,
error of verticality
tan e = .--.- .
length of sight
To guard against this error, the rod should be held exactly
vertical and the lowest point visible should be bisected.
(c) Displacement of ranging rod or peg :-A similar error
is introduced when the ranging rod is not erected exactly at
the station. The effect of the error is the same as that of the
error due to non-verticality of the rod. The error is eliminated
by accurately fixing the rod above the station point. The sta-
tion peg may get displaced without the movement being noticed,
while the observations to it are being taken. '1'0 guard against
this error, the instrument stations should be chosen on firm
ground and the pegs driven firmly into the ground.
(d) Par(lllax :-This error is caused by imperfect focussing.
To eliminate parallax, the eye-piece and object glass should be
properly focussed.
(e) Other errors :-They are (i) mistakes in setting the
vernier, (ii) mistakes in reading the scales and the verniers.
( iii) mistakes in reading wrong verniers, and ( iv) mistakes
due to wrong booking of the readings. These errors can be
avoided by habitual checks and precautions.
Natural Errors :-These errors are caused by (i) wind pro-

ducing vibration of the instrument, (ii) high temperature pro-
ducing irregular refraction, (iii) the sun shining on the instru-
ment, (iv) unequal expansion of the various parts of the instru-
ment, and (v) unequal settlement of the tripod.
Accurate work cannot be done in a high wind or on hot
sunny days. Precise work is usually done under the most
favourable atmospheric conditions. In work of ordinary
precision, the natural errors are negligible.
Traverse Computations :-In survey work the' positions
of points are plotted on a map with reference to two lines YY1
and XXI which are respectively parallel and perpendicular
to the meridian. These reference lines are known as the axes
of co-ordinates and the point of their intersection 0 as the origin
(Fig. 206). The origin may be any station of the surveyor
entirely outside the survey. The co-ordinates of each point
are the distances of that point trom each of these axes.
Y oX.,
--------j-----------
--~--
Fig. 206
The co-ordinates of the traverse stations may~ also be
used in computing the area of a closed traverse and in checking
the field measurements.
Knowing the length and bearing of a line, its projections
on the line parallel to the meridian and on the line perpendi-
cular to it may be obtained. These projections are called latitude
and departure of the line respectively. The latitude of a line
may, therefore, be defined as the distance measured parallel to
the meridian (North and South line), while departure may be

defined as the distance measured parallel to the line perpendicular
to the meridian (East and West line).
Latitude (L) is North or positive when measured northward
or upward, and is styled as northing. When measured south-
ward or downward, it is South or negative, and is called 8outhing.
Similarly, departure (D) is East or positive when measured
eastward or to the right, and is known as easting, while it is
West or negative when measured westward or to the left, and is
)alled westing.
Hence;- Northing = North latitude = + L.
Southing = South latitude = - L.
Easting = East departure = + D.
Westing = West departure= - D.
To-find the latitude of a line, multiply the length of the
line by" the cosine of its reduced bearing; and to find its
departure, multiply the length of the line by the sine of its reduced
bearing:(Fig. 207) •
./Y(+, -)
n(-,+)
~
Fig. 207
or Latitude of a line = l cos 9.
Departure of a line = I sin 9. ;"
in which L = the length of the line.
S = the reduced bearing of the line.
...
The' l reduced bearing of a line determines the signs of its
latitude and departure, the first letter N or S of the bearing
defining sign of the latitude and the last one E or W, the .
sign of the departure. If the bearing of a line is given as W.e.B.,
p.I-9
the following table may be referred to, to determine the signs

of latitude and departure.
I
I Sign of
W.e.B. Quadrant
I II latitude. I departure.
I
between 0° and 90° IN. E. + I +
90° and 180° II S. E. - +

"
"
180° and 270° III S. W. - -
270° and 360° IV N. W. + -
" I
The latitude and departure of any point with reference to
the preceding point arc called consecutive co-ordinates of the
point; while the co-ordinates of any point with respect to a
common origin are known as the independent co-ordinates of
the point. They are also called the total latitude and the
total departure of a point. The independent co-ordinates of any
point may be obtained by adding algebraically the latitudes,
and the departures of the lines between that point a~d the
orlgm. Hence the X co-ordinate (or total departure) of any point
of a traverse = the X co-ordinate of the first point of the traverse
+ the algebraic sum of the departures of the lines between the
first point and that point.
Similarly, the Y co-ordinate (or total, latitude) of any point
of a traverse = the Y co-ordinate of the first point of the traverse
+ the algebraic sum of latitudes of the lines between the first
point and that point.
Whence, it follows :
X co-ordinate (or total departure) f 1 t . t
___- - - - - , - - - - - - - - : - : - . - ---- 0 as pom of the traverse
Y co-ordinate (or total latitude )
X co-ordinate .
= of first pomt of the traverse +the algebraic
Y co-ordinate
sum of all the departures
latitudes
Adjustment of Closed Traverse

Error of Closure :-In any closed traverse the algebraic
sum of the latitudes (~L) should equal zero, and the algebraic
sum of the departures (~D) should equal zero, provided th(J
work is correct. In other words, the sum of the north latitudes
(Northings) should be equal to the sum of south latitudes
(Southings), and the sum of the east departures (Eastings)
should be equal to the sum of the west departures (Westings).
But owing to errors in the field measurements of angles
and distances, the traverse, if plotted according to the field
measurements, will not close on paper, .....{ e. the end point of the
traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. It may
be observed that all sources of error cannot be entirely eliminated,
inspite of utmost care taken in measuring distances and direc-
tions. The distance by which the end point of a survey falls short
to coincide with the starting point, i. e. the
~
length of the line joining the beginning of the
ClOS"~~
EIfROR 8' .... first line to the end of the last line is called
'I1"4 the closing error or error of closure. Thus in
A ----.-JA . . Fig. 208, AA} represents the closing error, A and
~ :ElJ •
Fig. 208 A} being the starting and end points of the
traverse respectively.
The two components of this error (AA2 and AllA}) parallel
and perpendicular to the meridian may be obtained by finding
the algebraic sum of the latitudes (~L), and that of the depar-
tures (~D). Since the triangle AA2A} is right-angled at All'
the linear error of closure (AAl) is equal to the square root
of the sum of the squares of the algebraic sum of the latitudes
and that of the departures.
Closing error (e)=AAl =V(AA2)1+(A2Al)I=V(~L)a+(~D)2.
The direction of the closing error is given by the relation
~D
Tan 8 = - , where 8 is the reduced bearing.
~L
The signs of ~L and ~D will define the quadrant of the
closing error. The closing error is commonly expressed as a.
fraction having the numerator equal to unity, and this fraction
is called the relative error of closure. Therefore,
260 SURVEYING AND LEVEI.LlNG
. error of closure e 1
the relative error of closure = --- -- -- --- - =-p = -p- .
perimeter of traverse
e
The permissible linear error of closure in theodolite traverse
surveys may be expressed by the formula,
p l--e2N
Ec = 1000 ~ 1 + 12-
in which Ec = the dosing error or error of closure in ft.
P = the perimeter of a traverse in ft.
N = the number of sides of a traverse.
e = the permissible error per angle (commonly 1'.)
Distribution of Angular Error :-The angular error of
closure in a closed traverse is the difference between the sum of
the measured angles and the theoretic sum (2N =f 4) right angles,
where N is the number of the sides of a closed traverse. It should
not exceed the least count X VN. When all angles have been
measured with equal care under similar conditions, this error
is distributed equally among all the angles. If all the angles
were measured with the same precision, the whole error may be
distributed among thc angles dependent on the short side or sides.
However, if there is reason to suspect the accuracy of some angle
or angles owing to peculiar field conditions, the whole or most of
the angular error may be assigned to that angle or angles. If
the angular error is small, it may be arbitrarily distributed
among two or three angles. If the angles are measured with
ordinary precision (to the nearest minute,) the correction applied
to any angle is not less than the least count of the vernier (less
than one minute).
Adjustment of Bearings :-When the bearings of the sides
of a closed traverse have been observed, the closing error in
bearing may be determined by comparing the two bearings
of the last line as observed at the first and last stations of the
traverse. When the traverse ends on a line of known bearing,
it may be obtained by finding the diJference between its observed
bearing and known bearing. This error is distributed among
the sides of the traverse. If N is the number of the sides of the
traverse, and e the closing error in bearing, the corrections to
the bearings of the sides are :
Correction to the first bearing = e/N.

" " the secon d " = 2e/N.
Correction to the third bearing = 3e/N.
and so on, to the l~st " =Ne/N=e.
The same result may be obtained by applying a correction of
eiN to each of the observed angles. Then the first bearing will
e ~. &
be changed by ~,the second by _, the thIrd by - , and so Ofr.-
N N N
Balancing the Traverse :-It is the operation of applying
corrections to the latitudes and departures. The total closing
error in latitude, and in departure having been determined, the
latitudes and dcpartures are so adjusted that the algebraic sum
of the latitudes, and that of the departures should each equal
zero, i. e. the sum of the northings should be exactly equal to
the sum of the southings, and the sum of the eastings should
exactly equal the sum of the westings.
When one or more of the sides of the traverse may not
have been measured as preci~ly as others because of field diffi-
culties, the whole or the largest part of the linear error may
be assigned to that side or sides. If, howeyer, all the sides are
measured with equal care, the following rules may be used for
determining the corrections to balance the survey.
(a) Bowditch's Rule :-This rule, also termed as the
compass rule, is used to balance the traverse when the angular
and linear measurements are equally precise. By this rule,
thc total error in latitude, and in departure is distributed in
proportion to the lengths of the sides. It is the rule most
commonly used in traverse adjustment.
Correction to latitude of any side

departure
. latitude (length of that side )
= t 0 t a 1 error m - - - - - X -
departure perimetcr of traverse
(b) Transit Rule :-The transit rulc may be employed to
balance the traverse when the angular measurements are more
precise than the linear measurements, e. g. transit and stadia
"\raverse.
Correction to latitude of any side =

. I . d { latitude of that side }
totaI error m ahtu e X
arithmetical sum of all latitudes)
Correction to departure of any side ='
.
total error m departure X
{departure of that side
arithmetical sum of all departures
1
(c) Rule:-
( i) Correction to northing of any side =
totaI error m
1.
II
. I atItu
. d e X [ northing of that side}
sum of northings
( ii) Correction to southing of any side =
., { southing of that side}
t total error III latltude X -~--- .
sum of southmgs
(iii) Correction to easting of any side
.
t total error m departure X
{easting of that side 1
----,.:----
sum of eastmgs j
(iv) Correction to westing of any side =

. { westing of that side }
t total error m departure X ..
sum of westmgs
It should be noticed that when the traverse is thus balanced,
the lengths and bearings of the lines are changed. When the
adjustment is made by the compass'rule, the lengths are changed
less, and the angles are changed more, than when it is made by
the trtmsit rule.
Traverse Table :-The computations for a closed traverse
may be made in the following steps and entered in a tabular ~m,
which is known as Gale's Traverse Table (Pages 264 and 265). '"
(I) Sum up all the included angles. Their sum should be
equal to (2N =f 4) right angles according as the interior
or exterior angles are measured, where N is the number
of the sides of a traverse.
(2) If not, apply the necessary corrections to the angles
so that the sum of the corrected angles will exactly
equal (2N =t= 4) right angles.
(3) Calculate the whole circle bearings of the other lines

from the observed bearing of the flrst line and the corre-
cted included angles.
Compute the bearing of the first line, which must be I
equal to its observed bearing. This is a valuable check

on thc calculations and should not, therefore, be
neglected.
(4) From the W. C. bearings of the lines, deduce the re-
duced bearings (R. B.) of the lines, and determine
the quadrants in which the lines lie.
(5) }<"'rom the given lengths and the calculated reduced
bearings of the lines, compute their latitudes and
departures (consecutive co-ordinates).
(6) Add all northings, and add all southings, and find the
difference between thc two sums. Similarly, obtain
the dilTerence between the sum of all eastings and the
sum of all westings.
(7) Apply the necel'sary corrections to the latitudes and
departures so that the sum of the northings equals
that of the southings, and the sum of the eastings
equals that of the westings.
(8) From the corrected consecutive co-ordinates, obtain
the independent co-ordinates of the lines so that they
are all positive, the whole of the traverse thus lying
in the first quadrant (N. Eo)
Illustration :~Given the following corrected latitudes and
departures of the sides of the traverse ABCDE. Calculate the
independent co-ordinates.
Latitude. I ----
Departure.
-_,_-
-'------~-.------ -
Line. I Easting.--- i
Northing. Southing. I
I Westing.
I I
AB I 365'26 626'24 I
BC 489·45 I 940'24
CD 990·35 762'68
DE 537·99 776'92
EA 576'55 26'88
i
~64 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
.....
,
.....
00
11
...,.
>t')
o
00
r-t
...
I
....,§
,::!l
o o
>0
t- '"
>0
.....
~I ;'1 • •.....
.
<N <N
'aO~~:>9JJOO ..... .....
1------------------
t-
.....
•.....>0
M 10
o
'".....
>0
< o A
o""
o
.....
;.....
OOa>~eqoo
<:::>ct)eq~""
~~lC"l')Ot--oo
~~~?~~
+ I 1++
-+ I I -t-+-
8gs~~g
C:C1O~OO~
O~~~~,....
......
;- + I I I
------------:--
Ooot--lOl!')
~CO-.:tl'_G')
l!"J '0 t-- O':l 1-0
..c~'?l9'''''':''
......
++ I I I
----------~-- --- --
OeqOl!')("l
~ ~ ~ ~ ~"'i400...-.l~
l'LOlOOu:t
oo>e~ 00 "''?~o:-.,.<;.>
~ ~ "" ~
.....
-+-+ I I I .::I
o
- - - - - - - - - , a'i
~
:a1::
o
Z
266 SURVEYING AND J,EVELUNG
Assume the co-ordinates of A (each a multiple of 100 or

1000) so that the co-ordinates of other points are positive. The
whole traverse will then lie in the first (north-east) quadrant.
Here the co-ordinates of A are taken as 400, and 100. Apply-
ing the rule given on page 258, we get
(i) North co-ordinate of A - 400'()()
Deduct sou thing of B 365· 26
North co-ordinate of B 34·74
Add northi ng of C 489, 45
North co-ordinate of C 524 '19
Add northing of D 990·35
North co-ordinate of D 1514·54
Deduct sou thing of E 537·99
North co-ordinate of E 976'55
Deduct sou thing of A 576·55
Check: North co-ordinate of A 400·00
(ii) East co-ordinate of A 100'00
Add easting of B 626·24
East co-ordinate of B 726·24
Add easting of C 940·24
East co-ordinate of C 1666·48
Deduct westing of D 762·68
East co-ordinate of D - 903·S0
Deduct westing of E 776·92
East co-ordinate of E 126'88
Deduct westing of A - 26'88
Check: East co-ordinate of A 100'00
~
Check on the calculations :-The calculated co-ordinates of the
starting point should equal its original (or assumed) co-ordinates.
Computation of Area of a Closed Traverse
TIle following methols may be employed in calculating
the area of a closed traverse.
[I] Area from Co-ordinates (y and x) :-(Fig. 206).
Rule :-(1) Number the stations of the traverse in the
serial order.
TRAVERSE SURVEYING 267,
. 1Y eac11 [ ordinate]
(2) Mu 1tIp . vy the d'ff
1...
l erence
, abscIssa
between the following and preceding
abSCiSSaS] . .
[ ..ordmates
." - - ,always subtractmg the precedmg
from the following (or always subtracting the

following from the preceding).
(3) Find the sum of the products. This sum equals
twice the area of the traver~e.
(,1) Half this sum gives the area of the traverse.
i. e. area = t {YI (X2 - xn) + Y2 (X3 - Xl) + Y'3 (X4 - x 2) +
+ Yn (.:1'\ - .Tn_I)}'
in which Xl' X 2' X 3 , etc. = abscissas.
YI' Y2' Y3' etc. = ordinates.
Or
(1) Arrange the co-ordinates in the following deter-
minant forms.
Yl
'" , '" "
'....
Y2
....... ""
'\. ....
"'\,
Y3
.... " , - '

Y4
... "" ~.........,. .......... ~.....
, ,
Yn
"\./
.~..
....,"
,
Yl
X4
OR .,
Yl
"./'" '"/'" '" '""" .... ..
Illl
......
X"
Ya
....
\.;
:./
X3
Ya
........
..
X4
Y4
,; "'.'
'. .
~~: ': .;....
Yn
'" '"
X,.
..,....
.......
/VI
Yl
(2) Find the sum of the prodUcts of the co-ordinates',
joined by full lines, and the Sum of the products
of the co-ordinates joined by broken lines.
(3) Find the difference between these two sums,
which gives twice th~ area of the traverse.
,(4) Half this difference gives the required area:
N.ote':..,.......m co-ordinate = abscissa, along the X-axis (~ast and
west line) .
. Y co-ordinate = ordinate, along. the Y-axis (north and
.. south line).
268 SUR VEYING AND LEVELLING
[II] Area from Latitudes and Double Meridian

Distances (D.M.D.) :-(Fig. 209).
C
/)
Fig. 209
The meridian distance of a line, also called longitude, is the
perpendicular distance of the mid point of the line from the
reference meridian.
The double meridian distance (D. 1\:1. D.) or double longitude
of a line is equal to the sum of the meridian distances of the
two ends of the line.
Rules for finding the D. M. D. (or double longitUde) : -
(a) The D. M. D. of the first line is equal to the departure
of that line. .
(b) The D. 1\1. D. of each succeeding line is equal to the
D. M. D. of the preceding line plus the departure of
the preceding line plus the departure of the line itself.
(c) The D. M. D. of the last line is numerically equal to
the departure of the last line, but with opposite sign.
Rule :-(1) Multiply each D. M. D. by the latitude of that line.
(2) Find the algebraic sum of these products. The
algebraic sum gives twice the area.
(3) This sum divided by two is equal to the area of
the traverse.
Note :.,...-(i) Due regard should be paid to the signs.
(ii) It is assumed that the reference meridian passes
through the most westerly station of the traverse.
The most westerly station is the station at which
the departures ('hange from west to east, or the lati-
tudes change from south to north.
<
TRA VERSE SURVEYING 26~
(iii) The negative sign of the area has no significance.

The rules for the D. M. D. or Double longitude may be
derived as follows: Referring to Fig. 210, let AN be the
N
Fig. 210
reference meridian through the most westerly station A. Then
fg = M.D. or longitude of AB bB =. departure of AB
hk· = " " o f BC tC = 2vC = " of Be
m;;' = " " o f CD roD = 2xD = " of CD
pq ...."= " "
of DE zD =
"
of DE
TS - " " of EA eE = of EA
"
(i) Now fg = lBb or 2fg = Bb.
D. M. D. of AB = departure of AB.
(ii) hk = l(Bb + Cc); but Cc = ct + tC and ct = Bb.
:. hk = t Bb + tct + ltC or 2hk = Bb + ct + tC.
:. D. M. D. of BC = D. M. D. of AB + departure of
AB + departure of BC.
(iii) mn = l(Cc + Dd) = I fVc
+ vc) + (roD + rod)}
But vc = hk " rod = Cc = vC + vc.
mn = 1(2hk+2vC+roD) or 2mn = 2hk+2vC+roD.
:. D. M. D. of CD = D. M. D. of BC + departure of
BC + departure of CD.
(iv) pq=l(Dd+Ee)=l (Dd+Dd-zD), since Ee=Dd-zD.
But Dd = dx + xD; and dx = mn.
:. pq = 1(2mn+2xD -zD) or 2pq = 2mn+2xD-zD.
D. M. D. of DE = D. M. D. of CD + departure of CD
+ departure of DE.
(v) ra = tEe or 2rs =Ee

:. D. M. D. of EA = departure of EA with opposite sign.
[III] Area from Departures and Total Latitudes :-(Fig. 211).
C
Fig. 211
Any station may be taken as the referedce station from
which the total latitudes of the others may be calculated.
Rule :-( i) Find the total latitude of each station of the
traverse.
(ii) Find the algebraic sum of the departures of the
two lines meeting at that station.
(iii) Multiply the total latitude of each station by the
corresponding algebraic sum of the departures.
(iv) Find the algebraic sum of these products. This,
sum equals twice the area of the traverse.
( v) Take half the sum, which gives the required area.
" Example ; -The following table gives the latitudes and
departures of the sides of a closed traverse ABCD ;
I I
Side.
[-------1-------
I
Latitude
I s.
N. j~. I
Departure
E.
1
AB 214·8 124·0
BC 245·1 205·7 I
CD 155'9 90'0
DA 186'2 I 239'7
Compute its area.

The area of the closed traverse ABCD will be computed

by the application of the foregoing and rules the results tabu-
lated as under :
I Rule No. 1.
Independent co-ordinates.
Side. Latitude. Departure. Station. North. East.
y IX
--~--~--- -- --I~ ------ ---------
AB t 214·8 + 124·0 A 200'0 !.QQ_:_O
BC _;_ 245'1 + 205'7 B 414'8 224'0
CD - 155·9
,/
- 90·0 C 169'7 429'7
•
DA + 186'2 II - 239'7 D 1.3'8 339'7
\I A 200·0 100'0
--~--\
I
I
Note :-The north co-ordinates of the stations B, C, and
D are obtained by first assuming the north co-ordinate of A
as 20~nd then successively adding algebraically the latitude
of ea.ch of the other stations. Similarly, the east co-ordinate
of A is' assumed as 100 and the east co-ordinates of the other
stations obtained by successively adding algebraically their
departures.
Arranging the co-ordinat~s in the determinant form, we have
200.'0 is'8 200'0
\.
\("
..' '- ........
100'0
•..•...
2,24·0, 42f)'7 389·7
/'-
" 100·0
.....
,
~f= {200(224'0)+414'8(429'7)+169'7(339'7)+13'8 (100'0)}

= 282066·45.
I
aud ~Q={ 100(414' 8)+224'0(169 '7) +429' 7(13'8) +889' 7(200'0)}
. = 153362'64. \ .
Twice area = 1:P - 1:Q = 282066'45 - 153362·64

= 128703' 81.
Area of the traverse = 64,351 . 91 sq. ft.

II Rule No.2.
Calculate the double meridian distances of the sides AB,
BC, CD, and DA and tabulate the results as under :
Double area( col. 2 X col. 4)

I
Side. Latitude. Departure. D.M.D.
1 2 3
I
4
-tl -
6
AB +214'8 +124'0 124'0 26635'24
BC -245·1 +205'7 453·7 • 111201'10
CD -155·9 - 90'0 569'4 88769·40

I
DA[ +186'2 -239·7 239·7 44632'21

I
Total I 71267'45
r
199970·50
Algebraic sum = 128703' 05
Twice area = algebraic sum = 128703·5.

Note : -The double meridian distances of the sides are
calculated from the most westerly station A.
D. M. D. of AB = 124'0.
of BC = 124'0 + 124'0 + 205·7 = 453'7.
"
of CD = 453'7 + 205'7 - 90·0 = 569'4.
"
of DA = 569·4 - 90'0 - 239'7 = 239,7.
"
Check :-D. M. D. of DA is numerically equal to its departure.
but of opposit~ sign.
III R-;"le,No. 3.
I
Algebraic \ Double area.

Side. Latitude. Departure. 0=
:os Total sum of (Col. 5 X Col. 6)
.s Latitude . adjoining \
depa~ures.
1 2 3
00
4 5
+
7 \
-
AB +214-8 +124-0 B +214'8 + 329'7 70819'5 I
BC -245'1 +205'7 C - 30'3 + 115'7 3505'7
CD -155'9 - 90'0 D -186'2 -329-7 61390-1
DA +186'2 -239'7 A 0'0 -1l5'7 0'0
Total 132209'6 13505'7

--- ..
--~--
-
Algebraic sum = 128703' 9
Twice area = algebraic sum = 128703'9.

Note :-The total latitudes of the stations B, C, and Dare
calculated from the station A, which is taken as the reference
point.
Total latitude ofB =1:L=+214·8.
" " of C =1:L=+214·8-245·1=-30·3.
" " of D =1:L=+214·8-245·1-155·9=-186·2.
" " of A =1:L=+214'8-245'l-155'9+186'2= 0'0.
Problems in Traversing :-The following rules may be

used in solving problems of traverse surveying in addition to
those given on pages 257 and 258.
Rule (1) :-The trigonometrical relations of the course of
a line together with its latitude and departure are as follows:
(i) Latitude = length X cos reduced bearing.
Departure = length X sin reduced bearing.
, departure
(ii) Tan reduced bearmg = _ _::c__ _
latitude
. . i departure
or reduced bearmg = tan-
latitude
274 SURVEYING AND LEY ELLING
(iii) (a) Length = v(latitude)2+ (departure)2.

(b) Length = latitude X sec reduced bearing.
(c) Length = departure X cosec reduced bearing.
Always calculate the length from the greater of the known
quantities (latitude or departure) so as to ensure accuracy.
Therefore, use (iii) (b), if the latitude be greater than the departure,
and (iii) (c), if the departure be greater than the latitude.
(1) Given the independent co-ordinates of two points, to
find the length and bC'aring of the line joining them.
Rule (2) : - (i) Find the difference between the north co-
ordinates of the two points.
(ii) Find the difference between the ea'>t co-ordi-
nates of the two points.
If 6 be the reduclOd bearing of the line joining the two points,
Tan 6 = ~~f!erence between east co-ordinates
diffcrence between north co-ordinates
= departure of the line
latitude of the line'
The signs of the latitude and departure will define the
quadrant of the line.
(iii) Obtain the length of the line by using the rule
(1) (iii).
(2) Given the bearings of the two lines PQ and QR, and the
co-ordinates of the ends P and R, to find the lengths of PQ and QR.
Rule (3) (a) : - (i) Find the length and bearing of the line PR.
by using the above rules.
(ii) Find the included angles of the triangle PQR
from the known bearings of PQ, QR, and PR.
(iii) With three angles and one side known, find
the lengths of PQ and QR by applying the
sine rule.
Rule (3) (b) : - Let 6 1 and 6 2 , and l1 and l2 be the reduced bear-
ings, and the lengths of PQ and QR respectively:
I~atitude of PQ = l1 cos 8 1 ; departure of PQ = l1sin61'
" of QR = l2 cos (}:I ; " of QR = l2sin 6 a'
fhen
lI COS () 1 +laCOS()a= (north co-ordinate of R
-north co-ordinate of P) ......... (1)
II sin 6 1 +12 sine a=( east co-ordinate of R
-east co-ordinate of P) ......... (2)
(with due regard to the signs).
The solution of these two simultaneous equations gives
the required values of II and l2'
(3) Given the bearings of AB and CD, and the co-ordinates
A of Band C, to determine the lengths
of BE and CE when AB and DC are
produced to meet at E (Fig. I) :-
The bearing of BE is the

same as that of AB. Similarly, the.
bearing of EC is the f,ame as that
of CD. Let 6 1 and ()21 and II and Ia
be the reduced bearings, and the
Fig. I lengths of BE and EC respectively.
Latitude of BE = {lcose l . Departure of BE = {ls~n()l'
" of EC = 12cos 0 2' I " of EC = l!smO a.
The algebraic sum of the latitudes of BE and EC
=llCOS()1 +lzcoslI a = north co-ordinate of C
- north co-ordinate of B.
Similarly, the algebraic sum of the departures of BE and EO
=lasin()l +lasin62 = east cO-iordinate of C
- east i co-ordinate of B.
(with due regard to the signs).
On solving these two equations, we get the values of II and la.
(4) Given the co-ordinates of two points A and B, and the dis-
tance of a point P on AB from A, to find
the co-ordinates of the point P (Fig. II):-
\
(i) Find (i) the latitude, (ii) the

. departure, and (iii) the length of
A
AB from the known co-ordinates of
Fig, Il A and B by the application of
Rule (2) given on page 274.
(ii) Knowing the lengths of AP and AB, the latitude and

departure of AP may be obtained from the relations
Latitude of AP = AP X latitude of AB
AB
AP
Departure of AP = -_ X departure of AB.
AB
(Alternatively, find the reduced bearing of AB. The reduced
bearing of All being the same as that of AB, the latitude of
AP = AP X cos reduced bearing, and the departure of AB =AP X
sin reduced bearing).
(iii) Then North co-ordinate of P =
north co-ordinate of A
+ latitude of P.
East co-ordinate of P = east co-ordinate of A
+ departure of P.
(due regard being paid to the signs of the latitude and departure).
Examples on Traverse Survey
Example 1 :-The co-ordinates of two points C and D aer
as follows:
Co-ordinates.
Point.
N. E.
I
C 982·5 825'2
D 1198·6 576'4
Find the length and bearing of CD.

Let I = the length of CD.
9 = the reduced bearing of CD.
(i) Now the difference between the north co-ordinates of

C and D = latitude of CD = 1198·6- 982·5 = +
216·1.
The difference between east co-ordinates of C and D
= departure of CD = 576·4 - 825'2 = - 248'8.
departure 248' 8
Tan 9 =-----=-~ or log tan 9 = o· 0612.
latitude 216'1
Whence, 9 = 49° 1'.

Since the latitude is plus and the departure minus, the line
CD lies in the fourth (N. W.) quadrant.
, .. R. B. of CD = N. 49 0 l' W.
W. C. B. of CD = 360 0 - 49° l' = 310° 59'.
Length of CD = 248· 8 cosec 49° l' = 329·6 ft.
Check:-" ,,=V(2i6-i}2+(24S:8)2 = 329'6 ft.
= 216'1 sec 49° l' = 329'6 ft.
" "
Example 2 :-The' bearings of PQ and QR are 19° 22' and
60° 20' respectively. The co',ordinates of the ends P and Rare:
Point. f. North co-ordinate. East co-ordinate.
P 200'0 300·0
R 1- 1332'8 1157'2
Find the lengths of PQ and QR.
By Rule (3) (a) :~
(i) Bearing and length of PR by Rule (2) : -
Let (J be the reduced bearing of PRo Then
Tan 6 = ~eparture = 1157'2 - 300'0 =. 857'2 .'.9= 37° 6'
latitude 1332' 8 - 200' 0 1132·8
and W. C. B. of PR= 37° 6'.
Length of PR= 1132'8 see 37° 6' = 1421 ft.
(ii) Included angles of the triangle PQR:-
L QPR = bearing of PR - bearing of PQ
= 37° 6' - 19° 22' = 17° 44'
LRQP= " of QP - bearing of QR
= 199° 22' .:_ 60° 20' = 139° 2'
LPRQ= " of RQ - bearing of RP
=240° 20' - 217 0 6' = 23° 14'
Check : - sum = 180° 00'
(iii) Lrngths of PQ and QR:- _
By \the Sine rule, we have
PQ ~ PR sin PRQ = 1421 sin 23° 14' = 854.9 ft.
, sin RQP sin 139° 2'
QR = PR sin QPR _ ~421 sin 17° 44' _ 660.1 ft.
sin RQP sin 139° 2'
Alternative method: By rule (3) (b) ; -Let

'I = R. B. ofJ>Q II = length of PQ
6 2 = R. B. ofQR Il2 ~ length of QR
Then, latitude of PQ = II cos 6 1 = II cos 19° 22' = (0·9434) II'
" of QR = l2 cos 6 2 = I2 cos 60° 20' = (0'4950) l2'
Departure of PQ = 11 sin 9 1 = II sin 19° 22' = (0'3316) 11'
" of QR = 12 sin 6 2 = Ii sin 60° 20' = (0'8689) [2'
(0'9434) 11 + (0'4950) 12 = 1332·8 - 200'0 = 1132'8.
(0'3316) 11 +
(0'H689) 12 = 1157'2 - 300'0 = 857'2.
The solution of these equations gives
560'4 432'9
~-- = 854·9 ft.; l2 =-~~- = 660·4 ft.
0·6556 0'6556
Example 3 :-The consecutive co-ordinates of a line AB
are - 658· 7 and + 468· 2 with reference tu th~ magnetic meridian.
Calculate its co-ordinates with reference to the true meridian,
given that the magnetic declination is 10° 12' east.
Let 1 = the length of AB.
e= the reduced bearing of AB.
departure 468 . 2
Then tan 8 =-~~--=-- or logtan8=1·8517.
latitude 658' 7'
6 = 35° 24'.
Since the latitude is minus and the departure plus, AB lies
in the second (S. E.) quadrant.'
R. B. of AB = S. 35° 24' E.
W.C.B. of AB = 144° 36'
Length of AB = 658' 7 sec 35° 24'.
Since the north end of the magnetic needle is to the east
of the true meridian, the true bearing of AB may be obtained
by adding the declination to its magnetic bearing (W. C. B.).
True bearing of AB = 144° 36' + 10° 12' = 154° 48';
and R. B. of AB = 6'= 180?-'154° 48'=S. 25° 12' E.
(True R. B. of AB = R. B. of AB - declination
= 35° 24' _ 10° 12'.= S. 25° 12' E.).
Hence, Latitude of AB = 1 cose' = 658·7 sec 35° 24' cos 25° 12'
= _ 731·3 ft.,t'"
Departure of An = I sin8' =' 658' 7 sec 35° 24' sin 25° 12'
= + 344·2 ft.
'rRA VERSE SURVEYING 279
)
Example 4 :-The following are the lengths and bearings
of the sides of a closed traverse ABeD :
Line. Length in feet Bearing.
AB 256 140° 12'
BC 652 36° 24'
CD 124 338° 48'
DA ? ?
Compute\the length and bearing of the line DA.
(i) Convert the given whole circle bea,rings to the reduced
bearings.
R. B. of AB = 180° - l40° 12' = 39° 48' = S. 39° 48' E.
R. B. of BC = 36° 24' = N. 36° 24' E.
R. B. of CD = 360° - 338 0 48' = 21 0 12' '= N. 21 0 12' W.
(ii) Calculate the latitudes and departures of the lines

AB, BC, and CD from L = I cos IJ and D = I sin I), and tabulate
the results as under
L' I
Length R.B. IN orthin g./ Southing.! Easting. Westing.
me. in ft. (N.) (S.) (E.) (W.)
----~
A.B 256 S. 39° 48' E. 196'6 163'9

__,.'
BC 652 N. 36° 24' E. 524-7 386'9
CD 124 N.21° 12' W. 115'6 44-84
I Total 640'3 196-6 I 550'8 «'84
(iii) Let 1 = the length of the line DA.

(J = the reduced bearing of the line DA.
Then, the latitude and departure of DA are I cos (J and

1sin I) respectively. Since the traverse is a closed one, the
algebraic sum of the latitudes, and that of the departures should
each be equal to zero.
:. +640'3-196'6+lcosl) = 0 j and 550'8-44'84 + lsine = + o.
Whence, 1 cose = -443' 7 and 1 sin I) = - 505· 96.
Since the latitude and departure of DA are both minus,
the line DA lies in the S. W. (III) quadrant.
departure 505·96
N ow tanS = ---=C___._ _ or log tan S =0'0571.
latItude 448'7
6 = 48° 45'.
Hence R. B. of DA = S.48° 45'W.; and W.C.B. of DA =228° 45'
LC1).gth of DA. = 505·9(} ~ose~ 4~" 45' = 673·2 ft.
Check :-" " = 448'70 sec 48" 45' = 678'0 ft.
" " = V(443'7)2 + (505'96)1 = 678'2 ft.
Example 5 :-The following are the lengths and bearings
of the sides of a traverse the ABCD. The bearings are referred
to. the magnetic meridian, the value of the magnetic declination
being 50 30' W. Convert the observed bearings to the true
bearings, and find the error of closure.
Line. Length on ft. Bearing.
AB . 470 343" 52'
BC 635 87° 50'
CD 430 172° 40'
DA 563 265° 12'
Since the magnetic declination is 5" 30' W., the magnetic
meridian is 50 30' west of the true meridian. This value should,
therefore, be deducted from each of the observed values of the
bearings in order to obtain the true bearings of the lines. These
true bearings should t}:en be converted to the reduced bearings,
and the latitudes and departures calculated by the use of the
relations, L = l cos G and D = l sin 6 .
The calculations may be tabulated as under :
Length Magnetic True Reduced

Line. Bearing.
in ft. declination. bearmg. bearing.
I
AB 470
I 343" 52' 5" 30' W. 338" 22' N.21°38'W.
BC 635 87° 50' 82° 20' N. 82" 20' E.

I
CD 430 172" 40' 167" 10' S. 12" 50' E.
DA 563 265° 12' 259 0 42' is.

I
79° 42' W.
I I
I
Northing. I Southing. IEasting.1 Westing, !Line.

- ---
I
------
~--.----
I - _ -I - -~- --.-~
436·90 I 173·30 AB
I
I
84·72 629·40' BC
i
I
419·30 95·521 CD
1I
lOO·50 552·90 DA
I
Total 521·62 519·80 724.921 726·20
I
N ow add all northings and all southings, and obtain the
difference between the two sums. Similarly, find the difference
between the sum of all eastings and the sum of all westings.
Sum of northings = 521 ·62. Sum of eastings = 724·92.
Sum of southings = 519·80. Sum of westings = 726·20.
Diff.= +1·82 Diff. = - 1·28
~
Since the difference is not equal to zero, it is evident that
there is a closing error in the traverse.
The relative error of closure = error of closure = ~. :2~

perimeter 2098
= _1_ or 1 in 943.
943
Example 6 :-It waS impossible to observe the length and

bearing of the line PQ directly. The following observations
were, therefore, taken from two stations A and B :
Line. Length in ft. Bearing.
AP 420 S. 65° 36' W.
AB 1048 N. 24° 12' E.
BQ . 385 N. 76° 48' W.
Compute the length and bearing of PQ, and the angles
APQ and BQP.
(i) The lines PA, AB, BQ, and QP form a closed travers(,
The bearing of PA may be obtained from the given bearin'
of AP.
Bearing of AP = S. 65° 36' W.
of PA = N. 65° 36' E.
"
Knowing the lengths and bearings of the lines P A, AB
and BQ, their latitudes and departures may be calculated as
already explained. Thus we have
Latitude of PA = 420 cos 65° 36' = + 173' 5 ft.
Departurc of PA = 420 sin 65° 36' = + 382' 4 ft.
Latitude of AB = 1048 cos 24° 12' = + 956'1 ft.
Departure of AB = 1048 sin 24° 12' = + 429'6 ft.
Latitude of BQ = 385 cos 76° 48' = + 87·92 ft.
Departure of BQ = 385 sin 76° 48' = - 374· 9 ft.
(ii) Now the total latitude of Q with respect to P as the
origin is equal to the algebraic sum of the latitudes of PA, AB,
and BQ.
Total latitude of Q = + 173' 5 +956'1 +87' 92 = + 1217' 52 ft.
Similarly, the total departure of Q with respect to P as
the origin is equal to the algebraic sum of the departures of
P A, AB, and BQ.
Total dcparture ofQ=+382'4+429'6-374'9=+437'10 ft.
Since the latitude and departure of PQ are both plus,
PQ lies in the first (N. E.) quadrant.
If 6 be the reduced bearing of PQ,
(iii)
departure 437 '10
Tan 6 = l~t{tude - = i217-' 52 or log tan 9 = 1- 5551
6 = 19° 45'_
Whence, R. B. of PQ = N- 19° 45 'E.
Length of PQ = 1217-52 sec 19° 45' = 1293 ft.
Check:-" " = '\1(1217:52)2+(437'10)2= 1293-75 ft.
(iv) LAPQ=R.:B. of PA-R. B. ofPQ=65°36'-19°45'=45°51'.
LBQP=R.:B. of QB+R. B.:of QP=76°48'+19°45'=96°33'.
Example 7 :-The following notes refer to part of a traverse

mrvey:
Line. Length in feet. Bearing.
PQ 465 30° 15'
QR 1624 134° 32'
RS 1062 222° 18'
Compute the distance between a point A on PQ, 280 ft.
from P, and a point B on RS, 720 ft. from R.
(i) Obtain the reduced bearings of the lines PQ, QR,PA,
and RB from their given whole circle bearings. It may be
noted that the bearings of P A and RB are the same as those
of PQ and RS respectively, since the points A and B lie on PQ
and RS respectively. Thus we have
R. B. ofPQ = N. 30° 15'E. R. B. ofQR = 180°-134° 32'.
= S.45° 28' E.
R. B. of PA = N. 30° 15'E. R. B. of RB = 222 0 18' - 180 0
= S. 42° 18' W.
(ii) Calculate the latitudes and departures of the lines
PQ, QR, PA, and RB.
Latitude of PQ = 465 cos 30° 15' = + 401' 8 ft.
" of QR = 1624 cos 45° 28' = - 1130'9 ft.
" ofPA = 280 cos 30° 15'=+ 241·9f,:;.
of RB' = 720 cos 42° 18' = - 532· 5 ft.
"
Departure of PQ = 465 sin 80° 15' =+ 284'8 ft.
" of QR = 1624 sin 45° 28' =+ 1158'0 ft.
ofPA = 280 sin 80° 15' = + 141· 0 ft.
" ofRB = 720 sin 42° 18' = - 484'5 ft.
"
(iii) From the known latitudes and departures, find the
total latitudes and departures of A and B with respect to Pas
the origin, by adding algebraically the latitudes of the inter~
vening lines, and by adding algebraically their departures.
Total latitude of A: + 241: 91 Total departure of A _ +141' 0
"" ofB--12tm 7 I " " ofB-+907'8
(}';L =+ 401,8-1139,0- 532'5=-1269'7)
(}';D =+ 234'3+ U58'0-484'5=+ 907'8)
(iv) Hence
Difference between the total latitudes of A and B
= - 1269'7 - 241·9 = - 1511'6,
Difference between the total departures of A and B
=+ 907'S - 141·0 = + 766'8.
:. Length of AH = v( -1511'6)2+(766'S)2 = 1694 ft.
Example 8 :-In order to determine the distance between
two inaccessible points P and R, the following angular obser-
vations were made from two stations'A and B, 1200 ft. apart.
LPAR=46°; LRAB=56°; LABP=5So; LPBR = 48°
Compute the distance PRo
The example of this type is better solved by the method
of co-ordinates. It is advisable
to draw a figure before comm-
encing calculations. It is eVI-
dent from Fig. 212 that the
sides P A, AB, 'BR, and RP
form a closed traverse. The
Fig. 212 first step is, therefore, to find
the lengths of P A and BR from the known length of AB and
the given angles.
N ow in the triangle P AB, [PAB = LPAR + LRAB
= 46°+ 56°= 102°; LABP = 5So,
LAPB=lSOo_ LPAB-ABP=1S0o_ 102°-58°= 20°,
Similarly, in the triangle RAB,
LABR= LABP + PBR = 58° +48° = 106°; RAB = 56°,
LARB=1800_ LABR= LRAB=1800-106°-56°= 18°,
The lengths of P A and BR should be found by the appli-
cation of the sine rule.
PA = s~n 58° X 1200 and BR = sin 56° X 1200

S1l120° sin ISo
= 2975 ft, = 3220 ft,
The bearings of P A: and BR are not given, but can be deduced
from the given angles.,between the sides, taking anyone side,
,~
say P A as a reference meridian. The bearing of PAis, therefore,
zero.
Bearing of PA == 0° I Bearing
Add = 180° Deduct
Bearing of AP = 180° Bearing
Add the included angle = 102°. Add the included angle
between P A and AB between AB and BR
Bearing of AB ~ Bearing of BR
Reduced bearing of AB Reduced bearing of BR
= N. 78° W. =S. 28° W.
The consecutive co-ordinates of A, B, and R may be found
as already explained and the results tabulated as under:
Line. \ Length in ft. \ R. B. \Northing . ISouthing.\ EastiDg.[ Westing.

I )
PA 2975 N. 0° E 2975 0
AB 1200 N. 78° W 249'6 1174
BR 3220 S. 28° W. 2843 1512
The co-ordinates of R with respect to P as the origin are

~L and ~D.
~L = + 2975 + 249'6 - 2843 = + 381'6.
~D = 0 - 1174 - 1512 = - 2686.
Length ofPR = Vp:L)1I + (~D)ll= V(381'6)2+T-=-2686)1
= 2713 ft.
Example 9 :-The following traverse is run to set out a

line AE 1890 ft. long at right angles to a given line AB :
Line. Length in ft. Bearing. Latitude in ft. Departure in ft.
AB 360°
AC 840 119° 30' -413, 6 731'1 +
CD 1020 85° 24' 81'81 + +1016
DE ? ?
Calculate the required length and bearing of DE.
Since AE is to be set out at right angles to AB, ltnd the bearing
of AB is 360°, the bearing of AE = 90° ; and that of EA= 270°,
Latitude of EA = 0 ; and departure of EA = - 1890.
Now ACDE is a closed traverse. :. l:L and l:D are each

equal to zero. Let Land D be the latitude and departure of DE.
Then -413'6+81'81+L+0=0;
and + 731'1 + 1016 + D - 1890 = 0
L =+ 331'79 ft.; and D = + 142·9 ft.
. 142·9
If 6 be the reduced bearmg of DE, tan e = - - - :. e= 23° 19'.
331''79 i
Since the latitude and departure of DE are both positive, it
lies in the N. E. quadrant. W. C. Bearing of DE=23°19'.
Now the length of DE= 331' 79 sec. 23° 19' = 361 . 3 ft.
Check:- " " = V(331-~9)1+(142'9)1 = 361'3 ft.
Example 10 :-From a point E a line EF is to be set out

parallel to a given line AB, and such that ABF is a right angle,
the points E and F being invisible from A and B. This is done
by running the following traverse:
Line. Length in ft. Bearing. Latitude in ft. Departure in ft.
BA 360 0
BC 320 35° IS' +261' 3 + 184'6
CD 480 115° 40' -207'9 + 432'6
DE 290 42° 30' +213' 8 + 195'9
Calculate the necessary lengths and bear~ngs of EF and FB.
Let Ll = the latitude of EF ; Dl = the departure of EF.
L2 = " " of FB ; D2 = " " of FB.
Bearing of BA = 360°. :. Bearing of AB = 180°. Since El'
is parallel to AB, the bearing of EF=180°. The angle ABI
being 90°, the bearing of BF=900; and that of FB = 270°.
:. Departure of EF = Dl = 0; and latitude of FB = L2 = o.
Since BCDEF is a closed traverse, l:L and l:D are each
equal to zero.
+261'3 - 207·9 + 213'8 + Ll + 0 = 0
and + 184'6 + 432'6 + 195'9 + 0+ D2 = 0
Hence Ll = - 267' 2 ft.; and DII = -813'1 ft.
TRAVERSE SURVEYING ~87
Since the bearing of EF is 180°, the length of the EF is

equal to its latitude
Length of EF = Ll = 267·2 ft.
Similarly, the bearing of FB being 270°, the length of FB
IS equal to its depal'ture. :. Length of FB = D, = 813·1 ft.
Example 11 :-Two stations A and B are fixed on either
side of a wood. The following traverse is run from A to B along
the side of the wood :
Line .. Length in ft. Bearing. Latitude in ft. 1!eparture in ft.
AC 438 48° 24' + 290·8 +327'5
CD 664 110° 12' - 229·3 +623'2
DB 582 152 0 36' - 516'6 +267·8
Determine the length of AB. From the station D, a line
0
DE is carried into the wood on a bearing of 168 6' in order to
fix an intermediate point E on AB. Find the length of DE.
Total latitude of B with respect to A = I;L
= + 290'8 - 229'3 - 516'6 = - 455'1.
Total departure of B " ,,= I;D
"
= + 327·5 + 623'2 + 267'8 = + 1218'5.
1218·5
If 6 be the reduced bearing of AB, tan 6 = ___ :. (J =69 0 31'.
455-1
Since the latitude of AB is minus, and its departure plus,
AB lies in the S. E. quadrant.
Hence R. B. of AB =
S. 69 0 31'E.; W. C. B. of AB = 110 0 29'.
Length of AB = 1218'5 cosec 69° 31'= 1301 ft.
Now total latitude of' D with respect to A = + 290'8 - 229'3
= +61'5
total departure of D " = + 327'5 + 623·2
" "
= + 950'7
R. B. of AD = tan- 1 950'7 = 86° 18' N. E.

61·5
Length of AD = 950'7 cosec 86° 18' = 952'6 ft.
In the .6.ADE, LDAE = bearing of AB - bearing of AD

= noo 29' -86 0
18' = 24° 11'.
LADE = bearing of DA - bearing of DE
= (86° 18' + 180°) -168° 6' = 98° 12'.
LAED = bearing of ED - bearing of BA
= (168° 6' + 180°)- (HOO 29' +180°)
= 57'1 37 '.
Check: Sum = 180° 00'
AD sin DAE 952'6 sin 24° n'
Hence DE = ---~- - = -- -_. - - - ... -- =462·6 ft·
sin AED sin 57° 37'
The Box Sextant :-(Fig. 213) The box sextant is a
reflecting instrument capable of measuring angles upto 120"
and reads to one minute.
Fig- 213
It consists of:
(1) a box about 3 in. diameter and Ii in. in depth, .-
(2) a cover which serves as a handle when screwed to
the bottom,
(3) a horizon glass having the lower half unsilvered and
the upper half silvered,
(4) an index glass wholly silvered,
(5) a silver arc graduated from 0° to 140°, showing degrees
and half degrees,
\
(6) an index arm carryiIlg ~ernier, which reads to single
minutes. - ,
(7) an adjustable magnifying glass,
(8) a milled-headed screw to rotate the index glass and

the index arm,
(9) an eye-hole ,in a sliding plate,
(10) a telescope for long distance sighting,
(11) a pair of coloured glasses for use when observations are
to be taken on the bright object or the sun,
(12) a slot in the side of the box through which enter the
rays from the object sighted,
(a)
Fig. 214 a : Interior Plan.
1 Opening for sun glass levers. 6 Pinion.
2 Sliding Plate. 7 Horizon glass.
3 Eye hole. 8 Screw for index error'adjustment.
4 Index glass. 9 Socket for telescope.
5 Toothed segment.
P.1.-10
(13) a key for adjusting the instrument.

The box sextant is a compact hand instrument. By setting 1
the vernier to 90°, it may be used as fLn optical square and is, i
therefore, often included in the equipment for a chain survey. I
It is very useful for (i) measuring chain angles, (ii) locating in- ,
accessible points, and (iii) measuring angles for cheeking purposes.
It is particularly convenient in filling in the details and in town
surveying. It may also be used for meaiiuring vertical angles. It
is very portable and can be used on horseback and in boats.
Unlike the theodolite, it measures oblique angles.
Fig. 214 b : Exterior PIall •

1 Milled-headed screw for turning 4 R,~ading glas~'
index glass. 5 Adjusting key.
2 Index arm with vernier. 6 Screws for horizon glass
S Graduated arc. adjustment.
Principle of the Box Sextant :-The optical principle un·

derlying the construction of a box sextant, viz. that the angle
between the two objects is twice the angle between the mirrors,
may be proved as follows : In Fig. 215, let
AB and CD represent the horizon and index glasses respec-
tively.
M and N be the two objects; and E the position of the eye.
EHM be the line of sight; BA and DC when produced
meet at P ; NI be produced to meet MIl at E.
11
Iff
p ......- ,'~.(
- -:..1 ___________ _
E
Fig. 215
= the angle between the mirrors,
0(
and 8 = the angle between the objects M and N.
A ray of light from N strikes the mirror CD at I and after
reflection strikes the mirror AB at H and is again reflected in
the direction MHE.
Let LIHB = /3 ; LIPH = 0(; and LIEH = 8.
The exterior angle IHB of the triangle IHP is equal to the
sum of the interior opposite angles.
LIHB = LIPH + LHIP or /3 = 0( + LHIP.
Hence LHIP = (/3 - o(), which is the complement of the
angle of reflection.
The angle NID, being the complement of the angle of inci-
dence = LHIP = (/3 - o().
LHIN = 180° - LNID - LHIP = 180° - 2 (fJ - o().
Similarly, L EHA = L IHB = /3.
LEHI = 180°- LIHB - LEHA = 180° - 2/3.
The exterior angle HIN of the triangle EIH

= LEHI +
LIEH.
180°-2 (/3 - 0<) = 180° -2/J +
(J.
or (J=2o(.·
Observing with the Box Sextant : -

(i) When measuring a horizontal angle between the t\\lJ
objects at a station, hold the instrument horizontal in the right hand
over the station and look through the eye-hole at the left hand
object through the lower unsilvered portion of the horizon glass.
(ii) Turn the milled-headed screw (or the milled head)
slowly until the image of the right-hand object, seen in the upper
silvered half of the horizon glass, is coincident with the left·
hand object.
(iii) Note the reading of the vernier, which gives the value
of the required angle.
Hints on the Use of the Box Sextant : -
(i) When two objects are at unequal distances from th(
station, always sight the nearer object directly through the
unsilvered portion of the horizon glass and view the more distant
object by reflection. If necessary, turn the instrument upside
down. If both objects are near, some distant point in line
with one of them should be viewed' by reflection.
(ii) Always bisect the brighter object by reflection. When
two objects are not very clear, always sight the more distinct
object by reflection. If necessary, invert the instrument.
(iii) Tilt the instrument when two objects are at con-
siderably different heights.
(iv) When the angle between two objects is greater than
about HOo, measure the angle in parts, as the reflected image
becomes indistinct. Erect a ranging pole at an intermediate
point and observe from one object to the ranging pole, and thence
to the other object. Instead of a ranging pole at an intermediate
point, a well-defined permanent object may be used. The sum
of the two observed angles gives the required angle.
Setting out an Angle, say AOB with the Box Sextant :-'--
(i) Set the index of the vernier to read the given value
of the angle.
TRAVERSE SURVEYI::-IG
(ii) Hold the instrument in the right hand over the station O.
(iii) Sight the ranging pole at A through the unsilvered
Jlortion of the horizon glass.
(iy) Direct the chainman into position B at which the rang-
1Ilg' rod held by him appectrs coineident with the ranging pole at A.
Vertical Angles:-
(i) Establish a point at the level of the eye.
(ii) Hold the instrument vertically in the right hand and
hight the point directly.
(iii) Bring the image of the object into coincidence with
the point by turning the milled-headed screw.
(iv) The reading indicated by the vernier index gives the
required angle of elevation above the level of the eye.
To measure the vertical angle subtended at the eye by
two objects, view the lower objcet directly, and turn the milled-
headed screw until the image of the higher object appears coinci-
dent with the lower one. The required angle is given by the
vernier index.
Parallax of the BQ..x Sextant :-In explaining the optical
/II principle, it has been assumcd that the
N position of the eye is at the point of
intersection (E) of the direct ray MH
A II and the incident ray NI (Fig. 216).
But if the eye is at El or E2 on .M:H
instead of exactly at E, the errer is
introduced in the observed angle. This
error is known as the parallam of the
1.// /) box sextant. The error (the angle ENEI
I /
I / or ENE2 subtended at the reflected
I / / /AllJ£X Gt.AS5
object N by EEl or EE z) varies inversely
l/ / as the distance of the reflected object.
£2 / I
/ /
E I · vaI
N ,an d Its ue·IS equaI to EEl EE2
..._ or .. _.-
I
t / NE NE
£; radian~. A conyenient relation tq
remember is that an error of 1 minute
Fig. 216 will be produced when the error in the
position of the eye is 1 inch and the distance of the reflected object
is 300 ft., but it will be 3 minutes when the distance is 100 ft.,
.and 3 seconds when the distance is one mile. To minimise the
error, the more distant object should be viewed by reflection.
The error may also arise in the observed angle, if the point
E does not coincide with the station at which the angle is to be
·obserycd. The error chiefly depends upon the angle sub tended
at the reflected object (N) by the displacement of the station
point from the reflected ray NE. To minimise the error, the
nearer object should be sighted directly and the more distant
object should be ,·iewed by reflection.
Oblique Angles :-When the elcyations of the two objects
·differ considerably from each other, the angle actually observed
is the angle in the oblique plane containing the two objects
and the observer's eye. It differs considerably from its hori-
zontal projection, which is required for plotting. The observed
oblique angle can, however, be reduced to its horizontal equiva-
lent by the use of any of the following formulre:
Data :-(i) The vertical angles of each of the two objects, and
(ii) the observed angle between the two objects.
In Fig. 217, let 0 be the station at which the angle between
the objects M and ~ is observed, and Z the observer's zenith
(i. e. the point overhead where the plumb line at the observer
intersects the celestial sphere).
Z
o
Fig. 217
LMOm = 0( = the vertical angle of Mat O.
LNOn = fJ = the vertical angle of Nat O.
LMON = (J = the observed oblique angle.
mOn = (/J = the h(.rizontal equivalent of the observed angle.
The spherical angle MZN = mOn = (/J.
TRAVE1tSE SURVEYI:SG 295
In the spherical triangle ZMN,

ZM = Zl = tlle zenith distance of 1\'1 = 90° - 0(.
Jl:N = Z2 = the zenith distance of N = 90° - fJ.
MN= 9.
s = the semi-sum of the sides of the spherical triangle ZJ\1N.
=t (ZM -+ ZN + MN) =t (Zl+Z2+6)
=t f (HO° -- o() + (90 0
- fJ) + (I}.
Then
Sin -~- (1)

2
I/)
Tan --= (2)
2
cos 6 - cos Zl cos Z2

COS If> = -------- .,------ (3)
sin Zl sin Z2
Testing and Adjusting the Box Sextant :-There are two
permanent adjustments of the box sextant, viz.
(1) To make the horizon glass perpendicular to the plane
of the instrument. (The index gla<;s is permanently fixed at
right angles to the plane of the instrument by the maker).
Test :-(i) Set the vernier accurately to the zero of the
scale. (ii) Sight any distant terrestrial object such as a church
spire, or thc sun. (iii) Observe if there is any vertical displace-
ment as in Figs. 218a & b when the spire is sighted. (If the
instrument is in adjustment,.. the object and its reflection should
coincide exactly).
VERTICAL DIS,oLAC£I'1ENT
(a) (0)
Fig. 218 a & b
If there is any vertical displacement, eliminate it by turning
the two square headed screws on the top of the instrument by
means of the key.
Note :-The ver·tical displacement is due to the horizon

glass not being perpendicular to the plane of the instrument.
(2) To set the index and horizon glasses parallel, when
the vernier reads zero. (To eliminate the index error).
Test :-(i) Set the vernier accurately to the zero of the
scale. (ii) Sight any distant terrestrial object such as a church
LATERAL /)/SPI.ACEI'fEHT
(C) {oj
Fig. 218 c & d
spire, or the sun, and observe if there is any horizontal (lateral)
displacement between the object (spire or the sun) and its image
~
(Figs. 218 c & d).

If so, adjust the horizon glass by turning the square-headed
screw in the side of the box by means of the key until the object
and its imagc coincide.
In testing these adjustments, care must be taken that the ver-
nier is set accurately to zero, and that a near object is not sighted.
Note :-The lateral displacement is due to the horizon glass
not being parallel to the index glass.
The Index Error :-By the index error is meant the vernier
reading other than zero when the two mirrors are parallel (i.e. when
the direct and reflected images of a distant object appear as one).
Instead of adjusting the horizon glass, the lateral displacement
is eliminated by turning the milled-headed screw. The vernier
reading then gives thc value of the index error. It is added
to or subtracted from all observed angles according as the
vernier index appears on the left (on the arc of excess), or right
(on the true arc) of the zero of the graduated arc.
Example 1 : -The oblique angle measured with a sextailt
at a station 0 between two stations M and N is 68° 42'. The
angle of elevation of M is 29° 10' and that of N is 10° 40'.
Calculate the horizontal angle between M and N.
In Fig. 217, 0( = 20° 10' ; /3 = 10° 40' ; () = 68° 42' ;

I/J = the horizontal angle mOno
Now in the spherical triangle ZMN,

ZM =:<:1 = 90° - 0( = 90° - 29° 10' = 61)° 50'
ZN = Z2 = 90° - P = 90° - 10° 40' = 7~o 20'
MN = the observed angle = (J
28 = 201g° 52'
or 8 = 10<),° 26'
8 - ZM = s - Z1 =
104° 26' - 60° 50' = 43° 36'
8 - ZN = 8 - Z2 79° 20' = 25° 6'
= 104° 26' -
8 - MN = s - 8 = 104° 26' - 68° 42' = 35° 44'
Check : - SUI» = 104° 26'
(i) Substituting the values in formula (2), we get

Tan _~_= [~i~!30 36' sin ~5° ~'_}t
2 sin 104° 26' sin 35° 44'
q,
Log tan '--- = 1· 8569.
2
!_= 35° 43'5' .JJ.r ¢ = 71° 27', .

2
(ii) Using the cosine formula (3)~ we have

cos 68° 42' - cos 60° 50' cos 79° 20'
Cos I/J = - - -- - --- ------ --- - - --~__ = 0'3182.
sin 60°' 50' sin 79° 20'
I/J = 71° 27'.
Example 2 : -The oblique angle measured with a sextant

at a station 0 between two stations M and .N is found to be
62° 30'. The angle of elevation of M is 28° 12' and the angle
of depression of N is 12° 24'. Determine the horizontal angle
between M and N.
Here 0( = 28° 12'; P = - 12° 24'; (J = 62° 30'; I/J = the

horizontal angle mOno
Now in the spherical triangle ZMN (Fig. 217),

ZM = Zl = 90° ,_ c< = 90° - 28° 12'
ZN = 2'2 = 90° - If = 90° - (-12 24') 0
=
~
61° 4B'
102° 24,':
I
MN = the observed angle = (J = 62° 30'
28 = 226° 42,
8 = IISo 21'
8 - ZM ""~ 8 - Zl = ll3° 21' ~ 61° 48' 51° 33'
8 - ZN = 8 - Z2 =co l1So 21' ~ 102° 24' ==:. 10° 57'
8 - MN = 8 - (J = l1So 21' ~ 62° SO' = 50° 51'
Check : - Sum = ll3° 21'
(i) Substituting the values in formula (2), we get
Tan ,~" = {~, sin 510 _S3'sin 10~57' }~
2 sin 113° 21' sin 50- 51'
¢
Log tan, = 1· 6600.
2
¢ = 24° 34' or ¢ = 49° 8'.

2
(ii) Using the cosine formula (3), we have
cos 62° 30' - cos 61 0 48' cos 102° 24'
Cos if> = "'_',. ' - - - '0 " -- ',. ____ . = 0'6544.
sin 61 48' sin 102~ 24'
PROBLEMS
1. Define the following terms:-
Chain angle, Bearing, True bearing, Declination, Secular variation, Irregular
variation, Isogonic lines, Agonic lines, Line of collimation, Axis of telescope,
Horizontal axis, Bubble line, Altitude bubble, Clip screw, Conjugate foci,
Principal focus of a lens, Optical centre of a lens, Compound lens,
Achromatic lens, and Magnification.
2. Explain clearly the following : -
(a) Magnetic meridian and true meridian, (b) Fore bearing and back bearing,
(c) Whole circle bearing and reduced bearing, (d) Eye'piece and 6bject
glass,(e) Parallax, (f) Spherical aberration and chromatic aberration, (g) Ex-
ternal focussing telescope and internal focuflsing telescope, (h) Back angle
Hnd deflection angle, (i) Latitude and departure, and (j) Consecutive co·
ordinates and independent co·ordinatea.
P.ltOBLEMS 299
3. What is meant by traveJ:'se surveying? How does it differ from chain survey-
ing? Distinguish bet1feen a closed traverse and an open traverse.
4. Describe, with the help of a diagram, how you would make a survey of a
small lake with the chain only. What is the objection to this method of
surveying?
5. Sketch and describe the pri~matic compass. How would you use it ?
6. What are the sources of error to which compass observations are liable, and
what precautions should be taken to guard against thf'm ?
7. Dmwa neat sectional eleTation of the prismatic compass, and name the
parts of the instrument thereon. Explain how you would test it.
8. Explain clearly tbe point~ of difference between the prismatic compafs and
the surveyor's compaBS.
9. How is a chain and cOmpaM ~urvey of a given area executed? How is it
plotted?
10. What is meant by local attraction? How is it detected? How are the
observed bearings corrected for local attraction?
11. What is meant by " Face left" and" Face right" of a theodolite?
How would you change face? What instrumental err(jrs are eliminated
by face left and face .I'ight obeervations?
12. Give a list of temporary and permanent adjustments of a transit theodolite.
13. Describe the temporal'y adjustment~ of a theodolite. Explain how you
would measure with a theodolite (a) a horizontal angle, and (b) a vertical
angle. How is the bearing of a line observed with a theodolite ?
14. Describe how you would set up a theodolite at a given station, and measure
a horizontal angle by repetition. State what errors will be eliminated
by this method.
15. Describe bow you would set up a theodolite at a given station and measu~e
a round of angles at it. What errors are eliminated or minimised in the
various steps of your procedure? •
16. Describe the various methods of traversing with the t"heodolite and discuss
their merits and demerits.
17. What are the field checkein (a) a closed travers~and (b) an open traverse.
18. What is meant by a cloeing error in a closed traverse? How would you
adjust it graphically?
19. How is a theodolite traverse survey balanced? How is it plotted?
20. What do you understand by a Gale's traverse system? How are calculations
made?
21. \Vhat are the sources of error in theodolite observations?
22. Describe, with the aid of sketches, a box sextant and explain its optical
principle. Explain how you would use it in measuring the angles both
horizontal and vertical, and etate the precautions that you would take in
its manipulation.
23. Sketch and describ(· a box sextant. Explain how you would determine the
index error of a bo'C sextant and eliminate it. Explain how a box sextant
is tested and adjusted.
24. Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings.
(i) 42° 30'; (ii) l2ti' 15'; (iii) 242 0 45'; 32So 10'.
(Ans. (i) N. 42°30' K ; (ii)S. 53° 45' E.; (jji)S. 62° 45' W.; (iv) N. 31 0 50'W:)
25. Express the following reduced bearings as whole circle bearings:
(a) K. 65° 12' E.; (h) S. 36° 4S' E.; (c) S. 3So IS' W. ; (d) N. 26° 32' W.
( Ans. (a) (i.io 12'. ; (b) 1430 12' ; (c) 21So IS'; (d) 333° 2S'.)
2.6. The following are the observed fore bearings of the lines:
AB, Sso 30'; BC. 1420 15'; CD, 209 0 10'; DE, 324 0 45'. :Find their back
bearing".
(Ans. 26S 0 30'; 3220 15'; 29° 10'; 144° 45'.)
27. The fore bearings of the lines are as follows:
AB, N. 26° 14' E.; BC, S. 7So 18' E.; CD. S. 69° 9' W.; DE, N. 32° 15' W.
Find their hack bea dngs.
( Ans. S. 26° 14' W. ; ~. 7So IS' W. ; ~. 69° 9' E. ; S. 32° 15' E.)
2S. Compute the angle between the lines AB and AC, if their respective bearings
are: (a) 30° 15' and 7So 30'; (b) 2So 45' and 137' lei'; (e) 76° 45' and
248° 30'; and (d) 52° 30' and 328° 45'.
(AnH. (a) 4So 15'; (b) 10So 30'; (c) 171° 45'; (d) S3° 45'.)
29. Calculate the smaller angle between the lines AB and AC, if their respective
bearings are: (a) N, Vi o 12' E. and N. 67° 34' E; (b) N.32° 10' E. and S. 67°
38' E.; (e) S. 22° IS' E. and S. 46° 24'W.; (d) S. 54° 15' W. and N.76° 32'W.,
(e) N. S2° 9' W. and N.32° 22' E., (f) N. 68° 24' E. and S. 19° 34' W.;
(g) S. 12° 16' E. and ~. 49° 54' W.
( Ans. (a) 52° 22'; (b) 80° 12'; (c) 6So 42'; (d) 49° 13'; (e) ll4° 31';
(f) 131° 10'; (g) 142° 22'.)
30. The following fore an,l back bearings were observed in running a compass
tra\·erse. Correct for local attraction.
AB 44° 30' 2260 30'
BC 1240 30' 303° 15'
CD 18JO 0' 1° 0'
DA 28\)° 30' lOSo 45'
( Ans .
... Line. Correction at Fore bearing. Back bearing.
AB A= + 4.i' 45° 15' 225° 15'
BC B= - 1 15'
Q 123° 15' 303 0 15' \
CD IS1° 0' 1° 0'
DA 289 0 30' 109° 30'.)
31. The following bearings were taken in traversing with a compass in a place
where local attraction was suspected:
PROBLEMS 801

AB S. 45° 30' E. N. 45° 30' W.
BO S. 60° 0' E. N. 60° 40' W.
CD S. 5° 30' E. N. 3° 20' W.
DA N.83° 30'W. S. 85° 0' E.
At what stations do you suspect local attraction? Determine the corrected
fore and back bearings of each of the lines.
(Ans. Stations 0 and D are affected by local attraction J
Line. Correction at Corrected Bearings.
F. B. B. B.
AB S. 45° 30' E. N. 45° 30' W.
BC C= +40' S.60° 0' E. N.60° 0' W.
CD D=- 1° 30' S. 4° 50' E. N. 4° 50' W.
DA N.85° O'W. S.85° 0' E.)
32. The magnetic bearing of a line AB is 120°. Find its true bearing if the
direction of the magnetic north at A is (a) 9° 15' west of true north; and
(b) 5° 30' east of true north.
( Ans. (a) 110° 45'; (b) 125° 30'.)
33. A line was drawn to a magnetic bearing of 212° on an old map when the
magnetic declination was 4° W. To what bearing should it be set now if
the magnetic declination is now 10° E. ?
( Ans. 198°.)
34. In 1900 a certain line had a magnetic hearing of S. 67° 30' E. and the
magnetic declination at that place was 8° E. In 1942 the magnegtic declina-
tion was 4° W. Determine the magnetic bearing of the line in 1942.
( Ans. S. 55° 30' E.)
35. Find the value of the magnetic declination if the magnetic bearing of the
sun at noon is (a) 184° and (b) 354°.
( Ans. (a) 4° W.; (b) 6° E.)
36. The true bearing or"a line is N. 63° 48' \V. What is the magnetic bearing
of the line, if the magnetic declination is (a) 3° 20' W.; and (b) 2° 50' E. r
(Ans. (a) N. 60° 28' W; (b) N. 66° 38' \V.)
37. In an old survey made when the magnetic declination was 3° 38' E., the
magnetic bearing of a line AB was N. 65 0 12' E. If the present magnetio
declination in the same locality is 2° 26' W., find the true bearing and the
present magnetic bearing of AB.
(Ans. T. B. of AB=N. 68° 50' E.; M. B. of AB=N. 71° 16' E.)
38. The following fore and back bearings were observed in traversing with a
compass in a place where local attraction was suspected:
AB 60° 30' 240° 30'
BC 99° 15' 278° 0'
CD 38° 45' 221° 30'
DE 321 0 15' •
1390 45'
802 SURVEYING AND LEVELl,ING
Determine the corrected fore and back bearings, and true bearings of the
lines, assuming the magnetic declination to be 12 0 W.
( Ans. Correction: at C= +1 0
15'; at D = _1 0 30';
Line. Fore bearing. Back bearing. True Fore bearing.
AB 60 0 30' 240 0 30' 48 0 30'
:BC <;)<;)0 15' 27<;\0 15' 81 0 15'
CD 400 0' 220 0 0' 28 0 0'
DE 319 0 45' 139° 45' 307 0 45')
39. The bearings of the sides of a triangle ABC are as follows:
AB, 60°; BC, 130°; CA, 270°.
Compute the angles of the triangle ABC.
(Ans. A=300; B= 110°; C=40°.)
40. The following bearings were observed in running a compass traverse:
AB 45 0 15' 225° 15'
BC 123° 15' 303° 15'
CD IS10 ~ 1° ~
DA 289 0 30' 109° 30'
Calculate the interior angles of the traverse.
(Ans. A = 640 15'; B = 1020 ; C = 1220 15' ; D = 71 0 30'.)
41. Below are the bearings observed in traversing with a compass in a place
where local attraction was suspected:
AB 80° 30' 260° 30'
BO 351° 15' 1730 O! .
CD 32° 15' 208 0 0'
DE 1060 15' 287 0 45'
EF 99° 0' 280 0 0'
FG 209° 30' 29 0 30'
At what stations do you suspect local attraction? Find the corrected
bearings of the lines.
( Ans. Local attraction exists at stations C, D, and E.;
Line. Correction at Fore bearing. Back bearing.

AB 80° 30' 2600 30'
BO C= - 1" 45' 351 0 15' 171 0 15'
CD D= +2 0 30' 300 30' 210 0 30'
DE E= +1 0 1080 45' 288 0 45'
EF 1000 0' 280° 0'
FG 209 0 30' 29° 30')
42. The following are the interior angles of a closed traverse ABCDE :
LA, 78° 12' 40N; L B, 168° 33' 50H ; L C, 84° 22' 30H ; L D, lI5° 43' 25';
L E, 93° 7' 35 H •
PROBLEMS 303
If the observed bearing of AB is 1380 42' 20", compute the bearings of

the remaining sides.
(Aus. Bearing of: BC,127° 16' 10#; CD, 31 0 38' 40"; DE, 327· 22' 5#;
EA, 240 0 29' 40".)
43. The following angles were measured in running a closed traverse ABCDE
in a clockwire direction:
LA, 281 0 47' 20#; L B, 191 0 26' 10# ; L C, 275 0 37' 30#; L D, 244 0 16' 35#;
L E, 266° 52' 25"'.
Calculate the bearings of the remaining sides of the traverse, given that the
observed bearing of AB was S. ~Jo 17' 20# E.
(Ans. Bearing of: BC, S. 29° 51' 10· E., CD, S. 65° 46' 20' W.; DE, N,
49° 57' 5" W.; EA, N. 36° 55' 20" E.)
44. From the following data, calculate the deflection angles and the bearings
ofBC, CD, and DE.
Bearing of AB == 112° 24' 20".
Included angles: L ABC == 122· 30' 10'; L BCD == 14SO 10' 40" ;
L CDE = 980 12' 50" :
(Ans. Deflection angle at : B, 57 0 29' 50" L; C, 31 0 49' 20# L; D, 81° 47' lO"'L.
Bearing of: BC-54° 54' 30"; CD == 23_0 5'10"; DE==301° 18' 0#.)
··45. Below are the back angles of part of an open traverse: At station: B,
202° 38'; C, 169 0 15'; D, 15So 36' E, 1880 12'. If the true forward bearing
of AB is 360 26', find the true bearings of the remaining sides.
(Ans. Bearing of: BC == 59° 4'; CD == 4So 19' ;
DE ... 26° 55' ; EF == 35° 7'.)
46. Reduce the following interior angles of a closed traverse ABCDEF to
deflection angles :
LA, 680 30'; L B, 2080 26'; L C, 83° 14'; L D, 62° 10'; L E, 2140 20'
LF, 83 0 20'.
(Ans. Deflection angle at station: A, 1110 30' L; B, 28° 26' R;
C, 96° 46' L; D, 117° 50' L; E, 34° 20' R; F, 96° 40' L.
47. The following are the lengths and bearings of a traverse ABCD :-
Line. Length in feet. Bearing.
AB 248 30°
BC 320 140°
CD 180 210°
Calculate the length and bearing of the line DA.
( Ans. 303' 5 ft.; 307' 50'.)
48. It is {mpossible to observe the length and bearing of a line AB directly.
and the following are the observations made from two stations C and D :
Line. Length in ft. Bearing.
CA 430 S. 68° 24' W.
CD 9S0 N. 20· 36' E.
DB 360 N. 60° 18' W.
'/) ,,;, (te the length and bearing of AB, and also the angles CAB and DBA.
(Ans. 1326 ft.; N. 19° 0' E.; 49° 24' ; 79° IS'. )
49. Below arc the particulars of part of a traverse survey:

Line Length in feet Bearing.
AB 480 18° 12'
Be 1090 132° 42'
CD 1465 210° 24'
Find the di3tance between a point P on AB, 275 ft. from A, and a point
R on CD, 680 ft. from C.
(Ans. 1246 ft.)
50. The following are the latitudes and departures of the lines of a ()losed
traverse ABeD:
Line. Latitude. Departure.
AB -116'1 -44'4
Be + 6'8 +58'2
CD + 80'5 + 17'2
DA + 28'8 -31'0
Compute the area of the traverse by (a) the co-ordinate methnd,
(b) the D. M. D., method, and (c) the departures and total latitudes method.
(Ans. 4723 sq. ft.)
51. The oblique angle measured with a sextant at a station A between the
objects Band C is 66° 6'. The angle of elevation of B is 20° 24' and the
angle of depression of C is 4° 12'. Find the horizontal angle BAC.
(Ans. 62° 34'.)
52. The oblique angle measured with a sextant at a station A between the two
objects M and N is found to be 70° 32'. Find the horizotal angle MAN,
given that the horizontal projections of AM and AN are 200 ft. and 250 ft.
respectively, and M and N are 20 ft. and 10 ft. above the instument
station A.
[Angle of elevation of M = .. = tan-l _2_0 ; and that of N = P "" tan-I_!_O
200 250
Knowing .. and P. proceed similarly as in the illustrative example 1. ]
(Ans. 70° 42'.}
CHAPTER V
.' PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Plane Tabling is a graphical-metho~ of _~!ll'_yey_irl_g_ in3E_~ch
}he filed work and plottmg are done ~lll_l!lt;aneol!~Iy;' It is most
suitable for the filling-in of the details between the stations
previously fixed by triangulation or theodolite traversing. It is
particularly adapted for
small-scale or medium-
scale mapping in which
great accuracy in detail
IS not required as for
topographical surveys.
The plane table

(Fig. 219) consists essen-
. tially of (i) a drawing
board mounted on a
tripod and (ii) a straight
Fig. 219 edge ealled an alidade.
The Drawing Board The board is made of well-seasoned
wood such as teak or pine and varies in size from 16" X 12·
to 30" X 24", or 18" or 24" square. It is mounted on a tripod in
such a manner that it can be levelled, and revolved about a
vertical axis and clamped in any position. The board is fitted
with a levelling head or a ball and socket arrangement.
The Alidade :-The alidade (Fig. 220) consists of a metal
Fig. 220
(brass or gunmetal ) or boxwood straight edge or ruler about
18" long. The bevelled ( ruling or working) edgce, of the alidade
is called the fiducial edge. The alidade may be plain or tele-

scopic according as it is fitted with sight vanes at both ends, or
fitted with a telescope. One of the sight vanes is provided with
a narrow slit and the other with a central vertical wire or hair. In
both cases, the line of sight is in the same vertical plane as the
fiducial edge and parallel to it. The telescope is provided with a
vertical circle and a level tube, and is fitted with cross and stadia
hairs. A small circular level or two bubble tubes at right angles
to each other are attached to the alidade for levelling the table.
The fiducial edge is graduated so as to serve as a scale for
plotting distances. The alidade is sometimes fitted with a
parallel ruler connected by two links to its base plate so that
rays can be drawn through a plotted point without the alidade
being centred on it.
_,. The accessories to the plane table are (i) a trough compass,
or a circular box compass with two bubble tubes at right
Fig. 221 Fig. 222

angles to each other mounted on a square brass plate (Fig. 221)
for marking on paper the direction of the magnetic meridian.
•
(ii) A plumbing fork or U frame (Fig. 222) with a plumb-
bob for centering the table .
•
(iii) A water-proof cover to protect the sheet from rain. \
Paper : -The paper used for plane tabling should be of
the best quality. It should be well seasoned to lessen the effect
of atmospheric changes. It should never be folded or rolled,
PLANE TABLE SURVEYING 307
but should be carried flat in a portfolio. To reduce the strain

on the eyes, the paper should be tinted faint green or grey. Zinc
or celluloid sheets are used for work in damp climates. The
paper is fixed on the drawing boa~d by means of drawing pins,
clips, or suitable clamps. The better way is to paste down the
edges of the paper, or the..edges of the linen on which the paper
is mounted tB the underside of the board. Other drawing
materials required are pins, pencils, rubber, scales, etc.
Advantages of Plane Tabling :-{i11tis most suitable for

preparing small-scale maps. (JirIl is most rapid. ~t'fhe field
book is not necessary as plotting is done in the field concurrently
with the field work, and hence the mistakes in booking the field
notes are avoided. (iv) The surveyor can compa~e the plotted
work with the actual features of the area surveyed and thus can
ascertain if it represents them properly, ~d cannot, therefore,
overlook any essential features. (V}/Tnere is no possibility of
omitting the ~~~~s~~y ,,!Ilcasllr.t:trle~ts as the map is plotted in
the field. €yj}-'Errors of measuremen~d plotting may be
readily detected by check lines. (!)if ~tours _~2_~ar
objects may be represented accurately, since the tract is in view.
(vii)} It is partICularly advantageous iilIDagnetIc areas where
compass survey is not nW;._ reliable. (ix) It is less costly than a
theodolite sur;ey. (~~No great skill is required to prepare
a satisfactory map. _
Disadvantages of Plane Tabling;r-W~~ plane table is

essentially a ..tropical instru~nt. (lWft is not suitable for work
in a wet climate. (iti} :'ftis heavy, cumbersome, and awk-
ward to carry. (i~},'there are several accessorie.§, to be carried,
and, therefore, they are likely· to be lost. (~t is not intended
for accurate work. (i,l').!f ,th~ survey is to be replotted to a differ-
ent scale or quantities are to be computed, it is a great inconveni-
~iiCe'in absence of the field notes.
General : -The following points ShOlHd be borI"le in mind'
while surveying with the plane table.
(1) The small letters a, b, c, denote the points '&tted
on the sheet to represent the corresponding point A, By ,
on the ground. ,"
308
(2) The table remains clamped in position while the

objects are sighted. It is the alidade that is moved on the table
to bisect the objects.
(3) While the sights are being taken, the alidade must be
centred or pivoted on (i. e. the fiducial edge of the alidade
must be set to ) the plotted station point on the sheet.
(4) The board is turned only when the table is to be oriented.
After the table is properly oriented, the board must be clamped
in position.
Setting up the Plane Table : -The following operations
should be performed in setting up the table at a station.
(1) The table should be set up at a convenient height for
working, say about at ft. and approximately level. The legs
of the tripod should be spread well apart, and firmly fixed into
the ground. ,
(2) 1The table should be so placed over the station on the
ground \\at the point plotted on the sheet corresponding to
the station occupied should be exactly over the station on the
ground. This operation is known as the center'in of the table.
This may be done by means of a plumbing for or U frame.
To do this, place the pointed end of the upper leg of the fork
coinciding with the point on the paper and suspend a plumb
line from the other leg. Shift the table bodily until the plumb
bob hangs exactly over the centre of the station peg. If no
plumb bob is available, centering of the table may be done by
dropping a stone from a point on the underside of the board
which is directly under the point on the paper. The degree
of ~curacy required in centering depends upon the sca~!_he
~ Accurate centering IS necessary only m large-scale work.
When the scale is small, it may be approximate as the error
even of one foot would not show on the map.
(3) The table is tlH~n levelled by means of the levelling
screws with reference to a level tube ot circular level placed ~n
the table first arallel to two screws and then' over the third
screw, the process 0 eve mg emg expedited with'tnepalr of
"hos; levels; or by tiltin~ board by hand if the table i.,
provided with It b~l sockctnei~djusting the regs
only, if no l!!velling head or a ball and socket arrangement is

fitted .
. Orienting the table :-The operation of keeping the table
at each of the successiv~tions parallel to the position which
it occupied at the first statlOn is known as orientation. It is
necessary when the instrument has to be set up at more than
one "station. 'When the table is properly oriented, the Imes OIl
. the' paper are parallel to the lines on the ground, which they
represent. If it is not oriented, a different meridian will be
used at eaeh of the successi\'e stations, which is anomalous.
There are two methods of orienting the table. viz. (1) by the
use of the magnetic needle, and (2) by back sighting. Orienta-
tion may also be effected by solving the two-point problem and
three-point problem.
~Oricntation by the Magnetic Needle :-To orient the
table at ~ subsequent station, the trough compass (or
circular box compass) is placed along the line representing the
magnetic meridian which has been drawn on the paper at the first
station, and the board is then turned until the ends of the needle
are opposite the zeros of the scale. The board is then clamped
in position. This method is sufficiently accurate provided there
is no local attraction. It is sJ.litable for rough small-scale
mapping.
..-__...
~ientation by Backsighting : -This is the most accurate
method of orientation and is always to be prefered. Suppose
the table is set up over the station Q on the line PQ which has
been previously drawn as pq from the station P. The alidade is
pl(l.:;~d along the line qp. The board is then turned until the line.
of ~ight bisects the ranging rod at P. The board is then properly
orIented and clampea-'mtnIs pOSItion. Care should be taken
to place the table at each of the successive stations in such a
position that the centering of the table is least altered when the
table if; turned in azimuth for orientation. To ensure this, the
line (qp) joining th~ station (q) and the preceding one (p) plotted
on the' paper should be as nearly parallel as possible to the
corresponding line (QP) on the ground.
Methods of Plane Tabling :-There are four methods of

B surveying with the plane table:
"",,''''''''',
...-'/ I '" (1) Radiation, (2) inter-
A
f(" '/ "" section, (3) Traversing, and
(4) Resectioll.
!1 '. . '~a.~"~-
:I ,It,
c ___
d -
~~),
/
(1) Radiation:~(Fig.
In this method the point is
223).
I
: ,,/ -"
e" "
" I
located on plan by drawing a
I ,/
F"t(_
P\
\... I
',,' ray from the plane table station
- .... _ , /)/1) to the point, and plotting to scale
-..... \ ....
.,,;
----...1-.. ./ along the ray the distance
E ~ measured fJ;JW-/ the station to
Fig. 223 the point. ('!he method is suit-
able for the survey of the small areas which can be commanded
from a single station. It is chieflv used for 10cat!Qg_th~ d~ll,il
from stations, which have been previously established hy other
;;ethods of surveying such as triangulation or transit-tape
traversing.
Procedure :-(1) Select a point P so that all points to be
located are visible from it. ..-~
(2) Set up the table at P and after lev~lling it, clamp
the board. .
(3) Select a point p on the sheet so that it is exactly over
the station P on the ground by the use of U frame. The point
p represents on the sheet the instrument station P on the ground.
(4) Mark the direction of the magnetic meridian with the
help of the compass (trough or circular) in the top corner of
the sheet.
(5) Centring the alidade on p, sight the various points A,
B, C, etc., and draw rays along the fiducial edge of the alidade
lightly with a chisel-pointed pencil. '
(6) Measure the distances PA, PB, PC, etc., from P to
the various points with the chain or tape, or by stadia, and plot
them to scale along the corresponding ray~>. Join the Ipoints
a, b, c, etc., to givc the outline of the survey.
Care must be taken to see that the alidade is touchi.,1g the
point p while the sights are being taken. 1'0 avoid con'fusion,
the various rays should be referenced. The field work can

be checked by measuring the distances AB, BC, CD, etc., and
comparing them with their plotted lengths ab, be, cd, etc.
(2) Intersection :-(Fig. 224). In this method the point

is fixed on plan by the intersection of the rays drawn from the
two instrument stations. The method is commonly employed
for locating (i) the d~tail, (ii) the distant and inacces.sible points,
-r---~--'
(iii) the broken boundarie~ (iv) the".,JiYers, and )i'} the points
which mayt>e- used subsequently as the instrument stauons.
It is suitable when it is difficult or impossible to measure dist-
ances as in the case of the survey of a .mountainous country.
It is also used for checking distant objects.
f
Procedure :-(1) Select two points P and Q in a command-
ing position so that all points to be plotted are visible from both
P and Q. The line joining the stations P and Q is known as the
base line.
4~
-
ft 'l
c__'_
f e \
... '" / \
Fig. 224
(2) With the table set up and levelled at P, select a suit-

able point p on the paper so that it is over the instrument sta-
tion P on the ground, and mark the direction of the magnetic
meridian by means of the compass.
7 Sl'RVEYING AND LEVELLING
(3) With the alidade pivoted on the point p, sight thf

station Q and other objects A, B, C, etc., to be located, and
draw rays along the fiducial edge of the alidade.
(4) Measure the distance from P to Q accurately with
the steel tape and set it off to scale along the ray drawn to Q,
thus fixing the position of q on the sheet.
(5) Shift the table and set it up at Q. Centre the table
so that the point g is directly above the point Q on the ground,
and level it.
(6) Place the alidade along qp, and after orienting the table
by backsighting on P, clamp it.
(7) With the alidade touching g, sight the same objects
and draw rays. The intersections of these rays with the cor-
responding rays drawn from p determine the positions of the
objects A, B, C, etc., on the sheet.
It may be observed that in this method no linear measure-
ments are necessary except that of the base line. Care should
be taken to avoid very acute or obtuse intersections, the
extreme limits for the angles of intersection being 30° and 120°.
Alternative Method :-(1) Choose two stations P and Q.
Measure the base line PQ accurately with the steel tape, and
plot it to scale on the sheet in a suitable position.
(2) Set up the table at P and center it so that the point
p is vertically over the station P on the ground. Level the table.
(3) Keeping the alidade along the line pq, orient the table
by turning the board until the ranging rod at the station Q is
sighted, and then clamp it.
(4) Mark the direction of the magnetic meridian with
the aid of the compass.
(5) With the alidade pivoted on p, sight the objects A,
B, C, etc., to be located, and draw rays along the fiducial edge. of
the alidade.
(6) The rest of the procedure is the Same as in steps 5 to
7 in the preceding method.
(3) Trayersing :-(Fig. 225). This method is similar to

that of compass or transit
traversing. It is used for
running survey lines bet-
ween stations which have
been previously fixed by
other methods of surveying
to locate the topographical
details. It is also suitable
for the survey of roads,
rivers, etc.
Procedure :-(1) Select
the traverse stations A,
Fig. 225 B, C, etc.
(2) Set up the table at A. Select the point a suitably on
the sheet. Center and level the table when the board is clamped.
(3) Mark the direction of the magnetic meridian on the
sheet.
(4) Centring the alidade on la, sight the rangi!lg' rod at B
and draw a ray along the bevellec! edge of the alidade.
(5) Measure the distance AB with the chain or tape, and
lay it off to scale on the ray drawn towards B, thus fixing the
position of b on the sheet, which represents the station B on the
ground.
(6) Locate the surrounding detail by radiation or by offsets
taken in the usual way, and the distant objects by intersection.
(7) Shift the instrument and set it up at B. Having
centered and levelled the table, orie~t it by backsighting on A
with the alidade along ba, and then clamp the board.
(8) With the alidade pivoted on b, sight the station C
and draw a ray along the fiducial edge of the alidade.
(9) Measure the distance BC with the chain or tape, and
set it off to scale on the ray drawn to C to fix the point c on
the sheet. The near-by detail is located as before.
(10) Continue the process until all the remaining stations
are plotted.
At any station the work can be checked by taking sights

to two or more preceding stations visible from the station occupied.
When no station is visible, any well-defined points such as a
corner of a building, which have been previously fixed can be
used for checking. If the traverse is a closed one, the work
can be checked by plotting the starting point from the last
station of the traverse. and finding the error of closure. -The
closing error is adjusted graphically as in compass traversing.
(4) Resection :-(Fig. 226). This method is used for esta-
R blishing the instrument stations only.
The characteristic feature of resection
e.6.", is that the point plottcd on plan is
./ , the station occupied by the table.
,./ \ Procedure :-(1) As in the intersec-
r-";-~_' tion method select a base line PQ
11.// ~f~" , on thc ground. Measure it accura-

tely with the steel tape and plot it
P to scale on the sheet as pq in a
Fig. 226 suitable position.
(2) Set up the table at P. Centre it so that p is ver:l'illly
over P and level it.
(3) Placing the alidade along pq, orient the table by turning
the board until the signal at Q is bisected, and then clamp it.
(4) With the alidade touching p, sight the station R which
is to be located by resection, and draw a ray along the ruling
edge of the alidadc. Mark the point r along the ray by estimation.
(5) Shift the table and set it up at R with rover R. Orient
the table by taking a backsight on P and clamp it.
(6) With the alidade centred on q, sight the station Q
and draw a ray. The point of intersection of this ray and that
previously drawn from p gives the required point r.
(7) Continuc the process to establish other station points.
In this method it is necessary to draw a ray from a preceqing
station to the station to be occupied by the instrument.
Errors of centering, though inevitable in thil'> method will not
affect the accuracy of work. since resection is used for small-
scale work only.
The Two-.Point Problem :-The two-point problem con-

sists in locating the position on the plan of the station occupied
by the plane table, by means of observations to two well-defined
points, which are visible from the instrument station and whose
positions have been already plotted on the plan.
In Fig. 227, A and B are the two points on the ground;
a and b their plotted positions on the plan; C the station oyer
A B
~~--------7----------~~
~ ...... ,
,
,...
"
/",/
"1
/ ,:
: "... //" J
, ..... , / I
\ "~// I
~/ "'~----.P
~-----~
11 C
Fig. 227
which the table is to be set up and c its position on the.plan which
it is required to locate.
Procedure :-(1) Choose a suitable auxiliary point D, so that
the angles CAD and CBD are not too acute for good intersections
at A and B.
(2) Set up the table at D and level it. Orient the table by
compass or by judging ab to be parallel to AB and clamp it.
(3) With the alidade touching a, sight A, and draw a ray

through a. Similarly, with the alidade against b, sight B, and
draw a ray through b, intersecting the ray drawn through a at
d l , which approximately represents the station D as the orienta-
tion is approximate.
(4) With the alidw;ie centred on dI , sight C, and draw

a ray dic i through d l , estimating the position of CI •
(5) Remove the table and set it up 'at C with clover C

and level it. Orient the table parallel to its position at D by
backsighting on D. Tq_ do this, place the alidade along cld l and
rotate the table until D is bisected. Clamp the table.
316 SlTRVEYIKG AND LEVEI"LIKG
(6) With the alidade against a, sight A, and draw a ray

through a, intersecting the line dlc l in CI • With the alidad~
touching CI ' ~ight B, and draw a ray through cr This ray will
pass through b, provided the initial orientation of the table at
D was correct. But since the orientation at D and also at C,
although consistent, was only approximate, the ray clB will
not pass through b. Mark the point of intersection bl of clB
and dlb. The point bl thus represents B. Hence adlclb l represents
ADen. But since ab is the true representation of AB, the error
in the initial orientation is equal to the angle blab between the
lines ab and ab l . To eliminate the error, the table must be
rotated through this angle. To do this,
(7) place the alidade along ab l and fix a ranging rod P
at a great distance from the table in the line ab l produced.
(8) Place the alidade along ab and turn the table until
the ranging rod P i'i bisected. Clamp the table. ab is now
parallel to AB and the orientation of the table is correct.
(9) To find the true position of C, centre the alidade on
a and ~.igilt A. Draw a ray through a. Similarly, with the
alidade touching b, sight B, and draw a ray through b. The
intersection of these two rays gives the true position (c) on the
plan of the station (C) occupied.
The Three-point Problem :-The three-point problem con-
sists in locating on j he plan the position of the instrument
station on the ground by means of observations to three well-
defined points whose positions have been already plotted on
the plan.
Suppose A, B, and C are the three points, which have been
plotted as a, b, and c on the plan and the table is set up at l'
from which A, B, and C are visible. It is required to plot on
the plan the position t of the instrument station T.
The problem may be solvecl (1) mechanically,r(2) graphi-
cally, and (3) by trial. - .
(1) Mechanical Method :--(Figs. 228a & b). The methbd
is also known as the Tracing-cloth or - paper method. (1) The
table is set up at l' and oriented as nearly in its proper position
as possible by eye or by compass, and. clamped. A sheet of
tracing cloth or paper is stretched over the plane table sheet

(or plan) and a point t1 is chosen on the tracing cloth to represent
approximately the station (T) occupied (Fig. 228 a).
(2) With the alidade centred on i 1 , the signals at A, B.
and C are sighted successively, and the rays are drawn.
,, c,
,A
II rn
B I ,A 8 I
\ ,, 1
\ ,, ! I" II
, I
I
t
I I
\
\
I
: I
I
\
(eu)
~(b>
Fig. 228 a Fig. 228 b
(3) The tracing cloth is then unfastened and moved over
the plane table sheet until the three rays simultaneously pass
through the plotted positions a, b, and c on the sheet. The
point i1 is then pricked through on the sheet with a fine necdle
point. The point thus obtained on the,sheet is the point t corres-
ponding to the instrument station T (Fig. 228 b).
(4) The alidade is then placed along ta and the table
oriented by turning the board until the signal at A is bisected.
As a check, the points Band C should be sighted with the alidade
piyoted on band c respectively, and the rays drawn. These rays
should now pass through t, if the work is correct. If not, a small
triangle of error will result, and it may be eliminated by the trial
and error method.
(2) Graphical Method :-Ofthe several graphical methods,
Bessel's Solution of the inscribed quadrilateral is the si1ple':>t
and is most commonly used.
Bessel's Method :-(1) Having set up and levelled the table,
the alidade is placed along the line ca and the board turned until
A is sighted, a being towards A (Fig. 229 a). The table is then
clamped. With the alidade centred on c, B is sighted, and a
ray cB is drawn along the edge of the alidade.
(2) With the alidade placed along ac, the board is turned
until the line of sight bisects C, C being towards C (Fig. 229 b),
and then clamped. With the alidade touching a, B IS sighted
.,
and a ray aB is drawn through a, intersecting the ray previously

drawn through e in the point d (Fig. 229 b).
B C, ,
,, I
,/
,.,
11 ~ lJl
T
Fig. 229 a Fig. 229 b Fig. 229 c
(3) With the alidade along bd (Fig. 229 c), the table is
turned until B is bisected, and then clamped. The table is now
oriented, and t must lie on db, and also on Aa and Ce. With the
alidade centred on a, A is bisected, and a ray is drawn through
a, intersecting the ray bd ill t, which represents the instrument
station T (Fig. 229 c).
To check the orientation, the aldade is pivoted on e and
C is bisected. The ray Cc should now pass through t, if the
work is correct.
By Trial :-The method is known as a trial and error, or
triangle of error method. It is quick and accurate. In this method
the true position on the plane table sheet of the station occupied
is found by trial. After having set up and levelled the instrument,
it is oriented as nearly as possible by eye or by the compass,
and the rays Aa, Bb and. Ce, i. e. resection lines from the three
points A, B, and C through the corresponding plotted points
a, b, and e are then drawn through a, b, and c by sighting to the
points A, B, and C. As thc table is not correctly oriented, these
rays will not pass through one point, but will form a small triangle
known as the triangle of erTor. By repeated trials, this triangle
is eliminated so that the three rays Aa, and Bb, Cc will finally
intersect in a point, which is the correct location of the instrument
station on the sheet. The following rules known as Lehmann's
rules should be applied in locating the position of " the point
sought," by which is meant the true position on the sheet of the
station occupied.
It is assumed that the observer is facing the signals at the

distant points, and the right and left directions are determined
accordingly. The triangle whose vertices are the three fixed
points A, B, and C is called the great triangle, while the circle
passing through A, B, and C is known as the great circle.
Lehmann's Rules :-(1) If the instrument station T is
outside the great triangle ABC, th~ tria'ngle of error falls outside
the triangle abe and the point sought (t) is outside the triangle of
error. When the instrument station T is within the great triangle
ABC, the triangle of error falls inside the triangle abe and the
point sought (t)- must be within the. triangle of error formed by
the rays drawn through a, b, and e towards A, B, and C (Fig. 230a).
(2) The distance to the point sought (t) from each of the
rays An, Bb, and Ce, is proportional to the distance of A, B, and
C from T respectively (or the corresponding plotted distance).
!J
Fig. 230 a FIg, 230 b

(3) When looking in the direction of the reference points,
" the point sought (t) is on the same

side of each of the three rays Aa,
Bb, and Ce, i. e. it is either to the
right or to the left of each of the
·~-·--------~c three rays.
(4) When the instrument station
T is outside the great circle, the
point sought (t) is always on the
same side of the ray drawn to the
ulMAr CIKCt.£
most distant point as the inter-
(e) section (e) of the other two rays
(Fig. 230b).
Fig. 230c (5) When the instrument station
T is outside the great triangle ABC, but inside the great circle
within one of the three segments of the great circle, formed by

the sides of the great triangle, the ray drawn towards the middle
. g,.C ,
b \ t
Fig. 230 e Fig. 230 f

point lies betwecn the point sought (t) and the intersection (e)
of the other two rays (Fig. 230c).
(6) When the instrument station T is on or near the range
line (AC) between the fixed points (i. e. on one side of the great
triangle), the point sought (t) must be between the parallel rays
to satisfy Rule 2, and it is to the right of each of the three rays
drawn to A, C, and B to satisfy Rule 3, as shown in Fig. 230 e.
(7) When the instrument station T is on or near the pro-
longation of the range line (AB), the point sought (t) must be
outside the parallel rays on the side of the ray to the nearest
fixed point of the rangE', and is to the right of each of the three
rays to A, B, and C as illustrated in Fig. 230 f.
(8) When the three fixed points (A, B, and C) are in a
, C'
straight line, the ray drawn towards
~ the middle point B lies between the
point sought (t) and the intersection
(e) of the other two rays drawn to A
and C as in Fig. 230 g. In this case
the points A, B, and C are considered
as lying on the circumference of a
Fig. 230.g circle of infinite radius and the point
sought (t) always lying in one of the segments of the great circle.
In practice the topographer selects an advantageous station
from which a good view of the surrounding features can be ob-
tained and sets up the plane table over it.. He then finds with
reference to the three fixed points whether the instrument sta-
tion is within the great triangle, outside the great triangle but
within one of the three segments of the great circle, outside the
great circle, on or near the range line between the fixed points,
or on or near the prolongation of the range line. Having decided
this, he estimates the position of the point sought by applying
the above rules. With the alidace placed along the line joining
t and one of the points a, b, or c, the table is then oriented
h by turning the board until the
corresponding point is sighted. The
other two stations are again sighted
and the rays drawn. These rays
will pass through t, if the estimated
position of t has been correct. If
not, a second, but smaller, triangle
(;J/{c)!( CI/lCt.£ of error will be formed and the
(d ) process is repeated until the correct
Fig. 230 d position of t is determined.
(9) The solution of the three-point problem, i. e. the
position of the point sought (t) is indeterminate, if the instru-
ment station (T) lies on the great circle passing through A, B,
and C (Fig. 230), as the three rays will intersect at one point
even though the plane table is not correctly oriented.
Adjustments of the Plane Table : -
(1) The surface of the board should be a perfect plane.
Test the accuracy in this respect by applying a straight
edge in several 'directions. If the surface is not perfectly plane,
remove high spots by planing or sand-papering.
(2) The surface of the board should be perpendicular to the
vertical axis of the instrument.
To test the accuracy in this respect, place a spirit level
on the table and centre the bubble. Turn the table through
180 0 and observe if the bubble remains central. If not, correct
half the apparent error by inserting a packing or a washer bet-
ween the underside of the board and its support. Relevel the
instrument and place the spirit level in a position at right
angles to its previous position. Repeat the test and adjust-
ment. Repeat the whole process until the bubble remains
central in all directions on reversal.
(3) The fiducial ( or ruling) edge of the alidade should be
a straigtht line. .
,P. 1.-11
322 SVRVEYING AKD LEVELLING
Test by drawing a fine line along the fiducial edge of the

alidade. Reverse the alidade end for end and put it against the
ends of the line. Draw a line along the edge. If the two lines
coincide, the alidade is straight. If not, correct the edge by
filing, and repeat the test until the edge is true.
(4) The axes of the spirit levels mounted on the alidade should
be parallel to the base of the alidade rule.
To test the accuracy in this respect, place the alidade on
the table and bring the bubble of one of the levels to the
centre of its run by means of the levelling screws. Draw a
line against the edge of the ruler. Lift and reverse the ali-
dade end for end and replace it against the same line. If the
bubble is central, the adjustment is correct. If not, bring the
bubble half-way back by means of the level tube adjusting
screws and the remainder by the levelling screws. The second
level tube may be tested and adjusted in a similar manner.
(5) The sight vanes of the alidade should be perpendicular to
the base of the ruler.
Test: Level the table. Suspend a plumb line a short dis-
tance away from the instrument and see if the sighting slit and
hair appear parallel to the plumb line.
Correction: If not, insert some packing under the base of
the sight vanes or file it.
In the case of the telescopic alidade, the conditions of
adjustment are:
(1) The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the
horizontal axis of the telescope.
(2) The horizontal axi& mmt be parallel to the base of the
alidade rule.
(3) The fiducial edge should be coincident with or parallel
to the plane of collimation.
(4) The bubble line of the telescope level must be parallel
to the plane of collimation.
(5) The vertical circle should read zero when the line of
collimation is horizontal.
Errors in Plane Tabling :-The following are the chief
sources of error :
(i) The board not being horizontal
(ii) The table not being accurately centered.
(iii) The table not being correctly oriented.

'1'0 guard against this error, the orientation of the table
should be checked at as many stations as possible by sighting to a
dIstant and prominent object, which has been previously plotted.
(iv) The table rotating between sights due to insufficient
clamping. The orientation should be checked after
the observations at a station are completed.
(v) The objects not being sighted accurately.
(vi) The alidade not heing correctly centred on the station
point on the paper.
(vii) The rays not being accurately drawn through the
station point.
(viii) Inaccuracy in plotting.
(ix) The expansion and contraction of the paper.
Error due to Inaccurate Centering :-As already ex-
plained, the point plotted on the paper should be exactly over
the station on the ground which it represents. The centering
and orientation of the table have to be performed simultaneously
and this necel>'Sitates several trials and
causes great waste of time. In order, there-
fore, to avoid unnecessary loss of time,
the surveyor should have a proper concep-
tion of the nature and extent of the error
caused by inaccurate centering.
Let A be the station over which the
table is set up and a its plotted position
Fig. 231 on the paper (Fig. 231). LPAQ is the
required angle, while l_PaQ is the angle obtained by drawing
rays to P and Q with the alidade centred on a. The difference
between these two angles (PAQ - PaQ) gives the angular error
caused by defective centering and its magnitude depends upon
the distances AP and AQ and the error of centering. Let I1J
and y denote the angles APa and AQa respectively, and Ab and
Ac the perpendiculars to aP and aQ from A respectively. I1J
and y represent the angular error in the rays aP and aQ res-
pectively. Then
. Ab . -1 Ab S. Ac · -1 ~_.
Ac
Sllll1J= ___ Orl1J=sm --~; lny=--- or y= S III
AP AP AQ AQ
The angular error (PAQ - PaQ) = I1J + y.
824 SURVEYING AND I,EVELLING
In practice with a table 2 ft. square, the perpendiculars Ab

and Ac seldom exceed 1 ft. The values of x and y, and also of the
angular error (x+y) for equal lengths of sight!> are given below:
Length of Length of Value of Angular error.
sight in ft. Ab or Ac in ft. x or y. [JJ + y.
100 1 34'30" 1° 9'

500 1 6' 53" 13' 46""
1000 1 3' 26" 6' 52"
5000 1 41" l' 22".
But the more important is the error in the positions of p
and q. The true position of P will be at PI to the leff of P, and
that of q at ql to the right of q. The displacement of P = PPl
= ap X x and that of q = qql = aq xy. These displacementb
should be too small to be plotted on the paper so that the accuracy
of the plan will not bc affected, and this depends upon the scale of
of the plan. If the scale of the plan is 1 inch = m ft., and Ab = eft.,
then, plotted length ap = ~P in. ; plotted length aq = ~Q in.
m m
· 1acement PPI = ~_-
A ctua1 d ISP AXPx .m.
m
Actual. displacement qql = ~-~ X yin.
m
But x = _e___ and y =-.!_ JJ and y being expressed in radians.
AP AQ
e .
:. PPI = - m. = qql'
m
N ow taking o· Ol in. as the limit of precision in plotting,
e 1 m
- - - - - or e
m 100
=-.
100
e must not exceed-.~-.

100
It will thus be noticed that very accurate centering is no~
necessary except for short sights when the scale is small (smaller
than about -~ ,in which case it is sufficient to have the station
2500
peg some where below the table, but it is essential when the
scale is large. However, it is desirable to center the taqle as
accurately as possible without great waste of time.
Example :-In setting up the plane table at a station A, it

was found that the point a, representing the station A on the plan
was not exaetly above the corresponding station A on the ground.
If the displacement of a in a direction at right angles to a ray
to P (AP) was 1 ft., find the consequent displacement of p from
its true position, given the following :
(a) Scale of the plan = 4 in. to 1 mile; distance AP =-= 8000 ft.
1
(b) ""(R. F.) = - 150ft.
600 " "
(c) "" = 20 ft. to I inch; " 80ft.
"
(a) Displacement of p from its true position = ap X error
in direction.
N ow op = 8000 X4 m
- ---- . ; error lJ1
. (lrectlOn
1" = --1--- ra d'Ian.
5280 8000
Displacement of p from its true pOSition
8000 X4
=.C . _ _ _ _ _ _ X
1 __
~
5280 8000
= 0·00076
(b) Displacement of p from its true 'position
= 150X~~ X
.1_ = 0.02 in.
600 150
(c) Displacement of p from its true positi~n
80 1
- ~- --- X -- = 0·05 in.
20 80
PUOBLEMS
1. What is meant by plane tabling? When do you recommend it ?
State the advantages and disadvantages of plane tabling.
2. De.qcrihe concisely the components of a plane table outfit. Explain how
you would set up and orient the plane table. State the errors in plane tabling.
3. Describe, with sketches, the methods of plane tabling.
4. Describe, with a neat sketch, the method of resection. For what purpose
is it chiefly used?
5. Explain clearly the two-point problem and how it is solved.
6. What is meant by the three-point problem? Explain how it is solved by
Bessel's method.
7. Explain the three-point problem and show how it is soh-ed by (i) Tracing-
paper method, and (ii) by trial and error method.
CHAPTER VI
COMPUTATION OF AREAS
\
.1'),One of the primary objects of land surveying is to deter-
mine the area of the tract of the land surveyed. By the term
"Area" is meant the area of a tract of land as projected.upon
a horizontal plane. It is not the actu;'\l area of the surface
of land.
The units of area commonly used are (1) the acre, and (2)
the square foot or the square yard. ,rhe former is used fOf
rural lands, while the latter for urban lands.
Areas may be determined (1) ~y the c{Irect use or the neJa
notes, and (II) from the previously plotted plan.
In the former method it is not necessary to draw a plan
to scale. The accuracy of the results ~ill solely depend upon
that of the field work, since errors of plotting and scaling are
eliminated.
[ I] Computation of Areas from Field Notes :-When
conducting a survey with the object of calculating the area
directly from the field measurements, the survey lines should
be so arranged as to include the whole of the area. The alti-
tudes of the large triangles should be measured to simplify
calculations.
The calculations consist of two parts, viz. (a) calculation
of the area of the skeleton of the survey, and (b) that of the area
enclosed between the survey lines of the s~eleton and the bounda-
ries of the survey.
(a) Areas of Skeletons :-The aretl S of skeletons may be
determined:
(1) By geometry or (2) co-ordinates, according as the
survey has been made with the chain ortly or by traversing.
(1) By geometry:-(Fig. 232). The areas of the triangles
forming skeletons may be calculated by the following formulcl!:
COllPUTATION OF AREAS 327
"\1) Area ( t::. ) = •..li($:_~)(s-bYTs~~C),- where a, b, and e

are the sides of the triangle, and s is the semi-perimeter
... t (a + b + c).
(ii) Area ( 6. ) = t bh.
where b is the length of any side and h the perpendicular
distance of the opposite vertex from this side.
Areas by co-ordinaif!s :-The methods of calculating areas of
skeletons by co-ordinates have been explained on pages 267 to 270.
(b) Areas along Boundaries : -The areas of the irregular"
strips may be calculated by multiplying the mean of each succes-
sive pair of adjacent offsets by the distance between them.
Let 0 1 = the offset at chainage Xl along the survey line.
" " " "
Mean offset = 0~~--.
1 +
O2
2
The distance between the offsets = X2- Xl' Then
0 + Ot
Area ( b, ) = 1 .. X (Xa -Xl)'
2
[II] Computation of Areas from Plan :-Several methods
available for determining' areas from the plan are (1) graphical,
and (2) instrumental.
<P
Fig. 232 Fig. 233
(1) Graphical Methods :-The graphical methods are those
in whieh the required data are obtained from measurement on
the plan. .
In this case tLe area of the figure is found as a whole, or the

areas of the skeletc'n and the irregular strips are found separately,
(a) Entire Areas :-(i) By Division into Trian~les:
The most convenient method is to divide the figure into a
number of triangles. The base and altitude of each triangle are
scaled and its area is found by multiplying half the base by the
altitude. When the boundaries are irregular, they are replaced
by straight lines termed as give and take or equalising lines,
These lines are so drawn that they exclude as much as they
include as in Fig. 233. The figure is thus replaced by a polygon
as shown in Fig. 233.
(ii) By Division into Squares :-(F'ig. 234).ln this method
a piece of tracing paper ruled out into
'.-r-r-- squares, each square representing a defI-
/1-- '-1'. nite number of square feet or square
V ~\ links, is placed oyer the drawing. The
number of complete squares is then
counted and the portions of the squares
broken by the curved boundary are
estimated in terms of a whole square.
The required· area is equal to the total
Fig. 234 number of squares mUltiplied by the
square feet or square links, which each square represents.
(iii) By Division into Trapezoids :-(Fig. 235). In this
method a series of equidistant
parallel lines are ruled on a trac-
ing paper, the constant distance
between them representing some
round number of feet or links.
~he tracing paper is then placed'
over the plan so that the area
is exactly enclosed between two
of the parallel lines. The figure
is thus divided into a number
of strips, the curved ends of
which are replaced by perpendi- Fig. 235
cular give and take lines as shown in Fig. 235. The sum oqhe
lengths of the rectangles thus obtained, multiplied by the c.ommon
COMPUTATIO~ OF AREAS 329
lrcadth gives the required area. The length of each strip is scaled
1 " means of the ordinary plotting scale or the computing scale.
The eomputing seale (Fig. 236) is a device for simplifying
process of measuring lengths. It carries a sliding cursor
.h a fine wire upon it at right angles to tile scale. There
no need to draw the give and take lines on the paper. since
, cursor line scrves this purpose.
>~
I: I I
-~
-
01 \l 1:
11cHAINc[ 1I1I1:~I\lll'~lo I!II\~I~"'II:[ 'I" :~'''I\I:lo ')
Fig. 236: Computing Scale.
The sheet of the tracing paper is placed on the plan in a
suitable position and the computing scale on top of it in the
direction of lines. With the cursor at zero, the scale is adjusted
so that the wire equalises the boundary at the left end of the
uppermost strip as at aa ' in Fig. 235. The cursor is then
moved along until it cqualises the boundary at the other end
as at bb ' , and the mean length of the strip is thus obtained.
The scale is mechanically transferred to the next strip. It
is then moved bodily until the wire cuts the beginning of
the strip. equalising the boundary as at cc'. The cursor is
again moved along to the right until it cuts the end of the strip,
equalising the boundary as at dd'. The reading now gives the com-
bined lengths of the two strips. The process is then continued
until all the strips have been measured and their total length
obtained.
(b) Areas Alon~ :Boundaries: -The areaS enclosed
between the adjacent survey lines and the curved boundaries
are determined by ordinates. This method is suitable for
the case of a long narrow strip of ground such as that occu-
pied by a railway or road. A base line is taken through the
area and divided into a number of equal parts. The ordinates
•
at each of the points of division are drawn and scaled. From

these lengths and their common disance apart. the area may
be calculated by 0) the Mid-ordinate rule, (ii) the Average ordi-
nate rule, (iii) the Trape:i\oidal rule, and (iv) Simpson's rule.
The first three rules assume that the boundaries between

the extremities of the ordinates are straight lines, while Simp-
son's rule aSsumes that they are portions of parabolic arcs and
is, therefore, sometimes known as the Parabolic rule.
(1) The Mid-ordinate Rule :--(Fig. 237). In this method
wi 6 7 8
I
Fig. 237
the ordinates are measured at the mid-points of each division
and the area is calculated by the formula,
.h~IIArea (.6) = h! + h2 + ha + ...... + h1/. xl

'" ','" (1)
11 ; " n . ~I '
or (la)
where
.. _ ,~) Ii,
hl' h2' etc., = the ordinates at the mid-points of e~h:)division.
= the length of the base line. i ~
n = the number of equal parts into which the base

line is divided.
d = the common distance between the ordinates = ~.

n
(ii) The ATerage Ordinate Rule :-(Figs. 238 a & b). In
this method the ordinates are drawn and scaled at each of the
points of division of the base line. The average of these ordinates
COMPUTATION OF AREAS 331
multiplied by the length of the base line gives the required area
l,,fJ :
('
J j
~
,j ::Lu
Fig. 238 a.
Area UJ.)
= (0. + 0 1 + 0, + ......... + On) l (2)
n+1
in which
00 ,° ,° 1 2, etc.,
1
= the ordinates at each of the points of divi"ion·
= the length of the base line.
n = the number of equal parts into which the
base line is divided.
J: I
~.-- -r--
0.- ~ ~ ~ 49., ~ ~ °7 ~
"Iff C'1I :i, '
~ ?ib '1 [,
I
,
.......
Fig. 238 b
(iii) The Trapezoidal Rule :-(Figs. 238 a & b). This rule
is more accurate than the first two ones. In this method the
area is divide<! into a series of trapezoids. The rule may be
stated as follows:
" To the sum of the first and the last ordinates, add twice
the sum of the intermediate ordinates. Multiply the total sum
thus obtained by the common distance between the ordinates.
One half of this product gives the required area."
i. e. Ar<;>u (l::,) (00 + 20,1, + 202 +... ,+20,,-1 + On) . n~ ... (s)
=
, " 2,
~
•
332 SITRVEYING AND LEVELL[NG
or = : {O O 1-- 20 1 + 20 +...
S +20 n-1 tOn } .. (3a)
= d {C?O .~ On + 01 + 02 + ...... + On-l }. (3b)
Note :-When the base line cuts the boundary at one or

both ends of the figure, 0 0 or On, or both are zero. Howe/vel',
they must not he omitted from the formula.
The formula mav be derived I)S follows:-
The trapezoidal rulE' assumes
that the boundaries between the
ends of the ordinates are straight
lines. Thus the area enclosed
between the base line and the
irregular boundary is divided into
a series of trapezoids. In Fig. 239,
Fig. 239 let
00, 0 1 , O 2 , ...... On = the ordinates taken at equal
intervals.
d = the common distance between
the ordinates.
Now the area of a trapezoid = half the sum of the two parallel
sides xthe perpendicular distance
between them.
Area of first trapezOl'd = 0 0 +0 1

X d \
2
second = C?_1~l~ _()__2 xd

" " 2
third = O 2-t_()_3 xd
" " 2
last = On-L±~nx d
" " 2
By addition, we get
Total area (6) = :. [ °0+2°1 +202+'" ... +20n-t +On}
or " " =d {00~On+(01+02+03+ ... +0n_l)}

Simpson's Rule :-(Figs. 238 '& b). It may be stated thus:

" To the sum of the first and last ordinates, add twice the
sum of the remaining odd ordinates and four times the sum of
all the even ordinates. Multiply the total sum thus obtained
by one-third of the common distance between the ordinates, and
the result gives the required area."
Area ( 6) =_!:_{
3
(0 0 +. 401 + 202 + 403 + ....... ..
+ 20 n_2 + 40 n_ + On}
1 ...... (4)
°
Note :-OJ> 03, 5, etc., (the 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc., from the end)
°
are even ordinates, and 2 , 0 4 , 0" etc., (the 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.,
from the end) are oJd ordinates.
Note : - This method necessitates an even number of divisions
of the area, i. e. the total number of
ordinates must be odd. If there be
an odd number of divisions resulting
in an even number of ordinates, the
area of the last division must be
0... calculated separately, and added to
AI the result obtained by applying
Simpson's rule to the remaining
Fig. 240 divisions.
When one or both of the end ordinates (0 0 or On, or both)
are zero, they must not be omitted from the formula.
The derivation of the formula is as follows : -
Simpson's rule, also called the parabolic rule, assumes that
the boundaries between the ordinates are the arcs of a parabola.
In Fig. 240, let
Ap (0 0 ), Br' (° 1 ), Cq (0 2 ) = any three consecutive . ordinates
taken at equal distances d apart.
The required area (61) = the area (Apr'qC) enclosed between
the base line AC, the parabolic arc
pr'q, and the end ordinates Ap
and Cq.
Through r' draw p'r'q' parallel to the chord pq.
334 SURVEYING AND LEVELLu,u
Now the area Apr'qC = area of the trapezoid ApqC + area

of the segment pr'qrp between the
parabolic arc pr'q and the chord pq.
Area of the trapezoid ApqC = Ap + Cq X AC = 0 0 + °2 X 2d.

2 2
Area of the segment pr'qrp = _:_ X area of the enclosing

3
parallelogram pp'q'q
= ~ (rT' X AC)
:3
where rT' =- Br' - Br = 0 (00 ; O

1 --
2
); and AC = 2d,
:. The required area (.61)
= 0(1 +0
2
2 {(Oo
x2d+l 0 1 - + 02)} x2d= 3d (0 +40
~2--- 0 1 +°2)'
Similarly, the area for the next two divisions
d
= ~- (0 2 +4°3+°,),
:3
and so on. Adding these partial areas, we have
The total area (.6) = : [ 0 0 + 401 + 20 2 + 403+ ...
... + 20n_ + 40n -:- 1 +\ On}

2
Comparison of Rules :-The results obtained by using

Simpson's rule are greater or less than those obtained by using
the Trapezoidal rule according as the curve of the boundary is
concave or convex towards the base line. The results obtained
by using Simpson's rule are more accurate and, therefore, where
great accuracy is required, it should be invariably used.
For the application of the Trapezoidal and Simpson's rules,

the interval between successive ordinates must be uniform
throughout the length of the base line. If it is not the same, the
base line may be divided into different sections, each having the
same interval. The areas of these sections should be calculated
separately and the results added to obtain the required' area.
Example 1 : -The following perpendicular offsets were taken

at 25 ft. intervals from a survey line to an irregular boundary
line:--9'8, 12'9, 17'6, 15'9, 19'8,21·9,24,'5,22'2, and 18'9 ft.
Calculate the area in sq. yards enclosed between the survey
line, the irregular boundary line, and the first and last offsets,
by the application of (a) Simpson's rule, (b) the Trapezoidal
rule, and (c) the Average Ordinate rule.
Let d = the interval between the offsets = 25 ft.
6. = the required area.
(a) Applying Simpson's rule, we get
25
/j. = ~ (9'8 + 4 (12'9) + 2 (17'6)
8
+ 4 (15'9)+ 2 (19'8)
+ 4 (21·9) + 2 (24·5) + 4 (22'2) + 18'9)
25 3700'83
=- (444'1) = 3700·83 sq. ft. = - - -
3 9
= 411·2 sq. yds.
(b) Using the Trapez,oidal rule, we have
25
iJ. = -2 ( 9'8 + 2 (12'9 + 17'6 + 15'9+ 19'8 + 21'9
+ 24·5 + 22'2) + 18.9}
25 3728·75
=- (298'3) = 3728·75 sq. ft. = - - -
2 9
= 414·31 sq. yds.
(c) By the Average Ordinate rule,
Interval between the offsets = d = 25 ft ;
number of intervals = n = 8.
Number of offsets = n + 1 = 8 + 1 9; =
Length of the survey line = 1 = nd == 8 X 25 = 200 ft.
Now ~O = (9'8 + 12·9 + 17'6 + 15·9 + 19'8 + 21'9 + 24'5
+ 22'2 + 18'9)
= 163'5 ft.
iJ. _ ~O X I 163·5 X 200 = 3633.3:'$ sq. ft.
n +1 9
.= 3633'33 = 403.7 sq. yds.
9
Example 2 :-The following offsets were taken from a

survey line to a hedge:
Distance in ft. 0 20 40 60 80 120 160 220 280
Offset in ft. 10·2 ll'2 14'3 12·8 8·8 7'6 6'5 5'9 4'8
Find the area between the survey line and the hedge.
When the interval between the offsets is not regular through-
out the length of the survey line, the line may be divided into
different sections, each having a uniform interval. The areas
of the different sections may be calculated separately, and then
added to obtain the required total area. In this case the survey
line is divided into three sections, the first one having 20 ft.
interval, the second one having 40 ft. interval, and the third
one having 60 ft. interval between the offsets.
Let 6 = the required total area.
61 = the area of the first section.
62 = " " second"
63 = " " third "
d 1 =the interval between the offsets in the first section =20 ft.
d2 = " " " " second " = 40 ft.
d3 = " " " ,I third" =60 ft.
Then
(a) By the Trapezoidal rule,
10'2
61 = 20 { ~--2---
+ 8'8 + (U'2 + 14'3 + 12'8) }
= 20 X47·8 = 956 sq. ft.
62 = 40(8'8 ~ 6·5 + 7'6) = 40 X15'25 = 610

"
63 = 60(6'5 ~ 4'8 + 5'9) = 60 XU·55 = 693
"
Total =2259
6 = 2259 sq. ft.
"
(b) By Simpson's rule,
0
61 = 23 {1O'2 + 4(U'2) + 2(14'3) + 4(12'8) + 8'8}
= 20 (148'6) = 957'33 sq: ft.
8
~OMPUTATION OF AREAS 337
40{ 8·8 + 4(7'6) + 6'5 }

f:o.2 = ~i 40 (45'7) =
=~3 609'33 ft.
63 = 60
3- { 6'5 + 4(5'9) + 4'8 } = 60
3' (34·9) = 698'00 "
Total = 2264' 66 "

6. = 2264·66 sq. ft.
}'irst section : number of intervals = nl = 4 ; d1 = 20 ft.;
length = 11 = 4 X20 = 80 ft.
61 =(~~'~_±~~~±~~~3+!~~_±~)80= :0 (57.3)
= 916'8 sq. ft .•
Second section: number of intervals = n 2 = 2 ; d 2 = 40 ft. ;
length = l2 = 2 X 40 = 80 ft.
8' 8 +- 7·6 + 6' 5) 80="8
80
62= ( ~- - 3~----~~ (22'9) = 610·67 sq. ft.
Third section: number of intervals = n3 = 2; d a = 60 ft.;

l3 = 2 X.60 = 120 ft.
6,5 + 5·9 + 4'8) 120
63= ( ---3- - - 120=3 (17'2) = 688 sq. ft.
Hence f:o. = 916'8 + 610·67 + 688 = 2215·47 sq. ft.

Example 3 :-A series of offsets were taken from a chain
line to a curved boundary line at intervals of 30 ft. in the
following order:-
0, 7'8, 5'2, 6'4, 7'0, 7'8, 8'4, 0 ft.
Compute the area between the chain line, the curved
boundary line, and the end offsets.
(a) By the Trapezoidal rule,
~=30[~ t_o +(7'8+ 5·2+ 6'4+ 7'0+ 7'8+ 8'4)} =30 (42·6)
= 1278 sq. ft.

(b) By Simpson's rule,
In order to apply this rule, the number of offsets must be
odd. In this case the number of offsets being even (8), the
area enclosed between the chain line, the curved boundary
line, and the first and seventh offsets may be calculated by the
direct application of Simpson's ~ule, and the area enclosed
between the seventh and last offsets may be found by the
Trapezoidal rule,
:. l',=~{ 0 + 4 (7·8)+2 (5·2) +4(6·4)+ 2(7·0) + 4 (7·8)+ 8.4}
+80(8.4+0)
2
80 :10
=~ (120'8)+ -(S·4)=1334 sq. ft.
a 2
Heren=7; d=80 ft.; l=nd-,,7X80 = 210 ft.
l', = (~~S~±5.2+!~~~7'0+7'8+S'4+0) 210
210
= ~ (42'6) = 1118·25 sq. ft. ~
S
Offsets at Irregular Intervals :-When the offsets are taken
at irregular intervals from a survey line to a curved boundary
line, two methods are available for computing the area en-
closed between the sUf\'ey line, the curved boundary line, and the
end offsets.
First Method :-10 this method the area of each trapezoid
is computed separately by multiplying its base by its mean offset
b
dJ
j
X.J I
J
.%'4
- .2"5 A¥P X6
~'ig. 241
and the total area is then found by adding the areas thus
obtained. Thus in Fig. 241, let
hI> h2' h3' etc. I = the lengths of the .offsets.

d I , d2 , d3 , etc., = the intervals between the offsets.
Then Total area = L:,. = r~I

1..2
(hI + h + d~ (h2 + ha)
2)
2
+ d2a (h s + h4 )
d. (hI. + h&)}
2
+
Example :-The following perpendicular offsets were taken
from a chain line to a hedge :
Chainage : 0 20 50 90 135 ft.
Offset: 20 25 15 18 28 ft.
Calculate the area between the chain line and the hedge.
Here hI = 20 ft. I d1 = 20 - 0 = 20 ft.
h2 = 25" d 2 = 50 - 20 = 30 "
ha = 15" d s = 90 - 50 = 40 "
h4 = 18.. d, = 135 - 90 = 45 "
hI = 28 ..
6. - (~o (20 + 25) + ~ (25 + IS) + 40 (15 + 18)

1. 2 · 2 2
+ 4: (18 + 28) }
= 450 + 600 + 660 + 1035 = 2745 sq. ft.
Second Method :-In this method the area is computed
from co-ordinates as explained on page 267. Thus in Fig. 241,
the co-ordinates of the various points are :
I Co-ord. inate i Co-ordinate

Point - - - - - - Point
Ii x I y 1 _ _. , . - - _
X y
~-d-I-:-T~-':4---
I
a I Xl
I
e
: I ::I
f
g h,
The co-ordinates are arranged in the form of determinants

thus:
. ~ ' ) " ~",_./ hs '>. . /

h, ) /../ h5 ')._......... !!!_ )//'}!!_ )./,/' h1 }
{ Xl" "'. Xs . "'. X3"" '" X,." '" XII"" "'. Xs " "'-. X?.... "'.XI
Then :l:P = (hlx2 + h~3 + ...... + h 7 x 1 )

:l:Q = (xlh2 + X2h3 + ...... + x 7 h 1)
and 6. = 1 (:l:P - :l:Q)
Note :-It is obvious from the figure that Xl> X?' kG' and k'1
are each equal to zero, and that Xs is equal to Xo'
Example :-Taking the data given in the above example,
find the area by the co-ordinate method.
X k
Here the co-ordinates of the point a= 0 20
b= 20 25
" " 15
c= 50
" "
d= 90 18
" " .28
e = 135
" " f = 135 o
" " g= 0 o
" "
Now arrange them in the form of determinants.
Then :l:P=(20 x20+25 x50+15 X90+18 Xl35+28 X135+0+0)

= 9210.
:l:Q= (0 X25+20 X15+50 X18+90 X28+135 xO
+135 XO+O X20)
= 3720,
6. = 1 (:l:p- ~q)=t (9210 - 3720) = 2745 sq. ft.
(2) Instrumental Method :-This method consists of'

determining the area of a given figure by the use of a planimeter.
It is the best and most expeditious method, and gives results
far more accurate (within 1 per cent) than those obtained by
any other method except by direct calculation from the field
notes.
There are two types of planimeter (i) the Amsler Polar

planimeter, and (ii) the Rolling Planimeter, the former being
in most common use.
The planimeter (Fig. 242) is most useful in determining the
areas of figures plotted to scale, especially when the boundaries
are irregular or curved such as river boundaries. It consists
Fig. 242
1. Tracing Point. 7. Counting Disc or Dial.
2. Tracing Arm. 8. Wheel or Roller.
3. Anchor Point 9. Vernier.
4. Weight. 10. Clamp.
5. Anchor Arm. 11. Slow Motion Screw.
6. Hinge. 12. Index.
of two arms hinged at a point (pivot point). One of the two
arms is called the anchor arm and is of fixed length. It carries
a needle point called the anchor point, which is fixed in
the paper and held in position by a small weight, which is
detachable. The other arm, called the tracing arm, is of an
adjustable length and carries a tracing point, which is moved
round the bounddry of the area to be measured. The total
normal displacement is measured by a wheel whose axis is
parallel to the .tracing arm (whose plane is perpendicular to
the tracing arm). The wheel may be placed between the
tracing point and the piovt point, or beyond the pivot point
away from the tracing point. The wheel carries a graduated
drum divided into 100 parts, the tenths of a part being read
on the vernier. The complete revolutions of the wheel or roller
are read on the counting disc or dial to which the wheel is
geared. The counting disc is divided into ten equal parts and
advances one line at every such turn of the wheel, and performs
one revolution at every 10 turns of the wheel.
Each complete reading is, therefore, a figure of 4 digits,

the units being read on the counting disc, the tenths and hun-
dredths on the drum, and the thousandths on the vernier.
When the zero of the wheel is opposite the zero of the vernier,
a mark of the counting disc should be opposite the index mark.
This never happens exactly owing to the imperfections of the
worm-wheel gear.
On the front and back of the tracing arm, several divisions
are marked thus :
10 ac. 1 : 2/;00 I 5 ac. 1 : 2500
I 0'4
on back: !-'>00 ac. 6" = 1mI.. ac. 1: 500 0'2 ac. 1: 500
on top 21'440 22'107
20'811 20'818 21'042 22'122
'"i ,2000' t' = I' 'llOOo/t·"d'
I
onfront: 100ocm.J 1000 =1 J 50o'!' = l' ;10DID. 4000'i"=1'
The number of units of area per unit of reading, and the
nature of unit and scale are marked to the right of each division.
The figures on the top of the arm just over the divisions
correspond to the values of the constant (C) of the instrument
for the corresponding scales.
The planimeter rests on three points, viz, the anchor point,
the tracing point, and the periphery of the wheel. As the tracing
point is moved round the outline of the figure, the wheel
partly rotates and partly slips or slides. The normal compo-
nent of the motion causes rotation, while the axial component
of the motion causes slip without affecting the reading. The
amount of rotation of the wheel measures the total normal
displacement, and thus the area of the figure.
When the area is desired in square inches, the figure being
drawn to the natural scale (i. e. full size), set accurately by
means of a clamp and fine adjustment the index mark on the
bevelled edge of the slide to the division I IODin. on the tracing
arm. When so adjusted, one unit of reading is equal to 10
square inches, and the value of the multiplier (M) is equal to
10. If the figure is plotted to any other scale say n ft. to one
inch, the area of the figure should first be found in sq. inches, and
then converted to sq. feet by the relation 1 sq. in. = n 2 sq. ft
Alternatively, the teacing arm should be set to the given scale if
marked on it (i. e. the index mark on the bevelled edge of the slide
should be set to the given scale); e. g. If the scale is t" = 1', the
index mark is set to the division :50 0' t" =1'. The area of the
figur~ may then be obtained directly in sq. ft in the usual way.
Use of the Planimeter :-The method of using the plani-

meter is as follows : -
(i) Set the index mark on the bevelled edge of the slide
to the scale to which the figure is drawn.
(ii) Fix the needle or anchor point firmly in the paper
outside or inside the figure according as the figure is small or
large. Move the tracing point always in the clockwise direction
around the figure so as to see that all points in the boundary can
be reached without any difficulty, and at the same time observe
the dial in order to see whether the total rotation of the wheel
is a forward or a backward motion.
(iii) Mark a definite point on the outline of the figm-e,
and set the tracing point exactly at it.
(iv) Read the dial and wheel, and record it as the initial
reading (1. R.); alternatively, set the dial and wheel to zero.
It is much easier to note a reading than to set the dial and
wheel to zero. No attempt should, therefore, be made to set
them to zero.
(v) Move the tracing point exactly around the outline always
in a clockwise direction until it again reaches the starting point
exactly. Again read the dial and the wheel, recording it as the
final reading (F. R).
(vi) Note the number of times the zero mark of the dial
passes the fixed index mark in a clockwise or counter-clockwise
direction, while the tracing point is moved along the outline of
the figure.
The area of the figure may then be obtained by the formula,
Area (6) = M (F. R.-I. R± 10 N +
C) ............... (5)
M = the m~tiplier whose value is marked on the tracing
arm next to the scale division (the number of units of
area per revolution of the roller or wheel).
F. R = the final reading.
I. R. = the initial reading.
N = the number of times the zero mark of the dial passes

the fixed index mark.
C = the constant marked on the top of the tr'acing arm
just above the scale division.
Note :- (i) Use plus sign when the zero mark of the dial passes
the fixed index mark in a clockwise direction (e.g.
7,8,9,0,1,2). Then l:\=M (F.R. -LR. +10N+C),
and minus sign when in a counter-clockwise direc-
tion (e. g. 2, 1, 0, 9, 8), Then
l:\= (F. R.- L R.- IoN + C).
(ii) The constant C is to be added only when the anchor
point is fixed inside the figure.
(iii) When the anchor point is inside the figure, some
confusion between positive and negative results
arises. In order to avoid it, it must be remem-
bered that in the case of clockwise rotation, the
net rotation of the wheel is always forward, if
the area of the figure is greater than that of the
zero circle; while it is always backward, if the
area of the figure is less than that of the zero circle.
The following precautions should be taken in using the
planimeter.
(1) To ensure accuracy, the area should always be measured
at least twice with a different position of the anchor point for
each measurement.
(2) The area should be checked roughly by estimation
or by scaling and rough calculations.
(3) If the area is too large, and if the anchor point is to be
placed outside the figure, the figure may be divided into parts,
the area of each part being measured separately with the anchor
point outside the outline of each part, and the results added to
obtain the required area.
(4) The plan should be in a horizontal position.
(5) The surface of the paper on which the wheel rolls must
be smooth. Satisfactory results cannot be obtained, if the
plan is folded.
COMPUTATION OF AREAS, 345
(6) The tracing point should be guided by a straight edge,

or a French curve when it is moved round the outline of the figure
in order to keep it throughout exactly on the out line of the figure.
Theory of Planimeter : -The principle underlying the con-
struction of the polar planimeter may be explained as follows:
Let d = the diameter of the wheel or roller.
.R
L = the length of the tracing arm .
= the length of the anchor arm.
Ll = the distance from the hinge to the wheel.
(J = the circumference of the wheel.
n = the number of revolutions made by the wheel
when the given figure is traced.
M = the area corresponding to one revolution of the
wheel (Multiplier).
6 = the area of the given figure.
Case (1) When the anchor point is outside the figure:-
(Fig. 243 a).
When the tracing point is moved round the outline of the
figure, the pivot point oscillates along a circular arc and returns to
the original position without making a complete revolution round
the anchor point, and, therefore, without generating any area.
Hence, the area (6) of the figure = length of the tracing
arm X net rotation of the roller.
= L X c X n = L X 1Td X n ...... (6)
= Mn ... (6a)
the multiplier (M) = length of tracing arm X circum-
ference of the wheel.
= Lc = L X 1Td (7)
The tracing arID is set to such a length that one revolution
of the wheel corresponds to 10 square inches of area, when the
figure is drawn to a natural scale (full size) and the area is
desired in sq. inches.
Lc = 10 sq. in., where Land c are in inches.
10
or L =~.
c
For a natural scale, the value of M is 10 sq. in.

By varying the length of the tracing arm, the values of 1\1
may be obtained by the relation (7) for different scales.
It will be noticed from equation (6a) that the area of a figure
is proportional to n, when the anchor point is outside the figure.
If the value of M for any setting of the tracing arm be not
given, it can be easily determined by finding the difference in
planimeter readings (n 1 ) for a known area, and dividing the
. known area)
known area by nIl.
C e. M = n 1
• Then the area of
any other figure traversed with the same setting of the tracing
arm is given by the relation,
n
Area of the figure = - X known area.
nl
Case (2) When the anchor point is inside the figure ; -
(Fig. 244).
In this case when the tracing point is moved round the
periphery of the figure, the pivot point makes a complete circuit
round the anchor point, and, therefore, the area of the circle
described by the anchor arm within th", figure has to be added to
the area generated by the tracing arm when the figure is traversed.
Hence, the area (6) of the given figure
= Len + 1r (P ± 2LLl + R2) (8)
Use plus sign when the wheel is placed outside, i. e. beyond the
hinge and away from the tracing point, and minus sign when the
wheel is placed inside, i. e. between the hinge and the tracing point.
The quantity 1r (L2 ± 2LLl + R2) is known as the area
of the zero circle or circle of correction ;
or 6 = M X n +area of the zero circle.
Proof ;-" In Fig. 243 a, let
F = the figure whose area IS to be measured.
T = the tracing point.
H = the piovt point.
A = the anchor point.
HT = the initial position of the tracing arm.
HITI = the second position of the tracing arm when the tracing
point is moved along the outline of the figure from
T to T 1 •
(a) (b)
. Fig. 243 a Fig. 243 b
HI = the position of the pivot point when the tracing point
is at T I .
'IV = the position of the wheel when the tracing arm is at HT.
WI = the position of the wheel when the tracing arm is at HITl •
Through HI draw HIK parallel to HT.
When the tracing point is moved along the outline of the
figure from T to T 1 , the wheel moves from W to WI partly by
rolling and partly by slipping (sliding). The wheel rolls when
it moves in a direction perpendicular to the tracing arm (HT)
and slides when it is displaced in the direction of the tracing arm.
Now the elementary area HTTIHI
+
= area of HTKHI area of the sector HIKTI
= Ldp +
t Vd,B (9)
in which L = the length of the tracing arm.
dp = the perpendicular distance between HT and HIK.
d fJ = the angle of rotation.
(The line HT is considered as first moving parallel from
HT to HIK and then rotating about HI from HIK to HlTl)'
When the wheel moves from W to WI>
the length of the arc applied tothe paper = dv = dp-L1d,B ... (10)
dp = dv + L l dl3
Substituting the value of dp in equation (9), we get
The elementary area HTTIHI
= L (dv +
LldP) +
t L'dP)
= Ldv + (t L2 +LLl ) dfJ (11)
Considering the elementary areas swept out to the right as

positive and those generated to the left as negative, the total
area of the figure is equal to their algebraic sum.
Integrating, we get
The area of the figure =-= I:.=JLdV-f- J(iV-f-LLl) dp ... (12)
If the wheel is placed on the tracing arm between the higne
and the tracing point (i. e. inside) as in Fig. 243 b,
dv = dp +
L1d{J (lOa)
or dp = dv - L1d{J
and the elementary area HTTIHI = Ldp+! Vdp
= L(dv-L1dfl} +iVd/l
= Ldv+(iLI_LL1)dP ... (lla)
The area of the figure = I:. = JLdV+ J<iL2_LLl)dlJ. .. (12a)
Two cases now arise according to the position of the anchor
point.
Case (1) ;--When the anchor point is outside the figure :
When the tracing point returns to its original position, i. e.
HT returns to its original position, the pivot point H oscillates
along a circular arc whose centre is A, and returns to its original
position without making a complete revolution about k Therefore,
Jd f3 is equal to zero.
Hence I:. = Lv. (13)
Now the total rotation (v) of the wheel = the algebraic
sum of the arcs applied to the paper by the wheel = nco
where n =
the number of revolutions made by the wheel.
c =
the circumference of the wheel = 1I"d.
The area of the figure (F) = I:. = Lcn=L X Trdn ... (14)
From which it follows tlllit the area corresponding to one
revolution of the wheel (or the multiplier M)
= I~c = L1I"rl. (15)
= length of tracing arm X circumference of wheel.
Case (2) : - When the anchor point is inside the figure:
(Fig. 244). In this case when the tracing point is moved round
the periphery of the figure. the tracing arm HT, and also the
pivot point H make a complete revolution when they return
Fig. 244
to their initial positions. Therefore, f d f3 = 2 '1I', and the area
(1TRI) of the circle described by the anchor arm within the figure
has to be added. Hence from the equation (12),
the area of the figure F=.6= Lv+ (t L2+LL1 )2'1I' +'1I'R2
=Lnc+ '1I'(V+2LLl +R2) ... (16)
When the wheel is between the pivot point and the tracing
point (i. e. inside),
the area of the figure F=.6= Lv+(tV-LL1)21T+1TR2
= Lnc+ 1T(L2_2LLl +R2) ... (16a)
The quantity 1T(L2±2LLl +R2) is known as the area of
the zero circle.
Whence, the area of the figure F=Mn+area of the zero circle.
Zero Circle :-(Figs. 245 a & b). The zero circle or the "circle
of correction" as it i"s otherwise called, is the circle round the
circumference of which if the tracing point is moved, no rotation
of the wheel will be caused, but the wheel will slide on the paper
without changing the reading. This condition obtains when the
tracing arm is ma.intained in such a position with reference to
the anchor arm that the plane of the wheel will always pass
through the anchor point, i. e. when the line joining the anchor
point to the wheel is at right angles to the line joining the
tracing point to the wheel. The anchor point is the centre of
the zero circle, and the line joining the anchor point to the
tracing point is its radius. .
Its area is to be added to the recorded result when the
anchor point is placed inside the figure, since the planimeter
records the area of the annular space between the given figure
and the zero circle.
The formulre for the area of the zero circle may be derived
as follows:
(a) When the wheel is placed beyond the hinge away from
the tracing point (i. e. outside):
In Fig. 245 a, A is th e anchor point, T the tracing point,
W the wheel, and H the pivot point. The lines AW anti TW
rEIfO CIRCLE:
- - T --_ ZERO CIRCLE
r
A
Fig. 245 a Fig. 245 b
are at right angles to each other so that the angle A WT is 90 0 •
AT (R') is the radius of the zero circle. HT = L; HW = L 1 ;
andHA=R.
In the triangle ATW,
TW = TH + HW = L + L 1 ; AH = R; AT = R'.
Now AT! = TW2+AW2.
But from the triangle AHW, AW2= AH2- HW2.
.'. AT2 = TW2+ AHl'- HW2
i. e. (R')2=(L+Ll)!+R2_L12=L2+2LLl +R2.
or the radius of the zero circle = R' = VL2 + 2LLl + RB.
c-.::---=--~-~
and the area of the zero circle = 1l'(R')2= 1l'(V+2LLl +R2).

(b) When the wheel is between the hinge and the tracing
point (i. e. inside) :
In Fig. 245b,AT=R'; HT=L;HW=L1 ; TW=HT-HW
= L-Ll; HA=R; and A WT= 90°.
Now AP = TW2 + AW2. But from the triangle AHW,
A Wl!I= AHa - HW2. "I'
AT' = Twa + AHt - HW2.

i. e. (R')l'= (L -Ll)2 + RS -LI • = L2 -2LLI + R2.
or the radius of the zero circle = R' = VL2 -2LLl + R2.
and the area of the zero circle = 1l'(R'}2= 1l'(LI_2LLl + R2).
The area of the zero circle may be determined by the

following methods:-
(1) :-By using the following formula::
(a) Area of the zero circle = 17'(L2±2LL1 + R2),
where
L = the Jength of the tracing arm from the hinge to
the tracing point.
Ll = the distance from the hinge to the wheel.
R = the length of the anchor arm from the hinge to
the anchor point.
R' = the radius of the zero circle = v' LB ± 2LL} +JRI.
Use plus sign when the wheel is placed beyond the hinge
and away from the tracing point, and minus sign when it is
placed between the hinge and the tracing point.
(b) Area of the zero circle = M X C,
where
M = the multiplier whose value is marked next to the
scale division.
C = the constant engraved on top of the tracing arm
just above the scale division.
(2) By measuring the radius of the zero circle (Figs. 245a
& b) :-Draw two lines AW and TW exactly at right angles to
each other, intersecting at W. Place the tracing point at T, the
anchor point at A, and the wheel at W. Measure the distance
AT between the anchor point and the tracing point, which
gives the radius (R') of the zero circle.
Area of the zero circle = 17' ATz = 17'(R')2 (17)
(3) By using the planimeter:-
(a) Find the area of the figure of known area by the plani-
meter with the anchor point inside the figure. The area of the
zero circle may be found by equating the measured area to the
known area of the figure.
(b) If the area of the figure be unknown, find its area
by the planimeter first with the anchor point outside the figure,
and then with the anchor point inside the figure. Equate the two
results to find the area of the zero circle.
Example 1 : -The following readings were obtained when

a figure was traversed clockwise with the anchor point outside
and with the tracing arm set to the natural scale. The zero
mark of the counting disc passed the fixed index mark once in
the clockwise direction:
Initial reading = 9· 478 ; final reading = l' ,536,
Calculate the area of the figure.
Since the tracing arm was set to the natural scale, the value'
of M = 10. The anchor point being fixed outside the figure,
the constant C is not to be added. Since the zero mark of the
disc passed the fixed index mark once in the positive (clockwise)
direction, the value of N is 1 and the sign of N plus.
Substituting the values in formula (5), we have
~=M (F. R-I. R+ ION) = 10 (1'536 - 9'478 + 10)
= 10 (2'058)= 20·58 sq. in.
Area of the figure = 20·58 sq. in.
Alternative method:-The number of revolutions of the
roller when the tracing point was moved round the outline of
the figure is (10 - 9'478) + 1·536=2·058. The area of one
revolution of the roller is 10 sq. inches.
Area of the figure = 10 X 2' 058 = 20·58 sq. in.
Example 1 :-Calculate the area of a figure traversed
clockwise with the anchor point inside and with the tracing arm
set to the natural scale from the following readings :
Initial reading = 3'436: final reading=8'945: C = 22·122.
The zero mark of the dial passed the fixed index mark once in
the reverse direction.
Using formula (5), we get
Area of the figure = M (F.R-I. R.-10N + C)
N = 1. = 10 ( 8·945 - 3'436 - 10 + 22·122)
= 10 (17·631) = 176·31 sq. in.
Alternatively, the net rotation of the wheel is backward

and the number of revolutions (n) is equal to
3'436 + (10 - 8'945) = 4'491 (- ve).
Area of the figure = Mn + area of the zero circle
=10( -4'491)+221' 22=176'31 sq.in.
Example 3 :-The following readings were obtained when

the perimeter of a rectangie 13" X 8" was traversed clockwise
with the anchor point inside and the tracing arm set to the
natural scale :
Initial reading = O' 439; final reading = 8' 757.
The zero of the counting disc passed the fixed index mark
twice in the reverse direction. Find the area of the zero circle.
Area of the rectangle = 13 X8 = 104 sq. in.
Measured area of the rectangle = M (F. R.-I. R.-l0N +C)
N = 2. = 10 (8'757-0'439-20+C)
= 10 (-11'682+C)
Equating the two values, we have
10 (- ll'682+C) = 104
C = 10'4 + 11'682 = 22'082.
Hence the area of the zero circle = MC = 10 X 22· 082
= 220·82 sq. in.
Alternatively, the net rotation of the wheel is backward
and the number of revolutions of the wheel = { O· 439 +
(1O-8'757)+10} = 11'682 ( - ve);
104 = 10( -11 . 682) + area of the zero circle.
Whence, the area of the zero circle =104 +116' 82=220'82 sq. in.
Example 4 :-The difference in the planimeter readings
was O' 984 when the area of 12 sq. inches was measured by a
planimeter with the anchor point outside. With the same
setting of the tracing arm and with the anchor point outside,
another figure was traversed clockwise, and the difference bet-
ween the initial and final readings was found to be 2' 264. What
is the area of the figure ?
Area of the figure = M X difference in readings.
12
12 = M X 0·984 or M =-~--.
0'984
If 6 = the required area of the second figure, then
6 = ~- X 2'264 = 27·61 sq. in.
0·984
Example 5 :-The area of a figure drawn to a scale of 8

feet to 1 inch was measured by a planimeter with the anchor
P. r.-12
point inside, the tracing arm being set to the natural scale. The
initial and final readings were 6' 752 and 4' 868 respectively.
The zero of the dial passed the fixed index mark once in the i
reverse direction. Find the area of the figure, given that the
constant C of the instrument = 22· 080.
Here I·R= 6'752; F. R=4'868; M= 10; N = 1; C=22·080.
Substituting the values in formula (5), we have
L = M (F. R. - I. R. - ION + C)
= 10 (4'868 - 6'752 - 10 +
22'080)
=10 (10'196)=101'96 sq. in.
Since the scale is 8 ft. to 1 in., 1 sq. in. on the paper = 64 sq.ft.
Area of the figure = 101·96x64 = 6525·44 sq. ft.
Example 6 :-The following readings were obtained wheli

the area was measured by a planimeter, the tracing arm being
so set that one revolution of the wheel measures 10 sq. m. Oil
the paper.
I. R F. R.- Position of Remarks.
anchor point.
9·821 5'220 outside the The zero of the counting disl
figure. passed the fixed index marl,
once III the clockwise direc-
tion.
8'262 6·580 inside 'theThe zero of the countin~
figure. disc passed the fixed inde)(
mark twice in the reverSE
direction.
Find the area of the zero circle.
(i) Area of the figure in the first case
= M (F. R. - I. R. +
10 N)
= 10 (5'220 - 9'821 10)+
= 10 X 5'399 = 53'99 sq. in.
(ii) Area of the figure in the second case
= M (F. R. - I. R - ION + C)
= 10 (6·580 - 3'262 - 20 C) +
+
= 10 ( - 16'682 C) sq. in.
Equating the two values, we get

10 ( - 16·682 + C) = 58·99
C = 5·899+16·682 = 22·081
Hence the area of the zero cirrIe = MC = 10 X 22·081
= 220·81 sq. in.
Example 7 :-A figure for which the horizontal scale is 40 ft.
inch and the vertical scale is 4 ft. to 1 inch, is traversed
i (I 1
clockwise with the anchor point inside the figure and the tracing
arm set to the natural scale, and the following readings were
obtained: I. R.= 0·493; F. R. = 8·885; the zero of the disc
passed the fixed index mark twice in the reverse direction.
If the value of the constant C is 21·258, determine the area
of the figure.
Substituting the given values in formula {5), we get
Area of the figUl:e = M (F. R. - I. R. - ION C) +
M = 10; = 10 (3·885 - 0·493 - 20 + 21·258)
N = 2. = 10 (4·650)=46·50 sq. in.
Since the horizontal scale is 1 in. = 40 ft. and the vertical
scale is 1 in. =4 ft., 1 sq. in. on the paper represents 40 X 4 =
160 sq. ft.
Area of the figure = 46·50 X 160 = 7440 sq. ft.
Example 8 :-The length of the tracing arm (the distance
from the hinge to the tracing point) is 4·25". The distance
from the hinge to the anchor point is 6·813". The wheel is
placed inside, i. e. between the hinge and tracing point at a
distance of 0·656" from the hinge. The diameter of the rim
of the wheel is 0·747".
Find the area equivalent to one revolution of the wheel
and the area of the Z~ro circle.
(i) Area corresponding to one revolution of the wheel
= M = length of the tracing arm X circumference of the wheel
= L X c sq. in.
Length of the tracing arm = L = 4·25".
Diameter of the wheel = 0·747" ;
Circumference of the wheel = 'IT d = 'IT X 0·747'.
Area corresponding to one revolution of the whed

= M = 4'25 X 'IT X 0·747 = 9·974 sq. in.
(ii) Area of the zero circle = 'IT(V - 21.1.1 + R2) sq. in.
The length of the tracing arm = L = 4' 25/1.
The distance from the hinge to the anchor puint= R = 6'313/1.
" " to the wheel = L1 = 0'656",
Area of the zero circle = 'IT(4'25 -2 X4'25 X 0'656+6'313 2)
2
= 164·4 sq. in.

Example 9 :-Calculate the area of the figure from tilt
following data :
Initial reading ,= 9' 640; final reading = l' 250.
The zero of the counting disc passed the fixed index mark
once in the reverse direction. The anchor point was kept inside
the figure.
The distance from the hinge to the tracing point = 4'25".
" " " t o the anchor point = 6' 313/1.
The diameter of the wheel = 0'75".
The wheel was placed outside (beyond the hinge) at a distance
of 1'45".
The missing quantities, viz. the area corresponding to one
revolution of the wheel (the value of M), and the area of the zer,o
circle have to be determined.
(i) M = Le = L X 'IT xd; where L = 4'25"; d = 0'75".
M = 4'25 X 'IT X 0'75 = 10'02 sq. in.
(ii) Area of the lIero circle = 'IT (L2+ 2LL1 + R2),
where L= 4·25"; R = 6'313"; L1 = 1'45".
Area of the zero circle
= 'IT(4'25 2 +2 X4·2.t5 XI·4.t5+6·313 2 ) = 220'7 sq. in.
It will be noticed from the readings that the total rotation
of the counting disc is backward. The zero of the disc has
passed the fixed index mark once in the reverse direction and,
therefore, the value of N i8 1.
Number of revolutions of the wheel
= n = (F. R- 1. R- ION)
= (1·2.t50- 9·640 - 10) = - 18·390.
PROBLEMS 357
li'ea recorded by the planimeter

"
[I = Mn = 10·02 X ( ~ 18'390)
= -184'2 sq. 1Il.
Area of the zero circle = 220·7 sq. in.
Area of the figure = - 184'2+ 220'7 = 36·5 sq. in.
PBOBLEMS
1. State and prove (a) the Trapezoidal rule, and (b) Simpson's rule.
2, Describe the planimeter. Explain how you would use it in finding the area
of a given figure. What precautions would you take in its manipulation?
3. Explain fully the principle underlying the construction of the planimeter.
4, What is meant by "the zero circle" ? How would you determine its area?
5. The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10 ft. intervals from a
chait, line to a curved boundary:
7'2,5'1,6'0,6.6,6'0,5'3,6'0,7'0, 8'4, 8'~, 8'0,8'6,9,9'7, and
10' 2 feet.
Compute the area enelosed between the chain line, the curved boundary,
and the first and last offeets by (a) the trapezoidal rule, and (b) Simpson's
rule.
(Ans. (a) 1025 sq. ft.; (b) U119'3 sq. ft.)
6. The following offsets were taken from a chain line to a hedge:
Distance iu ft. : 0 20 (0 60 80 120 160 200 240 270 300.
Offset in ft. : 12 10 8 l5 4 5 7 8 10 11 13.
Calculate the area enclosed between the chain line, the hedge, and the
end offsets by (a) Simpson's rule, and (b) by the trapezoidal rule.
(Ans. (a) 2376'67 sq. ft.; (b) 2395 sq. ft.)
7. Find the area in acres and gunthas of each of the field~ from the following
notes relative to a cross staff survey, all measurements being in feet.
(a) (b)
320 D 700 B
673 H)5 S
E 320 230 607
T 77 555
160 160 C 500 2%3 R
U 191 257
F 180 80 235 3:15 Q
V 125 102
40 120 B 51
27 is P
0 A 0 A
(Ans. (a) 1 acre, 32'6 gunthll8; (b) 5 Rllres, 7'S gunthas.}

8. A plot of ground is bounded by the straight lines AB, BC, and CD on three
sides and,by a hedge on the fourth side. The lengths of AB, BC, CD, AD, and
AC are 422 ft., 640 ft., 456 ft., 798 ft., and 842 ft., respectively. The
perpendicular offsets from AD to the hedge are :
Distance in ft. from A: 0 150 320 400 600 798
Offset in ft. : 0 10 6 8 12 0
Calculate the area in acres of the plot.
(Ans. 7'26 acres.)
9. The following perpendicular offsets in ft. were taken at 25 ft. intervals from
a chain 'line to an irregular boundary :
10'2, 13'S, IS'7, 16'4, 20'2, 22'3, 25'S, 21'3, and 23'6 feet.
Calculate the area in sq. ydB. enclosed between the chain line, the irregular
boundary, and the first and last offsets by the application of (a) Simpson's
rule, (b) the trapezoidal rule, and (c) the average ordinate rule.
(Ans. (a) 424'44 sq. yds.; (b) 431'67 sq. yds.; (c) 425'43 sq. yds.)
10. The following offsets were taken from a chain line to a hedge:
Distace in ft.: 0 20 40 60 80' 120 160 - 220 280.
Offset in ft.: 1)'4 10'S 13.6.11'2 9.6 8.4 7'5 6.3 4'6.
Compnte the area in sq. ft. included between the chain line; the hedge,
and the end offsets, by (a) Simpson's rule and (b) the trapezoidal rule.
(Ans.) 2316' 7 sq. ft.; (b) 2321 sq. ft.)
11. A series of offsets were taken at 10 ft. intervals in the following order from
a chain line to a curved boundary:
0,7'2,5'4,6-0,6-8,7-4,8-2,0 feet.
Find the area between the chain line, the curved boundary, and the end
offsets, by (a) Simpson's rule, and (b) the trapezoidal rule.
(Ans. (a) 424' 3 sq. ft.; (b) 410 sq. ft.)
12. The following readings were obtained when the perimeter of a figure was
traversed clockwise with the anchor point outside and with the tracing arm
set to the natural scale. The zero mark of the disc passed the fixed index
mark once in the clockwise (positive) direction:
1. R. = 1)'625; F. R = 1'224.
Calculate the area of the figure.
(Ans. 15'99 sq. in.)
13. The tracing arm of a planimeter is so set that one revolution of the roller
measures 10 sq. inches on the paper. The area of a figure is measured with
the anchor point inside, and the initial and final readings are 3'128 and
S'761 respectively. The zero mark of the dial passed the fixed index
mark once in the reverse direction. The constant (C) of the instrument is
16'43. Find the area of the figure.
(Ans. 120'66 sq. in.)
14. The difference in planimeter readings is l' 25 when an area of 16 sq. inches
is measured with the anchor point outside. With the same setting of the
PROBLEMS 359
tracing arm and with the anchor point outside, another figure is traversed
and the difference in the readings is observed to be 2' 242. Compute th(> area
(If the figure.
(Ans. 28'7 sq. in.)
15. The length of the tracing arm is 4' 2 in. the distance from the hinge to the
anchor point is 6.25 in., and the diameter of the rim of the wheel O· 75 in.
The wheel is placed outside (beyond the hinge away from the tracing pOint)
at a distance of l' 28 in. from the hinge. Find the area corresponding to
one revolution of the wheel and the area of the zero circle.
(Ans. 9' 897 sq. in.; 211' 9 sq. in.)
16. Calculate the area of the figure from the following data:
Initial reading = l' 923; final reading = 9' 71>3 ; ,
The distanee from the hinge to the anchor point = 6' 3 in.
to the tracing point = 4' 2 in.
to the wheel = O' 65 in.
The wheel is placed inside (i. e. between the hinge and the tracing point).
The diameter of the wheel = O' 75 in.
The zero of the dial passed the fixed index mark twice in the reverse direction.
(Ans. 42'508 sq. in.}
17. The following readings were obtained when the area of a figure was measured
with a planimeter, the tracing arm being 80 set that one revolution of the
roller measures 10 sq. in. on the paper:
I. R. F. R. Position of Remarks.
anchor point.
3'184 8' 323 inside the The zero mark of the dial
figure passed the fixed index mark
twice in the reverse direction.
l' 083 6' 389 outside the figure
Find the area of the zero circle.
(Ans. 201'67 sq. in.)
IS. The following give the values in feet of the offsets taken from a chain
line to an irregular boundary:
Distance: 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Offset: 10'6 15'4 20'2 18'7 16'4 20'8 22'4 19'4 17'6
Calculate the area in sq. yards included between the chain line, the
irregular boundary and the first and last offsets by Simpson's rule. (U. P.)
(Ans. 820'4 sq. yds.)
HI. A series of perpendicular offsets are taken from a straight line to a curved
boundary line. The offsets are 15 ft. apart and were taken in the follo.
wing order: 6' 8,7' 2,4' 6,5' 7,7'1,6' 3, and 6' S. Find the area enclosed
between tIle straight line, curved boundary line, and the two end offsets.
(U. B.),
{ Ans. 569 sq. ft. (Simpson's) ; 565' 5 sq. ft. (trapezoidal).}
CHAPTER VII
LEVELLING
Levelling may be defined as the art of determining the
relative heights or e1evations of points or objects on the earth's
surface. It deals with measurements in a vertical plane.
Definitions of Terms used in Levelling :-(Figs. 246 a & b):
A level surface is any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal
Fig. 246 a
surface of the earth, e. g. the surface of a still lake. Since the
earth is an oblate spheroid, a level surface may be regarded as
a curved surface, every point on which is equidistant from tp.e
centre of the earth.( It is normal to the plumb line at all points.
A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, therefore,
normal to the plumb line at all points.
A horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential
to the level surface at that point. It/is perpendicular' to the
direction of gravity (plumb line}. I .1
A horizontal line is any line lying in the horizontai)'Iane.
It is a straight line tangential to a level line .
. A vertical line at any point is a line normal to the level
svrface through that· point, e. g. a plumb line.
", A vertical plane is a plane containing a vertical line.
'\. A vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines
in a vertical plane. One of the two lines is commonly taken
as horizontal in surveying (Fig. 246 b).
LEVELLING 361
~
. A ~ S11!;:{!:E!. or line is any arbitrarily assumed level
surLce or line from which vertical distances are measured.
, lCVU 5UR£ACE:.. HO/?I.i:t_?I'/7'7IL LINE
~-------.~
V&9TK'A/. IV
AIYG,tE
~O..s'.
Fig. 246 b
In India the datum adopted for G, T. S. bench marks is the
mean sea-level at Karachi.
, The elevation, of a point is its vertical distance above or
below the' datnm~-~ft i~ also known as the reduced level (R. L.). 'l"
The elevation of a point is plus or minus a;;::;;rding-;:~~the point .,.
is abovc or below the datum.
;The difference in elevation (H) between two points is the
. vertical distan'ce between the level surfaces passing through
the two points. . 71-
A bench mark (B. M.) is a fixed reference point of known
elevation.
, Th~
line of colliynaJi011 is tif
line joining the interscction
of the q;pss.:hairs to the optical centre of the object glass and
-Itsconthlliatiod. It is also called the line of sight.
: An axis of the telescope is a line joining the optical centre
-
of th<; ,objcct glass to the centre of the eye-piece.
.
Art axis of the level tube or bubble tube is an imaginary line
tang~nti~1 to the longitudinal curve of the ttlbe at its middle
point. It is also known as the bubble line. It is horizontal when
the bubble is centred .
• The 7'ertical axis is the centre line of the axis of rotation.
A backsight (B. S.), also termed as a backsight reading, is a )
staff (-;r rooT-reading taken on a point of known elevation, j
as on a bench mark or a change point. It is also called a plus, (
sight. It is the ~rst staff re.!::~ing taken after the level is set)
up and lev;;lled.
A foresi h!J_ F. S.), also called a foresight reading, i_ti a stuil

(or rod reading on a point whose elevation is to be determined
as on a change point~ It is also termed as. a minus sigh~. It
is th~ last sta~(li!~_g__denoting the shifting ofih'e instrument. .
-ax -
It must be remembered here that the word sight does not
imply any direction, but it denotes the reading.
An intermediate sight (I. S.) is any other staff reading taken
on a point of unknown elevation from the same set-up of the
level. All sights taken"b"~t;een the backsight and the foresight
are intermediate sights. .
A,chaEge point (£~. P.) is a point dcnoting the shifting of the
level. It is a point on which thc fore and baek sights are taken.
Any stable and well-defined object such as a boundary stone,
curb stone, rail, rock, etc., is used as a change point ...A. bench
n:ark may also be, ta~,~n_ ~s a ch.~_I!_ge._.point, It is also called
a turmng pmnt (T. P.).
A station is a point whose elevation is to be determined
or a point which is to be established at a given elevation. It
may be noted that it is a point where the staff is held and not
the point wherc the level is set up.
The height of instrument (H. I.) is the elevation (or the R. L.)
of the plane of collimation (or plane of sight) when the instrument
is correctly levelled. It is also called the "height of plane of colli-
mation" or the collimation.
When a level in adjustment is accurately ,levelled, the
line of collimation will revolve in a horizontal plane known
as the plane of collimation or the plane of sight.
It should be noted that the term 'height of instrument'
does not mean the height of the centre of the telescope above
the ground where the level is set up.
Focussing:-By focussing is meant the setting of the eye-
piece and the objective at the proper distance apart for the clear
vision of the object sighted. The focus of the objective and
that of the eye-piece must coincide with the cross-hair of the
diaphragm, as the diaphragm is placed at the common focus.
This can be dOlle by first focussing the eye-piece, and· then the
objective. .
LEVELLING 363
To f<;Jcus the eye-piece, hold a sheet of white paper in front

of the tei~scopeand move the eye-piece in and out until the
aoss-hairs appear distinct and' dear. ,.0fog_tl~>_ th~ _obi~ctiye,
direct the tele';cope to the object and turn the focussing screw
until the image appears clear and in sharp loCUS: Thus m F'ij~3~47,
cd represents the image in its correct position, ef and ab represent
the image when the focus of the
objective is in front of or beyond
the diaphragm respectively. If
the focussing is correct, there
will be no movement of the image
Fig. 240/ with respect to the cross-hairs
and the image will appear stationary as the eye is moved up and
down. But if the focussing is not correct, i. e. if the image is
at eJ or ab, the image will appear to move ,relatively to the
cross-hairs' as the eye is moved up and d?wn.
Parallax :--It is the apparent movement of the i!!l!l~ rela-
- ~
!ively_!_~ the cr~~ the ima~i§?e~ the ~jec-
--- '--
tive does no~n the.pla~~~!!h It is due to
poor focussing of the objectiv_e. It can b~ tested by moving
tile--eyeup arur-aown.' If the f?Cussing is corrggt._jlg:_ i_mage
appears fixed ,!? the ~ross-hair when "the eye is moved up and
uown.-- If the image appears to move in the same direction as
that of the eye, it is in front of the diaphragm, and the objective
must, 'therefore, be moved inwards by the focussing screw. If,
however, the image appears to move in the direction opposite to
that of the eye, it is beyond the diaphragm towards the eye-piece,
and the objective hao;;, therefore" to be moved outwards by the
focussing screw. The J?arallax is a s~)Urce of error in observations
and must, therefore, be eliminated entirely by focussing the
objective correctly. This can be done first by focussing the
eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross-hairs, and then by f~cu
ssing the ~bjective. It may be noted that the parallax is wholly
eliminated by means of the focussing screw.
It should be rem~mbered that the adjustment of the eye-
piece for distinct vision. of the cross-hairs, when once made,
requires no further attention, provided only one person is C1sing
the instrument, since it depends only upon the eyesight of the
observer, but the objective must be focussed whenever the

distance of the staff f,rom the level 1s changed.
Instruments :-To determine the elevations of points, two
instruments are required, viz. (1) a level, and (2) a levelling staff
(or rod). The level furnishes a horizontal line of sight, and
the levelling staff is used to determine the vertical distances of
the points below the horizontal line of sight.
(1) The Level :-The level consists essentially of (i) the
levelling head, (ii) the limb, (iii) telescope, and (iv) the level
or bubble tube. .
There are various types of levels, viz. (1) the Dumpy level,
,(2) the Wye or Y level, (3) the Cooke's reversible level, (4) the
Cushing's level, and (5) the Modern or Tilting level, such as Watts,
Zeiss, Wild, etc. .
Characteristics of Different Types of Levels
Fig. 248
Dumpy level
1 Levelling Head. 5 Focussing screw.
2 Telescope. 6 Ray·shade.
3 Eye.piece. 7 Level tube.
4 Diaphragm screws. 8 Level tube nuts.
9 Cross bubble tube.
(1) The Dumpy Level :-(Fig. 248). Thp. pumpy level is
simple, compact, and stable. The telescope is rigidly fixed to its
supports and, therefore, can neither be rotated about its
aongitudinal axis, nor ('an it be removed from its supports. It has
greater stability of adjustments than the Y level.
LEVELLING 365
(2) The Wye or Y Level :-(Fig. 249). The Y level is a

r delicate instrument. It consists of many loose and open
Fig. 249
Levelling Screws. 6 Eye-piece
2 Level tube. 7 Diaphragm Screws.
3 Wyes. 8 Focussing Screw.
4 Clips. 9 Ray-shade.
5 Telescope.
parts, which are liable to frictional wear. The telescope can be

removed from the Y supports, and reversed end for end. It can
also be revolved about its longitudinal axis in the Y s. The main
advantages of the Y and other reversible levels (3 and 4) are:
(i) the ease and rapidity with which the permanent adjustments
can be tested, and (ii) the adjustments can be made indoors.
(3) The Cooke's Reversible Level :-(Fig. 250). The

Cooke's level combines good features of both the dumpy and
Y levels. By slackening the stop screw 3, the telescope can be
rotated about its longitudinal axis in its sockets, and can also
be withdrawn from its sockets and replaced end for end.
(4) The Cushing's Level :-In the case of the Cushing'S

level, the telescope can neither be removed from its socket,'
nor can it be revolved about its longitudinal axis. However, the
eye-piece ( carrying with it the diaphragm) and the object glass
are removable~ and can be interchanged to reverse the telescope
end for end, both collars being exactly alike. Similarly, the
eye-piece end can be rotated in its fitting.
366 SURVEYING AND LEVELJIIa
Fig. 250
Cooke's Reversible Level.
1 Levelling Head. 7 Diaphragm screws.
2 Linlb Nuts. 8 Focussing screw.
3 Stop screw. 9 Ray-shade.
4 Socket. 10 Level tube.
5 Telescope. 11 Level Tube nuts.
6 Eye-piece_ 12 Cross bubble tube.
Fig. 251
Tilting Level.
1 Levelling SOrews. 6 Clamp sorew.
2 Mictometer Screw. 7 Prism.
3 Cross Levels. S Reflector.
4 Soale. 9 Telescope.
5 Milled Head. 10 Ray-shade.
LEVELLING 367
(5) The Modern ('riltin~ Level) :-(Fig. 251). In the case

,f this instrument the telescope has a small motion about a
ilorizontal axis just below it. It is, therefore, known as the
tilting level. The main peculiarity of this level is that the ver-
tical axis need not be truly vertical, since the line of collimation is
flot perpendicular to it. The line of collimation, is, however, made
horizontal for each pointing of the telescope by means of a tilting
,crew. It is mainly designed for precise levelling work.
The Lev~lling Staff :-Levelling staves are divided into
two classes : (1) Self-reading staves, and (2) Target staves. The
former are.so called as they can be read directly by the instru-
mentman V"0m the level, while the latter are provided with a
movable target. The target is equipped with a vernier by means
of which a reading is taken to O· 001 ft. as
M - shown in Fig. 252 b, and is adjusted by the
- stafl'man as directed by the levelman until

its centre line coincides with the horizontal
- cross-hair of the diaphragm. The reading is
then taken and booked by the staffman. The
target staves are generally used when the
sights are long ( more than 350 or 400 ft.),
while the self-reading ones are usually used
for short sights (upto 350 ft.).
Self-reading Staff :-The levelling staff
most commonly used in levelling is the
Sopwith staff, arranged in three telescopic
lengths (Fig. 252 a). It is known as a self-
reading staff, since it can be read directly
by the instrumentman from the level. The
staff is usually 14 ft. long when fully extended.
The s9lid top length of 4 feet 6 inches, slides
into the central box 4 feet 6 inches long,
which in turn slides into the lower or bottom
box, 5 feet long, 4 inches broad, and 2t
inches deep. Each length when pulled out
Fig. 252 a to its full length is held in position by means
f a brass spring catch. It is made of well seasoned timber, such
s mahogany, and protected with brass mountings. It is gradua-
ted into feet, tenths, and hundredths. The figures indicating

feet are painted in red on the left-hand sidf!.:. The odd te.n.ths of a
foot are mark~.d by, black figures on t~~
right-hand side, each figure being exactly
one-tenth of a foot in height, so th~t the
bottom of the figure indicates the even
tenth. The top of the figure in every case
is exactly in line with the division which it
specifies. The hundred_j;hs are indicated by
the alternate white and black spaces, each
measuring one hundredth of a foot. The
Fig. 252 b top of a white space thus indicates an odd
number of hundredths, whil~ that of a black space an even
number of hundredths.
The staff appears upside down when viewd through the
telescope so that the readings are taken from above downwards.
When the staff is held at a short distance from the instru-
ment, it sometimes happens that no large ·red figure appears
in the field of view. In such a case, the staffman is directed to
raise the staff slowly until a red figure come" into view. Thjl>-
figure represents the number of whole feet to be booked. "A1ter-
natively, the staffman is instructed to move his finger along the
staff until it is seen through the telescope, the staffman noting
the red figure indicating the number of whole feet. In the
improved pattern of the staff, two smaller additional red figures
are painted between the large red figures in each foot length.
Another form of the self-reading staff is the 'folding staff.
It is usually 10 ft. long. and is in two parts, which are connected
at the middle by a hinge so that the upper portion can be folded
over the lower one. The third form of the self-reading staff is
the staff in one length. It is 10 ft. long, and is mainly used in
precise levelling.
Target Staff (Philadelphia Rod) :-It consists of two
lengths one &liding over tIle other and held together by means
of the brass clamps. The rod can be extended by raising the
sliding length. When so extended, the rod is called a long rod.
When it is not extended, it is called a short rod. The face of
each length is graduated to feet, tenths, and hundredths of a foot,
while the back of the sliding length is similal;ly graduated, but from
LEVELLING 869
\
~ op downwards. F~r readings less than 7 ft. (upto about 6· 5 ft.),
the target is attac~ed to the lower half of the rod (short rod) and
moved along the rod by the staITman until its centre is bisected
by the line of sight. The target is then clamped and the reading
takeli to thousandths by means of a vernier attached to the
target. 1;'or readings over 7 ft., the target is set exactly at 7 ft.
at the top of the sliding length, and the sliding length carrying
the j arget is raised until the target is bisected by the line of sight.
The reading is then taken to thousandths on the back of the
sliding length by means of the vernier.
Equipment for Levelling :-The equipment for levelling
consists of (i) a lEvel, (ii) a levelling staff, (iii) a ch!!in or tape for
measuring horizontal distances, and (iv) a level field book for
recording the staff readings, distances, and other field notes.
Taking out the Instrumellt from the Box :-Before
taking out the in"trument from thl': box, mark the positions of
(a) the object-glass, (b) the eye-piece, and (c) the clamp and
tangent screws, if any, so that it can be placed in the box in its
proper position without any difficulty.
Adjustment of the Level :-The adjustments of a level are
of two kinds, viz. (1) temporary, and (2) permanent. The perma-
nent adjustments will be described later.
(1) Temporary Adjustments :-The temporary adjust-
ments are those which have to be performed at each set:JJ.P
oft~he level. < They are necessary preparafory to taking readings.
They are two in number, viz. (1) Setting up the level, which
includes (a) planting the tripod, and (b) levelling up. (2) Focussing
the eye-piece and object glass to eliminate parallax. They are
made in -the following steps:-
Setting up the Level : (1) Fixing the Instrument on the
Tripod :-Release the clamp screw of the instrument, hold the
instrument in the right !fand and fix it on the tripod by turning
round only the lower part with the left hand. Screw the instru-
ment firmly.
(2) Leg Adjustment :-Place the instrument in a desired
position at a convcnient height for sighting with the tripod legs
spread well apart and the tribrach sprang as nearly level as can be
judged by the eye. Bring all the foot screws in the centre of
their run. F'ix any two legs firmly into the ground by pressing
them with. the hand, and move the third leg to the right, or
left until the main bubble is approximately in the centre. Then
move it in or out until th~bble of the cross level is approximately
in the centre. Finally, the leg should be fixed in such a posi-
tion that both bubbles are approximately in the centre of their
run. Timewill be savea If nearly all of the levelling is -d~~e
by means of the tripod legs.
~Levelling up :~Place the telescope parallel tt,: pair
of foot screws and bring the bubble to the centre of its un by
turning these scr!,~s equally either both inJy~rds .01:. b th out-
~~~: Turn U;e telescopeth~~ugh 900--~~--that it lies over the
third foot screw, and centre the bubble by turning this screw.
Bring the telescope back to its original position without revers-
ing the eye-piece and object glass ends. ,Again bring the bubble
to the centre of its run, and repeat these operations until the
bubble remains in the centre of its run in both positions, which
are at right angles to each other. If the instrument is in adjust-
ment, the bubble will traverse ( i. e.' remain central) for all'direc-
tions of the telescope.
Noie:- (i) If the instrument has four foot screws, the
telescope should be placed parallel to two
diagonally opposite foot screws in both positions.
(ii) When turning the two foot screws, follow the
rule 'r.~ht in and .le!t .out.'
(iii) In the case' of the tilting level, use the small
cross-levels attached to the lower frame, or
the small circular level mounted within the
tribrach for this adjustment.
(iv) Turn the telescope through 180°, and if the
bubble does not traverse, i. e. does not remain
central, the instrument requires to be corre-
cted in its permanent. adjustment.
(4) Focussing the Eye-piece :-Remove the lid from the
object glass and hold a sheet of white paper in front of it. See
whether the eye-piece simply slides in its socket, or it has a rotary
motion by means of screw threads. Move the eyepiece in and
out until the cross-hairs are distinctly seen. In doing this, care
should be taken that the eye-piece is not wholly taken out.
LEVELL1NG 371
(5) Focussing the Obj ect Glass :-Direct the telescope

towards the staff, and on looking through the eye-piece, bring
the image of the staff between the two vertical hairs (or lines) of
the diaphragm by lightly tapping the telescope. If a; clamp and
tangent screw are provided, the same should be used. Adjust
th,e.. objective by turning the focussing screw until the parallax
is eliminated. It may be noted that the parallax is completely
eli~mated when there is no change in the staff reading when the
eye is moved up and down.
Setting up and Using the Tilting (or Modern) Level ; -
(1) Set up the level on firm ground. Bring the two small croSs-
bubbles to the centre of their run by means of the foot screws
in the usual way. If there is a circular level instead of two cross-
levels, bring it to the centre of its run. The vertical axis is thus
brought approximately vertical.
(2) Bring the main level tube on the left face of the instru-
ment if the level is reversible, and set the micrometer screw
( or tilting screw) to zero. / The end of the main bubble will
then appear ill' the prism/
(3) Direct the teltiseope towards the staff and focus it.
Turn the micrometer screw until the end of the bubble coincides
..
L.~E-f') E§, 5§
J (a): (};)
Fig. 2~\
Fig. 254
accurately with its index line I,Fig. 253). thus centring the bubble
exactly. In another patterp of the tilting levill, the halves "'bf
the two ends of the bubble appear in the prism as in Fig. 254 b.
When the bubble is centra.!, the two 'halves appear coincident
as shown in Fig. 254 a.
(4) Read the staff.
It may be noted that the instrument is approximately
levelled in order that the end of the main bubble should be
within the field of view of the prism when the micrometer screw
is set at zero. Seeondly, the final levelling i. e. centring the

main bubble by means of the micrometer screw has to be repeated
before every staff reading is taken.
Taking Bearings with the Compass attached to the
Level :-(i) If the compass is separate, fix it in its place with
the screws provided. (ii) Release the clamping screw Qf the
compass needle and allow it to come to rest. (iii) Focus the
scale by raising or lowering the prism as required. (iv) Direct
the telescope towards the staff or ranging rod, and bring it cor-
rectly in the centre of the two vertical hairs of the diapl1Tagm.
(v) Read the scale. (vi) Clamp the compass needle.
Bench Marks :--There are four kinds of bench markyviz.
(i) G. T. S. (Great Trigonometrical Survey). (ii) permanent,
(iii) arbitrary, and (iv) temporary .
...(J) G. T. S. Bench Marks :-They are the bench marks
established with very high precision at intervals all over the
country by -the SurveY' of Tudia- department, and their positions
and elevations abovctlie-stanaa,rd datum (mean sea-level at
Karachi) are given in the catalogue published by that depart-
ment. They are also shown on G. T. S. maps .
•,,~ (Ii) Permanent Bench Marks :-They are the ~xe<:l_QQ_ints
of reference e~~ablished_!2et~~ G. T. S. bench marks by the
=~t
8.1"1.
1807,85
Fig. 255 a Fig. 55 b
!!overnmellt ~en9ie_s__such as the '£.._W. D., on clearly defined
and permanent points such as the top of a parapet( wall of a
bridge or culvert, a corner of the plinth of a building, a gate
l2illa_~ mile ~ton.e,_ ~~c;_.]heir ptlsHlons are-marKed on a flat
surface by a rectangle (Fig. 255a). On a vertical surface such
as a wall, they are marked in the form of a broad arrow and
a horizontal groove, the centre of which gives the exact point
at which the reduced level was taken as in Fig. 2:i5 b. Figures
denoting the R. L. as well as the letters B. M. are also cut beside
, LEVELLING 373
the mark and filled in japan black. They are used for reference
and checking purposes.
"JU11 Arbitrary Bench Marks :-They are the ~rence
Eoints whose elevations are arbitrarily assumed. They are used
in'-
/
smalr
leV-cHing operations." .. - .
{tv) Temporary Bench Marks : -Thev -_,
. are the reference
po?nts established at the end of day's work, or when there is
a' breaK in the work. The worK,--wfienreslllueu;-lS-COritimied
--
;ith reIereiiCe-to' these-bench marks. They should be carefully

established on definite and comparatively permanent objects,
which can be easily described and found, such as tops of stones,
gate posts, spikes in the roots of the trees or in the tops of
sound stakes, highest points of solid rock, etc.
Change Point :-It is an _.....
intermediate
~-..
staff station on which
two sights are taken, and is used for the purpose of changing
the position of the instrument. Its elevation should be accur-
_.
ately determined, as iUs used for future reference and for checking
the levels. Great care is necessary in taking readings at the change
pCrlnt, sin~e an error in reading affects every succeeding elevation.
Any firm point which can be easily found, such as a top of spike,
a flat stonr firmly embedded into the ground, rail, etc., may
serve as .a change point. In soft ground a steel foot-plate
(Fig. 256 a), a steel pin (Fig. 256b), or a foot peg as inFig. 256c,
makes a satisfactory change point. The foot-plate is triangu-
lar in shape with the spherical boss at the centre and dogs at
its corners, and is fitted with a chain for carrying it forward.
(b )
(a)
Fig. 256 (0)
It is firmly stamped .dow~, and the staff is held on the spherical.
boss. A bench m,trk may also be used as a change point.
Position of the Level :-In levelling it is innnateriaI

where the instrument is set up. However, it i" usually set up
on firm ground and ill some convenient spot where the greatest
number of sights can be taken. This spot should be so selected
that it is approximately midway between change points, and
that the distance of the spot from the points to be sighted should
be such that the staif can be read distinctly (within 300' ft.).
It should not be too high or too low so that the greatest number
of points can be read.
Balancing or Equalising Backsight and Foresight .Dis-
tances :-The essential condition in spirit levelling is that the
line of collimation should be horizontal when staff reading~ are
being taken. The line of collimation is horizontal when the babble
is in the centre of its run, only if the line of collimation and
the bubble line are exactly parallel. To eliminate the error
due to non-parallelism of the line of collimation and the bubble
line, which is proportional to the legnth of sight, it is neces"ary
to keep the lengths of the backsight and the foresight nearly
equal for accurate work. The distances are determined by sta-
dia in precise levelling, while in ordinary levelling, they are
measured by pacing. To find the true difference of level bet-
ween two points, the level must be kept emactly midway bet-
ween them, but not necessarily on the line joining them. On
steep slopes these two distances can be kept nearly equal by
choosing change points so that they , zigzag'.
;~N~
~.D .~ D
TRUE LINE 0;: COLLIMATION
Fig. 257
Thus in Fig. 257, let A and B be the two points each at a
distance of D feet from the level. apb represents the horizontal
(or true) line of collimation; 0( = the slope of the line of
collimation.
Case I :-Line of collimation inclined upwards:-
Aa1 =the observed reading on the staff held on A.
LEVELLING 375
Aa = the true reading.

The error 'in the reading = Aa 1 - Aa = aal = D tan 0(.
The true reading Aa = Aal - D tan 0( •
Similarly, when a sight is taken on a staff held at B,
Bb 1 = the observed reading; Bb = the true reading.
The error in the reading = Bb 1 - Bb = bb 1 = D tan 0( •
The true reading Bb = Bb 1 - D tan 0(.
Since the horizontal distances P A and PB are equal, the errors
introduced in the observed readings due to the slope of the line
of collimation will be equal, and the difference between the two
observed readings Aal and Bb1 will give the true difference of level
between A and B.
True difference of level = (Bb 1 - D tan o() '" (Aa 1 - D tan o()
between A and B = Bb1",Aal .
Case II ; Line of collimation inclined downwards;-
Aa2 = the observed staff reading at A; Aa = the true reading
Bb 2 = " "" at B; Bb = " "
The error in the reading = Aa - Aa 2 = aa 2 = D tan 0(.
The true reading Aa +
= Aa 2 D tan 0( •
The error in the reading = Bb - Bb 2 = bb2 = D tan 0( •
The true reading Bb = Bb2 + D tan 0(.
Heneetrue differenceoflevel=(Bb 2 +D tan 0(),,-,(Aa 2 +D tan o()
between A and B =Bb2 ,,-,Aa 2 •
It will thus be seen that the error due to the inclination of the
line of collimation is completely eliminated, provided the back-
sight and foresight distances are equalised.
Holding the- Staff :-Utmost care should be taken in holding
the staff truly vertical while the reading is being taken. To
hold the staff in a vertical position, the staffman stands behind
the staff, heels together, with the heel of the staff between his
toes, and holds it between the palms of his hands at the height
of his face. If it is not vertical, the reading will be too great.
Special ca~ must be exercised with larger readings, since the
errors due to a given deviation from the vertical vary with the
readings. In precise levelling, the staff is equipped with a
folding circular level or a pendulum plumb bob to make it plumb,
while in ordinary levelling, the staff is waved slowly forward,
i. e. towards the level, and backward, i. e. away from the level,
and the lowest reading taken to avoid these errors. Sometimes,
:,:' .STAI="F
::: V£RTIC;4t.
. :
B
Fig. 257 a
the staff is held inverted when the point is above the plane
of sight. It should be seen that each length is drawn out to its
full extent when required, and the spring clips are secure.
Reading the Staff:-The staff' readings should be taken in
the following order:
(i) Having set up and levelled the instrument carefully,
direct the telescope towards the staff held vertically on the staff
station and foeus it.
(ii) Always bring the stafl' between the two vertical hairs,
and always use the pattion of the horizontal cross-hair between
them in reading the staff as the horizontal cross-hair may be
slightly inclined. By means of the vertical hairs, the levelman can
see if the staff is out of plumb (sloping) sideways. If there be only
one vertical hair, a reading should be taken at the intersection.
(iii) Observe if the bubble is central. If not, centre it by
using one of the foot screws most nearly in line with the telescope,
and note the reading at which the horizontal cross-hair appears
to cut the staff. First note the red figure, then the black figure,
and finally count the spaces. Record the reading.
(iv) As a check, again see if the bubble is central, and read
the staff.
r: It may be noted that on looking through the t9lescope,
~ the staff is seen inverted. It should, therefor~, be dlways read
\, from above q_~~ll?:~ and not upwards. However; when the staff
~s 'held inverfe~!t_}E:~)UI~be rea.? ,ujJw(1rds. -, ..... ,,--..
'If the target staff is used, the procedure is the same except
that the target is set by the staffman as directed by the instru-
mentman, and the reading is then taken and recorded by the
staffman. /
Steps in Levelling :-When the level in adjustment y( set
up and correctly levelled, the line of collimation will bi hori-
zontal, and when the telescope is rotated about its / vertical
axis, it will revolve in a horizontal plane known as the plane
LEVELLING 377
of eollimation and, therefore, all staff readings taken with

the telescope will be the vertical measurements made down-
Fig. 258
wards from this plane as in Fig. 258. There are two essential
steps in levelling. The first step is to find the elevation or
R. L. of the plane of collimation (H. I.) of the level by taking
a backsight on a bench mark. The second step is to find the
elevation or R. L. of any other point by taking a reading on
the staff held at that point.
Height of instrument (H. I.) = R. L. of the plane of collimation
= R. 1.. of B. M.+B. S.
R. L. of a point = H. 1. - F. S.
or" " = H. I. - I. S.
It is necessary to bear in mind that after every backsight,
I/VTERM£DIATE ,s1t;HT
however many intermediate sights
A .B there may be, there must be a
foresight. These back and fore-
sights form the two ends of one
(- stage in levelling as in Fig. 259.
Fig. 259 Secondly, levelling should always
commence from a permanent bench mark and end on a per-
manent bench mark.
Principles of Levelling
Simple Levelling :-(Fig. 260). It is the simplest operation
in levelling when it is required to
"J~'86 find the difference in elevation bet-
ween two points, both of which are
8 visible from a single position of the
Fig. 260 level. Suppose A and B are two such
points and the level is set up at 0, approximately midway
between A and B. It is immaterial where the level is set up;

however, to eliminate the effect of instrumental error, it is
always advisable to place it approximately midway between two
points, but not necessarily on the line joining tpem. After the
instrument is correctly levelled, the telescope is directed to~anls
the staff held vertically on A, and focussed. The reading at
which the horizontal hair of the diaphragm appears to cut the
staff is then taken, care being taken to ensure that the bubble
is central while the staff is being read. The staff is then held
vertically on B. The telescope is then directed on to the staff
and focussed. Before sighting, the bubble should be examined to
see if it is central; jf not, it must be brought back to the centre
of its run by turning the foot screw most nearly in line with the
telescope. The staff reading is then taken. Let the respective
readings on A and B be 2' 34 and .5· 86. The difference between
these readings gives the difference of level between A and B,
which is equal to 5'86 ~ 2·34 = 3·52 ft.
If the R. 1.. of A is 100, the R. 1.. of B may be found thus :
H. I. at 0 = 100 + 2'34 = 102·34.
R. 1.. of B = 102·34 - 5'86 = 96· '],8.
Note:- (i) When the point ;:;.-0 is lower, the staff reading. is
-
greater, while when it is higher, the staff reading
--
.--
is smaller.
(ii) The bubble must traverse, i. e. keep its mid-
position while readings are being taken. ]f
relevelling of the instrument is required for the
second reading, the two horizontal pJenes will
not coincide; the difference between them is,
h~wever, negligible. •/
(iii) If the true difference of level between ~wo
points is required, the level must be set up
exactly midway between them.
Fig. 261
LEVELLING 379
Differential Levelling :-(Fig. 261). This method is used

in order to find the difference in elevation between two points,
(i) if they are too far apart, or (ii) if the difference in elevation
between them is too great, or (iii) if there are obstacles inter-
vening. In such a case, it is necessary to set up the level in
several positions and to work in a series of stages. The method
of simple levelling is employed in each of the successive stages.
The process is also known as compound or continuou8 levelling.
Suppose it is desired to find the difference of level between
two points A and E, which are too far apart.
Set up the level at 0 1 and correctly level it. With the
bubble central, take tbe reading on the staff held vertically at A.
Select a firm point C S9 that its distance from 0 1 is approxim-
ately equal to that. of A from O} (the distance being measured
by pacing), and with the Dubble in the centre of the tube, take
the reading on the staff held vertically at C. This forms the
first stage in the series. Now shift the instrument to O2 , and
set up and level it carefully. With the bubble in the centre
of its run, take the reading on the staff at C. Choose a firm
point D as before so that the instrument station O 2 is approxi-
mately midway between C and D, and with bubble central,
take the reading on the staff at D. Repeat the process until
the point E is reached.
Note :-(i) Each of the successive points C, D, etc., is called
a change point (C. P.) and is read twice, once t¢ore, and the
se('ond time after, the instrument is shifted.
(ii) The level must remain stationary while the staff is
being carried forward.
(iii) The staff at the change point must not be moved,
but kept on the )"ame spot while the level is carried forward.
It should be turned round to face the telescope when a second
reading is to be taken.
(iv) A change point must be taken on a stable and definite
object. The distance of the change point from the level should
not exceed 300 ft.
(v) The level must be set up on firm ground.
(vi) The bubble must be brought to the centre of its run
each time a staff reading is takefi.
\
The staff reading (a) taken at A from the instrument station
0 1 is the backsight and the staff reading (c l ) at C the foresight.
The staff reading (cz) taken at C from' the inst. station O2 is the
back sight, and the staff reading (dl ) at D the foresight, and so on.
Therefore, the difference of level between A and C = a - Cj
" "" C and D = ell - d1
and so on.
The difference of level between A and B is equal to the
algebraic sum of these differences or equals the 4iffcrence between
the sum of the backsights and the sum of the foresights
(~ B. S. - 1: F. S.). .
If the difference is positive, it indicates that the point B is
higher than the point A; while if negative, the point B is lower
than the point A. If the R. L. of A is known, the R. L. of B
may be found by the relation,
R. 1,. of B = R. L of A + ~ B. S. - 1: F. S.
The reduced levels of the intermediate points, if required,
may be found by the relation, .
R. 1,. of a point = R. 1,. of B. M + backsight-intermediate sight.
Reduction of Levels :-There are two systems of working
out the reduced levels of points from the staff readings taken
in the field, viz. (1) the coll1:mation ur instrument height system,
and (2) the rise and fall system. .
(1) The,Collimation System :-It consists in finding the
elevation of the plane of collimation (H. I.) for every set-up
of the instrument, and then obtaining the reduced levels of
points with reference to the respective plane of collimation.
To begin with, the elevation of the plane of collimation for the
first set-up of the level is determined by addin..[..the backsight
to the reduced level of the bench mark. The redu~;eis of
the inter~_~nts amt-l]le··-fi~·~!__c.hange p~~nt are then
obtain~d _by su.!:!~::~_ the statI' r~~~lings t;ken on These points
(I. S. and""-F:-S-.) from the-erevation of the plane of collimation
(H. I.). When the instrument is shifted to the second position,
a new plane of collimatiOlI_i~.set up. The levels of the two planes
of colli~ seCOnt!) are cOl'elated by means of the
backsight and foresight taken on the change point. The elevation
of this plane is obtained by adding the new back sight taken on
LEVELLING 381
the change point from the second position, of the level to the
reduced level of the first change point. The reduced levels of
the successive points and the second change point are found by
subtmcting their staff readings from the elevati.on of this plane
of collimation. The process is repeated until all the reduced
levels are worked out. On completing the reduction of the levels,
the accuracy of the arithmetical work should be checked.
A rithme.tical Check:-The difference between the sum of
the backsights and the sum of the foresights should be equal
to the dITrerence' between the first aruClasi -red~~-;:d levels. This
check verifi~~the-calcurafion of the reduced levels of the planes
of collimation and of the change points only. There is no check
on the reduction of the 'intermediate reduced levels.
(2) The Rise and Fall System :-l.t con§ists in determining
the difference of level between consecutive points by comparing
each point after the first with that immediately preceding it. The
difference between their staff readings indicates a rise or a fall
according I as the staff reading at the p'oint is smaller or greater
than that at the preceding point.---The reduc~~}_.<?f_~acl.1Q()ipt
is then !9l!IlA_by J'tQding the rise );9, or sublr:.I!..GtLn_g _._the fall
from_ the reduced level of the preceding ~t.
.<~.~_'~_. ~~. u." .. _~
-.
Arithmetical Check : -There are three checks on the accuracy
of the reductions. The difference between the sum of the back
sights and the sum of the foresights = the difference between
the sum of the rises and that of the falls = the difference
between the first and last reduced levels.
~B.S. - ~F.S. = ~ rise - ~ fall = last RL. - first R.L.
There is a complete check on the intermediate reductions,
since all sights are involved in the second check. It may be obser-
ved that the field work is not in any way verified by this check.
Comparison of the Two Systems:- The collimation
system is less tedious, more rapid, and involves less calculations.
However, mistakes made in reduction of leyels of the intermediate
points remain undetected, while in the rise and fall system, there
is a complete check on each of the intermediate reductions. The
first system is generally used in profile levelling and in setting out
levels for constructional work, while the second one is preferred for
differential levelling, check levellmg;;nd other important work.
382 SURYEYING AND LEVEl,LING
Booking the Staff Readings :-The fOllowing points may

be borne in mind in entering the staff readings in a level field book.
(1) The readings should be entered in the respective column!?
and in the order of their observation.
(2) T~~~y on the page is always a Q~ksight and
the la~~_~~~lways a _fore~~.
(3) In carrying forward the readings from one page to the
next, if the last entry happens to be an intermediate sight, it is
entered in both ~ U. columns, and in the B. S. a~d 1. S.
columns as a first entry on the next page. The entries in the rema-
ining columns against it should also be repeated on the next page.
(4) The fore and back sights of the change point should
be written in the sa~ horizonta.lJi.pe.
(5) The R. L. of the plane of collimation should be written
in the same horizontal line opposite the bac~ht.
(6) Bench marks, ehange points, and other important points
should be briefly but accurately described in the Remarks column,
and their sketches drawn on the left-hand side of the page.
The following are the specimen pages of a level field book,
illustrating the method of· booking staff readings and calculating
the reduced levels.
Series of Levels from Bench Mark No. 1 to Bench
Mark No.2 for Flying Levels,
Readings. R. L. of plane 1
•
- - - of Collimation IReduced Remarks.
Baok Inter \ ]<'ore . (H. 1.\ . Level.
sight. sight. Ei~ht. ' .
...
\ -- -
- .. .-.~ .----~------ ---.----
..
A 1'20 1809'05 1807'85. B.M.lonthe

. base of the pillar.
B 2'03 1810'8$ 1807' 02 Mech, Lab.
C 1'02 1814'83 1809'36
D 1812'14 On parapet wall
1 of a slab drain.
E 6'47 7'16· 1814 '14 1807'67 [
F 3'77 4'52 1813'39 1809' 62 1
G 4'19 1809' 20 I B. M. 2 on para-
pet wall of old
I Railway bridge.
Arithmetical]20'77] IHl.4,2] ~~-
Check. + 1 . 35 _-
Date :-7th December 1950
LeVeLLING 383
Series of Levels from Bench mark No. 2 to Bench

Mark No. I for Flying Levels.
- I
d
c
~
Readings. Rise. Fall. Reduced
Level.
I
...
<C
rt:1
\
Back
I sight.
Fore
Sight.
+ -
Remarks.
---- I \ I
1 6'69 AI !1809'2{J B. M. 2 on para-
I pet wall of old
2 3'24 4'77 11811'12 Railway bridge.
\1'92
3 4'96 I 4'71 1'4711809'65 B. M. on parapet
wall of WelleslY
4 I
I 2'03 J 2-18 1 2 '78 1812'43 bridge,
5 0'46 4'94 1809'54 B, M. 1 on the
6
II 2'15
I 1"89
1'69 1807'85
base of the pillar.
Mech. Lab,
I
Arithmetical 1 17'40
Check.
I
,--'--=1~5~~-
r~S,75 F\ _ }'35
6'05 \ -1'35
-
Date :-SthDeoember 1950.
Series of Levels from A to B for Longitudinal Levelling.

,; 'I Readings. Rise, Fall, Reduced
Station, ~ Level. Remarks.
"t3 Back \ Inter \ Fore
is : sight. sight. Right. +
-:------------------ ----- 4'94 - }~irg~ -I~he~i~~~f

5'13 1871'371 (S, I, S,)
3'21 1873'29 building.
2'SIl 1873'64
0'77 1875'73
0'17 1876'33 C. P.
0'821~ 'S6 1877'15
1875'47
B 2'82 1873'51
l'S7 1878'00 B.M. on
gate Pillar
Arlth.\
metical 7 . 03 I I 5' 53 I .
1 +1'50 \
Check, 1 +)'50
Date :-15th December 1950.
It may be noticed here that each of the successive readings is compared with
the back sight to determine the rise or fall, which is then added to, or subtracted
from, the R, L, of the point at which the backsight is taken.
384 SURVEYING AND LEV.ELLING
Series of Levels from Station ,A near B. O. R. I. road
al ~ I
Bearing. i Readings. C,llim.-I l<oo.oed I
:al ';a~'~'-I
0'
tion. \ Level. Remarks,
.$1
wI 6 1I
Back Fore Back \ Inter Fore I
sight. I sight. j sight. Ill. I.) I
.-
I 15'62 I 1 1896 '12 1890'50 ' B.M. on to

A 0
12
17
"'1'1 I 6·"
4'48
3'24
1889'17
1891'64
1892'88
1893'21
i of parap
wall of
' culvert.
:
27 2'91 :
1892'87 ' Inner' ed ge
37
50
3'25
4'82 I 1891'30 of a faa d
I 85 2'94 I 1893'18
1894'11
I Centre,
100 ~1 outer ed,:;8.
150 1'28 1894'84 ,
200 5'44, 0'68 1900'88 1895'44 C, p_
250 3-.58 , I, 1897-30
0
B :300 21615 I
2 12 \ 1 1898 76
1 ' 4'24 i 1896-64 B. M. on
I I furlong
1--1~6'1;1----
1 stone.
/4'
I Arithmeticall1I-OOI
Check. -
Date :-18th December 1950_
+ 6' 14
92
'\
\
Cross Section at Chaitlage-300
Distance. Readings. R. L. of Reduced Level,

pl!me of
Collimation_
L"'ft Ri~ht
0 7'22 1928'18 1920'96

i) 7'98 1920'2V
14 8'96 1919'22
20 10'12 1918'06
25 11'07 1917'11
40 H'96 19l6'22
50 12-48 1915'70
0 7'22 1920'96
16 6'05 1922'13
25 5'12 1923'06
3'~ 4-01 1924'17
46 2-98 1925'20
50 1'42 1926'76
L:E:VELLING 885
Series of Levels from Station A to B for Contouring .

.1
§! Distance. Bearing. 1 Readings. .....ci0 "Cl .;
'",...;
"
I I ~
.."
::; '"
~ S
--~----
\ \ i
~ackf Fore- sight.
"ClP-
i Left (centre! Right Back Inter Fore ~~
I \ sight. sight. 8 ~
o
10
25
Ir
51)
12 I
:: II
50
7
I 25
!I 50
25 I
50
Date :-20th December 1950

If, instead of the R. L. of the first point, the R. L. of the
last point or some intermediate point be given, there are two
ways of working out the reduced levels of the remaining points.
First method :-(a) Given the R. L. of the last point:
(i) Find the sum of all back sights and that of all foresights
( ~ B. S. and ~ F. S. ). '
( ii) Find 10he R. L. of the first point by the relation:
+
R. L. of the last point =R. L. of the first point I: B. S . ...,.... I: F. S.
(iii) Knowing the R. L. of the first point, find the reduced
levels of the points in the usual way.
P. 1.-18
e. g. Suppose the R. L. of the last point is given as 1966' 50 (bee

table on page 388). Now ~ B.S. = 41' 64; ~ F. S. = 33' 44. Then
R. L. of the first point = 1966, 50 - 41' 64 +38' 44 = 1958,36.
(b) Given the R. L. of the intermediate point:
(i) Find the sum of the backsights from the start to this
point and that of the foresights. (ii) Find the R. L. of the first
point by the relation : R. L. of the intermediate point = n. L.
of the first point + ~ B. S. - ~ F. S. - 1. S. (iii) Knowing the
R. L. of the first point, determine the reduced levels of the other
points in the usual way, e. g. Referring to the table on page 388
suppose the R. L. of' the intermediate point (B. M. 2) is given a
1961'70. Now ~ B. S. from the start to this point = 27,87
and ~ F. S. = 28':?7; I. S. = 1'20. Then
RL. of the first point = 19f)l'70-27'87+23'27+1'20 = 1958·3.
Second method :--(i) Find the rises and falls of the points a,
usual. (ii) Work out the reduced levels of the points, starting
from the known R L.
It mllst be remembered t~at the signs of the rises and falls
are reversed (i.e. rise to be subtract~d and fall to be added) when
we proceed in the reverse order (i.e. from the known R. L. to
the first R L.) .----The method is ill~_ated on page 387.
The following is the page of a level field book. Fill in the
missing readings and calculate the reduced levels of the stations,
and apply the usual checks.
Readings. I Rise. Fall. Reduced Remarks.

§ Level.
:z
.!
00
I
Back Inter Fore I
sight. sight. sight.
I
1 19 '60 B. M. No. 1 on the

2 5'65 X 1'65 plinth of a court
3 16'60 8'56 building.
4 i X 3'46
5 1.20 4'82 1961'70 B. M. No.2 on the
6 3'72 X 3'28 parapet wall of a
7 5'38 2'15 culvert.
8 4'67 2'07
9 X 3 B.M.No.30nthe top
'20
II 1
of a compound wall.
Add rise 3· 31 stn. 8 being higher than stn.

R. L. of stn. 8
-
=- --
1963' 30
Add rise 3' 20 stn. 9 being higher than stn.

R. L. of stn. 9 = 1966·50.
The results are tabulated as shown below:
Series of Levels from Bench Mark No. 1 to Bench

Mark No. 2 for Flying Levels.
0
s:i I Readings. Rise. Fall. Reduced Remarks.
~
.3
I -- Level.
r:I1 I Back IInter /l!'ore
eight. sight. sight.
1 9'60 195~'30 B. 'M. 1 on the pUn- ,

2 5'65 lI-25 1'65 1956'65
I of a court building
3 6'60 8'56 2'91 1953 '74 I
1
4 6'02 3'46 3'14 1956'88

5 1'20 I 4'82 1961'70 B. M. 2 on parapel
walJ of a culvert.
6 3'72 4'48 3'281 1958'42
7 5'88 2'15 1'57 1959'99
8 4'67 2'07 3'31 1963'30
9 1'47 3'20 1966'50 B. M. 3 on top 01
I a compound wtJI.
_ ._ _ _ _1 __ _ _
-~---~---
I I
+8'20 I
Examples on Levelling
Example 1 :-Theobserved reading on a staff held at A wa!

12' 95 ft. The staff was found to be 6 inches off the vertica
through its bottom. Find the correct staff reading on A.
Correct staff reading onA= vi (12·95)2- (0' 5)2 = vi 13'45 X 12'4l
= 12·94 ft.
LEVELLING 38!)
Example 2 :-The staff reading on a certain point was 12·98.

The st~ff was found to be l' 5 ft. out of plumb in 14 ft. What is
the correct stafl' reading, if the stafl' was held vertically?
1·5xI2·98
The actual deviation of the staff = -- - - ___ = l' 39 ft.
14
Correct staff reading = ~ (12'98)2- (1'89)2 = 12·90ft.
Alternatively, the correction to tbe observed staff reading
h 2
h = 1'39; l = 12'98. = ~~ = (1'39)2
___ -_-___ = 0·074
2l 2 X 12'98
Corrected stafl'reading = 12·98 - 0'074 = 12·906 ft.

Example 3 :-A line of levels was run from a bench mark
No.1 of R. L. 1807'85 to a bench mark No.2 of R. L. 1809·65.
The sum of the backsights was 80' 71 and that of the foresights
was 28' 87. What was the closing error of the levelling work?
R. L. of B. M. No.2 = R. I,. of B. M. No.1 + ~B. S.- ~ F.S.
= 1807·85 + 30·71 - 28·87 = 1809'69.
But R. L. ofB. M. No.2 = 18()9·65.
Closing error = li09· 69 - 1809·65 = + 0·04 ft.
:~ Example 4 :-A liBe of levels was run from a bench mark
No.1 of elevation 1958·30 for a longitudinal section in the course
of whch an intermediate sight of 3·81 was taken on a bench
mark No.2 of R. L. 1940'60. The sum of the backsights from
the commencement to this point was 98·56 and that of the
foresights was 11' 48. Find the error of closure on the second
bench mark.
Elevation of B. M. No 2 = elevation of B. M. No.1 + ~ B. S.
- ~ F. S. - reading on B. M. No.2.
= IM8'30 + 98·56 - 112'48 - 3'81
~1940'57
But the elevation of B. 1I. No.2 = 1940·60
Error of closure = 1940'57 - 1940·60 = - 0·03 ft.
Example 5 :-Given the following:-
R. L. of the floor = 100' 50 ; staff reading on the floor = 5· 20 ft.
Reading on the staff held upside down against the underside
of the tIe. beam = .10'80 ft.
Find the height of the tie beam above the floor level.
R. L. of the plane of collimation (H.I.) = 100'50+ 5' 20=105·70
R. L. of the un,derside of the tie beam = 105'70+10'80=116'50
R. L. of the floor = 100' 50
Height of the tic beam above the floor level = 116' 50-] 00 '50
='16 ft.
Example 6 : -The following consecutive readings were
taken with a dumpy lev~l :
~ - . __.- ~ _ ._J'
2,58, 4'72, 8'~2, 10.'98, 8~12, 2·67; 1'78, 0',78, 4'82, 3,57, 6'68,
The i~strument ~as shifted after the fou.£!h and the eighth
readings. The first reading waS taken on the staff held on -the
bench mark of R. L. 820· 75.' -' ., -'
I ".
Rule out a page of a level field book and enter the aboyc
readings. Calculate the reduced levels of the points and show
the usual checks.
What is the difference oflevel between the first and last points?
Since the instrument was moved after the fourth and the
eighth readings, 10· 98 and 0·78 are the foresights, and 3 '12
and 4·82 are the corresponding backsights. The reduced levels
of the p.oints may be calculated by the ri~e and fall method
and the results tabulated as under : ~--
Reduoed
Level. Remarks.
The difference of level between the first and last points==S12'83 -820'75
... -7' 92. waioh indicates th&t there i. a fall fro.. the 1st point to the last point.
LEYELLING 391
Example 7 :-The following co nsecutive readings were taken

with a level and a 1~-ft. levelling staff 011 continuously sloping
....------
ground at a common interval of 100 ft. :
I ~ )<
..
1·52 on A, 3'86,6'.73, 10'02, 1~'86, 13'76, 2'26, 4'34, 7\~7,
" ,. ......__..
_.~A5..
" ~
W'58, 13'41, ~'69, 6"'98, 9'38, on B.

;'he !vation of A was 520 Make up a level book and
apply the usual checks. Detetniine the gradient of the line AB.
Since thc readings were taken on continuously sloping
ground and the largest reading that can be taken is 14 ft., the
posi~ion of the level was change~ after thf ~~)(~h~nd the~enth,,:,:
readmgs. Therefore, the readmgs 13 ·1d··:·:-1llid 13· 41 are the
foresights atld entered in the F. S. column. The readings 1'.52,
2' 26 and 3' 69 are the Iaacksights and entered in the B. S.
column. The remaining readings being intermediate sights, are
entered in the I. S. column. The reduced levels of the points
may be calculated by the collimation method and the results
tabulated as under __ . . ~
~)
oS I Reading~ ..
Station.
s::<>
~
'"
A I II
Back nter F orc
sight. sight. si!:(ht..
I Co!limation. Reduced
Level. Remarks.
-
A 0 1<52.[ • 521".97 520'45· I}"v;
100 • 3'S6 518: 11 ..
200 6'73 515 '24 ,
300 10'02 511'95 "
400 n,s6 510'11 ,
500 2'26 13'76 510'47 v 50S '2{ " Change point.
..
/
600 '. '

4'34 506 '13
700 7'67 502 'SO
800 10'58 1,99'89
900 3'69 13 V 50(F7~ 497'06 Change point.
B
1000
1100
-1
6'98 ' 493'77
9'38 491'37
I
~,------- ----~-.---- _"_---- ------------._-
Arithmetical 17 ' 47 1 1 36 ' 551 I -29'08 1
Chook _ 2''''"9''0"'8--
R. L. of B 491'37
R. L. of A 520.4.5
Difference = -29' 08
The result indicates that there is a fall fr~m A to B.

The horizontal distance between A and B = 1100 ft.
·
G l'a d lent 0 f' t h e j'me AB - 08- = - 1- ~, 1.. e. 1 m
= 29· 7 (faII'mg)
. 3'8
. 1100· 37'83
Example 8 :-In running fly levels from a bench mark of
R. L. 360' 65, the following readings were obtained :
Backsight : 3' 64, 6· 92, 4' 02; 2 '12, l' 98.
Foresight: 2'38, 4'87, 6'16, 4'73.
From the last position of the instrument, seven pegs at
50 ft. intervals are to be set out on a uniform falling gradient
of 1 in 40. The first peg is to have a R. L. of 359' 75. Work
out the staff readings required for setting the tops of the pegs
on the given gradient and enter the results in a level book form.
(i) From the given backsights and foresights, find the

elevation of the plane of collimation (H. I.) at the'last set-up
of the instrument.
(ii) Knowing the H. I. and the reduced level of the first

peg, calculate the staff reading required for setting the top of
the first peg on the given grade by subtracting its R: L. from
H. 1.
(iii) Since the interval between the successive pegs is 50 ft.
and the gradient is a minus (falling) one of 1 in 40, the 'staff read·
ing on each of the successive pegs increases by an amount equal
to 5_? = 1·25 ft. from that on the peg immediately pr~ceding it.
40 .
Thus, we have
Height of instrument at the la,st set-up" = 361'19
R. L. of the first peg = 359· 75
Staff reading on the first peg 1·44
Add fall between the successive pegs ,1'25
Staff reading on the second peg 2·69
Add fall between the successive pegs 1'~
Staff reading on the third peg 3·94
and so on.
LEVELLING 393
(iy) Tabulate the results as shown below:
ci g Readings, 1 R, L, of
~ ~'~-~I--~I~- I c6I\~!~ti~~,
Reduced Remarks,
.g
ro
I is ~ack r,nter ~ore (H, L)
sIght, sIght, sIght,
II
Level.
--~~------~----------
~~
3'64 364'29 360'65 B,M.
6'92 1 2 '38 368'83 361'91 C, p,
I 4'02 367'98 363,96 C p,
D 2'12 363'94 361'82 CoP,
E 1'98 361'19 359'21 C, P,
o 1'44 359'75 Peg, N..,. 1
50 2'69 358'50 H " 2
100 3'94 357'25 " " 3
150 5 '19 3,~6'00
" " 4
200 6'44 354'75 " " 5
I ~~g'l
7 '69 I 353'50
I8' 94 1
8 '94 [ 352'25
" " 6
" " 7
ArithlDetical \ 18,68 \ ' 127'08 ,

Check ---~-~ - - - - ,
-8'40
Clas8ification of Levelling
(1) Differential Levelling :~It is the operat~on of levelling
to determine the elevations of points some distance apart or to
establish bench marks, The process is the same as that des-
cribed in continuous or compound levelling, It is also known
as "taking flying levels",
(2) , Check Levelling :-It is the operation of running levels
for the purpose of checking a series of levels, which have been
previously fixed, At the end of each day's work, a line of levels
is run, returning to the starting point of that day with a view to
checking t.he work done on that day.
... -'(1J(~f..!_ojjJ£".1evc.J:!:ing_~-It is the operation in which the·
object is to determine the elevations of points at known distances
apart along a given line, and thus to obtain the accurate outline
O,f the surfa~ of the ,ground, It is also called the longitudinql
If.v_{!1Ji1?JLQL~t;tioning,, •. - ~
• (4) C;o8s-secti~~ing:-It is the operation of levelling to
determine the surface undulations or the outline of the ground
transverse to the given line and on either side of it.
(5), Reciprocal Levelling :-It is the method of levelling in
which the difference in elevation between two points is accurately
determined by two sets of observations when it is not possible I

to set up the level midway between the two points.
(6) Baromcteric Levelling :-It is the method of levelling
in which the altitudes of points are determined by means of a
barometer, which measures atmospheric pressure.
(7) Hypsometry:-It is the method of levelling in' which
the heights of mountains are found by observing the tempera-
ture at which water boils.
(8) Trigonometrical Levelling ;-It is the process of levell-
ing in which the elevations of points are computed from the
vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field.
Profile Levelling :-In this method, also called the longi-
tudinal levelling or sectioning, the object of the levelling opera-
tions is to determine the undulations of the ground surface along
a predetermined iine, which IS-usuaiI:Y1hec-~line of a road;-
. ".. --r----
~ _., .. . - - -
~ ---~- -
ro-_
railway, c-anal, or p!l'.~.line. --"The line of section may be a single

• straigll:nme.or"inay consist of a series of straight lines changing
direction, or connected by curves.
The levelling operations always start from a bench mark and
end on a bench mark. If the permanent bench mfrk is not near
the line of section, flying levels may be run from the permanent
bench mark to establish a bench mark near the line of section.
Procedure :-In Fig. 262, lct AB be the line of section.
It is stationed, i. c. marked on the ground at every 100 ft. The
C.P-
e
t:J
8.11(.
1809·7."
Fig. 262
level is set up on firm ground at some suitable" position (L 1 )
t~"the right or_l~ft of the secti~_ll_~s.() ~?_ 0_~o~man~ a large
n.!!_mber of_points on the line, and accurately levelled. ".
-.~=--------_._<cc-~_.
A back-
. .
sight is then~~~_:~_ ~~_t~: be~?~_~:k to ~=t~:._t~~guced
LEVELLING
. level of the plane of collimation (H. 1.) and entered in the B. S.

column of the level book. Having stretched the chain in line
from A, the staff readings are taken at the starting point A,
50-ft. and IOO-ft. points, and entered in the I. S. column
against the respective chainages along the line, which are recor-
ded in the 'Distance' column. Besidcs these points, the staff
(a) )
a' 6' C' 0" e' (b)

Fig. 263
readings are taken at the representative points, i. e. the points
at which the slope of the ground surface changes appreciably,
such as a, b, c, d, e, j, g, etc., (Fig. 263 a), and similarly entered
in the level· book. Fig. 263 b shows the serious misrepresenta-
tion of the slopes, which will be produced if the points c and e
are omitted. When it is found necessary to shift the instrument
on account of the length of sight exceeding about 300 ft. or the
further points not being possible to be obsNved owing to the
irregularities of the ground, the staffman select:, a suitable change
point (C. P. 1) on firm ground or a permanen.t object, and the
foresight is taken on it, and entered in the F. S. column. The
change point mayor may not be on the section line. The instru-
ment is then moved forward and set up on firrn ground at L2 as
before, and a back sight is then taken on the change point just
established, to find the elevation of the new plane ofcoII mat ion.
Chaining and readings are then continued af; before until the
reading is obtained at the last point B. The bench marks which
have been previously established should be checked during the
progress of work. In case they have not been established before,
they should be established at the end of ev~ry ten chains for
future reference. They may be used as change points wherever
possible. In order to check the reduced lev~ls of these bench
marks, they should be connected with the perm:ll1ent bench marks
by taking flying levels. The fore and back bearings of the
section line should be taken, and recorded in the appropriate
columns. Neat sketches of the bench marks and of the features
such as a nalla, a road, etc., crossed by the ~ection line should
be drawn and fully described in the level bo()k.
'fhe following points should be borne in mind while running

a proflte.
(i) The chainage of the staff points is continuous from
the beginning to the end of the section line.
(ii) The back-sight and fore-sight distances should be
approximately equal.
(iii) Headings on bench marks and change ( or turning)
points should be taken to the nearest hundredth of a
foot and t hose on intermediate points to the nearest
tenth of a foot.
(iv) The bubble must traverse, i. e. must be in the c~ntre of
its run when the backsights and foresights are taken,
(v) The positions of the features, such as a nalla, river,
road, cart track, foot path, etc., crossed by t'he sec-
tion line should be completely located by noting the
bearings of their centre lines, and their widths, or by
means of offsets.
Illustration : -The various steps in levelling for longitudinal
section are illustrated in Fig. 264. To begin with, the line along
..
d
C,p
Fig. 264
which the section is to be taken is marked by ranging rods, anp
the fore bearjng of the llne taken. The level is then set up at
Pl' The telescope is then directed to the staff held Jh the bench
mark ofR. L. 240'50 and the reading (2'52) taken. This rea~
is thc backsight and is entered in column (5) of the table on pag'
398. The line of collimation being thus 2' 52 ft. highter than the
LEVELLING
bench mark, the R. L. of the line of collimation or (H. I.) =

210'50+2'52 = 243'02, and this is entered in column (8).
"lie R_ L. 240·50 of the bench mark is then entered in column
(:l). Next the staff is held on the starting point A of the line
:md then read. This reading (3-49) is an intermediate sight
md entered in column (6). A is thus 3-49 ft. below the plane
of collimation, and, therefore, the R. L. of A = 243' 02 -
:\·49 = 239·53, which is recorded in column (9). The staff
is then held successively at the points (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) along
the line where there is a marked change in the slope of the ground,
and the readings taken. These readings (4.·65, 5· 78 t 4..51, 5· 04,
6· 64) being intermediate sights, are entered in column (6) and
subtracted from H. I. (243'02) in order to find the reduced levels
of the points, which are then recorded in column (9). The
horizontal distances to these points (23, 50, 78, 100, 150 ft.)
are measured along the line by continuous chaining from A
and recorded in column (2). When the instrument is to be
moved, a change point (6) is chosen, and the staff is held on it
and read. This reading (6' 98) is a foresight and is entered in
column (7). It is then subtracted from H. I. to find the R. L.
of the change point (243'02 - 6'98 = 236'04), which is entered
in column (9). The instrument is then transferred to the second
position P2' Having adjusted the instrument, a backsight
(3' 48) is taken on the change point just established, and recorded
in column (5). This reading when added to the R. L. of the
change point, gives the R. L. of the new plane of collimation
(H. 1.), which is entered in cloumn (8). (H. 1.= 236'04 + 3'48
= 239' 52). The staff is then held at each of the successive points
(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc.) and the readings taken. These readings
(3'98, 5'51, 7'26, 8'60, 6'02, 4'64, etc.) being intermediate
sights, are entered in column (6), and are subtracted from the new
H. 1. (239·52) to obtain the reduced levels of the points, which
are recorded in column (9). Their distances from A (200, 240,
260, 270, 280, 300, etc.) are measured and entered in column (2).
.;
=1 ..,=
()
Bearing. Readings. Collinla- Reduced Remarks.
., .!';loe
0
::;: tion. level.
~ ~ Back \ Fore I
Back Inter I Fnre H.!.
1 2
.~~ ..
3 4
------- 5 6 7 8 9
--_-._-,_ 10
---~--
r
I
2'52 243'02. 240'56 B.M.

A 0 140°15' 3'49 239'53
23 4'65 238'31"
50 5'78 237'24 I
78 4'51 238'51 I
100 0'04 237'98 }
150 6'64 236'38 ,
3'48 6'98 239'52,. 236'04 ! C. P.
200 3'98 235'54 I
240 5'51 234'01 \
260 7'26 232'26 I
270 8'60 230'92 .
280
300
6'02
4'64 4' 64 l 233'50 I
234'88
!
I~>oo I 111'62 \ -5'62
-5'62
Checking the levels :-The line of levels should be checked

by connecting it with the permanent bench mark. If a permanent
bench mark is in the vicinity of the end point of the section
line, the work may be closed on it by running flying levels. The
difference between the sum of the back sights and the sum of
the foresights must agree with the difference of level between
the first and final bench marks within the permissible limits of
error. When the levelling work is not closed on the permanent
bench mark, the only way to check it is to take flying levels to
the original bench mark and find the closing error. If the closing
error exceeds the permissible error, the work must be repeated.
If the section line is long, it should be divided into different
parts, each to be checked before the next is levelled. Check
levelling may be conducted along the original change points or
along the most convenient and shortest route.
Another method of checking the line of levels is to run
double-rodded lines. In this method two change points near!
together are selected and two foresights are taken from the\
same set-up of the instrument. Similarly, two backsights are taken )
from the next set-up of the instrument. In this manner two
independent values of the he(ght of the instrument are obtained
LEVELLING 399
at each set-up. These two values should not differ by more than
O' 002or O· 003 ft. from the previous difference. The change points
on one line should be a foot or more higher than the corresponding
points on the other line so that a mistake of a foot in reading the
staff or in the computations will be immediately detected.
The advantage of this method of using two sets of change
pf)ints is that the levels are checked as the work progresses. It
is particularly useful in running long lines of levels where the
permanent bench marks are not available for checking.
Plotting the Profile :-(Fig. 265). To plot the profile, a
horizontal line is first drawn as a datum line and the chainages
ortne--st~fi p;~t~--are--inark~b~g this line to a convenient
.....,,~ -_--
f\a
~
"
,i.
.... ~
~
~
,1 ~ ~ \"
~ "~ ~
~ ~ i::
~
i::: ~
~
II)
'"
PATUHI825
~. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
";I ~
J
~
~
K£DUCED
....';I- ~ ~ ~'" ~ ~
LEVElS· ~
~ ~"" ~...""l ~ ~
I I
~
I I
~ ~
I
~
I
I I I
/)I6TANCES 0 /00/50 200 ;00 400 450 SOU GOO 6'S~
lQI(GITlIPINAt. 5ECTI(JN
HOli. '':.'0(/
SCAIL { YO. ~ {O'
Fig. 265
scale. ~I~ndicular line~__ ftre then drawn at each J?!otted

chainage, and on -each of these lines, the respective levels are
s~(o1I.--'The plotted points are then joined by the straight lines to
~..,...----
400 SURVEYING AND LEVELUNG
obtain the outline of the ground surface. The horizontal scale

used in plotting the distances of the points is the same as that
of the plan, but the vertical scale used in plotting the levels
is always exaggerated, i. -~. -l~rger than the horizontal one. It
is usually tentimesthe horizontal scale. The object of using
an exaggerated ··s'cale fo~ the vertical 'dimensions is to make the
inequalities of the ground more apparent. The horfzonfaTscale
commonly adopted is 100 ft. ~r 200' fe-to 1 inch, and the vertical
scale 10 ft. or 20 ft. to 1 inch. The elevation of the datum line
should be so assumed that the lengths of the ordinates would
be between I! inches and 6 inches. The datum and ground
lines are drawn in black ink and the ordinates shown as thin blue
lines. The datum level should be written above the datum line.
The chainages and the reduced levels of the 100-ft. points and
other important points should be written against the ordinates,
and the description of prominent objects written in its appropriate
position on the section.
Working Profile :-After the design of an engineering
scheme is made, a working profile (Fig. 266) is prepared for the
use of the construction engineer. It exhibits (i) the original
ground levels, (ii) the formation levels, (iii) the finished surface
levels, (iv) the depths of cutting and heights of bank, (v) the
proposed gradients, and (vi) any other information, which is
likely to be of use during construction of the work.
Having plotted the longitudinal section (profile), the new
work is shown by means of two parallel lines, the lower one being
marked "Formation line" and the upper one "Finished surface
line." The formation line usually shown in red indicates the
formation levels, i. e. the levels to which the earthwork will have
to be carried out, while the finished surface line in blue denotes
the levels of the road surface or rail levels. The original ground
levels are written in black, the formation levels and the depths of
cutting in red, and the heights of bank in blue. The gradients
are figured boldly, the limits of each being shown by means of:
arrows against the ordinates drawn in red.
Calculation of Formation Levels :-In calcul{tting the

formation levels, the first step is to find the rise or fall per chain~
(100 ft. or 66 ft.) from the given gradient. Starting with the
LEVELLING 401
formation level at the starting point, the formation levels at the

end of each chain may be calculated by adding rise or subtracting
fall repeatedly. Thus in Fig. 266,
lIN (JO IN 00
I ,OA TOM 6S
....
IJEflTIl tl,r l(/TT/'%~ ~ ~ ~ ~.....,. ~ 'I- ~ li?
OR /fT. tlF 8ANK ~ ~I ~
I f '}l 'f>I '<:f
I
'}I
I
~
I
FORMATION ~.... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~....
~
~ ~
~ ~I ~
~
LEVEL
I 'P I
'I)
~
~ ~ ~ ~ !}! ~ ~
CRtlb'IYD LEYELr::::. :g
"'.
"- '? ~I ~ K.
ll?I
'0
I ? I '? I
'"
I
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~
i:) ~
CHAI!VACE
~ I'<J
WORKING PROFILE
"'"
II') l.l)
'" <Q
Fig. 266
Formation Level at chainage 0=80'25
Rising gradient being 1 in 80,
rise per chain (100) ft. - 1'25 (+ ve)
Formation Level at chainage 100 = 81' 50
The formation level at any intermediate point can be
similarly found by first finding rise or fall for the distance of
the intermediate point from the 100-ft. point immediately preced-
ing it, and by adding it to, or subtracting it from, the formation
level at the preceding 100-ft. point. The difference between the
ground level and formation level at any point will give the depth
of cutting at that point if the formation level is less than the
ground level, while it gives the height of embankment if the

formation level is greater than the ground level.
Cross-Sectioning :-Cross-sections are the sections run at
right angles to the centre line and on either side of it for the
purpose of determining the lateral outline of the ground surface.
For this purpose they are taken at each 100-ft. station on the
centre line. The length of the cross-sections depends upon the
nature of the work, e. g. for a road it may be 100 to 200 ft. on
each side of the centre line, and in the case of a railway, 600 to
900 ft., or more on either side of the centre line.
If the cross-sections are short, they are set out by eye, e. g.
cross-sections for a road. If long, they are set out by the
optical square, box sextant, or theodolite. They are serially
numbered from the beginning of the centre line and are taken
simultaneously with thc longitudinal section. They may be taken
with a level, hand level, Abney level, or theodolite.
Cross-Sectioning by Level :-(Fig. 267). To begin with, the
line is set out perpendicular to and on either side of the centre
At-
...
~!~'~
~ 1 ~ \,j
-f.
'1
~"~~f·-jc
~ ~
\i It$
~ V
Fig. 267
line at the station on the centre line where it is desired to take
the cross-section. The staff is then held at each 25-ft. point, and
other points of appreciable change in slope, which have been
previously marked on the line by means of whites. The readings
are then taken with a level, and the distances of staff points
measured with the tape, left and right of the centre station.
The form in which the readings and distances are record~
is given on pages 384 and 385. ,)
Cross-Sectioning by Hand Level :-In this method the hand
level is used to take the staff readings instead of the level, the
LEVELLING 403
other routine work being the same as in the preceding method.The

observer stands over the station point on the centre line and holds
the hand level horizontal by supporting it against the pole at a
constant height, say 5 ft. He then takes the readings on the staff
held successively at the various points. The reduced level of the
centre station being known from the longitudinal section, the
reduced levels of the staff points may be determined.
(R. L. of a staff point = R. L. of the centre station +
constant height-staff reading).
Cross-Sectioning by Abney Level :-There are three systems
of taking cross-sections with the Abney level.
First System:- This is the most rapid, but less accurate
method used in rough ground. As before, the surveyor stands
over the centre station 0 (Fig. 268a), and holds the instrument at
Fig. 268 a
a fixed height, say 5 ft., supporting it against a pole. He then
sights the mark or vane on the ranging rod fixed at the same
height (5 ft.) as that of the instrument, and reads the vertical
Fig. 268 b
angle + or -}. The slope distance from the centre station
to the point where the ranging rod is held, is then measured
with a tape. The ranging rod is then moved successively to

the various points of change in slope on the transverse line. The
various angles and the slope distances are measured in the same
way, and entered in the level book.
Second System :--Alternatively, the surveyor moves from
point to point and observes the vertical angle ( + or - ) and
length of each slope as in Fig. 268 b.
Third System :-In this case, the surveyor stands over the
centre station 0 (Fig. 268 c) and holds the instrument by steadying
c~ CENTRE: .sTATION
Fig. 268 c
it against a mark on the ranging rod at a height of 5 ft., setting
the line of sight approximately parallel to the slope of the ground.
He then measures the vertical angle ( +or - ) on each side of the
centre line and reads the staff held vertically at the various
representative points on the transverse line. The distances to
these points from 0 are measured along the slope.
Cross-Sectioning by Theodolite :-(Fig. 269). This method
is most suitable in a hilly country. The theodolite is set up over
Fig. 269
the centre station 0 and correctly levelled. The height of the
trunnion ( horizontal) axis above the centre station is measured.
with a tape and recorded in the level book. The line of collima-
tion is then set roughly parallel to the slope of the ground, and~
the vertical circle is then clamped at that angle (usually the near-
est whole degree), which is then recorded in the level book. The
readings on the staff held at the various representative points
LEVELLING 405
<ire taken and the distances taped along the slope. The inclina-
i ions of the line of collimation for both sides of the instrument
nay be the same or different.
Plotting the Cross-Sections :-(Fig. 270). The cross-sections
'He plotted in the same manner as the longitudinal section
JIATUI'f 1825'
~ .... ~
IUJlUCEII
LEv£/.S. ~... ~
~ ~" ~
~ ~
III$TANC£$. 50 42 ,25 12 Q ~ 50
CR05S SECTION -
AT CHAINA(i£ 300'
h I
HOof.' :::ID,
SCALE. { tlEIt. ,":-:10
Fig. 270
except that the scale used for plotting the horizontal and ver-
tical measurements is the same. The scale commonly ado~Jted
for plotting them is 10 ft. to I inch. The elevations of the datum
lines may be different for different cross-sections to keep the
ordinates fairly short.
When the cross-sections are taken by the theodolite, they
are plotted as follows:
(i) First plot the reduced level of the centre station from
the datum line, and then mark the height of the horizontal axis
of the instrument over the centre station. (ii) Draw a horizon-
tal line through this point and plot the vertical angle by means
of a protractor, thus fixing the direction of the line of collimation.
(iii) Scale off the various distances along the line of collimation
and draw the vertical lines through these points. (iv) Mark
the respective staff readings down these vertical lines. (v) The
line connecting their lower ends represents the surface of the
ground. (vi) Repeat the process on the other side of the centre
station. t
Curvature and Refraction :-In precise levelling work or

when the sights are long, the effects of curvature and refractiun
have to be taken into account. The effect of curvature is to
cause the objects sighted to appear lower than they really are,
while that of refraction is to make them appear higher than they
really are. The combined effect of curvature and refraction j;
that the objects appear lower than they really are.
Curvature :-In the case of long sights, the horizontal lint
is not a level line, i. e. a line of equal altitude due to the curva-
ture of the earth. The level line falls away from the horizontal
line, and the vertical distance between· the horizontal line and th(
level line represents the effect of the curvature of the earth.
Thus in Fig. 271, A is the station at which the level is sel
up ; P the point at which a staff is held.
A'
-_
HORIZCJI17Al t.E '\
-----------~---
~~~~;lE;~;~~l;~:~:~Jr-----
A ~~,
p
Fig. 271
A'B and A'C represent the horizontal and level lines passing
through the axis of the telescope and intersecting the staff at
Band C respectively. On looking through the telescope, we
sight in the direction of A'B and obtain the staff reading PB.
,-EVE/.
i.lN£
Fig. 272 Fig. 273 a

The point B thus appears to be at the same level as A' but
actually the points A' and C are at the same level. The true
LEVELLING 407
:ading is, therefore, PC. Thus there is an apparent loss of eleva-

on of the staff station P. The difference BC between the observed
Dr apparent) reading PB and the true reading PC represents the
[TOr due to the curvature of the earth. The true reading may
e obtained by applying a correction equal to BC to the observed
,~ading PB.
The formula for the correction for curvature may be derived
·,s follows:-
[n Fig. 272,
ACE = the level line through the instrument aixs.
AB = the horizontal line (the line of collimation)
o = the centre of the earth.
D = the distance (AB) from the instrument station
to the staff station, in miles.
R = the radius of the earth (OA), in miles.
d = the diameter of the earth (CE), in miles.
BC = the correction for curvature.
Now BC X BE = BAilor BC (BC + CE ) = BA2•
Since BC is usually very small as compared with the diameter
of the earth, BC2 may be neglected.
BA2 BA2
BC X CE = BA2 or BC = - = -_ .
CE 2R
Taking the diameter of the earth as 7916 miles, we get
BC (in miles) = AB2_
7916
or BC ( in feet ) = ~~2 _~_~280 = O. 667 D2 = _: D2.

. 7916 3
Hence the-core~tion for curvature in feet = O' 667 D2 = ~D2,

8
where D is the distance in miles from the level to the staff station.
Since the effect of curvature is to increase the staff reading,
the correction is subtractive. The true staff reading may, there-
fore, be obtained by subtracting the correction for curvature
from the observed staff reading.
True staff re-:ding = observed staff reading - __:_ D2.
B
Refraction :-Rays of light passing through layers of air of
different densities are refracted or bent down. Consequently,
the ray of light from the staff to the instrument is not straight
as hitherto presumed, but follows a curved pl1th AD as in Fig.
273 b. The curved path which is concave towards the earth
may he taken a§ an arc of a circle
having a radius equal to seven times
that of the earth under normal
conditions of the atmosphere. Thus
the line of collimation of the level
will intersect thE~ staff at D instead
of at B so that the graduation at
D would apparently be at B, as
seen from A. Hence the effect
Fig. 273 b
of refraction is to diminish the
staff reading. The effect of refraction is not constant, but varies
with the atmospheric conditions.
However, on an, average it may be taken as one-seventh of
that due to curvature, and is in the opposite direction (opposite
in sign). The correction for refraction is additive to the staff
reading.
The corr~ction for refraction (BD) in ft. = 71 BC
= 2_ (~D2) = _! D2 = 0'095 D2.

7 3 21
Combined Correction :-Since the combined effect of cur-

vature and refraction, is to increase the staff readings, the
combined correction is subtractive.
The combined error due to curvature ano refraction is CD.
CD=BC-BD=BC - ~BC = ~BC=~ X frD2=~'D2 = 0·57D2.
The correction for curvature in feet = O· 66'7 D2 = i D2 ... (1)
" " "refraction in feet = o· 095 D2 = ~2f D2 ... (2)
The combined correction for curvature and refraction in feet
= 0·5'7 D2 = ~ D~ .. (3)
There are two ways of applying this correction, viz. (i) eacl)! staff
reading is decreased by the amount of the combined correction
(O'57D2), and (ii) the reduced level of the point is obtained in
the usual way, and is then increased by the amount O· 57 D2.
LEVELLING 409
Since the lengths of sights in ordinary levelling seldom

exceed 300 ft., the combined error is very small, and is, there-
fore, negligible. It may be remembered that the distance at
which it becomes perceptible on the ordinary levelling staff
is 660 ft., its amount being O· 009 ft. The combined error, which
is proportional to the square of the distance can be eliminated
by equalising the distances of the backsights and foresights, and
also by the process of reciprocal levelling.
Distance to the Visible Horizon :-1n Fig. 274, let C reJ?re-
E sent the point of observation at \ an
altitude h ft., and A the point on
the horizon at which the tangent
from C meets. The distance to the
visible horizon A from the point
of observation C may be obtained
o by the following form:ulre:

Fig. 274 If both curvatu.re and refraction
are taken into account, h = o· 57 D2.
D = j ~.h5; (4)
If refraction is neglected, h = 0·667 D2
D = j 0'~67 (5)
in ~hich D = CA = the distance to the visible horizon from the

point of observation, in miles.
h = CB = the height of the point of observation above
mean sea level, in feet.
If the height (h) is not negligible as compared with the
diameter (d) of the earth.
CB(CB + 20B) = CA2
or D = 110./ ~h-(h-+-------'-d)- (6)
in which all dimensions are expressed in the same units.
Dip of the Horizon :-Let CE (Fig. 274) be the horizontal
line through the point ?f observation C perpendicular to CO.
The angle ECA between the horizontal line CE and the tangent
line CA is known as the dip of the horizon. It is equal to the
angle ((}) subtended at the centre of earth by the arc BA.
Therefore, the dip of the horizon = LECA = LBOA
= (} = _- arc BA in radian.
radius of the earth
The arc BA may be taken as approximately equal to
CA = D. Hence
The dip of the horlzon in radian = D ... (7)
R
where Rand D are expressed in the same units.
Examples on Curvature and Refraction

Example 1 :-Find the correction for curvature for a dis-
tance of (a) 3960 ft., and (b) It miles.
Correction for (~urvature (in feet) = _2 D2.

3
Then
(a) Correction for curvature for 3960 ft. = ~_( 3960)2

3 5280
= 0·375 ft.
2
(b) for Ii miles = ___ (1'5)2
" " " 3
~ 1·5 ft.
Example:2 :-Find the correction for refraction for a dis-
tance of (a) 1980 ft. and (b) 2t miles.
Correction for refraction (in feet) = ~_ D2.

21
Then
(a) . f or re t·ractIOn
CorrectIOn . f or I 980 f t. = -2 ( -
1980)2
-
f)
21 5280
=0·0134
(b) for 2'5 miles = _:_ (2'5)2
" " " 21 .
=0·595 ft.(
LEVELLING 411
Example 3 :-Calculate the combined correction for cur-

vature and refraction for a distance of (a) 16 Gunter's chains,
(b) 6600 ft., and (c) 2 miles.
Combined correction for curvature and refraction (in ft.)
= 0·57 D2.
Then
(a) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
for 16 chai~s (G) = 0'57 (~: y = 0·023 ft.
(b) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
for 6600 ft. = o· 57( (6600)2 = 0·89 ft.

5280
(c) Combined correction for curvature and refraction for
2 miles. = 0'57 (2)2= 2·28 ft.
Example 4 :-A level is set up at °
on a line AB 150 ft.
from A and 3960 ft. from B. The back sight on A is 1· 78 ft.,
and the foresight on B is 13' 78 ft. Find the true difference of
level between A and B.
Since the length of sight to B is 3960 ft., the correction for
curvature and refraction must be applied to the observed reading
on B. It need not be applied to the reading on A, since it is
too small.
Combined correction for 3960 ft. = O· 57(3960)2 ~ O· 32 ft.

5280
The corrected reading on B = 13'78 - 0·32 = 13·46 ft.
Whence, the true difference of level between A and B
=-13,46 - 1·78 = 11·68 ft. (true fall from A to B).
Example 5 :-A level is set up at a station 0. The reading
on the staff when held at A, 18 chains (G) away from 0, is 6'42 ft.,
and is 12·94 ft. when held at B, 24 chains (G) away. Find the
true difference of level between A and B.
Correction for curvature and refraction for 18 chains
= 0·57 ( _18 )2 = 0'029 ft.

80 .
Correction for curvature and refraction for 24 chains

24
= 0·57 ( 80 )2 = 0·051 ft.
Corrected staff reading on A = 6· 42 - 0·03 = 6· 39 ft.
" onB = 12'94 - 0·05 = 12·89ft.
" "
Hence, the true difference of level between A and B
= 12'89 - 6·39 = 6·50 ft.
Example 6 :-A luminous object on the top of a hill is
visible just above the horizon at a certain station at the sea
level. The distance of the top of the hill from the station is
40 miles. :Find the height of the hill
The height of the top of the hill is given by h = 0·57 D2.
The distance (D) from the station to the top of the hill = 40 miles.
Height of the top of the hill = h = 0'57 (40)2=912 ft.
Example 7 :-:Find the distance to the visible horizon from
the top of a lighthouse 130 ft. high. What is the dip of the
horizon, assuming the radius of the earth to be 3956 miles?
(a) The distance to the visible horizon is given by
D= J h.
0'57
The height of the top of the lighthouse above sea level
= h ~= 130 ft.
.
The dIstance . . 1e h
to the VISIb '
orIzon = j 130- =1 5 ·1
_
0'57
ml'1 es.
(b) The dip of the horizon = ~ radian.

R
15·1. 15'1 X180X60 , .
= _ - radIan = _______ =13· 12 mmutes.
3956 3956 X 1T
Example 8 :-An observer standing on the deck of a ship
just sees a lighthouse. The top of a lighthouse is 110 ft. above
sea level, and the height of the observer's eye is 18 ft. above sea
level. Find the distance of the observer from the lighthouse.
The line of sight tlJrough the observer's eye is tangential to
the sea surface at some point A (Fig. 274) between the observer
and the lighthouse.
LEVELLING 413
J,et DI = the distance of the point of tangency (A) from the

observer, in miles.
D2 = the distance of the point of tangency (A) from the
lighthouse, in miles.
hI = the height of the observer's eye above sea level = 18 ft.
hl) = the height of the lighthouse above sea level = 110 ft.
2 /~- j18~
Then hI = o· 57 Dl or DI = j ---- = ~. ~ = 5· 619 miles.
'V 0'57 0·57
h2 = 0'57 D22 or D 2 = J--';; j

_- =
0'57
110
- -
0·57
= 13'9
"
Distance between the observer and the lighthouse
= D = Dl + D z = 5·619 + 13'9 = 19·519 miles.
Example 9 :-The observer at a height of 130 ft. above
sea level just sees a luminous' object on the top of a hill. The
distance between the observer's station and the hill is 50 miles.
What is the height of the hill?
Referr,ing to Fig. 274, and using the same notation as III
the preceding example, we have
hI = 0'57 D12; h2 = 0'57 D22; D = Dl +D 2•
Now hI = 130 ft.; D = 50 miles.
D1 =
j 130- = 15'1 mI'1 es.
_
0'57 .
and DB = D - Dr = 50 - 15'1 = 34'9 miles.
Whence, h2 = 0'57 (34·9)2 = 694'2 ft.
Height of the hill = 694·2 ft.
Example 10 :-C and D are the two stations on the earth's
surface, and C is 2000 ft. higher than D. If the horizontal distance
of D from C at the level of D is 8 miles, find the horizontal distance
from D to C at the level of C, taking the diameter of the earth
at D to be 8000 miles.
With the centre of the earth as a common centre, draw
two arcs through C and D.
Radius of the arc passing through D = r1 = 4000 miles.
" " " "

" C = r2 = ( 4000 + ~~
2000) .
5280
mIles.
Since concentric arcs are proportional to their radii,

Distance DC at the level of C _ r 2 _ (4000 +!¥~g)
Distance DC at the level of D - ~ - -- 4000 - --
Distance DC at the level of C = 8 X (4000 + i~ is)

4000
= 8 (1 + lO-t6IJ ) =8 miles + 4 ft.
Reciprocal Levelling :-Reciprocallevelling is a method of
levelling adopted to determine the difference of level between
two points at a considerable distance apart with great precision.
It is also used when it is not possible to set up the level midway
between two points as in the case of a deep valley or a river.
Another advantage of this method is that it eliminates (i) the
errors due to curvature and refraction, and (ii) the collimation
error, i. e. error due to the line of collimation not being exactly
parallel to the bubble li.ne.
Procedure :-In Fig. 275 a, let A and B be the two points
on opposite banks of a river, whose difference of level is to be
determined.
Fig. 275 a
(i) Set up the instrument very near (or directly over) A,
Fig. 275 b
and with the bubble central, take readings on the staff held at
LEVELLING 415
A and B, and denote them by a l and bi respectively. (Since the

instrument is very near A, the reading on A should be taken
through the object glass).
(ii) Transfer the instrument to B and set it up very near B
in a similar manner (Fig. 275 b).
(iii) With the bubble in the middle of its run, read the
staff held at A and B, and let the staff readings be a 2 and ba
respectively.
I~et d = the true difference of level between A and B.
e = the total error due to curvature, refraction, and
imperfect collimation adjustment.
Then, the correct reading on B in the first case = bi - e and
that on A in the second case = a2 - e.
Note :-The correct reading on the distant staff = the
observed reading on the distant staff - curvature correction +
refraction correction ± correction for collimation error.
From A, the true difference of level between A and B
(true fall from A to B) = d = (bi - e) - a l
or d = (b i - aI ) - e (8)
From B, the true difference of level between A and B
(true fall from A to B) = d = b2 - (a 2 - e)
or d = (b 2 - a 2 ) + e (9)
Adding these two equations to eliminate e, we get
d = {(b l - al) ~(b2- a 2)} ••• (10)
'.l~erefore, the true difference of level between two points

is equal to the mean of the. two apparent differences of level
thus determined.
Equating the two equations (8) and (9), we have
The total error (e) = fbI - a l) ; (b 2 - a 2 )} ... ••• (11)
By this process of reciprocal observations, the collimation

error, and the error due to curvature are entirely eliminated,
but the refraction error is not completely eliminated on account
of possible change of refraction during the transfer of the instru-

ment. To eliminate the refraction error completely, two instru-
ments are set up near each pDint and the staff readings taken on
the points simultaneou;Zy. In this case, however, special care must
be taken to see that the two instruments are in perfect adjustment.
Otherwise their instrumental errors will be involved. If not in
perfect adjustment, they are interchanged to eliminate their
instrumental errors.
Two values are thus obtained for the true difference ~f eleva-
tion, and their mean gives the true difference of level between the
two points, all err Drs being completely eliminated. This method
of using two instruments and taking simultaneous readings is
used in levelling of the highest precision only.
Example 1 :-In levelling between two points A and B
on opposite banks of a river, the level was set up near A and
the staff readings on A and B were 5·42 and 7' 56 respectively.
The level was then moved and set up near B, and the respective
staff readings on A and B were 2'74 and 4-76. Find the true
difference of level of A and B.
Apparent difference of level of A and B in the first case
= 7·56 - 5'42 = 2'14.
Apparent difference Df level of A and B in the second case
= 4'76 - 2·74 = 2'02.
True difference of level of A and B
= su~ ~f_~he _!_~~ apparent differences of level
2
(True fall from A to B) = 2·14 + 2·02 = 2·08ft.

2
Example 2 :-A dumpy level was set up with its eyepiece
vertically over a peg C, The height from the top of C to the
centre of its eyepiece was measured and found to be 5"18 ft.
The reading on the staff held on the peg D was 3' 31 ft. The
level was then moved and set up likewise at the peg D. The
height of the eyepiece above D was 4· 13 ft. and the reading on
the' staff held· on the· peg C was 5·94 ft. Determine' the true
reduced level of the peg D, if that of the peg C was 535·65.
LEVELLING 417
(i) Level at C : staff reading on C = 5 ·18

onD =3·31
" " " "
Apparent difference in elevation = l' 87
(ii) Level at D : staff reading on C = 5' 94
on D = 4'13
" " " "
Apparent difference in elevation = l' 81
· . 1 ' 1'87+1'81
Whence, true d Ifference m e evatlOn = =1' 84 ft.
2
(true rise from C to D)
R. L. of C = 535'65
Add true rise= 1'84
R. L. of the peg D = 537,49
Example 3 :-l'he following notes refer to reciprocal levels
taken with one level:
Staff reading on
Instrument
Remarks.
at
A 4'86 7·38 Distance between

A and B = 3960 ft.
B 3'02 4,58 R. L. of A = 625'55,
Find (a) the true reduced level of B, (b) the combined

correction for curvature and refraction, and (c) the error in
the collimation adjustment of the instrument.
(a) It is evident from the observations at A that
B is 7'38 - 4'86 = 2'52 ft. lower than A.
jj Similarly, from the observetions at B,
B is 4·58 - 3·02 = 1'56 ft. lower than A.
True difference in elevation between A and B
2·52 + 1·56
=
2 .
= 2·04 ft. (True fall from A to B).
,
Hence, R. L. of B = 625'55 - 2'04 >= 623,51.
, P.1.-14
"
(b) Now the combined correction for curvature and refrac o
tion in a distance of 3960 ft. = 0'57 (~)2 = 0·321 ft.

5280
(c) From the readings on A and B, it will be noticed thai
the line of collimation is inclined upward.,.
Let e = the collimation error in 3960 ft. (+ve).
Now with the instrument at A, the corrected staff reading on B
= the observed staff reading on B - (curvature - refraction)
- collimation error.
The corrected staff reading on B = 7' 38 - O· 321 - e.
The staff reading on A = 4' 86.
True difference of level of A and B.
= (7'38 - 0·321 - e) - 4'86 = 2'199 - e.
Similarly, with the instrument at B, the corrected staff reading

on A = 3'02 - 0'321 - e.
The staff reading on B = 4·58.
True difference of level of A and B
= 4'58 - (3'02 - 0·321 - e) = 1'881 + e.
Equating the two values, we have
2·199 - e = 1·881 + e
or 2e = 0-318 :. e = + 0·159.
Whence, the collimation error in 100 ft.
_ 100 X 0·159 = + 0.004 ft.
3960
The same result may be . obtained by equating the true

difference of level of A and B' -obtained in either case to that
determined in (a). Then, we have
2'199 - e = 2'04 = 1'881 + e
or e = 0'159 (+ve).
Exam~le 4:-Two pegs A and B were half a mile apart

across a WIde river. The following readings were taken with
one level:
LEVELLING 419
Level at Reading on
A B
A 4'46 6'42
B 2'44 4'28
The error in the collimation adjustment of the level was
O' 003 ft. in 100 ft. Determine the true difference of level
etween A and B, and the refraction.
(i) With level at A, the staff reading on B - 6· 42
on A - 4'46
" " " " "
Apparent difference in level - 1'96
(ii) With level at B, the staff reading on B 4'28
" " " " " on A 2'44
Apparent difference in level 1'84
Hence, the true difference of level of A and B
_ 1 . 96 + 1· 84 = 1 . 90 ft.
2
(iii) Now the correction for curvature for t mile

= 2
_D2= _2 ( _1 )2 = 0·1667 ft.
3 3 2
Collimation error in NO ft. = - O' 003 ft.
" in 2640 ft. = _ 0'003 X 2640 = _ 0.0792 ft.
" 100
Let r = the refraction.
Level at A the corrected reading on B
= the observed reading on B - (curvature - r ) .
+ collimation error
= 6·42 - (0'1667 - r) + 0'0792.
The staff reading on A = 4' 46.
True difference of level of A and B as obtained in (i) = l' 90 ft.
{6'42 - (0'1667 - r) + 0'0792} - 4'46 = 1'90
i. e. 1·8725 + r = l' 90
Whence, the refraction = l' 90 - l' 8725 = o· 0275 ft.
The same result may be obtained by equating the true

difference of level as obtained in the two cases thus:
420 SURVEYING AND I.EVELI,ING
{6'42 - ·(0'1667. - r) + 0'0792 } - 4'46

= 4,28- {2'44 - (0'1667 - r) + 0'0792}
l'S725+r= 1·9275 - r or 2r=1'9275-1'S725 = 0'0550,
Whe7e, r = 0·0275.
~ Precise Levelling :-It is a special system of levelling
chiefly employed for establishing bench marks with high precision
at widely distributcd points. It is principally conducted by the
state agency such as the Survey of India Department. The
following are the special features of this system of levelling:-
(1) It requires highly refined instruments and methods,
and greatest care in the field.
(2) It requires special precautions and methods of error
distribution.
\~) A high gn\~k le"\'el equ.ipped "With the stadia hai~s 'b'iy.J.
a highly sensitive level tube is used,
(4) The levelling staff is treated in soJUC manner to minimise
change in length due to change of humidity, and is frequently
compared with the standard length. An Invar staff, i. e. a staff
with graduations cut on a strip of invar is invariably used. Two
staves are generally employed.
(5) The adjustments of the level are carefully tested daily.
(6) The bubble is very carefully centred and kept under
observation at the time of reading the staff.
(7) The level is protected from the sun or wind by a screen
or an umbrella.
(S) The staff is plumbed with the staff level.
(9) The level is set up securely on hard firm ground nearly
midway. The backsight and foresight distances are exactly
balanced between bench marks by stadia readings.
(10) The length of sights is limited to about 300 ft.
(11) Change points are taken on a steel pin or foot plate.
(12) The backsights and the following foresights are taken
in quick succession.
LEVELLING 421
(13) All the three horizontal hairs of the diaphragm are

rcad to thousandths of a foot. The mean of the three readings is
taken as the correct staff reading for each sight.
(14) To eliminate errors due to the settlement of the tripod
and the staff, the order of taking readings is interchanged at
alternate set-ups, i. e. at the first set-up the back sight is taken
first., and then the foresight, while at the second set-up, the
foresight is observed first, and then the backsight, and so on.
(15) The levelling work is confined to about midday when
the atmospheric conditions are favourable.
(16) Check levels are taken in the opposite direction, and!
generally by a different surveyor.
The following corrections arc applied :
(1) Correction for deflection of the plumb line.
(2) Correction for the bubble displacement.
(3) Correction for the variation in the length of the staff
due to changes in temperature.
(4) Correction for the index error.
Levelling Difficulties :-The following difficulties are
commonly encountered in levelling :
Fig. 276
(1) Asc(;nding or Descending a Hill :-In levelling up-
hill, the foresights will be near the foot of the staff, and the back-
sights will be ncar the top of the staff (Fig. 276), and also, the
foresight distances are short and the back sight distances are long,
while in levelling downhill the reverse is the case. Thus the
errors due to the non-verticality of the staff and to the imper-
fect adjustmcnt of the level will be introduced in the staff rea-
dings. The error in the reading due to non-verticality of the
staff is negligible when the line of sight strikes near the foot of the
staff, but it is serious when the line of sight strikes near the top
of the staff, in which case the error can be avoided by using a

pendulum plumb bob, or by waving the staff slowly to and
fro, and noting the lowest reading. It is difficult and often
impossible to balance the backsight and foresight distances.
However, some attempt should be made to balance them. It
must be remembered that in levelling between two points having
a great diift'rence of level, even a very small collimation error
will produce an appreciable error if the backsights and foresights
are of unequal length. To avoid this error, the instrument
should be set up on one side of the line along which the levels
are to be taken and the "zig-zag" sights should be taken. When
the slopes are steep, the uphill sights are so short that the
staff cannot be read. In order, therefore, to avoid very short
sights, the instrument should be set up on one side of the line
of levels and the "zig-zig" sights should be taken.
In this case great care and good judgment must be exercised
in selecting (i) suitable positions for the level, and (ii) suitable
change points, in order to avoid considerable expenditure of time.
Fig. 277 Fig. 278

(2) Levelling Across a Hill or a Hollow :-In levelling across
a hill, the level should not be set up on the top of the hill, but
it should be set up on one side as shown in Fig. 277, thereby
saving considerable time. Similarly, in le~elling across a hollow,
much time will be saved, if the instrument is set up on one side
of the hollow as in Fig. 278, instead of in the bottom of the hollow.
(3) When the Staff is Too Near the Level :-If the staff is
held too near the level, the figures are not visible. Such a
position should, therefore, be avoided as far as possible. But if
unavoidable, a piece of paper may be used as a target. The
paper will be visible, though out of focus. It should be moved up
or down the staff until its edge is bisected by the line of colli-
mation, noting the reading where the edge of the paper cuts it.
When the level is set up very near or over a staff station, the
LEVELLING 423
reading may be obtained by looking through the object glass,

or by measuring upto thc centre of the object glass with the staff.
(4) When the Staj], is Too Low or too High :-When the staff
is too low (i. e. the line of collimation passes above the top of
the staff), the staffman should be directed to raise the staff
until it can be read, the staff being supported against a pole. The
distance from the staff station to the bottom of the staff should
I
then be measured and added to the observed reading.
;
Fig. 279
When the staff is a little too high (i. e. the staff station above
:the line of sight) so that it is impossible to invert the staff, the
. height from where the line of sight cuts it to the staff station
,should be measured. Thus in Fig. 279, the line of sight cuts the
,staff in band ba is the hcight of the staff station (B. M.) This
measur<:'ment (ba) should be booked with a minus sign if it is a
'backsight, and with a plus sign if it is a foresight.
Alternatively, a reading should be taken on the staff held
on the ground vertically below the staff station (B. M.), and the
height of the statf station in measured with the statf. Thus in Fig.
27!), cb is the starr reading, and ca is the measured height of
the B. M. The difference (ea - cb = ba) should he hooked as a
negative reading.
For hacksight : H. 1. =R. L. of B. M. + (-
ba ).
For foresight : R. L. of staff station = H. I. - ( - ba)
= H. I. +ba.
It should be noted that the methods in cases 3 and 4 should
not be used in the case of back sights and foresights, as they are
not sufficiently accurate, hut they may be used for intermediate
sights only.
(5) When the B. M. or Staff Station is Above the Line vf
Sight :-This case occurs when the underside of a string course
IS made a bench mark, or when the elevation of the underside

of a girder, tie-beam, or an arch is to be determined. It presents
no difficulty, since it is possible to hold the staff Inverted. In
such a case, the staff is held inverted on the point, and the rea-
ding is then taken. Tllis reading, being negative, is entered in
the level book with a minus sign. To avoid confusion, "staff
inverted" should be written in the Remarks column .against the
B.M=/OO·50
-2 ·38
Fig. 280
entry of the reading. Referring to Fig. 280, the backsight read-
ing on the staff held inverted against the B. M. is - 2· 98 ft.
Therefore, if the R. L. of B. M. is 100'50, H. 1.=100'50 - 2·98
= 97'52; and R. L. of A = 97'52 - 3'76 = 93'76. If,
however, the reading on B. M. is a foresight, H. I. = 93· 76 +
3' 76 =97· 52, A being taken as a change point, and 3· 76 as
a backsight. R. L. of B. M. = 97·52 - ( - 2·98)= 100'50.
The results may be tabulated as under :
(i) When the reading on the inverted staff is a backsight.
I
B. S.
I· F. S.
J
H. I. JR. L. I
I
Remarks.
-2·98 97'52 100·50 B. M.

Staff inverted
3·76 93·76 C. P. at A.
l
(ii) When the reading on the inverted staff is a foresight.
B. S. I F. S.
I H. I. I
R. L.
I
Remarks.
- ~
3·76 97·52 93·76 C. P. at A
-2'98 100'50 B. M.
Staff inverted
LEVELLING 425
(6) Ponds and Lakes Too Wide to be Sighted Across-The

ifficulty can be got over by driving two pegs C and D flush with
the water surface on opposite
sides of a pond or lake as
shown in Fig. 281. The reduced
level of C is then determined
Fig. 281 by taking a foresight on C.
The reduced level of D is
obviously the same as that of C. The work is continued by
taking a back sight on D, the two points C an D together being
considered as a single change point.
(7) Across a River :-In this case two pegs A and Bare
driven on opposite banks of a river (Figs. 275 a & b, page 414).
The elevation of A is found in the usual way. The true
difference of level between A and B is then obtained by reciprocal
levelling. The elevation of B may then be determined by
adding algebraically the true difference of level between A and B
to the elevation of A.
(8) Board Fence :-In this case a spike is driven through
the fence, and a foresight is taken on it. The level is then set
up on the other side of the fence, and a back sight is taken on the
spike which serves as a change point.
(9) Wall :-Two methods are available to overcome this
difficulty.
First Method :-Mark a point A (Fig. 282) on the wall where
the line of sight cuts it. Measure from this point A to the top
of the wall. Obtain the
reduced level of the top of
the wall by adding this
measurement to the H. I.
of the instrument. Trans-
fer the instrument to the
other side of the wall, and
Fig, 282 mark a point B on the wall
where the line of sight strikes it. Measure from this point B to
the top of the wall. Find the new H. I. by subtracting this
measurement from the reduced level of the top of the wall. Alter-
natively, hold the staff inverted with its foot flush with the top of
426 SURYEYING AND LEVELLING
the wall for both the sights, and find the reduced level of the
top of the wall, and the new H. 1. as described in case 5.
Having determined the new H. I., continue the work as usual.
Second Method :-Drive two pegs C and D on either side of
the wall as in Fig. 282. Take a foresight on C, and find the
reduced level of C. Measure the hcight of the top of the wall above
C with the staff. Add this height to the reduced level of C,
thus determining the reduced level of the top of the wall.
Measure with the staff from the top of the wall to D, and obtain
the reduced level of D by subtracting this measurement from
the reduced level of the top of the wall. Next take a backsight
on D, and find the new H. 1. by adding this backsight to the
reduced level of D. Knowing the new H. 1., proceed as usual.
Barometric Levelling :-Barometric levelling is bascd on
the fact that the atmospheric pressure varies inversely with
the height. In this method a barometer is used to determine
the differences in elevation of points, which differ considerably.
in heights as in a hilly or mountainous country. It is chiefly
used on exploratory or reconnaissance surveys. Since the pre-
ssure of the atmosphere at any point is constantly changing and
the barometer readings are affected by the temperature of the air,
barometric lcvelling is not a very accurate method. It, however,
givcs results within 5 or 10 feet.
There arc two types of barometer, viz. (1) the mercurial
barometer and (2) the aneroid barometer.
(1) The Mercury Barometer (by Hicks) :-It consists of a
long glass tube a little over 30 inches long, dipped into a cistern
filled with mercury. The height of mercury column is read with a
. rea d'mg to __
vermer ' cum b ersome, an d cannot b
I" . It}S ' ly
e eas}
500
transported. It is suitable for observations at a fixed station only.
It is not much used for survey work.
(2) The Aneroid Barometer :-(Fig.283). It is light, porta-
ble, and convenient to use. It is, however, less accurate than the
mercurial barometer. It consists of a thin cylindrical box about
3 inches to 5 inches in diameter hermetically sealed and from
which the air has becn partially exhausted. The ends of the
LEVELLtNG 427
box are corrugated and are sensitive so that they expand or con-
tract according to the pressure of the atmosphere outside. This
movement is transmitted by means of levers, chains, and
springs to the pointer moving over a dial having two scales,
the outer one representing altitudes in feet, and the inner one the
corresponding heights of the mercury column in inches. At a
station of known elevation, the pointer may bc set to the corres-
ponding reading on the dial. It is compensated for the tempcra-
Fig. 283
ture on itself so as to elhninate the effects of changes of tempera..
tures on the instrument. It should be held in a horizontal
position at each station, and should be lightly tapped to overcome
any friction among its moving parts before taking observatiom.
There are two methods of levelling with a barometer: (1) Single
Observations, and (2) Simultaneous Observations.
(1) Method of Single Observations :-This method is comm-
only used for ordinary work. In this method the barometer
is carried from station to station and finally back to the starting
station, and a single reading is taken at each station, noting the

temperature with a thermometer, and also the time of observation.
(2) Method (!f Simultaneous Obrcrvations :-In this method
two barometers are used. Simultaneous readings are taken at
different stations with the barometers, which have been previ-
ously compared. One barometer is kept at the starting (datum)
station, and during the period of observations, the barometer
and the attached thermometer are read at regular intervals.
Thc other barometer (field barometcr) is carried from station to
station and finally back to the starting station. The time and
temperature of the air are recorded whenever a field reading is
taken so that it ean be compared with the office reading for the
same timc.
The difference in elevation between the two stations may
be obtained by the following formula :
H = 60158'6 (log h1 -- log h2 ) ( 1 1_ _
_64°)
+ T__ +T~___ .,. (12)
900
in which
H = the difference in elevation in ft. between the two stations.
hI = the barometer reading in inches at the lower station.
h2 = the barometer reading in inches at the higher station.
T 1 = the temperature of the air in degrees Fahrenheit at the
lower station.
T a = the temperature of the air in degrees Fahrenheit at the
higher station.
Tl and 1\ being measured by the detached thermometer.
In the case of a mercury barometer, a correction has to be
applied for any difference of temperature in the mercury. The
barometer readings taken at the various stations in the field
may, therefore, be corrected by the following formula:
+
h2 = h' 2 {(I a (t1 - t 2)} (13)
where h2 = the corrected barometer reading at the second station.
h' 2 = the observed barometer reading at the second station.
a = the co-efficient of expansion of mercury = O· 00009.
t1 = the mercury temperature at the lower station.
ta = " " " " higher "
t1 and t2 being read on the attached thermometer.
The corrected height of the barometer thus obtained is b
be substituted in formula {12}.
LEVELLING 429.-
Hypsometry :-The altitudes of various points may be

determined by using a hypsometer, also called a thermo-baro-
meter. A liquid boils when its vapour pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. The boiling point of water depends upon
the pressure to which it is subjected. It is lowered as the pres-
sure decreases, or as a higher altitude is reached. The method,
therefore, consists in observing the boiling point temperatures
[It various stations. The corresponding atmospheric pressures
may be obtained from the tables, and the barometric formula (12)
may then be used to find the differences in elevation.
The hypsometer (Fig. 284) consists of a thermometer gra-
duated to !
degrees F. or Yo
degrees C. It is held upright by a
telescopic tube and suspended over a small boiler filled
with rain water. The water is boiled by a spirit lamp.
The thermometer is so adjusted that it is just above
the water and records the temperature of the steam.
The temperature of the air is simultaneously observed
with a detached thermometer.
At sea level the boiling point of water is 212°F.
when the pressure of the air is 29' 92 inches, and the
temperature of the air is 32° F. An ascent of about
550 feet causes a decrease of 1 ° F. in the boiling-point
temperature; the corresponding figure for 1°C. is about
978' 5 ft. The altitudes can be obtained directly from
the specially prepared tables. Similarly, the pressures
corresponding to the various boiling-point tempera-
tures can be obtained from the tables. When such
tables are not available, the pressure in inches of mer-
cury may be obtained by the following approximate
formula : -
~~
Pressure in inches of mercury (or barometric height)

= 29·92 =F 0'586 t 1 , (14)
where
t1 = the difference of boiling point from 212°F.
After the barometer heights are deduced, the barome-
li'ig. 284
tric formula (12) may be used to find the difference of level
between the points.
The height above datum may also be obtained by the follow·

ing empirical formula :
H=t(521 +0'75t} a (IS)
where H = the height in ft. above datum (i. e. the point at
which the water boils at 212° F.).
t = the number of degrees F. below 212° F.
a = the air temperature correction.
= ( 1 + Tl +Tz - 64°) .
900
Example 1 :-Find the elevation of the station Q from the
following data:
Barometer reading at P = 30· 29 inches at 8-80 A. M.
Temperature of air = 62° F.
Barometer reading at Q = 29· 71 inches atf 10-0 A.M.
Barometer reading at P = 30' 34 inches at 11-30 A.M.
Temperature of air = 66°F.
Elevation of station P = U5' 55.
Variation in pressure in 3 hours (from 8-30 A.M. to 11-30 A.M.)
= 30'34 - 30'29 = 0'05 in.
Variation in It hours (i. e. at 10-0 A.M.)
= t(0'05) = 0-025 in. (+ ve)
Probable reading at P at 10 A.M. = hI
= 80·29+ 0·025 = 80·815 in.
Barometer reading at Q at 10 A.M. = h2 = 29'71 in.
Mean temperature at P = Tl = 62 + 66 = 64° F.
2
Temperature at Q = T 2 = 45° F.
Substituting the values in formula (12), we get
Difference in elevation of P and Q.
= 60158'6 (log hI -logh (1 + T +T900_:-64°)

2)
1 2
= 60158·6 (log 80·315 -log 29'71) (1 + 64+94~-64)
= 552·96 ft.
LEVELLING 431
Whence, the elevation of the station Q

= elevation of P + difference in elevation of P and Q
= 115·55 + 552·96 = 668·51.
Example 2 :-Determine the altitude difference between
two stations A and B from the following data :
Boiling point at lower station A = 210°.6 F.
Boiling point at higher station B = 206°'2 F.
The height above mean sea level by formula
H = t(521 + 0'75t) a, is
(i) t =212°_210°'6=1°'4
a = (1 + 59 + 55 - 64 ) = 950
900 900
Altitude of A = HI = 1·4 (521 + 0·75 Xl'4)~ = 771·6 ft.

900
(ii) t = 212° - 206°'2 = 5°'8
a = (1 + 59 + 55 ::- 64 ) = 950
900 900
Altitude of B=H2 = 5'8 (521+0'75 X5'8) 950 = 3216'3 ft.

900
Whence, the altitude difference between A and B
= 3216'3 - 771·6 = 2444·7 ft.
Alternative method :-The barometer heights at stations
A and B may be determined from formula (14), i. e.
h = 29·92 - O· 586 t, and the altitude difference of A and B may
then be determined by the application of formula (12).
Therefore, we have
hI at A = 29·92 - 0'586 (212 -210'6) = 29·0996 in.
h2 at B = 29'92 - 0·586 (212 -206'2) = 26'5212 m.
Altitude difference = 60158· 6 (log 29·0996 - log 26· 5212)
X( 1 + 59 + 55 - 64) = 2558' 2 ft.
900
Errors in Levelling :-The following are the principal

sources of error in levelling.
(1) Instrumental El'rors :-The Level :-(a) Imperfect adjust-

ment : This is the most common and serious instrumental error.
The essential requirement in spirit levelling is that the line of
collimation must be horizontal. When the level is in perfect
adjustment, the line of collimation is parallel to the bubble
line so that it is horizontal when the bubble is centre9-. If the
level is not in adjustment (i. e. the line of collimation is not
parallel to the bubble line), the line of collimation will be inclined
upwards or downwards when the bubble is in the centre of its ruu.
The error due to the inclination of the line of collimation (the
collimation error) is proportional to the distance of the staff
from the instrument. It can be eliminated (i) by equalising the
backsight and foresight distances, and (ii) by testing and adjusting
the instrument.
(b) Faulty focussing tube :-If the focussing tube is faulty,

the object glass does not move horizontally, but moves in an
inclined direction when the slide is moved for focussing. The
error arising from this cause can be minimised by avoiding very
short sights.
(c) Defective bubble tube :-If the bubble is sluggish, it

may apparently be in the mid-positio~n though the bubble
line is not horizontal. If over-sensitive, it takes a long time
to level the instrument.
(d) The staff :-The error due to the erroneous divisions
of the staff is negligible in ordinary work.
(2) Errors of Manipulation :-(i) Careless levelling up of
the instrument : the instrument should be accurately levelled.
The hand should not rest on the tripod while the readings are
being taken.
(ii) The bubble not being exactly in the centre of its run
at the instant of sighting : This is the most comme>:) and serious
source of error. The position of the bubble should be checked
just before and after each reading is taken. The bubble should
be brought to its central position if necessary, by means
LEVELLING 433
of a levelling screw most nearly in line with the telescope.

The error due to this cause depends upon
the sensitiveness of the bubble tube, and the
distance of the staff from the instrument.
(iii) The staff not being held plumb
The staff must be held perfectly vertical. If
it is not vertical, the reading obtained will
always be too great. Thus in Fig. 285, MN
., is the line of collimation; P A the staff
Fig. 285 reading when the staff is sloping towards the
level; PB the staff reading when the staff is sloping away
from the level, and PD the correct staff reading when the
staff is held truly vertical. Now PA = PC = PB. Hence the
observed staff reading will be too great, and the error due to
non-verticality of the staff will be equal to PC - PD = CD.
The error due to non-verticality of the staff is directly propor-
tional to the magnitude of the staff reading, and to the square
of the inclination of the staff. For a given inclination of the
staff, the greater the staff reading, the greater the error. Great
care should, therefore, be taken when taking larger readings.
The error can be avoided by making the staff vertical by means
of a small circular bubble or a small pendulum attached to the
back of the staff, or by waving the staff slowly towards and
then away from the instrument, and noting the lowest reading.
(3) Errors in Sighting :-This error is due to imperfect

focussing of the eyepiece and object glass. The parallax should
be entirely eliminated by correct focussing.
(4) Errors due to settlement of the Level and Staff :-If the
level settles in the interval between taking a backsight and the
next foresight, the foresight will be too small, and the reduced
level of the change point will be too high by the amount of settle-
ment.
Similarly, if the change point settles in the interval
between the shifting of the instrument and taking a back sight on
the change point from the next set-up of the instrument, the
backsight will be too great, and consequently, the height of
the instrument and the reduced levels of the subsequent points
434 SURVEYING AND LEVELLINi}
will be too great by the amount of settlement. The error is

cumulative.
The error due to settlement of the instruI}lent can be a voided
by planting the instrument on firm ground. If the instrument
requires to be set up on soft ground, stakes ~re driven into the
ground and the legs of the tripod set on them, or the instrument
is planted upon a wooden platform. The error due to settle-
ment of the staff is eliminated by proper selection of the change
point. In soft ground a long stake driven int:o the ground, or a
steel foot plate or a steel pin driven firmly ip.to the ground will
serve as a stable change point. Great care rrlUst be exercised at
the change point. It must be borne in mind that any error in
the backsight or foresight reading due either to the settlement
of the staff into the ground or to the non-verticality of the staff
will cause equal error in all successive reading!>, and that since all
these errors are of the same si<sn, the resulting, effect is cumu-
lative, and may be very serious.
(5) Errors due to Natural Causes :-(a) Cvrvature, (b) Refrac-
tion, and (c) effects of the wind and sun on the level: In
ordinary levelling the error due to curvature and refraction need
not be taken into account, since it is a very negligible quantity
( only O· 002 for a 300-ft. sight length). Con!;iderable trouble is
experienced when the sun is shining on the object glass. To avoid
it, the ray-shade (or sun cap) for the object glass should be
pulled out. If the instrument has no raY-Shade, the object glass
should be shaded by hand or hat, or by tying a roll of paper on
it. Alternatively, the instrument should be placed on one side
of the line so that the sun will not shine on the object glass
while sighting. The instrument should be sheltered from the
sun or wind by a screen or an umbrella. Work should be
suspended during a heated atmosphere or when the velocity
of wind is great, since it is not possible to do accurate work.
The effect of the sun on the level and th~ staff is negligible
in ordinary levelling.
(6) Common mistakes in levelling :-----./(1) Foresight and
backsight not being taken on exactly the same point, (2) reading
the staff upwards instead of downwards, (~ding the stadia
hair (top or bottom) instead of the central h~ir, (4) reading the
LEVELLING 435
wrong number of feet or tenths, (5) entering backsights in F. S.

column and vice versa, (6) transposing the figures, (7) adding
foresights and subtracting backsights in reduction of levels,
(H) omitting an entry, (9) the levelling staff not being fully
extended.
Precision of Levelling :-The permissible closing error may
be expressed as
E=CvM
where E = the error in feet; M = the distance In miles; and
C = the constant.
The value of C depends upon (i) the quality of the instrument,

(ii) the observer's care and skill, (iii) the character of the country,
and (iv) the atmospheric conditions.
(1) Rough levelling : E = ± O' 4 VM

(2) Ordinary levelling: E == ± 0'1 VM
(3) Accurate levelling: E = ± 0'05VM
(4) Precise levelling : E = ± Oo02VM
The standard fixed by the International Geodetic Associa-
tion for levelling of high precision :-E = ±. O' 004 vM
Determination of Sensitiveness of the Bubble Tube:-
To determine (a) the radius of curvature of the bulbble tube, and
(b) the angular value of one division of the bubble tube, proceed
as follows: (Fig. 286 a).
o
Fig. 286a
( i ) Fix two points 0 and C at a known distance apart
(200 to 300 ft.)
(ii) Set up the instrument at 0 and correctly level it.

Oii} With the bubble central, take a reading on the staff
held vertically at C.
(iv) By turning the foot screw beneath the telescope.
move the bubble over several divisions, and again
read the staff at C.
(v ) Find the difference between the two staff readings.
(a) Then, from the approximately similar triangles, we have
'T an 0( = EF
- = 8
~ or 0( = -_
8
rad'lans, smce
. 0(
. very smaII .
IS
AE D D
nl
Similarly, arc AB = nl = R 0( or 0(
R
8 nl nlD
0( =---=_!-- orR= _ _ (16)
D R 8
in which OB = R = the radius of curvature of the bubble tube.

EF = 8 = the difference between the two staff readings.
I =
the length of one division on the bubble tube
in. or 2 mm.).
(0'10
n = the number of divisions through which tbe
centre of the bubble is moved.
OC = D = the distance from the instrument to the staff.
0( = the angle between the lines of sight in radians.
Note :-D, 8, and l, are expressed in the same units.

(b) The angular value of one division in radians
1 8
=][= Dn-'
.
In sec on s
d
= 1- -X- :206265
=:--_
" " " It
(since 1 radian contains 206265 seconds).
1
R sin1"
( . '"
smce SIn 1 = _ __
206265
1) (17)
8 X 206265
or -.----~~
" " " " Dn

8
- Dn sin 1"
(B)
LEVELLING 437
Alternative Method :-(Fig. 286 b). (i) The first two steps
lre the same as in the preceding method.
Fig. 286 b
(ii) By using the levelling screw beneath the telescope,
move the bubble until it comes near one end of its run (extreme
left-hand position),)nd read both ends of the bubble.
Let II = the reading of the left-hand end of the bubble.
1'1 = " " of the right-hand" " "
(iii) Take a reading on the staff held vertically at P.
(iv) Similarly, run the bubble to the other end of the
tube (extreme right-hand position), and note the two end readings
of the bubble. Let the readings be l2 and r 2'
(v) Again read the staff on P.
(vi) Find the difference between the two staff readings
and denote it by s.
(vii) From the end readings of the bubble for the two
positions, find the total number of divisions through which the
centre of the bubble is moved, which may be computed thus :
The number of divisions through which the centre of the
bubble is moved on the left-hand side = II - !_l. If [1 - r 1 is
2 2
positive, the left-hand end of the tube is, higher, and if it is
negative, the right-hand end of the tube is higher.
Similarly, the movement of the centre of the bubble on
the right-hand side = ~-=- r2.

2
488 SURVEYING AND LEVELING
Net travel of the centre of the bubble is from C1; r1)

to ( 1y- r ) and is equal to {(l~_1
- r) (lT- r) },with
-
due regard to the signs, which is the value of n in the above

formulre 16 to 18.
The travel of the bubble is equal to the arithrnetic sum of
(11___
- r1)
2
an d (12___
- r2) ,
2
Note :-(i) Thc divisions on the left side from the centre
are considered as positive, and those on the right side as negative.
(ii) The two end readings of the bubble are necessary, since
the length of the bubble decreases with a rise in temperature.
In Fig. 286 b, let A and B = the positions of the centre of
the bubble.
AB = n1 = the travel of the centrc of thc bubble.
PF and PE = thc corresponding staff readings.
EF = 8 = the difference between the two staff readings.
Considering the traingles CEF and AOB as similar triangles,
<>(
. rad')
(In Ian = -_ n1- .
8 = -
D R
Example 1 :-On a certain level, the bubble moves through
4 millimetres for a change of inclination of 30 seconds. Find the
sensitiveness, and the radius of the spirit level.
Sensitiveness of the spirit level = travel of the bubble (length
of arc) corresponding to a change of inclination of one second
of arc.
Sensitiveness of the spirit level = ~"4_ =. 0 '13 mm.

80 "
Now ..
senSItIveness 0 fh
t e " 1eve
SpIrIt 1 = -R
--
206265
where R is the radius of curvature of the spirit level.
R 4
-----
206265 30
LEVELLING 439
4
or R = 206265 X -
30
= 27502 mm. = 27·502 metres.
Example 2 :--The reading taken on a staff 300 ft. from
the instrument with the bubble central is 5' 36 ft. The bubble
is then moved 3 divisions out of centre, and the staff reading
is ubservcd to be 5· 45 ft: Find the angular value of one divi-
sion of the bubble, and the radius of curvature of the bubble tube,
the length of one division being 0 ·10 inch.
Lct =
the angle in circular measure through which
0(
the line of collimation is moved (Fig. 286 a).
Stall' intercept = 8 = difference of staff readings
= 5'45 - 5·36 = 0·09.
(i) Now the inclination of the bubble line
staff intercept 0 . 09 .
= 0( = -~--------- = - - radIans.
distance :3-DD
0'09
_ _ _ X 206265 seconds.
300
Since the bubble has moved through 3 divisions, the angular
· . . = ___
va1ue 0 f one b u bbl e d IVlSlOn 0'09 206265
X ____ = 20 . 63 second s.
300 3
(ii) Displacement of the centre of the bubble = 3 divisions
3 . h 3.,
= 3 X 0'1 = -_ Inc = - - l.t.
10 120
Radius of curvature of the bubble tube
_ displ~c=~:n~~f the bubble X D 3 X 300 = 83.33 ft.
s 120 X 0'09
Example 3 :-A staff is held at a distance of 200 ft. from

the instrument. If the bubblc tube of a certain level has a
sensitiveness of 30 seconds per division, find the error in the
statr reading when the bubble is 2 divisions out of centre.
The displacement of the centre of the bubble = 2 divisions.
The angle through which the line of collimation is moved
due to the displacement of the centre of the bubble
60
= 0( = 2 X 30 = 60 seconds' = radian.
206265
440 SURVEYING AND LEVELLIN(J
Now, error in the staff reading = distarlce X 0( (in radians).

200 X 60
" = ~ ___--- = 0·058 ft.
" " 206~65
Example 4 :-Find the radius of the longitudinal curvature

of the bubble tube on which the divisions are 0 '10 inch long,
if (a) the angular value of one division is 30 seconds, and (b) if
it is 20 seconds.
Let () = the angle subtended at the centre of the curve by
one division, in circular mcasu re .
= the length one division, in ft.
R = the radius of curvature, in ft.
I
Then R =
()
(a) l = 0·1 lll. = -1._ ft.; () = ~

m rad'Ian.
120 ~06265
1 X 206265
R = 57'296 ft. say 57·3 ft.
120 X 30 '
20
(b) _ 0'1 in. = _1_ ft.; () = radian.
120 ~0626.5
1 X 206265
R = ------ - = 85·944 ft.
120 X 20
Example 5 :-Given, (a) one division on the bubble tube
measuring ~~_ th of an inch corresponds to one second of arc.

20
(b) One division on the bubble tube measuring 2._th

20
of an inch corresponds to one minute of arc·
Find the radius of curvature, and the error in the reading
on a staff held at a distance of 250 ft., if the bubble were __:_ inch
5
out of centre in each case.
Let R = the radius of curvature, in ft.
I = the length of one division on the bubble tube, in ft.
LEVELLING 441
(J = the 'angular value of one division, in seconds.

c< = the a;ngle through which the line of collim:;ttion is
moved, in radians.
(a) I = 1
~--~
f t. j (J = 1 secon d = 1 X 'IT ra d'Ian.
20 X 12 .:3600 X 180
1 1 X tT
}-_ = () (in radian) or -~--~-
R 20 X 12 X R 3600 X-ISO
R = -3600
-._ X 180
-- = 859' 4, say 860 ft.
'IT X 20 X 12
The number of divisions through which the bubble was
2
moved = ~ X 20 = S.
5
lX8x'IT .
c< = ~---- radIans,
3600 X 180
since one bubble division corresponds to one second.
. testa
E rror m h If rea d'mg = d'lstance X c< = - 250------.
X S 'IT
3600 X ISO
= O· 0097 ft., say 0·01 ft.
(b) l = 1 f t, ; (J
.
= 1 mInute = 1 X 'IT ra d'Ian.
20 X 12 60 X ISO
l 1 lX'IT
~ = (J (in radian) or ~~~~------
R 20 X 12 X R 60 X 180
R = 60 X 180 ~~ = 14.32 ft.

20 X 12 'IT 'IT
Since the bubble was moved through 8 divisions, and one
· , . d t . t 1 X 8 X 'IT rad'lans.
b u bble d lVlS10n correspon s 0 1 mlnu e, c< =
60 X 180
. testa
:. Error m h ff rea d'mg = d'lstance X c< 250-
=- x8'IT
-= 10'IT
--
60 X 180 54
= 0·5819 ft., say 0·58 ft.
Contouring :-The elevations and depressions (the undula-

tions) of the surface of the ground are shown on a map by means
of contour lines. A contour may be defined as the line of intersec-
tion of a level surface with the surface of the ground. For example,
(v) In valleys the contours run upstream on one side, alll'

after crossing the stream, return downstream on the other (fl.
(vi) Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another
the map, except in the case of an overhanging cliff (f).
vertical cliff is indicated when several contours coincide, t
horizontal equivalent being zero.
(vii) Contour lines cannot end anywhere, but must cl
on themselves either within or without the limits of the map (l
(viii) A series of closed c':mtours on the map indicates :,
depression (h), or a hill (k), accordi~lg as the lower or .higher
values are inside them.
Uses of Contours :-(i) By inspection of a contour map,
information regarding the character of the tract of the ~ountry
is obtained; whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous, etc.
(ii) The most economical or suitable site for engineering
works such as a reseryoir, canal, sewer, road, or railway may be
approximately selected.
(iii) Quantities of earthwork may be computed from the
contour maps.
(iv) Contours may be used to determine the area of the
drainage basin and the capacity of the reservoir.
(v) The sections may be easily drawn in any direction
from the contours (Fig. 288).
(vi) Intervisibility of two given points can be ascertained
"
from the map.
(vii) A route of a given grade line can be traced on the map.
Locating Contours :-The various methods of locating
contours may be classified as: (1) direct and (2) indirect.
(1) Direct Method :-(Fig. 289). In this method the con-
tours to be plotted are actually located on the ground with a
level or hand level by marking various points on each contour.
These points are then surveyed, and plotted on plan. This method
is very slow and tedious, but most accurate, and is used for
co.touring small areas, and where great accuracy is required.
I,EVELLING 445
To begin with, fl~ing levels are taken from the nearest per-
lUanent bench mark to establish a bench mark near the site
of survey. The level is then set up in a commanding position
iand accurately levelled. The height of the instrument (H. I.)
Fig. 288 Fig. 289
is determined by taking a backsight on the bench mark and

adding it to the reduced level of the bench mark. From the
known elevations of the contours and the H. 1., the required
staff readings to fix points on the various contour lines (contour
points) are obtained to the first place of a decimal by subtracting
the elevation of each of the contours from the H. I.
Illustration :-Suppose the H. I. = 106' 85. To locate the

points op. the 95, 100, and 105-ft. contours, the required staff
readings will be II'9, 6·9, and 1'9 respectively.
The staff is held on an estimated position of a point. It

is then moved up or down the slope until the desired reading is
obtained. The point so determined is marked by means of a
white. Several points are thus determined and marked on each
contour within the sighting length of the instrument (about
300 ft.). It may be observed that one contour is located at a
time. Having fixed the contours within the range of the ins-
trument, the level is moved and set up in a new position. The
new H. 1. and the required staff readings are then calculated in a
similar manner and the process repeated.
446 SURVEYING AND ·LEVELLING
The positions of the contour points are located by suitable

methods of surveying either simultaneously with levelling or
later on. Usually a theodolite, compass, or plane table traverse
survey is suitable. The points are then plotted on the plan
and contours drawn by joining them by dotted curved lines.
Method of Radial Lines :-If the area to be contoured
is not very extensive, it is more convenient to range out
radial lines from a common centre by
theodolite or compass, in directions of
greatest utility (Fig. 290), their rela-
tive positions being fixed by measur-
ing the angles between them or by
chain survey. For checking the levels,
the bench marks are first established
at the centre and near the ends of the
Fig. 290 radial lines, and the contour points
located on these lines as described above, working either
inward or outward. The positions of the pegs marking the
contour points are found either at the same time or afterwards
by measuring their distances along the radial lines. They are
then plotted on the plan, and the ~ontours drawn by joining
all the corresponding points.
(2) Indirect Methods :-Contouring by Spot Levels (or
Heights) : The indirect methods are cheaper, quicker, and less
laborious than the direct method. The reduced level of a
point on the surface of the ground (ground point) is called the
spot level or spot height. In these methods the spot levels
are taken along a series of lines laid out over the area, or
the spot levels at several representative points, representing
ridge and valley lines, summits, depressions, and important
changes in slope scattered over the area are observed. Their
positions are then plotted on the map and the contours are
then drawn by interpolation.
The following are the indirect methods of locating the ground
points:
(i) By Cross-Sections :-(Fig. 291). This method is most
commonly used in route surveys. Cross-sections are run trans-
LEVELLING 447
verse to the centre line of a road, railway, or canal, and the points
of change in slope (representative points) are located. The cross-
section line may be inclined at any angle to the centre line
if necessary. The spacing of the cross-sections depends upon
the character of the ground. It is usually 100 ft. in a hilly
country, and ,300 ft. in a flat country. The sections should,
however, be spaced more closely on spurs and in ravines. The
reduced levels of the various points along the section lines
arc plotted on the plan and the contours are then interpolated.
(ii) By Squa.res :-(Fig. 292). This method is suitable, if

the area is not very extensive. In this method the area is divided
C~'-~~~~~~n-~__
8
Fig. 291 Fig. 292
into a series of squares, and the corners of the squares are

marked with pegs. The size of the square varies from 10 ft.
to 100 ft. side, depending upon the nature of the ground and the
contour interval. The squares need not be of the same size
throughout. Each separate square is pegged out. The elevations
of the ground at the corners of the squares are determined
with a level. Intermediate points within the squares may be
taken when required and may be located on the diagonals of
the squares, or by the measurements from .the corners. The
system of squares is plotted and near each corner is written its
elevation. The contour lines are then interpolated in the usual way.
(iii) Tacheometl'ic Method :-(Fig. 293). This method is

particularly suitable when a contoured ll)ap of a hill is required.
A number of lines are set out, radiating at a given angular
interval from each of the traverse stations, and the representa-

tive points on these lines are located in the field by observing
Fig. 293
(i) the vertical angles, and (ii) the staff readings of the bottom,
middle, and top wire, with a tacheometer (a transit theod-:'::tp.
having the diaphragm fitted with two stadia wires, lines, or
hairs).
The elevations and the distances of these points are then
calculated. The survey is plotted and the contour lines are
then interpolated.
Interpolation of Contours :-By interpolation of contours
is meant the process of spacing the ~ontours proportionally
between the plotted ground oints. Contours may be inter-
po ate y estimation, (ii) arithmetical calculation, and
(iii) graphical methods. In all these methods it is asumed that
the slope of the ground between any two random points is
uniform.
(i) By Estimation : -The positions of contour points between
ground points are estimated, and the contour lines are then drawn
through these points. This method is rough and is usually
used on small-scale maps.
(ii) By Arithmetical Calculation :-This method is used
where great accuracy is required.
Illustration :-Suppose A and B are the two ground points,
and their elevations are 49' 6 and 52' 8 respectively. The distance
LEVELLING 449
between A and B is, say, 25 ft., and the contour interval is 1 ft.
Between A and B the 50 ft., 51 ft., and 52 ft. contours can be
located. The total difference of level between A and B is 52' 8
- 49' 6 = 8· 2 ft. The difference of level between A and the 50 ft.
contour point is 50-49' 6 = O· 4 ft. Hence the distance of the
. f
50 f t. contour pomt A 'IS -0'4
rom - - X 25 = 8 '15 f t.
3'2
Similarly, the distances of the 51 ft. and 52 ft. contour

points from A are 10'94 ft. and 18'75 ft. respectively. These
distances are then plotted to the scale on the map.
(iii) By Graphical Method :-There are several graphical

methods in use for interpolating contours from spot levels, of
which one is illustrated in Fig. 294. On a piece of tracing cloth
a number of parallel lines, each representing 0·5 ft., are ruled at
equal intervals, every tenth line being made heavier. Suppose
it is required to interpolate 5 ft. contours between two points P
and Q of elevations 77' 5 ft. and 88' 5 ft. respectively. Suppose
the bottom or zero line represents an elevation of 75ft. and the
successive heavier lines 80 ft., 85 ft., 90 ft., etc. Place the
61 88'S F!
85
85FT
80
80FT
77'S FT
7S
Fig. 294
tracing cloth so that the point P is on the fifth line. Now tum,
p. 1.-15
450 SURVEYING AND LEVELLlNG
the tracing until the point Q is on the seventh line from the
c second heavier line (27th line
from the zero line). The inter-
sections of the heavier lines 1 and
2 representing elevations of 80 ft:
and 85 ft. and the line PQ will
give the positions of the points
on the 80 ft. and 85 ft. contours
respectively, and are then prick-
ed through on to the plan.
.. Another method of inter-
polating contours graphically is
illustrated in Fig. 295. It is
simple, quick, and gives accurate
results. On a sheet of tracing
£) cloth or paper, draw a line CD
Fig. 295 and divide it into a number of
equal parts. Next bisect CD at E, and at E draw a perpendi-
cular OE to CD. Choose a convenient point 0 on this perpendi-
cular, and draw radial lines to the points of division marked
on CD. Rule out lines 1-1, 2-2, etc. parallel to .CD across the
diagram. These lines, which serve as a guide are called guide
lines, and are equally divided by the radial lines. Make OD
and every fifth line from it a little heavier or bolder.
Suppose it is required to interpolate 5 ft. contours between
two points a and b of elevations 52'5 and 64·7. Now consider
the lowest radial OD to represent an elevation of 51) (i. e. 50-ft.
contour). The other thick radials will then represent the ele-
vations of 55, 60, 65, etc., respectively. Move the tracing paper
over the plan until a lies midway between the second and third
radial lines representing 52 ft. and 53 ft. contours, and at the
same time b lies between the 14th and 15th radials representing
64 ft. and 65 ft. contours respectively as shown in the figure;
and also at the same time adjusting the diagram so that ab is
parallel to CD or guide lines (1-1, 2-2, or 3-3.) Now prick through
the heavier lines between a and b in order to obtain the positions
of the 55, and 60 contour points.
Contour Drawing :-(Fig. 296). Contour lines are drawn as
fine smooth freehand curved lines of uniform width, French curves
LEVELLING 451
being used as much as possible. Sometimes they are represented

by broken lines. (short dashes close together). They should be inked
,.9 5 0
,.,------'19.50----___ __
Fig. 296
in, either in black or brown, red or crimson-lake being sometimes
used. They may be drawn with a contour pen or better with
Gillot's steel pen No. 303. Usually every fifth contour is made
bolder than the rest. The elevations of contours must be written
against them in a uniform manner just above the lines, or the line
is broken to leave a gap for the figure. The figures should be
placed nearly under each other, or better still, along a curve,
intersecting the contours at right angles, and they are so written
that they can be read from one or two sides of the map. They
should be written at the beginning, middle, and end of the contour
lines. In the case of small-scale maps, it is usual to figure every
fifth contour.
w Locating the Proposed Route for a Road on a Contour
Map (Tracing the contour gradient) :-Fig. 297 shows a contour
map on which tjJ.e contour lines are at 10 ft. intervals.
Fig. 297
Suppose it is required to trace the centre line of a road
with a ruling gradient of 1 in 20 from the starting point P on
the 100 ft. contour line.
Since the contour interval is 10 ft. and the gradient is 1 in 20,
the horizontal distance between P and the point on the next
110 ft. contour line is 200 ft. (10 X 20). With centre P and
a radius equal to 200 ft. (taken on the map scale), draw an arc,
cutting the 110 ft. contour line at Q. With centre Q and the
same radius, draw an are, intersecting the next contour line
in R, and so on for the successive contour lines. Join the points
so obtained. It may be observed that each of the arcs described
will cut the contour line at two points. However, the points
following the desired direction should be joined.
Setting Grade-Stakes :-This consists in setting stakes at a
given elevation or grade. They indicate how much cut or fill is
required to bring the surface of the ground to a given grade.
After the grade line is marked on the profile, the grade level
or the formation level as it is called, is deduced for each station.
Knowing the formation level and the height of the instrument
(H. I.) , the staff reading required to set a given grade stake may
be obtained by subtracting the formation level from the H. I.
This staff reading is called the grade-rod. There are several
methods by which stakes may be set.
First method :-Each stake may be driven so that its top
is at grade.
....... _.. _-------,--:

H.I.IO$·70
5·;0
_l..
,.75
Fig. 298
Illustration :-(Fig. 298). Suppose a point A is to be esta-
blished on a given grade. Let the formation level of the point
A = 100'50; the H. I.=105·70; the ground level at A = 99·75.
Now the grade rod = H. 1.- the elevation of A
= 105'70 - 100·50 = 5·20.
Drive a stake at A approximately, and take a reading on
the staff held on the top of the stake. If this reading differs
from the grade rod, drive the stake until the desired reading
5' 20 is obtained. The top of the stake is then at the given grade.
The top of the stake is 100'50 - 99'75 = 0·75 ft. above the
ground.
Second method :-Each stake may be driven so that its top
is any whole number of feet above or below grade.
LEVELLING 458
IllustJration:t (Fig. 299). Suppose the formation level of the

. .(' .
11././43 ·50
jt-----=----- -~S~'
=-r
1]9.00
o IJ.~ A
(1·50' !J
1 F.U)eJ·OO 1
Fi~. 2!l9
point A is 130 ft. and the ground lewl at that point is 138·5 ft.
The H. I. has been found to be U,3' 5 ft. The required staff
reading or grade-rod is, therefore, equal to 143'5 - 130 = 13'5 ft.
The surface of the ground is 138· 5 - 130 = 8' 5 ft. above grade.
Suppose the top of the stake is to be 9 ft. above grade, i. e.
O' 5 ft. above the ground. The staff reading to be employed to
establish the stake is 13' 5 - 9 = 4·5 ft. A stake is first driven
approximately, and a staff reading taken on its top. If this
reading is not equal to the required reading (4· 5), the top of the
stake is then adjusted until the desired readingis obtained. The
.
stake is then marked "cut 9 ft." with crayon .
Third :Method :-Each stake may be driven so that a mark
Fig. 300
may be made across one side of the stake either at the desired
formation level or some whole number of feet above or below
it (}<~ig. 300).
Stakes should be marked with crayon which will not be
washed by rain, or a nail may be driven at the mark.
The distance between points at which a grade is established
is usually 100 ft. It, however, depends upon the character of the
WOl'k, and upon whether the grade is uniform. For pavements
and curbs, it is 50 ft. When the grade is not uniform, it is 25 ft.
Shooting-in Grade :-(Fig. 301). The method is used to

establish grade stakes when the grade is uniform for a consi-
~~,,~,;;;j:~;.;;.;;l:;;~
Fig. 301
derable distance. A line of sight parallel to the grade is establi-
shed with a theodolite so that one grade rod is enough for all the
points.
The first step is to establish two fixed points at grade.
The transit is then set up over one of the stakes and levelled.
A target is fixed on the staff at the height of the horizontal
axis (centre of the object glass). The telescope is then mov'ed
in the vertical plane traised or lowered) until the llOrizontal
hair bisects the target on the staff held on the other stake. It
is then clamped. The intermediate stakes are established by
observing the same staff reading. This method is suitable only
for comparatively uniform slopes.
Establishing Grade Contours :-In connection with the
preliminary survey for a road in a hilly or mountainous cduntry,
it is required to establish points along the given gradient. The
line joining such points is called a grade ClYntour or a contour
gradient. It is first located approximately by means of an AbneY'
level and then accurately by a level.
Establishing a Grade Contour by the Abney Level : -
The index of the vernier of the Abney level is set to the reading
corresponding to the given grade. The instrllment is then held
over the starting point at a known height, s~y, 5 ft. above the
point by supporting it against a pole. Another pole on which the
vane is fixed at the same height, is held over the next point at
some distance apart, say, 100 to 150 ft. or less. The rod is then
moved sideways up or down hill until the vane is bisected and
the bubble centered. The line joining the instrument st"ation to
the point on which the ranging rod is held is then parallel to the
line of sight and is, therefore, on a given grade. The point so
obtained is then pegged, and is used as the next instrument
station. The successive points are located in the same manner.
This method is not so accurate as the following one.
LEVELLING 455
Establishing a Grade Contour by the Level :-In this

method it is necessary to measure the distance from the starting
point or the last point fixed to the next point to be fixed. The
required· staff reading is then calculated from (i) this distance,
(ii) the giveri gradient, and (iii) the R. 1,,' of plane of collimation
of the len~l (II. I.).
Illustration :-Suppose a down gradient of 1 in 25 is to be
traced on the ground. Let the R. L. of the starting point =
2000'00 ft.; the distance = 100 ft. ; the H. 1.= 2005·50. Then
R. L. of the next point = 2000· 00 - 10? = 2000' 00 - 4.

25
= 1996' 00. H. I. = 2005· ;50.
The staff reading required at the next point
= 2005·50 - 1996· 00 =-~ 9· :50 ft.
The staff is then held at 100 ft. from the starting point and
is moved radially up or dOlVn the slope (hill) until the reading
(9' 50) is obtained when the point is pegged. The lille joining
the starting point to the point so obtained is on a gradc of 1 in
25. The process is then repeated until the last point is pegged.
Note :~The observed reading on the point may differ from
the required reading by ± O· 25 ft.
To avoid accumulation of error, the reduced levels of the
successive points should be calculated with reference to the
R. L. of the starting point.
Setting Slope Stakes :-(Fig. 302). It is the process of setting
'jd
Fig. 302
stakes at the edge points of a cutting or the toe points of a bank.

An edge point of a eutting or a toe point of a bank is the point

of intersection of the side slope of the cutting or embankment
with the original ground surface. The method is uscd in a hilly
or mountainous country. It is illustrated by the following
numerical example.
I.Jet b = the width of road bed = 20 ft. ; s = the side slope=
I-t to 1 ; ha = the cut or fill at the slope stake; the difference
between the H. I. and the formation level of road bed =grade rod
=12' 2; d = the horizontal distance from the centre stake to
the slope stake. When the slope stake is in correct position,
b
d =~. -!- sh a. Suppose the slope stake is to be set on the right
2
side of the centre stake.
As a first approximation, the staff is held at A and a reading
taken on it. Suppose the staff reading is 4· 2 ft. ; hI = cut at A =
12' 2 - 4·2 = 8 ft. The calculated distance for hI = (-~ -!- Shl)
= (10 -!- 11 X 8) = 22 ft., while the measured distance of A

from the centre stake = 20 ft. The staff should, therefore, be
shifted farther out. As a second approximation, the staff is held
at B, and the staff reading on B = 2'2 ft.; h2 = cut at B=12'2
- 2·2 = 10 ft.; the calculated distance for h2 = (10-!-ltXI0)
= 25 ft.; while the measured distance of B from the centre stake
= 28 ft. This shows that the staff is too far out. As a third trial,
the staff is held at C and the staff reading on C = 3· 2; ha = cut
at C = 12'2 - 3'2 = 9 ft.;' the calculated distance for ha =
(10 -!- 1 t X 9) = 23' 5 ft. The measured distance = 23· 5 ft.
The point C is then the correct position of the slope stake. The
-position of the slope stake on the other side of the centre stake is
determined in an exactly similar way.
It may be noted that the correct position of the slope stake
is indicated when the calculate'd distance is equal to the measured
distance of the stake from the centre stake. A similar procedure
is followed in setting stakes at the toe points of a bank.
The notes for the cross-section are kept in the following
form in which there are three columns headed left, centre, and
right.
LEVELLING 457
L. C. R.
I
i
I
cor +-4.
~~-~---- - --+_9
cor+6'Oi cor
16 0 23'5
!
In this system the height of the slope stake above the form.
ation level, and the distance of the slope stake from thc centrc
line are recorded in the right or left column as a fraction, the
numerator denoting its height and the denominator reprcsenting
its distance from the centre line. The figure in the centre column
denotes the depth of cutting or 'height of bank at the ccntre.
The letter c or the plus sign is used to denote cut, while thc
letter f or the minus sign, fill.
Setting out Grades for Sewers :-(Fig. 303). The invert;;
( inside surface of the bottom of sewer) of sewers and pi pc lincs
are set out to their proper gradients by means of the sight rails
or batter boards, and the boning rods. The centre line of a
proposed sewer is first staked out on the grOl.,lnd, stakes being
set usually at 50 feet intervals. On one side of this line, a parallel
is sct out at such a distance apart that it will not bc disturbed
by thc excavation. It is then marked at 50 feet intervals by
means of stakes driven flush with the surfacc of the ground.
When it is not possible to drive stakes as on hard surfaces
such as metalled roads, spikes driven flush with the surface
of thc ground may be used. dn pavements it is marked
by chisel marks. As soon as the trench has been eXCava-
ted, cross-heads are erected 100 ft. apart. The cross-head
consists of two posts ( one on each side of the trellch), and a
horizontal sight rail nailed across. A sight rail or batter board
(Fig. 303 b) is a horizontal strip of wood 6 inches wide and 2
inchcs thick set across the trench, and nailed to two vertical
posts 4 or 5 ft. long firmly embedded into the ground on cit her
side of the trench. A bonig rod or travelling rod as it is other-
wise termed (Fig. 303 a), is T-shaped, and consists of a long
piece of wood 4" X 1" across which is nailed a cross-piece
15 inches long and of the same cross-section. The length of
the boning rod is constant for anyone section, but may vary
~IYIN6
~8~OQ
(a.)
Fig. 303 a Fig. 303 b
for different sections. The sight rails should he white-washed

and the top of the boning rod blackened.
The sjght rajjs are pJaced across the trench at ] DD ft. lnter-
vals, and at each change of gradient and dire(:tion. The top of
each sight rail is accurately set by a level.at a fixed whole number
of feet, say, 10, 12, or 15 ft., above the invert of the sewer, and
a boning rod of the same length is prepared. The top edge of
each sight rail is set truly horizontal with a carpenter's level.
A nail is driven in the top edge of each sight I'ail .at the centre
to define the line. The line joining the top edges of the two
consecutive sight rails should have exactly the same gradient
as that of the invert of the sewer. As the sewer is being laid,
a cord (Fig. 303 c) is stretched between the nails, and the proper
depth to dig at any intermediate point can be determined by
sighting the boning rod. The setting of the sight rails is commen-
ced from the lower end of the sewer. Pipe lines are laid in the
-r---~-F
(C)
Fig. 303 c
same manner, but the interval between the sight rails may be
greater.
LEVELLING 459
Illustration :-(Fig. 304). Suppose it is required to fix
e. 1.100
-------
..
,
Fig. 304
sight rails at A and B for setting out a sewer at a gradient of
1 in 200, and the depth of the invert at the lower end is 8' 5 ft.
below the peg A; the H. 1. = 100.
Let the distance between A and B = 240 ft., the stair reading
on the peg A = 4'75 ft.; that.on the peg B = 5'82.; the length
of the boning rod = 12 ft. The fall in the invert level from B'
')40
to A' = :~ = l' 2 ft.
200
The length of the boning rod being 12 ft" the top edge of
the sight ntil at A is 12 ft. above the invert level at A', and is
12 - 8·5 = 3· 5 ft. above the peg A. ))inee the fall in the invert
level is l' 2 ft. from B' to 1\.'. the sight rail at B is to be 1· 2 ft. higher
than that at A. Therefore, it is 3' 5 + l' 2 = .j.. 7 ft. abo\'e the peg A.
But the peg B is 5' 82 - 4,. 75 = 1· 07 ft. lower than the peg A.
Hence the sight rail at B is 4' 7 + 1· 07 =5' 71 ft. above the peg B,
arld the depth of the invert below the peg B is 12 - 5· 77 = 6' 23 ft.
Now H. I. =ceo 100; the staff reading on A = 4·75 ft. ; the staff
reading on B = 5·82 ft.
R. L. of A = 100 - .t·75 = 95·25.

R L. of B = 100 - 5'82 = 94'18.
R. L. of the top of the sight rail at A = 95'25+3'5 =98'75.
" at B = 94.-18+5'77= 99'95

" " " " "
The stai!' reading required to fix the top of the sight rail at A
= )'00 - 98'75 = 1·25ft.
4GO SURVEYING AND LETLLLING
The staff reading required to fix the top of the sight rail at B
= 100 - 99·95 ~ 0'05 ft.
To fix t.he position of the top of the sight rail on the rail
post at A, the staff is moved along it until the reading 1· 25 ft. is
obtained, A line is then marked on the rail PO'3t at the foot
of the staff. Similarly, a line is marked on the other railpost
at the same level. The sight rail is then nailed to the post so that
its top edge is in exact coincidence with thcse lines. The sight
rail at the peg B is fixed in an exactly similar way.
Example 1 :-Four sight rails are to be erected over the
points A, B, C, and D, 206 ft. apart in a straight line. The
invert level of the sewer at D is 86· ~~ ft. The sewer is on a
gradient of 1 in 125 rising from D to A. Surface pegs are driven
at A, B, C, and D and their reduced levels are: 98' 86, 97' 39.
95· 70 and 93' 98. The height of the si~ht rail at D is 4· 75 ft.
Find the suitable length of the bonin~ rod, and the heights of
the sight rails above the surface pegs at A, B, and C.
(i) R. L. of the sight rail at D = R. L. of surface peg at D
• + height of sight rail at D
=
I
93'98 + 4'75 = 98·73.
Invert level of the sewer at D = 86·48.
Length of boning rod = 98' 73 - Se' ~8 = 12· 25 ft. = 12' 3".
(ii) Sinee the gradient from D to A is +1 in 125.
Invert level of the sewer at C = 86·48 + 200

.- c= c
88 . OiL
125
." " "

at B = 86'48 + 400 == 89.68.
125
" " "

at A = 86'48 + 600
.._-
125
= 91'28.
(iii) Now R. L. of the sight rail at C = invert level of the sewer at

C +
length of boning rod
LEVELLING 461
= 88'08 + 12·25 = 100'33

atB = 89'68 + 12'25 = 101·93
" "
" "
at A = 91'28 + 12'25 = 103·53
(iv) Height of the sight rail above surface peg at C
= R. L. of sight rail - R. L. of surface peg
= 100'33 - 95·70 = 4'63 ft. = 4 ft. 7t in.
Height of the sight rail above surface peg at B

= 101·93 - 97·39 = 4'54 ft. = 4 ft. 6* in.
Height of the sight rail above surface peg at A

= 103'53 - 98·86 = 4'67 ft. = 4 ft. 8 in.
Example 2 :-Thefollowing readings were obtained to deter-

mi ne the levels of a sewer. The R. L. of the invert of the sewer
at the peg No. 1 was 1805· 50. It is proposed to lay the sewer
a t a falling grade of 1 in 200 f.rom the peg No. 1.
Distance B. S. I. S. F. S. R. L. Remarks.
2'36 1809·76 B.M.
5·62 4'68
6'46 7'21
o :-_, 2·26 Peg. No.1.
100 1'84 " " 2.
200 1'32 " 3.
"
300 2'02 " 4.
"
400 2·56 " 5.
"
Calculate (a) the depths to the nearest i" from the several
pegs to the inverts of the sewer, and (b) the heights of the sight
rails above the pegs, taking the length of the boning rod as
12' 5 ft.
With the given staff readings, find the R. Ls. of the pegs,
and then work out the R. Ls. of the inverts of the sewer at the
successive pegs. 'The difference between the R. L. of the p eg
and the R. L. of the invert at the peg will give the depth of the
invert below the peg.
Station./Distance.[ B. s.1 1. s·1 F. s·1 Collimation. [ R. L. f Remarks.
I
A 2'36 IS12'12 IS09'76 B.M.
B 5'62 4'S6 1812'SS IS07.·26 Change pt.
C 6'46 I 7'21 1812'13 IS05'67

" "
o 2'26 IS09'S7 Over peg 1
100 I'S4 I IS10'29 " "
2
I
200 1'32 ISlO'SI 3
" "
300 2'02 1810·11 4
" "
400
I
2'56 2'56 1809'57
" . 5
Arithmetica 14'441 114'631

check [ I -0'19 \
-0'19 I ,
The R. L. of the invert at the peg No. 1 = 1805·50; the
sewer is on a falling grade of 1 in 200, and the pegs are 100 ft.
apart. The fall is, therefore, O· 5 ft. between the inverts at the
successive pegs. The R. Ls. of the sight rails at the pegs should
be found by adding the length of the boning rod to the R. L. of
the invert at the respective peg. The difference between the
R. L. of the peg and that of the sight rail at the peg gives
the height of the sight rail above the peg. The results should
be tabulated as in II:
II
I Height 01
R. L. of Depth in R. L. of sight rail
Peg R.L. invert at Depth Remarks.
in ft. ft. and sight rail. above the
No. of peg. the peg. inches. peg in ft.
-
1 1809'S7 IS05'50 .\-37 4'-41· 1818'00 8-13 Length of
(S'-W) boning rod
2 IS10'29 IS05' 00 5-29 5'-31'- 1817-50 7'21 _12·5ft.
(7'-2i")
3 1810'81 1804'50 6'31 6'-31'- IS17'00 6'19
(6'-2t")
4 11s10'11 IS04'OO 6'U 6'-li' IS16'50 6'39
I I (6'-4t")
5 1
1S09 '57 i 1803-50 6' 07 1
6'- iN 1816'00 6'43
(6'-51")
LEVELLING 463
Boning-in :-It consists in establishing points at the same

level or on a given gradient by means of boning rods between
two stakes, which have been accurately fixed by a level. The
boning rods, three of which form a set are T-shaped. They
may be of any height, but those used for boning-in are usually
:3 ft. or 4 ft. in height. It is essential that the boning rods forming
a set are of the same height.
In Fig. 305, let A and B be the two stakes previously establish-
Fig. 305
ed with their tops at the same level or on a given gradient. Two
of the boning rods are held vertical on the tops of A and B, and
the third held upright at some intervening point (C) which is
to be established. The position of the point C is then found by
sighting over their top surfaces, and by judging if they are in line.
The point C is then at the same level or on the same gradient as
A and B. The process is repeated to fix the other points.
PROBLEMS
1. Define the following terms:-

Level surface, Bubble line, Horizontal line, Level line, Line of collimatiol '
Bench mark, Ohange point, Intermediate sight, Height of in!trument (R.I, •
Oollimation error, Reduced level, Datum, Contour line, Horizontal eq~
valent, Contour interval, Grade rod, Dip of the Horizon, Stadia lines, aJ
Parallax.
2. Explain clearly the following:-
(i) Backsight and foresight, (ii) Equalization of backsight and foresi@,'
distances, (iii) Curvature and refraction, (iv) Floating diaphragm and sl '
diaphragm, (v) Plate reversalil, (vi) Contour and contour interval, (vii)
Interpolation of contours, (vii) G. T. S. bench marks and temporary bench
marks, (ix) Boning rods and sight rails.
3. What are the different types of leveb used in levelling? Explain the essential
differences between tkem. Which would you prefer and why?
4. Describe, with the aid of diagram!!, the Sopwith iltaff and the Target staff.
State the reasons for selecting the former in preference to the latter.
5. Describe fully the temporary adjustments of (a) the level, and (b) the tilting
level.
6. Describe in detail the process of (i) profile levelling, and (ii) cross·sectioning.
7. Write short notes on the following:-
(a) Compound levelling, (b) Check levelling, and (c) Precise levelling.
8. Describe fully the methods of reduction of levels and discuss their merits
and demerits.
9. Describe the level field book, and explain how the field notes are booked.
How is the accuracy of the reduction of levels checked?
10. Explain fully the process of reciprocal levelling and state its advantages.
11. What are the sources of error in levelling? What precautions should be
taken to guard a~ainst them ?
12. What are th.e effects of the earth's curvature and the atmospheric refraction
in levelling ?
Derive an expression for the 'correction for (a) curvature, and (b) curvature
and refraction in levelling.
13. What is meant by the sensitivity of a bubble tube? Describe in detail how
you would determine it in the field.
14. What is meant by Contouring? Describe fully the various methods of
contouring, and discuss their merits and demerits.
15. Describe fully, with sketches, tke characteristics of contours, and explain
the uses of contour maps.
16. What is meant by a grade contour? Describe in detail how you would locate
it in the field.
17. Describe the aneroid barometer. Explain how you would use it in levelling.
18. Describe the Hypeometer, and explain ltow it is used in determining altitudes
of station!!.
19. The observed reading on a staif held at a point A is 13' 75 ft. If the error
of verticality ie 6#, find the error in the staff reading.
(Ans. O' 01 ft.)
20. Flying levels were run from a bench mark ofR. L. 100'50 to a bench mark
ofR. L. 95' 75. The sum of the backsightswae 35' 28and that of the foresights
was 40' 06. Find the closing error of the levelling work.
(Ans. - O' 03 ft.)
.,
PROBLEMS 465
21. A line of levels was run from a bench mark No. 1 of R.;L. 1807' 85 for a
longitudinal section in the course of which an intermediate sight of 4' 22 was
taken on a bench mark No.2 of R. L. 1812' U. The sum of the backsights
from the commencement to this point was 76' 90, and that of the foresights
was 68' 37. Determine the error of closure on the bench mark No.2.
(Ans. + O· 02 ft.)
2. Find the height of the tie beam above the floor level from the following data:.
R. L. of floor level = 100' 00; staff reading on the floor = 4' 82.
Reading on the staff held inverted, the bottom touching the underside of the
tie beam = 9' 18.
(Ans. 14 ft.)
~3. The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level:
9'01,6'62,5'15,2'12,0'98,12'68,10'44,6'78,7'02, 5'28, 4'21.
The level wae shifted after the fifth, and the eighth readings. The first reading
was taken on the staff held on a bench mark of R. L. 150' 25. Calculate the
reduced level~ of the chang~ points, and the difference of level between the
first and last point~.
(Ans,158' 28; 164'18; + 1,6' 74 ft.)
24: The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and 14-ft.
levelling staff on continuously sloping ground at a common interval of 100 ft. ;
1'48, 3' 68, 6' 52, 9' 78, U' 24, 13' 80, 2' 62,4' 92, 7' 86, 10' 26 13' 24, 4'42.
7' 18, and 9' 48. The reduced level of the first point was 180' 75. Rule out
a page of 'a level field book and enter the above readings. Calculate the
reduced levels of the points by the rise and fall method, and also the gradient
of the line joining the fir~t and last points_
(Ans, 180'75, 178'55, 175'71, 172'45,170'99,168'43, (C. P.); 166'13,
163'19,160'79,157'81, (C. P.) ; 155'05, 152'75; 1 in 39-3 falling.)
25. In running fly levels from a bench mark of R. L. 140' 60, the following
readings were obtained:
Backsight: 3'78, 6'85, 3'88, 4-78.
Foresight: 2'16, 5'12, 2'12.
From the last position of the instrument six pegs at 50-ft. intervals are to
be set out on a uniform rising gradient of 1 in 50; the first peg is to. have
a R. L. of 142' 25. Work out the staff readings required for setting the tops
of the pegs on the given gradient.
(Ans. 8'24, 7'24, 6'24, 5'24,4'24. 3'24.)
26. Find the correction for curvature in a distance of (a) t mile, and (b) 3 miles.
(Ans. (a) 0'167 ft.; (b) 6 ft.),
27. Find the correction for refraction for a distance of (i) i mile, and (ii) 3 miles.
(Ans. (i) O' 024 ft.; (ii) O' 857 ft.)
28. Calculate the combined correction for curvature and refraction for a distance
of (a) 12 Gunter's chains, (b) i- mile, and (c) 3 miles.
(Ans. (a) O· 013 ft. ; (b) O' 08 ft; (c) 5'13 ft.)
466
29. A level is set up at P on a line AB at 200 ft. from A and 2640 ft. from B. The
backsight on A is l' 95 ft. and the foresight on B is 12' 58 ft. Find the true
difference of level between A and B.
(Ans. 10'488. ft.)
30. A level is set up at a station 0, and the reading on the staff when held at A,)
20 chains (0) away from 0, is 4' 78, and when held at B, 25 chains (0)
away, it is 13' 26. Determine the true difference in elevation between
A and B.
(Ans. 8'46 ft.)
31. Find the distance to the visible horizon from the top of a light.house 135 ft.
high. What is the dip of the horizon? Take the diameter of the earth =
8000 miles.
(Ans. 15' 39 miles; 13' 22' nearly.)
32. An observer standing on the deck of a ship just sees a lighthouse. The
top of the lighthouse is 120 ft. above sea level, and the height of observer's
eye is 20 ft. above "eo. level. Determine the distance of the observer from
the lighthouse.
(Ans. 20'434 miles.) .
33. An observer standing on the bridge of a ship just sees the mast of another
ship. If the height of the observer's eye above sea level is 110 ft., and that
of the mast of the other ship 140 ft., what is the distance between the two
ships?
(Ans. 29'57 miles.)
34. In levelling between two points A and B on opposite banks of a river, the
level was set up near A, and the staff readings on A and B were 5' 25 and
8.09 respectively. The level was then moved and set up near B, and the
respective readings on A and B were 2' 28 and 4' 14. Find the true
difference of level between A and B.
(Ans. 2' 35 ft.)
35. A dumpy level was set up and levelled with its eyepiece over a peg C. The
height from the top of C to the centre of the eyepiece was measured and
found to be 5' 24 ft. The reading on the staff held on the peg D was 2' 70.
The level was then moved and set up over D. The height of the eyepiece
above D was 4'12 ft. The reading on the staff held on the peg C was 5' 96.
Determine the true reduced level of the peg D, if that of the peg C was 150' 22.
(Ans. 152' 41.)
36. Two bench marks A and Bare 3960 ft. apart across a wide river. The
following reciprocal levels are taken with one level:
Level at Reading on
A B
A 4'86
B 3'02
The error in the collimation adj ustment of the level is + O· 004 ft. in 100 ft.
Calculate the true difference ofJevel between A and B, and the refraction.
(Ans. 2'04 ft.; 0'053 ft.)
PROBLEMS
467
37, The following reciprocal levels were taken with one level:
Instrument at Reading on Remarks.
A B Distance between A and B
A '" 2640 ft.
B R, L. of A"" 180'85
Determine (11) the true difference in elevation between A and B, (b) the
reduced level ofB, and (c) the error in the collimation adjustment of the level.
(Ans, (a) '1'90 ft,; (b) 178'95; (c)-0'003 in 100 ft,)
3B. Two sight rails are to be erected at pegs P and Q, 250 ft, apart, for setting
out a sewer on a gradient of 1 in 200 faIling from Q to p, The length
of the boning rod is 12 ft., and the depth of the invert of the sewer is 8' 50 ft.
below the peg P. The staff readings on pegs P and Q are 4,82 and 3' 72
respectively. Find (a) the heights of sight rails above the pege P and Q,
and (b) the depth of the invert of the sewer below the peg Q,
(Ans, (a) 3'50 ft,; 3'65 ft,; (h) 8'35 ft,)
39, A staff is held at a distance of 250 ft, from the leveL If the bubble tube
of the level has a 'seneitiveness of 20 seconds per divhion, find the error in
the staff reading when the bubble is 2 divisions out of centre,
(Ans, 0'05 ft,)
40, The reading on a staff held at a distance of 225 ft, from the level was 4' 20
when the bubble was central. It was then moved out of centre through
four divieions, and the reading was 4' 29, Find the angular value of one
division of the bubble tube.
(Ans. 20' 62·).
, 4J. Find the radius of the curvature of the level tube, if the angular value per
division of 0' 10 in. is 30'.
(Ans, 57' 3 ft,)
42. Find the angular value of one division of the level tube from the following
data:
Level
"--,------ Staff Reading, Remarks,
L,R'I R,R.
- ---- ----- ',--------,,----- ---,------ "--
12'4 2'6 5' 18 Distance from the
instrument to the
3'0 12'0 5' 24 staff = 100 ft.
(Ans.13·17·.)
CHAPTER VIII
COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES
Volumes of earthwork may be divided into two classes ;
(1) straight, and (2) curved.
(1) Straight Volumes :-The areas of the cross-sections
which have been taken along a route are first calculated and
the volumes of the prismoids between successive cross-sections
are then obtained by using the Trapezoidal (Average end area)
formula or the Prismoidal formula. In the preliminary estimates
the former is usually used, while the latter is employed in the
final estimates. There are two methods of using the prismoidal
formula. In the first method the volumes are obtained by
using the formula directly : while in the second method they
are determined by applying the prismoidal corrections to the
volumes obtained by using the trapezoidal (average end area)
formula. The latter is the more commonly employed method.
The prismoidal correction (Cp ) is the difference between the
volume calculated by the trapezoidal formula and that computed
by the prismoidal formula. 'Since the former is greater than.:
the latter, the correction is always subtracted from the volume
obtained by the use of the trapezoidal formula. In very rare
cases, however, it is additive.
(2) Curved Volumes :-The effect of curvature is taken
into account in the final estimates. When the centre line of a
cutting or an embankment is curved on plan, it is the common
practice to calculate the volumes as straight, and then to apply
the correction for curvature to the straight volumes obtained.
Another method of computing curved volumes is to apply the
correction for curvature to the areas of the cross-sections, and
then to calculate the required volumes from these corrected
(equivalent) areas, by the use of the prismoidal formula.
Measurement from Cross-Sections :-The various cross-

sections occurring in practice may be classed as (1) Level section,
(2) Two-level section, (3) Side-hill Two-level section, (4) Three-
level section, and (5) Multilevel section.
COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES 469
\T utation :_
b = the formation or subgrade width (width at forma-
tion level).
h = the centre cut or fill, cut being denoted by plus
sign ( +), and fill by minus sign ( - ).
s to 1 = the side slope (s horizontal to 1 vertical).
r to 1 = the lateral or transverse slope of the original
ground (r horizontal to 1 vertical).
WI and w2 = the side-widths or half-breadths, i. e. the horizontal
distances from the centre line to the intersections
of the side slopes with the original ground surface.
hI and h2 = the depths of cutting or heights of bank at the edge
poinfs of cutting or toe points of bank (side heights).
A = the area of the cross-section.
Formulre for Areas of Cross-Sections
(1) Level Section :-(Fig. 806) :-In this case the ground
IS level transversely.
SV/VAC4
Fig. 306
hI = h2 = h (1)
WI = W2 = (~ + sh ) (la)
A = (b + sh)h (2)
The formula for the area (A) of the cross-section ABDE may
be derived as follows:
b
CD =CE =~ +sh ED =CD +CE =b +2sh.
2
Now area of ABDE = t(AB + ED)h = t(b + b + 2sh)h

== (b + sh)h.
(2) Two-Level $ection :-(Fig. 301). In this case, th,
Fig. 307
ground is sloping transversely, but the sloI)e of the ground does
not cut the formation level (cutting or banlc on sidelong ground).
'WI =!_ + _:'8__ ( h + !!_) (3)

2 (r - 8) 2r
W 2= : + (r ~-8) ( h- ~ ) (4)
Note : - 'WI = the longer side-width up the slope in the case of

a cutting, and down the slope in the case of an
embankment.
hI = (h + ~I) .. : (5)
'/
h2 = (h _ ~2) (6)
A = 1 {(WI +W 2)( h +~) - !; } (7)
or
= Lr2~S2) ( h + ~ y-::}." (8)
or = t {: (hI + h 2) + h (WI + W~) } ~)
or = (' (-:)'
--~-
+ ,'bh+
(r 2---=- 82) - - -
"8h'} .. ' (10)
Two-Level Section :-Using the same notation as given on

I"ge 469, the formulae for side-widths !!VI and zt'z, and for side
]I ,jghts, hl and h2 may be derived as follows :
d p
E II N..!'--f- ~ - ":;;;tr7717
......-r,.,.;::'~-~-w~.c / '
,",i. ~", Z ~h /,,//' h,
n, " "
_i_ ~~ >-1/ 1/ ___ j_
/' 0\ .
a A'~ 10 ~/.8 .6
,_ 1 "
" I "
"J/
'. .,0
Fig. 308
(a) In Fig. 308, let AB = the formation width = b;
dD = the longer side-width = WI ;
eE = the shorter side-width = w 2 ; OC=the centre height=h;

Db = the greater side height = hI ;
Ea = the smaller side height = h 2 ; s to 1 = side slopes;
1 in r = the transverse slope of the ground, i. e. of DE.
b
Now OB = -_ ; Bb = sh l ; dD = WI = Ob; Od = Db = hI;
2
b
Bb=Ob-OB=zt'l--- ; ~d =Od-OC =hI-h;dD=rxCd.
2
Eliminating WI' we get
(r - S)hl = _b + rh or hI = __ ! (h + ~ .).
, 2 ~-~ ~
N ow WI = OB + Bb = b
---
2
+ sh l - , rs ( h
= b
2 (r - s)
+ --- _ + --
b ) ...
2r
(3)
Similarly, OA = b Aa = sh z ; Ce = OC - Oe = h - h z ;
2
b
Oa =eE =W2 = Cexr = (h-h z) r; Aa = Oa-OA = w 2 -
2
472 SURVEYING ~ND LEVELLING
Eliminating W2, we have
Now W2
r8 - ( h -
= OA + Aa = b +8h2 = -b + - - b- ) ." (4)
2 2 (r + 8) 2r
eE w 2
Since Cd = dD = :VI , and Ce = - = -- , we have
r r r r
hI = OC + Cd "'-=. h + U)J.__
r
(5)
w2
h2 = OC - Ce = h - - (6)
r
(b) (i) Let DB and EA be produced to meet in P.
b b
Now PO = ; and PC =PO +OC = +h; AB =b.
28 28
The area ABDCE = ,6DPC + ,6EPC - ,6APB'

= t PC X Dd + t PC X Ee - t AB X PO
A = t {( h + :8) (WI + W2) - !;} . , (7)
(ii) Substituting the values of WI and w 2 in formula (7),

we get
A=t (h+ b ){b

28 2
+ _!8____ (h + ) + b + r8 (h _ b
(r-8) 2r 2 (r+8) 2r
)1_ (b)2
r 48
=!(h+~)[b+r8h{_!-
28
+_1_ }
(r-8) (r+8)
(8)
(iii) Join EO and DO.
The area ABDCE = l:;OBD + l:;OCD + l:;OCE + b.OAE
= t (!!_.2 hI + h'w I + h·w z + ~.h2)

2
A = t {! (hI + h 2) + h (WI + wz)} '" (9)
(iv) Now h.. j-h 2=(h + ~1) + (h - W;) = {2h + _~ (WI - WlI )}
Substituting the values of WI and W 2• we have
!tl+ h2= 2h+ I.

r
{~2 + (r-s)
_~_ (h+!!_)
2r
-!!.2 -~(h-}!__)}
(r+s) 2r
=2h+ (2S2h
---- + bs)-.
(r 2 _ S2)
Now WI +W 2 =[!!___+_!!__ (h+_!!_) ___1!__ (h- !!_)}

+ ~-2 + (r+s)
L 2 (r-s) 2r 2r
+ 2r(r2sh- +81bs) -.
2 ll
=b
Substituting values of (h l +hs) and (Wl +w2 ) in formula (9),

we get
A =! [lJ__ {2h + (2S2h + bS}

2 (r2 - S2)
+ h {b + 2r(r22sh_+S2)b82 } ]
2
8 ( ~) + r2bh + r2sh2
(r2 _ 8 2) ... (10)
(3) Side-bill Two-Level SectiQn :-(Fig. 309). In this casp,
Fig. 309
the ground is sloping transversely, but the slope of the ground

cuts the formation level so that one portion of the area is in
cutting, and the other in embankment (part cut and part fill).
WI = "~" + ______!!_
2 (r - s)
(h + -~)
2r
(11)
w2 = .lJ_2 + (r______!!_
- s) 2r
(_b - h) ,)' (12)
hI (h + w;-)
= (13)
h2 = (h - ~2) (14)
",..__
Al =2 {C +rhY}
2
(r - 8)
(15)
A2 = ~
{ (b-2 - rh Y
-_ - -----_:__---
} (16)
(r - 8)
where Ai = the area of the portion in cutting (larger~.
A2 = the area of the portion in embankment (smaller).

Side-hill Two-Level Section :-(a) The fromulae for WI' hI'

,md h2' are similar to formulae 3, 5, and 6 respectively.
,r
Fig. 310
.....lifferringto Fig. 310, OA = : ; Aa= WI - ~ = sha; Ce=h+h ll ;
Ee = w 2 = Ce X r = (h +h ll ) r.
w ll = -2b + sh 2 ; and W ll = (h + ha) r.

Eliminating w ll ' we get
( : - rh)
h2 = - - - ·
(r - s)
( sC--rh)
OWW2=~+8hll=lJ_+
., 2 2
2
(r - s)
=~+~(!!__-h)
2 (r-s) 2r
... (12)
b b
(b) Now PB=PO+OB=rh+~;PA=OA-OP=--rh;
2 2
(: + rh) (~ - rh)
hI = ; h2 = - - - - - .
(r - 8) (r - 8)
. b )(_lJ_~ + rh)
The area'PBD
..
= Al = t PB· hI = 1(-2 + rh -----:2__
(r - s)
= i[(} + ,h)'
(r - s)
1
J
(15)
I
i 476 SURVEYING A~D LEVELLING
The area PAE = A2 = ! PA·h 2 = t C-b- (~-~h

rh)_2___
2 (r - s) '.
= tiC: ~ Y} rh
(r - s)
(16)
(4) Three-Level Section :-(Fig. 3B). In this case, the

transverse slope of the ground is not uniform.
(Ii)
(18)
(19)
(20)
The formulae for WI' Wi, hi> and h2 may be derived in a

similar manner as in case 2.
, b
I
I I
..I I
I. + Ic1,.
~
Fig. 311
Note : -The formula for WI or 'W 2 may apply to both side-
widths according as the ground rises or falls from the centre
to both -sides.
(2] )
In this case, the quantities h, hl' h2' Wl' and w 2 are obtained
trom the cross-sectional notes recorded when the side slope

stakes are set. Join DO and EO.
The area ABDCE = A = L,COD + LCOE + ,60DB + ,60EA
=( 1 h X wl +1 h X W2 + b_ X hI + _b_ X h2 )
2 2 4 4
= { {- h (Wl +w 2 ) +~- (hI +h 2)}-
(5) Multi-Level Section :-(Fig. 312). In this case, the

cross-sectional notes are usually recorded in the following form :_
D
£ lA,
1~
-4--
, A
I I~ : ~
h I -fI
, ,
I. 1121
t ·1
/II;!
"I~
·1
Fig. 312
Left. Centre. Right.
±H2 ±HI ±h ±hl ±h2

WZ --W~ 0 w2
WI
The numerator denotes the cut (+ve) or fill ( - ve) at the

various points, and the denominator their horizontal distances
from the centre line of the section. These notes provide
the x and y co-ordinates for each point of the section, the origin
being taken at the mid-point of the formation width. The area
may, therefore, be obtained by the method of co-ordinates.
478 SURVEYING ANI) LEVELLING
The co-ordinates of the section AECcFDB may be written

irrespective of the signs in the determinant form thus :
Starting from the centre and running outwards to the right

and left,
(i) find the sum of the products of the co-ordinates joined
by full lines and denote it by (LP).
{LP =(Oxh1+W 1xh 2 +w a XO+O xH1 +W1 XH 2 +W 2 XO)}.
(ii) Find the sum of the products of the co-ordinates joined
by dotted lines and denote it by (LQ).
{LQ=(hXWl+hlXW2+h2X: +hxW1+H1x W 2+H 2 x :)}
(iii) The area of the section is equal to half the difference

between these two sums.
Area = A = t (LP - LQ).
Extent of Earthwork :-The plan showing the boundary
of earthwork (cutting or filling) may be drawn in order to de-
termine the area of land covered by earthwork. There are two
cases to be considered, viz. (a) one in which the ground is assum-
ed to be level transversely (i. e. level section), and (b) the other
in which the ground is sloping transversely (i.e. two-level section).
(a). Case I : Plan with No Transverse Slope :-Fig. 313
illustrates the plan of the work. In the diagram ABC represents
a portion of the centre line; the parallel lines agl and cfm
h~
;~21
H
d .
Fig. 313
the formation width (b); A, B, and C the successive stations on
thc centre line. Having drawn the centre line, and marked the
stations on it, erect a perpendicular at A and layoff Aa and Ac
each equal to half the formation width, i. e. b Through a

2
and c draw parallels agl and efm to AC respectively. Next set off
the side-widths Ab and Ad each equal to (~ + SkI) , where hl is

the depth of cutting at A as obtained from the longitudinal
section of AC, and S the side slope; e. g. b = 24 ft. ; hl = 8 ft.
s = It to 1. Then Ab = (12+1' 5 X8) = 24 ft. = Ad. The points b
and d will give the positions of the edge points of the cutting. A
similar procedure is followed at B. The lines biz and de represent
the edge lines of cutting. Now suppose the section at C is in
embankment. Then the side-widths Ck and Cn are each equal to
( : + Sh 3 ) , where ka is the height of embankment at C and 8 the
side slope; e.g. b = 24 ft.; ha = 4ft.; S = 2 to 1; Ck = (12+2 X4)

=20 ft. =Cn. The points k and n represent the positions of the toe
points of the embankment. It is seen from the longitudinal section
that the formation line meets the ground at D. The centre depth
at D is, therefore, zero, and consequently, there will be no cutting
or embankment at D, and hence no side slopes as shown at p and
q in the diagram. The lines bkp and deq will show the extent
of cutting, and the toe lines pk and qn of embankment the extent
of embankment.
Case II : Plan with Transverse Slope :-In order to draw

the plan of the boundary of earthwork when the ground is sloping
transversely, we must first calculate the sidewidths (Wl and w 2 )
of the sections at the various stations along the centre line by
formulae (3) and (4), or (ll) and (12), and set off them on lines
drawn at right angles through the stations. The procedure is
exactly similar to that in case 1. Thus in Fig. 314, AB is a portion
of the centre line, and the stations C and D are marked at intervals
of 100 ft. aa' and cc' the parallels to AB drawn through a and
c show the formation width. Suppose the sections at A, C, and D
are in cutting, and the section at station B is partly in cutting
480 SURVEYING AND LEVELLNIG
and partly in embankment. If we now scale off the side-widths
Fig. 314
Ab and Ad (WI and Wi) at A, we get positions of the edge

points (b and d) of the cutting. Proceeding similarly at the other
stations, we get the points e andj, g and h, and nand m, and so on.
On the right of the centre line,

there is cutting at 200-ft. station, and
embankment at B. Therefore, some-
where between these two points, there
will be neither cutting nor embank-
ment and consequently, there is no
side slope, and the edge line of cutting
(djh), when produced, cuts the parallel
cc' in k as shown in the diagram. The
line km represents the toe line of
embankment. The position of the
corresponding point E on the centre
line AB may be determined by pro-
portion thus :
DE side depth of cutting at h
EB side height of embankment at m'
Having completed the diagram, the
area of the land covered by earth-
work may be determined by finding
the areas of the various trapezoids,
and totalling them.
Fig. 315 In passing from embankment to
cutting or vice versa, five sections
as shown in Fig. 315, may be required in computing the voulme
when the change occurs on a sidelong ground.
Formulre for volume

A prismoid (Fig. 316) is a solid whose ends are plane
figures, not necessarily of the same number of sides, lying in
parallel planes and whose longitudinal faces are trapezoids.
Notation : -
Ao, AI' A 2, ........ .. An = the areas of the cross-sections.
D = the distance between the cross-sections.
V = the volume of a cutting or an embankment.
b .,
18
Fig. 316
TrapezoidalJormula (Average End Area Rule):-
V = ~ [Ao + 2AI + 2A2 + .. , 2An_1 + An} (22)
= D [Ao ~ An + Al + A2 + ... + An_I} (22a)
Prismoidal Formula:-
V = ~ {Ao + 4AI + 2A2 + 4As + 2A4 + ...

+ 2An_2 ;+- 4An_l + An} (23)
Note :-In order to apply the prismoidal formula, it is
,necessary to have an odd number of sections. If there be an
even number of sections, the end strip must be treated sepa·
rately, and the volume of the remaining strips calculated by the
prismoidal formula. The volume of the last strip may be com~
puted by the trapezoidal rule or by the prismoidal formula. If
the latter is to be applied, the area halfway between the end
sections of the last strip should be interpolated by averaging
the corresponding linear dimensions of the end sections and not
by averaging the areas oj the end sections of the last !ltrip.
P. 1.-16
482 SURVEYING ANi>
, LEVELLING
The derivation of the prismoldal formula is as follows:

In Fig. 317 ABCDEFGH is the prismoid whose volume is
to be determined. ABCD and EFGH arc the parallel end
faces of the prismoid. Suppose that the plane parallel to the base
and containing DC cuts the solid in the lines CK, KJ, and JD.
It will be evident from the figure that thc prismoid is made
up of the three figures, viz. (i) the prism ABCD:FKJE, (ii) th(
pyramid CKGHJ, and (iii) pyramid HDCJ.
Fig. 317
Let b = AB = EF = the formation width.
h = the smaller centre depth of cutting.
h' = the greater" " "
I = the length of the prismoid.
s to 1 = the side slopes of the cutting.
d = the distance between the sections.
Then area of the cross-section ABeD = Ao = (b + sh)h.
" ;,:" " EFGH = A2 = (b + sh')h'.
" I "
.
mldway= Al = {(h+h' ~ 2- .
b+s ~2 )}(h+h')
Now volume of the prism ABCDFKJE = VI = area of the end

face X I = {b+sh)hxl.
1J" of the pyramid CKGHJ = V 2 = area of KGHJ X -L3
= {{b+Sh')h' -(b+sh)h 11 .
~ 3
COMPUTATION OJ!' VOLUMES 483
volume of the pyramid HDCJ = area of DeJ X (~'i-~)

tl
DC = (b+2&h); DJ = .l = t DC x· :OJ X Ch'3 h)

= (b+2sh) (h'-h)!_
6
Volume (V) of the prismoid = V1 + V2 + V3
= [(b+&h)hl+{(b+&h')h'-(b+Sh)h} t- +(b+2&h)(h' -h) {-]
On reduction, we get
V = _~_ [b+&h)h+4{b+& (h1!~) } (h~h') +(b+Sh')h]

Whence, the volume of the prismoid ABCDEFGJ
1 d
V=--(A o +4A1 +A 2)= -- (A o +4A 1 +A 2 ) •. ,
6 3
Prismoidal Correction
Formulre for Prismoidal Correction (Cp ) :-In the following

formulae, the notation is the same as given befote, and the small
and capital letters refer to the notation of adjacent stations.
Ql) Level Section : -
Cp =!>~ (h - H)2 (24)

6
(2) Two-level Section : -
D
Cp = ~(WI-Wl) (W2- W 2) (25)
68 "
(3) Side -hill Two-level Section :....-f.. ,
Cp (for the cutting)
=l~i(WI-Wl){C: +rh)-(: +RH)} (26)
Cp (for the embankment)
=1~S(W2-W2){C: -rh)-C: ~RH)} (27)

484 SVRVEYING AlfD LEVELI~ING
t
(4) Three-Level Section:-
(28)
Curvature Correction for Volumes
Let Cc = the curvature correction in cubic fect.

(1) Level Section :-No correction is necessary in thif:
case, since the area is symmetrical about the centre line.
(2) Two-level Section and Three-level Section:-
Cc = D (W12-WZ2) ( h +b ) (29)
6It 28
in which R is the radius of the curve in feet.
or Two-level Section:-
Cc = Ae per unit length (30)

R
where e is the eccentricity, i. e. the horizontal distance from
the centre line to the centroid of the area.
W1W 2 (W 1 + w z)
e= -------- (30a)
3Ar
The correction is positive, if the centroid is on the oppo-
site side of the centrc line as the centre of curvature (or the
greater half-breadth is on the convex side of the curve); while
it is negative, if the centroid is on the same side of the centre line
as the centre of curvat~re (or the greater half-breadth is on
the concave side of the curve).
(3) Side-hill Two-level Section:-
Co = Ae per unit length (30)

R
where e = ~ (WI + : - rh ) for the larger area. . . (30b)
~lld e = ~ (W2 + : + rh ) for the smaller area ... (30c)

Determination of Capacity of Reservoir
Fig. 318
Reservoir Volumes :--:-(Fig. 318). The reservoir volumes
are determined from contour maps. The area enclosed by
each contour line is measured by a planimeter. Knowing the
vertical distance between the first and second contour lines
( contour interval) and their areas, the volume of water between
them may bc calculate~l either by the t;apezoidal formula or by
the prismoidal formula. Likewise, the cubic contents between
successive contours may be obtained which, when added (~,
gives the requIred total cubic contents. There are two methods
of using prismoidal formula. In the first method the area
of the mid-scction is obtained by measuring the area within the
contour interpolated midway between each pair of original con-
tours. In the othcr method every second contour arca is taken as
the area of mid-section (mid-area).
A 3 , etc., = the areas within successivc contours.
= the mid-area .
. = the contour interval.
= the required volume.
Then
By the trapezoidal formula,
V = ~ {f\AI + A 2) } (31)
By thc prismoidal formula,
(i) V = ~{~ (AI + 4Am + A 2) } ... "', (32)
(ii) V = 2: {~D3 (AI

•
+ 4A2 + As)} .. , (32a)
'86 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
Volume of Borrow Pits :-(Fig. 319). On the plan of a
d ~C
,
I
II f
e
1\ t
~
~ 1\
E'ig, 319
borrow pit the depths of excavation are marked in feet and
tenths at the corners of the squares, rectangles, or triangles
into which the ground is divided.
The volume of the borrolV pit may, therefore, be obtained
by the sum of the volumes of several prisms compu.ted by the
following formulae :
Let A = the horizontal area of the cross-section (prism).
h 1 , h2' h3' and h, = the depths of excavation marked at the
corners.
Then
Volume of truncated triangular prism
=' A (hI + h~ + hs ) (33)
Volume of truncated rectangular prism

= A(hl +~~~_!~ + h4) ....
_ (34)
If several rectanguIar prisms have the sam;e cross-section,

the total volume may be computed thus :
f,
(i) Multiply each corner height by the number of times it

is used (i. e. the number of prisms in which it occurs).
(ii) Add these products and divide by 4; denote the result
by H.
where "1'..h1 = the sum of the heights used once.

"1'..h2 = " " "
twice.
"1'..113 = thrice.
" " "
"1'..h 4 = four times.
" " "
Then
The total volumc=horizontal area of the cross-section of one
prism X II = AH.
Examples on Computation of Volumes
Example 1 :-Below are given the reduced levels of the

consecutive points 100 ft. apart on a longitudinal surface section
of a proposed road :
Chainage : 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Ground level: 40·0 ,U'3 -4.9·6 46'1 4-1,6 45·7 46·5 45·7
The formation at chainage 0 is 3 ft. below the ground level

at chainagc 0, and thence rises uniformly on a gradient of 1 in 40.
Find the corresponding depth of cutting or height of embankment.
(i) Ground level at chain age 0 = -10'0. Since the formation

level at chainage 0 is 3 ft. below the ground level at chain age 0,
it is equal to 40'0 - 3 = 37'0.
Since the formation rises on a uniform gradient of 1 in 40,
flse in 100 ft. = 100 = 2· 5 ft. The formation levels of the

40
successive points may, therefore, be obtained by adding 2' 5 ft.
to the formation level of the point immediately preceding it.
Hence, we have
Chainage: o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Formation level: 37'0 39·5 -4.2·0 44·5 47·0 49·5 52'0 54·5
The difference between the ground level and formation level

at any point will give the ~epth of cutting or height of embank-
ment at that point. Therefore, we get
Chainage: 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 70()

Depth of cutting. 3 4·8 7·6 1·6
Height of embankment 2·4 3·8 5·5 8' ;
Example 2 :-An embankment is 24 ft. wide with side
slopes of 2 to 1. Assuming the ground to be level in a direction
transverse to the centre line, calculate the volume in cubic
yards, contained in a length of 600 ft. the centre heights at
every 100-ft. intervals being I!, 3, 4t, 5, 6, 3t, and 2 feet.
(See fig. 306).
The cross-sectional areas by equation 2, i. e. Q = (b +sh)h are
b = 24 ft.; s = 2.
QO = (24 + 2 X 1·5)1'5 = 27 X 1,5 = 40,5 sq. ft.
Ql=(24+2X3)3 =30x3 = 90,0
"
Q2 = (24 + 2 X 4·5)4'5 = 33 X 4,5 = 148·5
"
63 = (24 +
2 X 5)5 = 34 X 5 = 170'0
"
Q4 = (24 +
2 X 6)6 = 36 X 6 = 216· 0
"
+
65 = (24 2 X 3·5)3'5 = 31 X 3·5 = 108,5 "
D.6=(24 + 2 X 2)2 =28 X 2 = 56'0
"
(a) U sing the trapezoidal formula, we get
Volume = V = 100
-2 { 40,5 + 2(90 + 148,5 + 170 + 216
+ 108'5) + 56}
= 50(1562'5) = 78125 cub. ft.
78125
= - _ = 2893·52 cub. yds.
27
(b) Applying thc prismoidal formula, we have
V = 1~~{(40'5+4(90)+2(148'5)+4(170)+2(216)
+ 4(108' 5) +56)}
100
= - - (2299'5) = 76650 cub. ft.
a
76650
= - _ = 2838· 89 cub. yds.
27
Example 3 :--A road at a constant R. L. of 180'00 runs

?:orth to South. The ground East to West is level. The surface
1 I'cls along the centre line of the road are as follows :
Chainage in feet: 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Level in feet: 190 188 187 185 188 186 182
Compute the volume of the cutting, given that the width
i formation lcvel is 24 ft., and the side slopes 1 i to 1.
(See fig. 306)
The centre depths of the cutting at 50-ft. intervals may be
determined by subtracting the formation level from the respective
ground levels.
Thus we have
ho = 190 - 180 = 10 ft. h« = 183 - 180 = 3 ft.
h! = 188 - 180 = 8 " hs = 186 - 180 = 6 "
h2 = 187 - 180 = 7" h6 = 182 - 180 =2 "
ha = 185 - 180 = 5" b = 24 ft. ; 8 = It.
By equation (2), i. e. D = (b + sh) h,
Do = (24 + 1·5 X 10)10 = 39 X 10 = 390 sq. ft.
D! = (24 + l' 5 X 8) 8 = 36 X 8 = 288 "
D2=(24 +1'5 X 7) 7 =34·5 X 7 =241'5"
Da=(24 + 1·5 X 5) 5 =31'5 X 5 = 157'5 "
D4 = (24 + I' 5 X 3):3 = 28· 5 X :3 = 85'5"
D5 = (24 + I' 5 X 6) 6 = 33 X 6 = 198 "
D6 = (24 + I' 5 X 2) 2 = 27 X 2 = 54 "
(a) The volume of the cutting by the trapezoidal formula is
V = 50 {~~O t-~~ +(288 + 241·5 + 157',5 + 85·5 + 198)}
59625
= 50 (1192'5) = 59625 cu. ft, =- - = 2208·33 cub. yds.
27 1
(b) By the prismoidal formula,
V = ~~ {390+4(288)+2(241'5)+4(157'5)+2(85'5)+4(198)+54]
50 61200
= (3672) = 61200 cu. ft. = - - = 2266· 67 cub. yds.
3 27
490 SCRVEYING AND LETELLING
Example 4 :-The width at formation level of a certain

cutting is 30 ft. and the side slopes are 1 to 1. The surface
of the ground has it uniform side slope of 1 in 6. Calculate
(i) the volume of the cutting for a length of 900 ft., the average
depth of cutting being 5 ft. , and (ii) its cost, the rate of excavation
being Rs. 4 per 100 ('ubic feet.
.il
(See Fig. 307)
(i) The cross-sectional area may be obtained from equation (8)
. 8(~)2 + r2bh + r 8h 2 2
1. e. 0. = - -------
r2 _82
Herc b = 30 ft. ; h = 5 ft.; 8 = 1; l' = 6 ; 1 = 900 ft.

2 2 2 2
1 (15 )+6 X30x5+6 Xl X5 225 + 5400 + 900
---
35
6525
= - - =186'43 sq.ft.
35
Now the volume of the cutting = V =- u"X 1 ___ 6_5_ 25 ><__900

35
=-~167785·71 cu. ft. = 167786 cub. ft.
(ii) Cost of the cutting = 1672~~~_~ = Rs. 6711.

100
Example 5 :-A road embankment 2~ ft. wide at formation
level, with side slopes 2 to 1, and an average height of bank
10 ft. is constructed with an average gradient of 1 in 30 from a
BOO-ft. contour to a 640-ft. contour. Find (a) the length of the
road in miles, and (b) the quantity of earth in cub. yds. for the
embankment.
(a) Difference of level between the ends of the road
= 640 - 300 = 340 ft. The gradient of the road = 1 in 30.
Length of the road = 3~0 X 30 = 10200 ft.
= 10200 = 1.932 miles.
5280
(b) The cross-sectional area = (b + 8h) h.
b = 24 ft.; s = 2; h = 10 ft.; l = 10200 ft.

:. 6=(24+2 X10)10 = 44 X 10 = 440 sq. ft.
Volume of the embankment = 6 X l
= ~40 X 10200 = 4488000 cub. ft.
= 166222 cub. yds.
Example 6 :-A railway embankment is made level for
,~oo ft. The ground on which it is constructed is level transversely,
but slopes uniformly at 1 in 8 in the direction of the railway.
The formation breadth is 36 ft., and the sides of the embank-
'llcnt slope at I t to 1. Calculate the volume of earth wo:-k,
assuming that the high end terminates vertically.
The' centre height at the commencement of the embankment
= h, = O.
Since the longitudinal slope of the ground is 1 in 8, and the
length of the embankment is 800 ft.,
the centre height at the mid-length of the embankment
~OO
= hl =- = 50 ft.
8
The centre height at the end of the embankment.
800
= h2 = ~-- = 100 ft.
S
b == 36 ft., s = 1· 5; l = 800 ft.; D = 400 ft.
The cross-sectional area at the commencement of the
embankment ==: 6 0 = o.
The cross-sectional area at the mid-length of the embankment

= 61=(b+sh)h=(36+1'5 X 50)50
= III X 50 = 5550 sq. ft.
The cross-sectional area at the end of the embankment = l;,.J
= (b+sh)h = (36 + 1·5XI00) 100 = 186X100 = 18600 sq. ft.
U sing the prismoidal formula, we get
Volume of earthwork = ~OO{

3 0 + 4 (5550) + 18600 )
492 SURVEYIKG AND LEVEI,LING
= 400 (40800) = 5440000 cub. ft.

3
,~ 201481· 5 cub· yds.
Example 7 :-An embankment is Iflade on ground which
is level across. The height of the bank lit the ncar end is 8 ft.,
and the fOrmation rises uniformly on a gradient of 1 in 120.
The width of the bank at formati~n level is 24 ft., and the side
slopes of the bank 2 to 1. The surface of the ground slopes
downwards from the near end at a gradient of 1 in 25. Find
the quantity of earthwork in cubic yards required for the embank-
ment if the distance between the sections is 300 ft.
In Fig. 320, A is the near end; B the fl1r end; AC the height of
the bank at the near end; BD the height of the bank at the far
end; FE the height of the bank at mid-lengtn ot file embanKment.
BOO
(i) Now rise information level (C'O) at the far end = ..
120
= 2·5 ft.
Fall of the surface of ground in 300 ft. (A'B)= 300 = 12 ft.

25
Height of the balLk at the near end F 8 ft.

" " a t the far end=S+2'5+12=22'5 ft.
at the mid-length of the embankment.
" "
= 8 + 22·5 = 15.~5 ft.
2
(ii) The cross-sectional areas by 6 = (b +

sh) hare
61 = (24 + 2 X 8) 8 = 40 X 8 = 3~O sq. ft.
6 m = (24 +
2 X 15·25)15·25=54·5i<15·25=831·125sq.ft.
62 = (24 + 2 X 22'5) 22'5 = 69 )« 22'5 = 1552'5 sq. ft.
(iii) The volume of the embankment by the prismoidal

formula is
V = ~:o {320 + 4(831·125) + 1552' 5} = 50 (5197)
= 259850 cub. ft. = 9624 cub. yd s •

COMPUTATION OF VOLU¥RS 493
The volume by the trapezoidal rule is

V = ~OO (320 + 1552·5) = 150 (1872·5) = 280875 cub. ft.
2
= 10402·8 cub. yds.
Example 8 :-Find the cross-sectional area of a cutting

with side slopes as shown in Fig. 321. What will be the volume
of the cutting, if its length is 500 ft.?
r- 32'
- ~~---- -- -- --r---- -- --- ----
,
CQd'
- :',-_
E ~, --------t--------
4' 3 {TQr
6' 2
,
F I
Ali ---:,_--- ,tl
1---30o----jB I
l /8'
'-- ..I
--
Fig. 320 Fig. 321
Trapezoid 1: bottom width = b = 16 ft.; h = 4 ft.; s =!4 .

Top width = (b + 2sh) = (16+2 X~~ X4) = 18 ft.
Area = (b + sh)h = (16 + :~ X 4) 4 = 68 sq. ft.
Trapezoid 2: bottom width = b = 18 ft. ; h = 6 ft.; s = _1

2
Top:width = (b + 2sh) = (18 + 2X -~~ X6 ) = 24 ft.
. Area = (b + sh)h = (18 + -~- X 6 )6=126 sq. ft •
Trapezoid 3: bottom width = b = 24 ft.; h = 4. ft.; 8 = 1.

Top width = (b + 2sh) = (24 + 2 X 1 X4) = 32 ft.
Area = (b + sh)h = (24 + 1 X 4)4=112 sq. ft.
H ?nce the cross-sectional area of the cutting
= 68 + 126 + 112 = 306 sq. ft.
494 SURVEYING AN~ LEVELLING
\.
Volume of the cutting = L X l = 306 X 500
. = 153000 cub. ft.
= 5667 cub. yds.
Example 9 :,-The levels taken at every 100 ft, l~long the
centre line of a proposed road are as follows:
Chainage. Reduced level in feet.
o 525'50
100 535·30
200 '" 544· 60
300 - 546'70
400 545'50
A cutting is to be made for a line of uniform gradient passing
'ihrough the first and last points.
Find (a) the gradient of the line, and (b) the volume of
the cutting, given that the width of the cutting at the forma-
tion level is 24 ft., the side slopes 1 to 1, and the surface of the
ground has a uniform side slope of 1 in 8.
(a)Gradient of the formation line passing through the
difference of level 545' 50 - 525' 50
first and last points = - - - - -~~- -~-. - ----.-- -. - - - -
distance 400
20 1
- - -~---- i. e. 1 in 20.
400 20
(b) Knowing the gradient of the formation line, the forma-
tion levels at every 100 ft. may be calculated thus:
The formation level at chainage 0 = 525·50
The gradient being 1 in 20, the formation rises 1 ft. in 20 ft.
or 5 ft. in 100 ft.
The formation level at 100 ft. = 525·50 +5 = 580· 50 ft.
The ground level at 100 ft. = 535·30 ft.
The depth of cutting at 100 ft. = 535' 30 - 530·50 =4' 8 ft.
Similarly, the formation levels and the depths of cutting
at other chainages may be. calculated and the results tabulated
as shown below :
Chainage. Reduced level. Formation level. Depth of cutting

CI (h) in feet.
0 525·50 525·50 0'0
100 It 535·30 530·50 4'8
200 "i 544·60 535'50 9'1
300 L 546'70 540'50 6'2
400 545'50 545'50 0'0
Now b = 24ft. ; 8 = 1; r = 8; D = 100 ft.

Let 1::.0' 1::.1' etc., be the cross-sectional areas of cutting at
chainage 0, 100, etc.
Using equation (7), i. e. I::. = r~(h + _b_)2_~}

Lr2-8 2 28 48
to determine the cross- sectional areas, we have
1::.1 = {6~_!( 4.8 + _~4)1_~~} = 286·7 -144

(64-1) 2 Xl 4 X 1.
= 142'7 sq. ft.
9.1 + ~~_)2__ ~~_}
{64 _~_l(
(64-1) 2 1 1 X 4 X
= 452.4 _ 144
= 308·4 sq. ft.
{~;4~1)( 6'2 + 22: iY- 42:2J = 336·5 - 144

= 192'5 sq. ft.
Since the depths of the cutting at chainage 0 and at chainage

400 are zero, the surface of the ground intersects the base. The
cross-sectional areas 1::.0 and 1::.4 may, therefore, be calculated
by the use of "'lnaHon (15). i. e. 6 = ~ {(~- + rh)

(r - 8)
'J.
f
then 1:::.0 = 1::. 4 = -1 {(12 + 8 X. 0)2} = 144'

-- = 10'29 sq. ft.
_ 2 (8 - 1) 14
;>!
Applying the prismoidal formula, we get
496 SURVEYING AND LEVELL'"""
100 r
Volume of the cutting = ~-3~t (10'29+ 4 (142'7)+2 (308' '/
+4 (192'5) + 10'29}
~100 (1978 '18) = 65g39' 33 cub. ft.

a
= 2442 cub. yds.
Example 10 :-In order to set out the cross-section of a
cutting, flying levels were taken from the B. M. (825·60) to the
centre peg of the section and the following n~adings were obtained:
2'86 (B. S.); 5'62 (F.S.) ; 4'74 (B. S.); ~'16 (centre peg). The
formation level at the cross-section is 817. 92 . Find (a) the grade
rod, i. e. the reading of the staff held to grade, (b) the depth of
cutting at the centre, and (c) the complete cross-section notes,
given that the formation width is 24 ft., side slopes 1 to 1, the
sidelong slope of the ground 1 in 8, the lo~est side being on the
left.
(i) The first step is to find the H. I. at the last set up of
the level and then the R. L. of the centre peg.
Station B. S. F. S. H. I. R. L. Remarks.
1 2'86 828'46 B25'60 B.M.
2 4'74 5'62 827·58 B22'84
3 2'16 B25'42 centre peg.
Now grade rod = H. I. - formation level = 827·58 - 817·92
=9·66 ft.
Centre depth of cutting = ground level - formation level
= 825'42 - 817'92 = 7·50ft.
(ii) The longer sidewidth up the slOpe
= WI = !!_
2
~-~~- (
+ (r-s) h +: )r
b = 24 ft. ; s = I ; r = 8 ;h = 7' 5 ft.
= 12 + (: ~ :) ( 7·5 + -2 ~ -8-)
= 22·29 ft.
The shorter sidewidth down the slope
= W2 = ~ + (T r;s )(h - ~)
=12+~(7'5~~)
(8 + 1) 2 X 8
= 17·33 ft.
r
(iii) The depth of cutting at the higher edge point of cutting
~~ w 22·29
= hl = h + . 1 = 7·5 + --~ = 10'29 ft.
• J ~
T 8
The depth of cutting at the lower edge point of cutting

\:1-:" W 17·33
= hz = It - 2 = 7' 5 - ~- = 5· 33 ft,
r 8
(iv) The results may be tabulated us under:

)
! R
L C II
+5'33 +7·5 +10,29
---
17·33
--
0 22'29
Example 11 :-Compute the volume of a cutting- in cubic-

yards for a l'oad from the following data:-
Breadth of formation = 30 ft. ; side slope = Ii to 1.
Distance. Depth of cutting Cross slope of the sur-
(h) in ft. face of the grl)und.
0 8 1 in 12
100 10 1 In 8
200 12 1 in 10
Let /j,o, /j,l' and /j,2 be the areas of the cross-sections at 0,

100 ft., and 200 ft. respectively. They may be obt4ined frOOl
equation (7), i e 6 =
. •
{_r~(h
(r2 -
2
+ 8 )
b)2 _ b
28
2
48
}
(i) Cross-section at 0 ft. ; b = 30 ft. ; h = 8 ft.; 8 = It ; r = 12.

2
122x1'5 - ( 8 +30)2
£:..0 = { ----- - - - -30- } = 343·5 sq. ft.
(122-1.5 2) 2X1·5 4X1·5
(ii) Cross-section at 100 ft.: b=30 ft.; h=lO ft. ; 8 = It; r=8 ..
2
£:..1 = {~_:><1'5
2 2
(10+_~~)2_ 30 .} =471·8 sq..ft
(8 -1'5 ) 2Xl·5 4x1'5
(iii) Cross-section at 200ft.; b=30ft.h = 12 ft. ; 8 = It; r = 10
2 2
£:..2 = { 10 X1.5_(12+ _30 .)2_... 30 _} =592'7 sq. ft.
(10 2-1'5 2 ) 2 Xl·5 4 X1·5
(iv) Using the prismoidal formula, we have
Volume of the cutting = 1~0 {343' 5+ 4 (471'8) + 592'7}
= 94113' 3 cub. ft. = 3485·7 cub. yds.

Applying the trapezoidal formula, we get
Volume of the cutting = 1~0{343'5 +2(471'8) + 592'71
= 93990 cub. ft. = 3481 cub. yds.

Example 12 :-The following notes refer to three-level cross-
sections at two stations 100 ft. apart.
Station. Cross-section.
c3'2 c4'5 c8'9
1
15'2 0 20'9
. I"'"
c5'2 c6·5 c12'4
2 " ~> 7 ;
~~~-__..
--,
17'2 0 24'4
The width of the cutting at the formation level is 24 ft.,
and the sides of the cutting slope at 1 to 1. Calculate the
volume of the cutting between the two stations.
The cross-sectional areas by formula (21),
i. e. £:.. = {~ (Wi + W 2) + ~ (hi + h 2 )} are
Cross-section at station 1 : b = 24 ft.; h = 4' 5 ft. ;

Wt = 20·9 ft.; w 2 = 15'2 ft.; hl = 8·9 ft.; h2 = 6'2 ft.
, {4' 5 24" } ,- ,\
61 = 2(20'9+ 15·2) + 4(8'9+3'2) = 153'825 sq. ft.
Cross-section at station 2 : b = 24 ft.; h ::_ 6· 5 ft. ;
WI = 24'4 ft.; w2 = 17'2 ft.; hI = 12'4 ft. ; h 2 =5'2 ft.
62 = { 6'5 24
~(24'4 + 17'2)+- (12'4 + 5'2)
} = 240·8 sq. ft.
2 4
Then by the average end area rule,
Volume of the cutting = ~OO (153' 825 + 240' 8)

2
= 19731' 25 cub. ft. = 730·8 cub. yds.
If the volume is to be calculated by the prismoidal formula;
the area of the mid-section may be calculated as above, the
cross-section notes for the same being obtained by averaging
the values given for the cross-sections at stations 1 and 2.
The cross-section notes for the mid-section are

c4'2 c5'5 cl0'65
16'2 o 22'65
Cross-section at mid-station: b = 24 ft.; h = 5·5 ft. ; WI = 22' 65ft.
w2 = 16'2 ft.; hI = 10·65 ft.; h2 = 4·2 ft.
5'5 24
:.6 = { -(22'65+16'2)+-(10·65+4'20) } = 195'94 sq. ft.
m 2 4 "
Therefore, by the prismoidal formula,
Volume of the cutting = 50 [153'825 + 4(195·94) + 240'8)}

3
f>
= 19639·75 cub. ft. = 727·4 cub. yds.
Example 13 :-The side of a hill has a uniform slope of

6° to the east. A site for a building 150 ft. square is to be exca-
vated back into the hill, commencing from a level line, 150 ft.
long, running north and south (Fig. 322a). Compute the volume
of the excavation on the assumption that the sides of the
excavation arc vertical.
500 StrRVEYING AND LEVELLING
Fig. 322 b shows the cross-section on the west and east line.
Fig. 322
It is evident from the figure that the depth of cutting at 150 ft.
back into hill, i.e. ed =-~ 150 tan 6° = 150 X 0·1051 = 15'765 ft.
Since the line ab is level, the depth of excavation at a or b = o.
. .
Mean depth of the excavatlOn
+ 13'765 =
= 0- .~~-- 7' 8825 ft.
2
Now the area of the site = 1502 = 22500 sq. ft.
:. Volume of the excavation = Area X depth of excavation.
= 22500 X7' 8825=177356· 25 cub. ft.
= 6568·75 cub. yds.
Example 14 :-An excavation is to be made for a reservoir
80 ft. long and 50 ft. wide at the bottom, and 10 ft. deep. The
sides of the excavation slope at 1 t horizontal to 1 vertical.
Assuming the surface of the ground to be level before excavation,
calculate the volume of the excavation.
The depth of cutting = h = 10 ft.; the side slope of cutting =
litol.:. 8=1'5.
It will be seen from Fig. 323 that the length of the
reservoir at the top = b +
28h = 80 +
2 X 1'5 X 10 = no ft.
Similarly, the width of the reservoir at the top = b + 2IJh
= 50 + 2 X 1· 5 X 10 = 80 ft.
The respective dimensions at mid-depth are
I.ength = 80 +
--~_
no = .
95 ft. and WIdth =
50+80
~--
.
- = 65 ft.
2 2
Area of the bottom of the reservoir = 80 x50 =4000 sq. ft.

of the reservoir at mid-depth = 95 X65 = 6175 "
"
of the top of the reservoir = no x 80 = 8800 "
"
~
80' t,
/
T
r 1
8Q
v 1m'
~
I1-4-..-~--~I
,z. .
I· __~ __
80'
51 ..',
Fig. 323
U sing the prismoidal formula, we have
Volume of the excavation = ~. {4000 + 4(6175) + 8800}

= ~5 (37500) = 62500 cub. ft.
a
= 2314·8 cub. yds.
Example 15 :-The following are the readings taken at

points 20 ft. apart on the cross-section of a stream (Fig. 324).
Backsight on a gauge post at 10-ft. mark w[lS 0·35 .
• ATER lEWl
Fig. 324
I
502 SURVEYING AND ~EVELLING
\
\
Distance in ft 0 20 80 100
40· 120 140
60
160 180 200 220
Reading in ft.: 0'80 4'85 6'35 7·58 9·10 9·30 10'00 10'32
8'10 6'35 4'35 0'20
Calculate the area of flow of water when the surface of water
is at 6 ft. on the gauge.
The first step is to find the reduced levels of the various
points on the cross-section by subtracting the staff readings
from the reduced level of the plane of collimation. .
= 0'35; R. L. of B. M. = 10 ft.
Backsight
R. L. of the plane of collimation = 10+0'35 = 10'35.
Hence the reduced levels of the points are :
Distance: 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
R. L. 10'05 6'00 4'00 2·77 1·25 1'05 0'85
Distance: 140 160 180 200 220
R. L. 0'03 2'25 4'00 6'00 10'15
The surface of water being at 6 ft. on the gauge, the depths
of water at these points may be obtained by subtracting their
reduced levels from 6. The depths are
Distance: 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 ft.
Depth : 0 2 3·234'75 4'95 5'65 5·97 3·75 20ft.,
the end points being above the water surface.
(i) Area by the trapezoidal rule
t f
= 20 {O;? + (2+3.23+4'75+4'95+5.65+5.97+3'75+2) }
= 20 (32'30) = 646 sq. ft.
(ii) Area by Simpson's rule = [2; { 0+4(2+4'75 + 5·65 +
3'75) + 2 (3'28 + 4·95 + 5·97) + 2 }+ 2~ (2 + 0) ]
= {
U~ o +4(16'15)+ 2(14'15)+2} + 2~(2)J
, \.~, >~'.. ,~'
20
= .~- (94'90)+ 20 = 652·67 sq. ft.
a
Example 16 :-The following are the notes for an irregular

road cross-section AEKCFDB (Fig. 325)_ The width of the
road bed is 20 ft_> and the side slopes are 1 to 1. Calculate the
cross-sectional area_
7'8 10'6 12-4 20'7 23
17'8 10 o 16 33
First Method :-(Fig. 325). The co-ordinates of the vertices

when written irrespective of the algebraic signs will appear thus :
o 7·8 10·6 12-4 20-7 23 o
10 17"8 10 o 16 33 10
{o X 20' 7' 16 X 23
Then by the rule given on page 478, r,p = +
+33 XO+O XlO-6+10 X7-S+17-S Xo} =446,
and 2:Q =[12.4X16+20·7X33+23XIO
+ 12·cj,XIO+IO·6X17·8+7·SXlO}
=1502'18
Doub!.e area= 'EP", 'EQ=(·146"-'150Z·18)=1056-18 sq. ft.]

Hence the area of the cross-section = 528· 09 sq. ft.
Second Method :-The cross-section may be sub-divided into
~
I
\
(
33'
..I
Fig. 325
triangles and trapeziums as shown in Fig. 325. The required
area is then equal to the algebraic sum of the areaS of the
several figures.
No. Fig. Area.

1 EABf 7'8 X27'8 = 216'84 sq. ft.
2 KEa l(7'8 X2·8) - 10'92 "
3 KacC )2Q.(2· 8 +4' 6) - 37'00
"
4 CceF I2f)·(4·6+12·9 = 140'00
"
5 FedD )'2"7-(12'9+15'2) = 238'85
"
6 Dfd -'-i&(15 ,2) = 115'52 - ve.
Hence the area of the cross-section=643'61-115'52 =52S'09sq.ft.
Example 17 :-An embankment of formation width 30 ft.

with side slopes 2 to 1 is to be formed on a curve of 8 chains
(G) radius. The surface of the ground slopes at 6 to 1 down-
wards towards the concave side, and the height of bank at the
centre is 10 ft. Calculate the curvature correction per 100 ft.
By formulae
and
the side-widths are
'WI = 15+ 6_X-2( 10 + 15)

- and 'W2 6 X 2(10-_
= 15 + _._ 15)
6 - 2 6 6.+ 2 6
= 52,5 ft. = 26'25 ft.
the values of b, r, and 8 being 30 ft., 6ft., and 2 ft. respectively.
8(~ )2 + r2bh + r2sh2

The cross-sectional area (A) = 2 ___ .
(r2 _82)
2(15)2, + 62 X 30 X 10 -t 6 2 X 2 X 102
--~.~ = 576· 6 sq. ft.
The
, , 'WI'W
eccentrICIty (e) = - - 2- ; - - - -
(WI + 'W 2 )
3Ar
52·5 X 26·25 (52'5 + 26'25) =10.46 ft.
B X 6 X 576'6
Therefore
I
. = AeL
Curvature correctIOn - = -576·6 X 10'46
-------- X~
_____ 100
__
R 8 X 66
= 1142 cub. ft. = 42'3 cub. yds.

Alternative method:-
Curvature correction = D-(W l 2 -W 22 ) ( h + ~)

6R 28
_ 100 (52'5 2 - 26'25~) (10+Hi-)
- ---_-_ - --- - - - - ---------~
- -
6 X 8 X 66
= 1142 cub. ft. = 42·3 cub. yds.
The correction is additive, since the greater side-width

falls on the convex side of the curve.
Example 18 :-In a certain cutting, the width at formation

level is 24 ft., the side slopes are It to 1, and, the surface of the
ground has a uniform slope of I in 10. The depths of cutting
at the centre of formation level are 5 ft., :g ft., 4 ft., at three
consecutive sections spaced 50 ft. apart. Calculate the curvature
correction, if the centre line lies on a cruve of 600 ft. radius.
We have first to find the side-widths by the formulae,
WI = b_ + _!!_ ( h +
2 r-8
.-~-)
~
and W:! =!- + ___!i?_( h -
2 r+.
-2l;_r-)
Here b = 24 ft.; r = 10; and 8 = 1·5.

. 24 10 X l' 5 ( 24)
SectIOn 1: WI = -2-+ (10-'::::'-1'5) 5 + 2X-}0 = 22· 94ft.
;". W2 = :;+ A~: ~'.~) ( 5- 2:~lo) = 16·96ft.

.
SeetIon 2 : wl _- + ------
= 24 10 X 1'5 ( 8 + 2-__
2 4 ) = 28·24 ft.
2 (10 - 1·5) X 10
W2 = ~-+ 2~__2__1'5 (8 - -_~) = 20'87ft.

2 (10 + I' 5) 2 X 10
. 24 10 X 1·5 ( 24)
SectIOn 3: WI = 2 + (10:_-]'.5) 4 + i-;-10 = 21·18ft.
W2 = 2: + (:~~}.~) ( 4- 2-~ 10) = 15·65ft.
The cross-sectional areas by the formula,
A =
-
t { (WI + w2 ) (h + _28b) _b28 J1. are
2
Section 1: A =t{(22'94+16'96)(5 +~_2~ )_~~}

2xl·5 2Xl'5
= 163'35 sq. ft.
Section2:A 2 =t{(2S'24+20'87)-(S + __ ~4 ) __ 24~}
2xl·5 2Xl·5
= 296'88 sq. ft.
Section3:A 3 =t{(21'18+15'65)(4 +_ 2_~_ ) _ ~42 }

2xl·5 2x1·5
= 124·98 sq. ft.
. ..
The eccen t nClty ()
e -_ '--
W 1W2(W I +W2)
~ -- ----__ •
3Ar
. 22'94 X 16'96 (22·94+16'96)
Therefore, for sectIOn I : eI = ---------------------------
3 X 10 X 163·35
= 3'17 ft.
. 28·24x20·87 {2~L24.+20·87)
sectIOn 2 : e2 = -- --- -- ----- -~-------- -----
3 X 10 X 296·88
= 3'25 ft.
. 21·1SX15·65 (21'lS+15'65)
sectIOn 3: ea = - -- -- ---------------_--
3 X 10 X 124'98
= 3·26 ft.
Using the prismoidal formula, the curvature correction to
be applied
= 5Z (~~~~~_~'~_7 + 4 ~~~:-~~ci-:3_'~~ + 13~_'_9680ci3'-~6)

_ 50--{4785'1) = 132·9 cub. ft.
3x600
COMPUTATION OF VOLUM,ES 507
The correction is additive or subtractive according as the

curve is convex or concave towards the uphill side of the slope.
Alternative method:-
The curvature correction (C c) per unit length
Cc = 6R
~ 1
(W12 - wl) (h + b)28
Therefore, for section 1 :
Cc = ~6_X_2__{(22'94)2
600
- (16'96)2}(S +~~~)
2 Xl' 5
= 0,"861.
,',
For section 2 :
CJ = __l_~~{(28'24)2 - (20'87)2}(8 + 2-~~-) = 1'607.

6 X 600 xI' 5 .
For section 3:
Cc = ~~1~~ {(21'18)2 __ (15'65)2}(4 + __~~_) =0·679.

. 6 X 600 2 X l' 5
Using the prismoidal formula, the curvature correction
to be applied = ~O (0'861 + 4 X 1'667 + O' 609) = 132·8 cub. ft.

3 .
Example 19 :-A reetangle PQRS (Fig. 326) which is the

plan of a part of excavation, is 120 ft. x80 ft., 0 being the
point of intersection of its diagonals. The depths of excavation at
the points P, Q, R, S, and 0 are 9'5, 16, 15, 7·5 and 18 ft.
respeetively. Calculate the volume of excavation withing PQRS.
The average depths of excavation of each
of the triangles OPQ, OQR, ORS, and OSP
(Fig. 326) should be found by taking the mean
of the depths at the vertices of each triangle.
Area .of the triangular prism OPQ
Fig. 326 = !(80 X 60) = 2400 sq. ft.
1 43·5
Average depth = -~
3
(9'5 + 16 + 18) = -
3
ft.
43·5
Volume = -~ X 2400 cu. ft.
a
Area of the triangular prism OQR = _1 (120 X 40) = 2400 sq. ft.
2
. 1 ~
Average depth =
a
(16 + 15 + 18) = _a ft.
49
Volume = - X 2400 cu. ft.
8
Area of the triangular prism ORS = 21 (80 X 60) = 2400 sq. ft._·
40·5
Average depth = -I (15 + 7·5 + 18) = - - ft.
a 3
Volume = 40'5
--_ X 2400 cu. ft.
3
Area of the triangular prism OSP= _~ (120 X 40) = 2400 sq. ft.
2
l' 35
Average depth = (7'5+9'5+18) = - ft.
3 3
Volume = 35 X 2400 cu. ft.

3
. 2400
The reqUIred volume =- - (43·5 + 49 + 40' 5 + 85)
3
= 800 X 168 = 134400 cub. ft.
= 4977·8 cub. yds.
Example 20 :-Compute the volume of the excavation shown
in Fig. 327a, given the following:
6'
/ /N /0
, ~):::J~' n~
/Yc> TOI , I
.' t-" leo

~;
(a) (6)
Fig. 327a Fig. 327b
Side slopes It to 1 ; the transverse slope of the ground in the

direction of the centre line of the excavation 1 in 10. '
As will be seen from the figure, the solid consists of five
truncated prisms, viz. (1) ABCD, (2) ADGK, (3) BCFE, (4) DCFG,
and (5) ABEK.
Now in the longitudinal section (Fig. 327b),
60
b = 120 ft.; h = 16 - - = 10 ft.; r = 10; s = Ii.
10
Then by formula (3), the sidewidth (WI) = 28'2 ft.
" ,,(4), , , ( w2 ) = 5·2ft.
Prism 1;- Average height = 1(16 + 16 + 4 + 4) = 10 ft.

Area = 120 X 80 = 9600 sq. ft.
Volume (VI) = 9600 X 10 = 96000 cub. ft.
Prism 2;- Average height = 1-(16 + 16 + 0 + 0) = 8 ft.
Area = (80 + 28· 2) 28· 2 = 3051 sq. ft.
Volume (V 2) = 3051 X 8 = 24408 cub. ft.
,i·?
Prism 3 t- Average height = 1(4 + 4 + 0 + 0) = 2 ft.
i, Area = (80 + 5'2) 5'2 = 443'04 sq. ft.
''4;.
Volume (Va) = 443'04 X 2 = 886'08 cub. ft.
Prism •. : - Average height
~ .-,~
= t(16 +4 +0 + 0) = 5 ft.
33' 4 28· 22 5· 22}
Area = { (120 + 33·4)------ --- -~-
2 2 2
= 2150·88 sq. ft.
Volume (V 4) = 2150'88 X 5 = 10754'4 cub. ft.
Prism 5:- Same as in the case of prism 4.
Total volume (V) = VI + V 2 + Va +~V4 + Vs
= 96000 + 24408 + 886'08 + 2(10754'4)
= 142802'88 cub. ft. = 5289 cub. yds.
,
Example 21 ;-The areas within the contour lines at the
site of a reservoir and the face of the proposed dam are as follows;
510 SUR~EYING A~f" LEVELLING
Contour. Area in sq. ft. ,\Contour. Area in sq. ft.

450 3,000 'j _; 1, 475 4610,000
455 116,000 480 5120,000
460 840,000 'J": if 485 6520,000
465 1600,000 490 7110,000
470 3000,000
Taking 450 as the bottom level of the reservoir, and 490 as the
water level, find the volume of water in the reservoir in gallons.
(See Fig. 318)
The contour interval being 5 ft.,
(i) Volume of water between 450 and 490 contours by
.
the trapezOIdal formula = 5 X 1000 {3+7110
2 + (116 +840 + 1600
+ 3000 + 4610 + 5120 + 6520)}
= 5000 X 25362·5 cu. ft. = 5000> 25362'5 X 6·24 gallons.

= 791 ·2 million gallons.
(ii) Volume by the prismoidal formula,
5
- - X 1000 (3+4(116+1600+4610+6520)+2(840+3000'
3
5
= - X 1000 X 76417 X 6'24 gallons.
3 ' '
= 794·74 million gallons.
PROBLEMS
1. Derive expressions for the side-widths of (i) a Level section, (ii) a Two-level
section, and (iii) a Three-level section.
2. Derive expressions for the areas of (a) Level section, (b) a Two-level section,
and (c) a Three-level section.
S. Explain how the notes for the Three-level and Multi-level sections are
recorded in the field book, and how you would find the area of the latter.
j. Define a prismoid. State and prove the prismoidal formula.
PROBLEMS 511
5. Explain how you would determine (a) the capacity of a reservoir, and
(b) the volume of a borrow-pit.
6. A railway embankment is 30 ft. wide at formation level, with side slopes of
2 to 1. Assuming the ground to be level transversely, calculate the volume
of the embankment in cubic yards in a length of 600 ft., the centre heights
at 100-ft. intervals being 2, 4, 5, 6, 2!, and I ft.
[ Ans. 3309' 26 cub. yds. (trapezoidal); 3419' 75 cub. yds. (prismoidal).)
7. A road at a constant R. L. of 160'00 runs from north to south. The ground
from east to west is level. The ground levels along the centre line of the road
are as follows :
Ohainage : 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
R. L. of the ground: 152 154 156 153 155 157 158
Find the volume of the embankment in cubic yards for a road 24 ft. wide at
formation level, with side slopes of I! to 1.
{[Ans. 1802'8 cub. yds. (trapezoidal); 1850 cub. yds. (prismoidal).}
8. In a certain railway cutting the width at formation level is 30 ft. The
sides of the cutting slope at 1 to I, and the original ground sufrace has a
side slope of 1 in 8. Determine (a) the volume of the cutting contained
in a length of 800 ft., the average depth of cutting being 6 ft., and (b) its
cost at Rs. 2 per 100 cubic feet.
(Ans. (a) 178400 cub. ft.; (b) Rs. 3568.)
9. A road embankment 20 ft. wide at formation level, with side slopes of 2 to
I, and with an average height of bank of 8 ft. is constructed with an average
gradient of 1 in 50 from 200-ft. contour to 680-ft. contour. Find (a) the
length of the road in miles, and (b) the volume of the embankment in cubic
yards.
(Ans. (a) 4'545 miles.; (b) 256000 cub. yds.)
10. A railway embankment is made levef for 600 ft. The ground on which it
is constructed is level transversely, but has a uniform slope of 1 in 12 in the
direction of the railway. The formation width is 30 ft. and the side slopes
2 to 1. Determine the volume of the embankment in cubic yards, assuming
that the high end terminates vertically.
( Ans. 53703'7 cub. yds. (prisme>idal). }
1. The levels taken at every 100 ft. along the centre line of a proposed road
are as follows :
Chainage. R. L. chainage. R. L.
o 200'00 ,- 300 219'00
100 210'00 400 220'00
200 218'00
A cutting is to be made for a line of uniform gradient passing through the
first and last points. What is the gradient of the line? Compute the
volume of excavation in cubic yards, given that the formation width is 24
ft., and the side slopes 11 to 1. The syrface of the ground has a uniform side
slope of 1 in 10. ~\;x:,
~ ( Ans. 1 in 20; 2177' 4 cub. yds.)
12. Calculate the quantity of earth in cubic yards required for a road embank.
ment from the following data:
Formation width = 30 ft.; side slopes 2 to 1.
Distance. Height of bank. Side slope of the original ground surface.
o 10 1 in 10
100 12 I in 8
200 9 1 in 12
[ Ans. 4389' 6 cub. yds. (trapezoidal) ; 4651' 6 cub. yds. (prismoidal). }
13. Below are the notes for the three-level sections for two stations 100 ft.
apart. The width at formation level is 20 ft. and the side slopes I! to I.
Compute the volume of earthwork between the two stations.
Station. Oross-section.
LOR
c4 c5
1
16 0-
c5 c6
2
17~ o
[Ans. 729'6 cub. yds. (trapezoidal); 728' 2 cub. yds. (prismoidal). ]
14. The following notes refer to the cross-sections taken along a line:
Distance .. Left. Centre l Right Formation Level.
98'8 J 98 97'6 leo-OO

0 -0
60 60
99 98'2 97 96'2 95
50 100-50
ToO 50 -0- 50 iOO
98'6 97'8 96'5 95'8 95-2 101'00
100
ToO 50 0 50 ToO
200 98'2
80
97-2
40
96-0
-0
95'2
40 -
94'6
80
101'50
97'8 97 96'4
300 102'00
50 0- 50
The numerators show the groumd levels taken on the cross-sections,
and the denominators the respective horizontal distances from the
centre line.
Compute the volume of earthwork.
[Hint: Find the heights of bank, and then calculate the areas of the
cross-sections by Simpson's rule.]
[Ans. 8227' ~ cub. yds. (prismoidal).]
CHAPTER IX
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVELS
The object of the permanent adjustments of the level is to
establish the fixed relationships between its fundamental lines.
They are essential to the accuracy of observations. For each
instrument there are several adjustments, the number, nature,
and order of the adjustments, and the procedure to be adopted
in making them depending upon the type of the instrument.
Each adjustment involves two ste'ps.~ (i) a test to determine the
error, and (ii) an adjustment (or correction) of this error.
Principle of Reversal :-In testing for instrumental errors,
the method of reversal is in most common use. Most of the
adjustments of the level and the theodolite are based upon the
principle of reversal (or reversion:) .. The
principle underlying this method is that
if there exists any error in a certain
part, it is doubled by reversing (i. e.
6,"---+-'-;;-'--'-+-.......6 revolving through 180°) the position of
that part, or in other words, the apparent
Fig. 382 error on reversal is twice the actual (or real)
error as is evident from Fig. 328. Another use of this method is
that even though the instrument is out of adjustment, accurate
results can be obtained by reversing and taking the mean of the
two observations.
Note :-The adjustments are made by turning the capstan-headed
screws or nuts. Care should, therefore, be taken not to
use too much tension on them. Otherwise the threads may
be damaged or the screw broken.
Adjustment of the Dumpy Level
The telescope of the dumpy level is rigidly fixed to its
supports, and the line of collimation is placed in the axis of the
telescope by the maker. There are only two adjustments. The
fundamental lines of the dumpy level are :
(1) The axis of the bubble tube (or the bubble line).
P. 1.-17
514 SURVEYING AND ~EVELLING
(2) The line of collimation.
(3) The verticar axis.
The desired relations are: ...
(1) The axis of the bubble tube should be perpendi-
cular to the vertical axis.
(2) The line of collimation should be parallel to the axis
of the bubble tube.
Eirst Adjustment :-To make the axis of the bubble tube per-
pendicular to the vertical axis (Figs. 329 a & b).
Fig. 329 a Fig- 329 b

b1b 1 First Position. b~b2 Second Position. bob3 Correct Position.
The object of this adjustment is to ensure that the bubble
will traverse, i.e. remain in the centre of its run for all directions
of the telescope. The adjustment is not essential to the accuracy
of work, provided the bubble is brought exactly to the centre
of its run by means of the levelling screw nearly in line with
the telescope just before each reading is taken. It is, therefore,
made for convenience only.
Test :-(1) Set up the level on firm ground and level it care-
fully in the usual way (First temporary adjustment, page 370).
The bubble will now be central in two positions at right
angles to each other, one being parallel to a pair of foot screws,
and the other over the third foot screw.
(2) Bring the telescope over one (third) foot screw (or a pair
0
of foot screws) and turn it through 180 in azimuth. If the
bble remains central, the adjustment is correct.
Adjustment :--(3) If not, note the deviation of the bubble,
say 2n divisions. Bring the bubble half-way back (n divisions)
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVELS 515
by means of the capstan-headed nuts at one end of the tube, con-

necting the bubble tube to the telescope, and the remaining half
with the foot screw beneath the telescope (or a pair offoot screws).
(4) Turn the telescope through 90° so that it lies parallel to
the other two foot screws (or over the foot screw underneath the
telescope), and bring the bubble to the centre of its run by
means of these screws (or this screw).
(5) Rotate the telescope and see if the bubble traverses.
If not, repeat the whole process until the adjustment is correct.
Notes :-(1) In Fig. 829 a, suppose the angle between the
axis of the bubble and the vertical axis is 90° - 0(. When the
bubble is brought to its mid-position (first position), the vertical
axis makes an angle of 0( with the true vertical. When the
bubble is reversed (second position), the axis of the bubble
makes an angle of 2 0( with the horizontal. Thus the apparent
~rror on reversal indicated by the deviation of the bubble is
twice the actual error. Hence the correction is 0(, i. e. half
the deviation (n divisions) of the bubble. (2) The adjustment
is made by raising or lowering one end of the bubble tube by
means of the capstan-headed nuts. If the end of the bubble tube
is to be lowered, loosen the lower nut (or screw) and tighten the
upper one by means of a tommy bar, and vice versa.
Second Adjustment :-To make the line of collimation
parallel to the axis of the bubble tube.
If this condition is fulfilled, the line of collimation is horizontal
when the bubble is in the centre of its run. This condition is
highly important, and is the basis of spirit levelling. The adjust-
ment is commonly known as "the adjustment for collimation
error" and is made by the two-peg (or direct) method.
The Two-Peg Method :-Test :-(1) Drive two pegs A and
B at a known distance (D), say 200 to 800 ft. apart on a fairly
level ground, and drive a third peg at 0 exactly midway between
A and B (Fig. 880).
(2) Set up the level at 0 and level it accurately. Take
readings on the staff held vertically on A and on B. The bubble
must traverse while the readings are being taken. If not, it must
be brought exactly to its mid-position for each staff reading.
Let the readings be a and b respectively.
(3) Shift the level and sct it up over 0 1, d feet away from
Fig. 330
A (or B) and on the line BA produced (Fig. 331). The level may
be set up between A and B, d ft. away from A or B as in Fig. 332.
With the bubble exactly in the centre of its run, again read the
staff held vertically aternately on A and B. Let the readings
be a l and bl •
(4) Find thc difference between the readings a and b, and
that between the readings ai and bl • The former gives the true
difference in elevation between A and B, since the staff readings
are taken at equal distances, and the latter the apparent diff-
erence of level between them. If the two differences are equal,
the line of collimation is in adjustment. If not, it is inclined.
~d~~-------p ___________~
Fig. 331
FALSE LiNE OF COLLI/'JAT/OII 'L

f0
THOE LIIiE OF COLL/I'1ATION
a,
--7A--~~----~--~1
B
Fig. 332
Adjustment :-(5) Determine if the true difference is a
rise or fall, (If a is greater than b, the~'peg A is lower than the
peg B, and vice versa).
ADJ USTMENT OF LEVELS 517
(6) Add the true difference to the reading on the peg A ncar
the instrument, if it is a fall, or deduct it from the reading on
the near peg A, if it is a risc, to obtain the reading on the far
peg (B) at the same level as aI' Let the reading be c 1 ,
C1 = a1 ± true diiIerence, ", (1)
Use plus sign if the true difference is a fall, and minus
sign if it is a risc,
(7) Compare the readings C 1 and bl j if b1 is greater than ti'
the line of' collimation is inclined upwards, while it is inclined
downwards, if bi is less than CI '
b1 ",C 1 is the collimation error in the distance D,
(8) Find the corrections to be applied to the readings on
both pegs, by using the following formul<e :
Correction to the reading on the far peg
= C1 = D+d
- ~-- (b 1 ",el) ... (2)
D
Correction to the. reading on the near peg
d
= c2 = (b 1 "'el)' (3)
D
The corrections are additive to or subtractive from th{
readings (b 1 and a 1 ) according as the line of collimation is inl
dined downwards or upwards.
The correct reading on the far peg = bi ± c1 •
" " " "
Anjustment :-(1) The adjustment is usually made on th
far peg and checked on the near peg,
Look through the telcscope and observe if the correct readin
on the far peg is seen above or below the horizontal hair.
Bring the cross-hair to the correct rcading on the far pe
by moving the diaphragm by mean'> of the diaphragm screw
loosening one and tightening the other. If the corrcd readin
is greater than thc observed one (b l ), (or on looking through tl
telescope, jf the correct reading is seen below the horizont
hair), the cross-hair has to be lowered. To do this, loosen U
upper screw and tighten the lower screw. But if the corre'
eading IS less than the observed reading (b I ), (or on looking

h.rough the telescope, if the correct reading is seen above the
orizontal hair), the cross-hair has to be raised. To do this,
acken the lower screw and tighten the upper screw.
It may be noted that the cross-hair ring is drawn toward the
ghtened screw.
(2) Check the adjustment by reading the staff on the
~ar peg A. The observed reading should now agree with the
1culated correct reading on the peg A. If not, repeat the
ljustment until perfect.
The formulae for the corrections be may derived as follows ;-
Fig. 331,
11, = bi = the observed reading on B.
= a l = the observed reading on A.
= el = the reading on B at the same level as n (or all.
= the correction to the observed reading (bI ).
= the correction to the observed reading (a l ).
= the corrected reading on B.
= the corrected reading on A.
J = qk = the distance of the peg B from the level = D + d.
l = qp = the distance of the peg A from the level = d.
= nl = the distance between the pegs A and B = D.
Now lm = Bm - Bl = bl - ci •
The triangles mqk and mnl being similar,
km _1m km = D + d (b l
_ ell.
qk nl D
Similarly, by similarity of the triangles nqp and mnl, we have
pn 1m d
~ = pn = ~- (b l - ell.
qp nl D
nce
corrected reading on B =Bk=Bm-km=bl - [!?;~(bl-eI)}'

~orrectedreading on A=Ap=An-pn=al - {~ (bl-el )}.
ADJU~TMENT OF LEVELS 519
Alternative Method :-The correct staff readings may be

found trigonometrically (Fig. 331).
(1) Let 0( be the angle of inclination of the line of colli-
mation to the horizontal. Suppose the line of collimation is
inclined upwards, and the peg B is lower than the peg A.
Then
pn = d tan 0( ; km = (D + d) tan 0( •
Correct reading on the staff on the near peg (A)

= Ap =rtn - pn) =~I - d tan o()... ... (4)
Correct reading on the staff on the far peg (B)
= Bk = Bm - km = hI - (D + d) tan 0( (5)
True difference in elevation between A and B
= [(b l - D +dtan -<) - (a l - dtan o()}.
Equate this difference to the true difference (h - a) as
obtained from the staff readings taken on A and on B when the
instrument was midway.
f(b l - D + d tan -<) - (a l - dtan o()} = (b - a)... ... (6)
(2) Find 'the value of tan 0( • If it is positive, the line of
collimation is inclined upwards; if negative, it is inclined
downwards.
(3) Obtain the correct readings on A and B by substituting
the value of ta:J. 0( in equations (4) and (5), with due regard to
the signs.
The following are the modifications of the two-peg methoc
in most common use.
Second Method :-(Fig. 333).
B
Fig. 333 /
(1) The first two steps as described III the filst metllo
are the sam~.
20 ADJUSTMENT OF LEVELS
(2) Find the true difference in elevation (a"-'b) between

and B. If a is greater than b, there is a rise from A to..B,
nd if b is greater than a, there is a fall from A to B.
(3) Shift the instrument and set it up very near A (or B) .
.fter levelling it, take the readings (a l and bI ) on the' staff held
ertically on A and on B. When the instrument is set up very
ose to either of the pegs, say A, take the reading (d 1 ) on the
aff on A, by looking through the object glass, which gives
le height of the line of collimation over A, and the correct
ading on the peg A. -
(4) Add the true fall or subtract the true rise to or from
e reading a l on the peg A, which gives the correct reading
l the far peg B at the Same level as at.
(Correct staff reading on the peg B

= staff reading on the peg A ± true difference).
Use plus sign, if the true difference of level indicates a fall,
d minus sign, if it indicates a rise.
In this case the correct reading on B = a 1 +true difference
level.
(5) If the reading (b I ) taken on the far peg differs from
: calculated reading on the far peg, the line of collimation
lot in adjustment. If bi is greater than the calculated reading,
line of collimation is. inclined upwards; but if it is less, the
: of collimation is inclined downwards.
Adjustment :-(6) The adjustment is made on the pcg B
111 exactly similar manner as described on page 517.
Third Method :-(Figs. 275 a & b.) The principle of re-

oeal observations is used to determine the true difference of
1 between A and B. The procedure is exactly similar to that
Iwed in Reciprocal levelling. Having determined the true
Tenee of level between A and B, obtain the correct staff
ings on A and B as in the second method. The adjustment
en made on the peg A with the instrument at B as described
,age 517.
Note;- (i) The staff must be held truly vertical.
(ii) The bubble must be exactly in the centre of
its run before and after each reading. If not,
adjust it by means of the foot screw beneath
the telescope.
(iii) Check the arithmetical work by comparing

the difference between the corrected readings
! .•. with the true difference.
Examples on Adjustment of the Line of Collimation
Example 1 : -To test the line of collimation of a dumpy

level, the instrument was set up exactly midway between two
pegs A and B, 250 £.t. apart. The readings on the staff held on
A and B were 4· 94 and 4' 32 respectively. The instrument
was then moved and set up at~. The respective staff readings
on A and B were 4· 62 and 3· 95. Is the line of collimation
inclined upward or downward and how much? \Vith the instru-
ment at B, what should be the stall' reading on A in order to
place the line of collimation truly horizontal?
(i) Level midway: staff reading on A = 4'94,

f~'
i ;. " " all B = 4· 32
True difference of level of A & B = O· 62
(true fall from B to A)
I,evel at n stalT reading on B = 3·95
Add true fall = O· 6~
True staff reading on A = 4' 57
Observed staff reading on A = 4' 62
Sinee the observed staff reading is greater than the true
staff reading, the line of collimation is inclined upward.
The error of collimation = 4· 62 - 4·57 = + O· 05 ft. in 250 ft,
Staff reading on A which places the line of collimation
truly horizontal = 4·57.
-\" Example 2 :-In a two-peg test of a dumpy level, the
following readings were taken :
Instrument at Reading on Remarks.
A B
0 5·54 4'44 Distance between
(midway between pegs A and n = 300 f1
pegs A and B)
A 4'68 3·52
522 SURVEYING AND LEYELLING
Find the staff reading on B in order that the line of .collima·

tion should be horizontal when the instrument was at A.
Level at 0 : staff reading on A = 5·54
on B = 4·44
" "
True difference of level = 1·10
(true rise from A to B)
Level at A: staff reading on A = 4·68
Subtract true rise = 1·10
-
True staff reading on B = 3·58

Observed staff reading on B = 3·52
The line of collimation is inclined downward, and the
collimation error is 3· 52 - 3·58 = - O· 06 ft. in 300 ft.
Staff reading on B which makes the line of collimation
truly horizontal = 3·58.
Alternative method :-Suppose the line of collimation is
inclined upward at an angle of -< to the horizontal.
Then the error of collimation = 300 tan 0( ( +
ve).
Correct reading on B =
3·52 - 300 tan 0(.
onA = 4·68
True"difference
" of level = 4·68 - (3' 52 - 300 tan o(),
= 1·16 +300 tan 0(.
But the true difference of level = 5· 54 - 4·44 = 1'10
1'16 + 300 tan 0( = 1.10
0'06
or tan 0( = ----. =- 0'0002.
300
The minus sign denotes that the line of collimation is inclined
downward instead of upward as was originally assumed. Whence,
the collimation error in 300 ft. = - o· 06.
The correct reading on B = 3·52 + 0·06 = 3·58.
Example 3 :-In testing a dumpy level reciprocal levels
were taken, and the following results were obtained :
Instrument at Reading on
A B
A 5'98 4·83
B 4'7~ 3'72
Is the line of collimation in adjustment? What should

be the staff reading on A during the second set up of the instru-
ment to make the line of collimation truly horizontal?
Instrument at A: apparent difference of level
= 5·98 - ~·83 = 1·15 ft.
Instrument at B : apparent difference of level

=4·79 - 3·72 = 1·07ft.
True difference of level ( true fall from B to A)
+
= i ·15-- ----
1·07
= 1·11ft.
2
Instrument at B : correct reading on B = 3·72.
" " " " o n A = 3·72 + 1 ·11 = 4·83.
The observed reading (4.. 79) on A being less than the
correct reading (4·83) on A, the line of collimation is inclined
downward by an amount = 4·83 - 4·79 = 0·04.
Example 4 :-The following observations were taken during
the testing of a dumpy level:
Instrument at Staff reading on
A B
A 4·14 6·55
B 3·41 5·34
Is the instrument in adjustment? To what reading should
the line of collimation be adjusted when the instrument was at B ?
Instrument at A: staff reading on B = 6·55
on A = 4·44
" " "~-----.~
Apparent difference of level = 2·n

Instrument at B: staff reading on B = 5·34.
onA =3·n
" "
Apparcnt difference of level = 1·93
True difference of level =

2·11
-~----
+ 1·93 =2·02 ft.
2
( true rise from B to A )
Instrument at B: True reading on A = 5·84 - 2·02 = 3·82.
But the observed reading on A = 8·41.
'''524 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
The line of collimation is not in adjustment. It is

inclined upward, the collimation error being 3· 41-3' 32 = +0' 09.
Example 5 :--A dumpy level was set up exactly midway
between two pegs A and B, 200 ft. apart. The readings on the staff
when held on the pegs A and B were 6' lt9 and (). 20 respectively.
The instnmlent was then moved and set up at a point 0 1 on
the line BA produced, and 40 ft. from A. The respective staff
readings on A and B were 5· 68 and 5· 44. Calculate the staff
readings on A and B to give a horizontal line of sight.
Instrument midway between A and B : stall' reading on A = 6· 49
staff reading on B = 6·20
True difference of level of A and B = 0·29
( True rise from A to B)
[nstrument at 0 1 , 40 ft. behind A : staff reading on A = 5·68
staff reading on B = 5·44
Apparent differen~e of level of A and B = 0·24
Since the apparent difference of level of A and B is not
:qual to the true difference of level of A and B, the line of collima-
ion is not in adjustment (i. e. not parallel to the bubble line).
N ow the observed reading on A = 5·68
Subtract true rise = 0·29
The corresponding reading (1"1) on B = 5·39
Since the observed reading on B is greater than ev the line
r collimation is inclined upward. .
The collimation error in 200 ft. = 5·4,1, - 5·39 = + 0'05.
The corrections to the observed readings on A and B from
equations (2) and (3) are:
)rrection to the staff reading on A = 40 (0' 05) = O' 01 (-~e).

200
on B = 240 (0·05) = 0'06 (-ve).
" " " 200
Whence, the correct staff reading on A = 5· 68-0'01- = 5·67.
the correct staff reading on B = 5 . 44 - 0·06 = 5 . 38.
Check:- Correct difference = 5· 67 - 5· 38 = O· 29.
Alternative Method :-Suppose the line of collimation is

inclined upward, and that 0( is its inclination to the horizontal.
Then the correct reading on A = 5, 68 - 40 tan 0(.
on B = 5·44 - 240 tan 0(.
" " "
The true difference of level
= (5' 68 - 40 tan o() - (5' 44' - 240 tan o() = o· 24 + 200 tan 0(.
, But the true difference of level
= 6'49 - 6'20 = 0'29.
0'24 + 200 tan 0( = 0·29
or tan 0( = + 0'05
--.
200
The collimation error in 200 ft. = + o· 05.
Whence, the correct reading on A = 5'68 - 40 (0'05) =5·67.
200
240
on B = 5'44 - -(0'05) = 5'38.
" " 200
Example 6 :-A 'dumpy level was tested by the two-peg

method, and the following results were obtained :
(i) Instrument equidistant: staff reading on A = 3·42
from pegs Aand B on B = 5·53
" "
(ii) Instrument at 0 1 in the
line BA, 50 ft. behind A :
" "
on A = 4'68
on B = 6'01
" "
Distance between the pegs A and B = 250 ft.
Find the staff readings on A and B to give a horizontal
line of sight when the instrument was at 01'
(i) Instrument midway: true difference of level
= 5'53 - 3·42
( true fall from A to B) = 2'11.
(ii) Instrument at 0 1 : apparent difference of level
= 6'01 - 4'68 = 1'33.
Since the two differences do not agree, the line of collima·

tion is not in adjustment.
526 sURVEYING AND $VELLING
\
Now the observed reading on A '.:._ 4·68
Add true fall = 2'11
Corresponding reading (e1 ) on B = 6'79.
Since the observed staff reading (6' 01) on B is less than
tl \u'7<J), the line o~ ~~\\imati~n. i'i'. in.din.ed dw~mwayd.
The collimatioil error in 250 ft. = 6· 01- 6· 79 = - O' 78.

The correction to the observed staff reading is additiv~
Using equations (2 and 3), we get
50 '
Correct reading onA.= 4·68+-(0'78) = 4'68+0·156=4'836,
250
300
on B=6'01+--(0'78) = 6'01+0·936=6·946.
" " 250
Check :-True difference of level = 6·946-4·836=2·lI.
Alternative method :-Suppose the line of collimation is

inclined upward at angle of 0< to the horizontal.
Correct staff reading on A = 4' 68 - 50 tan 0<.
" " " on B = 6'01 - 300 tan 0<.
:. True difference oflevel =( 6' 01- 300 tan 0<) - (4' 68 - 50 tan o()
= l' 83 - 250 tan 0<.
But the true difference of level = 5·53 - 3·42 = 2 ·lI.
... 1 ·38 - 250 tan 0< = 2·n
0'78
or tan 0(= - - - .
250
The minus sign indicates that the line of collimation slopes
downward instead of upward as first supposed.
Whence, the correct staff reading on A = 4' 68 + 50 tan 0<
50
= 4'68 + -_' (0'78) = 4·836.
250
on B = 6'01 + 800 tan 0<
" " " "
= 6'01 + 300
. - (0'78) = 6·946.
250
Example 7 :-,.To determine the elevation of a point B on
the top of a hill, fly levels were run from a bench mark A of
elevation 950·60. The average length of the twelve backsights

and the twelve foresights was found to be 60 ft. and 30 ft. re-
spectively, and the difference in elevation of A and B was observed
to be 86· 78. The instrument was suspected to be out of adjust-
ment. It was, therefore, tested, and the following results were
obtained
Instrument Reading on the peg Distance
C D between
(a) midway 4'85 6·90 C and D
(b) at 0 1 in the line DC 5'36 7'44 = 200 ft.
produced, 40 ft. from C
Calculate the true elevation of B.
(i) Instrument midway : staff reading on D = 6·90
on C = 4'85
" "
True difference of level of C an.d D = 2' 05
(true fall from C to D)
(ii) " Instrument at 01 : staff reading on C = 5·36
Add true fall = 2· 05
The corresponding reading (e1) on D = 7·41
The observed reading on D = 7·44
Since the observed staff reading (7' 44) on D is greater
than e1 (7' 41), the line of collimation is inclined upward.
The collimation error=7·44-7·41 = + 0'03 in 200 ft.
Now the total length of the twelve backsights = 12 X 60 = 720 ft.
foresights = 12 X 30 = 360 ft.
" " "
... . t h e b ack'
The error III - - X- o·
"SIgIIts = 720
200
- 03
- = + 0·108 ft •
The error in the foresights = 360 X O· 03 = + O· 054 ft.
200
Total error = O· 054 ft. (subtractive).
The correction to the observed difference of level
Aand e= - 0'054 ft.
528 SURVEYIKG AKD LEVELLING
Whence, the true difference of level of ~ and B

= 86'78 - 0'054
= 86'726.
R. L. of B = 950'60 + 86'726 = 1037·326.
Example 8 :-Two pegs A and B were driven 350 ft. apart.
A dumpy level was set up near A, and the staff readings taken
on A and B were 4' 98 and 5· 04 respectively. The level was
then placed near B, and the respective staff readings on A and B
were and 5· 24 and 5· 18. State whether the instrument is in .
adjustment or not. Find the reduced level of B, if that of A is
80'50.
Suppose the line of collimation is inclined upwards at 0( 0 to
the horizontal. f
With the instrument near A, the correct reading on B
= 5' 04 - 350 tan 0(.
True difference of level between A and B
= (5' 04 - 350 tan o() - 4' 9S.
With the instrument near B, the correct reading on A
= (5'24 - 350 tan o().
True difference of level between A and B.
= 5 'lS - (5' 24 - 350 tan o().
(5·04 - 350 tan o() - 4·98 = 5'18 - (5·24 - 350 tan o()
i. e. 0·06 - 350 tan 0( = - 0'06 + 350 tan 0(
700 tan 0( 0·12
or 350 tan 0< = + 0·06 = collimation error in 350 ft.
Hence the instrument is not in adjustment. Now
Correct reading on B in the first case=5·04-0·06=4·98.
" " on A in the second case=5·24-0·06-:5·lS.
This shows that the pegs A and B are at the same level.
The reduced level of B is, therefore, the same as that of A.
Hence R. L. of B = 80·50.
Alternative Method:-
Apparent difference of level between A and' B in the first case
= 5·04 - 4·98 = + 0'06.
Apparent difference of level between A and B in the second

case = 5'18 - 5'24 = - 0·06.
Sincc the two differences are not equal, the line of collimation
is not in adjustment.
Trne difference of level between A and B
0'06 + (- 0'06)
= - .- _- .._-- -.-- -_ -_ .-- = O.
2
This shows that the pegs A and B are at the same level.
R. L. of B = 80·50.
\~' "l'\'<J-~~ample
9 : -In testing a dumpy level for collimation error,
\i the instrument was set up at C equidistant from A and B, the
distance between A and B being 200 ft. (Fig. 334). The staff
d
. f}
r
• : I
1--1l70 ~~l--
jO '- • ..-jc-_
Fig. 334
readings on A and B were 4· 30 and 6· 10 respectively. The
instrument is then shifted and set up at D midway between
A and C, and the readings on A and B were 3' 81 and 4·96
respectively. Is the line of collimation in aajustment? With
the instrument at D, calculate the staff readings on A and B
III order to"place the line of collimation truly horizontal.
(i) Instrument at C: Staff reading on A = 4'30

on B = 6'10
" "
True difference of level between A and B = l' 80
(True fall from A to B)
Instrument at D : Staff reading on A = 3·81
(ii)
on B = 4'96
" "
Apparent difference of level between A and B = 1'15
Since the two differences are not equal, the line of collima-
tion is not in adjustment.
Now the observed reading on A = 3'81
Add true fall = 1·80
Corresponding reading (et) on B = 5' 61
Since the observed staff reading (4'96) on B is less than
e1 (5' 61), the line of collimation is inclined downward.
Let IV = np = the correction to the staff reading on A.·
mk = " " " o n B.
Now ml = Bl - Bm = el - hI = 5'61 - 4'96 = 0'65.
mk = ml + lk. Butlk =np. Hence mk = ml + np= 0'65 +x.
Since the two triangles pdn and kdm are similar,
x 0·65 + IV x o· 65 +x .
~ =
dp dk
or - =
50 150
.. IV = + 0·325.
Whence, mk = 0·65 + 0'325 = + 0·975.
Hence the eorrected reading on A = 3' 8} + O· 325 = 4·135.
on B = 4·96 + 0·975 = 5·935.
Difference = l' 80.
Alternative Method:- (i) Instrument at C : True difference
of level between A and B = 6'10 - 4·30 = 1'80.
(ii) Instrument at D : Suppose the line of collimation is
inclined upward at an angle of 0( to the horizontal. Then
the correct reading on A = 3·81 - 50 tan 0( •
" " on B = 4'96 - 150 tan 0(.
True difference of level between A and B
= (4' 96 - 150 tan o() - (3' 81 - 50 tan o() = 1· 80.
0·65
Whence, 1·15 - 100 tan 0( = 1'80 or tan 0( = - - - .
100
The minus sign indicatcs that the line of collimation is inclined
downward instead of upward as first supposed.
100 ..
The correct reading on A=3·81- 50 ( - 0'65)= 4·135.
on B=4·96-150 ( - 0'65)= 5.935.

" " 100
Adjustment of Cooke's Reversible Level
In the Cooke's reversible level, the telescope can be revolved

round its longitudinal axis within the socket. It can also be
withdrawn from its socket and replaced end for end.
The principal elementary (or fundamental) lines are :
(1) the axis of the bubble (or the bubble line), (2) the line of
collimation, and (3) the vertical axis.
When the level is in perfect adjustment, the following
relationships should exist :
(1) The line of collimation should coincide with the axis
of the telescope.
(2) The line of collimation should be at right angles to
the vertical axis.
(3) The axis of the bubble should be perpendicular to
the vertical axis.
Fig. 335
First Adjustment :-To place the line oj collimation in the

axis of the telescope.
Test :-(1) Set up the level at a distance of 200 or 300 ft.
from a wall, and level it approximately. The level is set up
in such a manner that when the telescope is directed towards
the wall, it may lie over one foot screw.
(2) Direct the telescope to the wall and focus it. Drive a
nail or make a mark (M) on the wall coinciding with the part
of the cross-hair lying between the two vertical hairs (Fig. 335).
(Alternatively, hold a levelling staff at a distance of 200
or 300 ft. from the level, and read it. Let the reading be all.
(3) Withdraw the stop (or fixing) screw and rotate the
telescope about its longitudinal axis half-way round (i. e. through
532 SURVEY[NG AND LE~ELLING
\ ,
180°) in its socket so that the screw-hole is brought to the top

and the cross-hair is horizontal. Observe whether the cross-
hair still bisects thc test mark M. If it does, (or if the previous
reading a 1 is obtained), thc adjustment is correct.
(4) If not, make a new mark N coinciding with the crosS-
hair above or below M (or again read the staff. I~et the reading
be a 2 ). The actual error is half the vertical distance MN.
(5) Measure MN, and make a third mark P exactly midway
between M and N.
Adjustment :-(6) Move the diaphragm by means of the

upper and lower capstan-headed diaphragm screws until the
mark P is exactly bisected by the cross-hair (or until the mean
·
of t 1le two rea d mgs a 1 anda 2 , '1. e. -a 1 - + a2 .
lS obtained).
2 .
If the diaphragnl is to be lowered, loosen the upper screw and
tighten the lower screw, and vice versa.
(7) Repeat the procedure until the adjustment is correct.
In Fig. 335, Mm is the first position of the of collimation;
Nn, the second position, and Pp, the correct position.
Second Adjustment :-To place the line of collimation at

right angles to the vertical a(cis.
Test :-(1) Direct the telescope to thc test mark M and
bisect it carefully with the horizontal cross-hair. If necessary.
m._ N
p-_. _._. -p
n I
M
'Fig. 326
use the foot sc'rew beneath the telescope. (Instead, take a
reading on a levelling staff. Let the reading be all.
~ (2)Remove the stop-screw and withdraw the telescope

b~. efully from its soekct.
Turn the socket end for end and care-
Ily replace the telescope. See that the cross-hair is truly
rizontal. The telescope is now reversed in its socket, or more
rrcctly the· socket is reversed upon the telescope.
)' (8) Again sight the test mark M. If M is now bisected

the cross-hair, the adjustment is correct (or again read the
Iafr. If the previous reading a 1 is obtained, the adjustment

correct).
(4) If not, make a new mark N coinciding with the cross-
lair above or below M.
(5) Make a third mark P exactly midway between M and N.
Adjustment :-(6) Raise or lower the socket by means of the
"O'e plate or limb nuts until the mark P is bisected by the cross-
air (or until the mean of the two readings a 1 and a2 is obtained).
(7) Turn the foot screw beneath the telescope until the
ass-hair bisects the test mark M (or until the reading a1 is
tained). Reverse the telescope end for end, and See if the test
ark M is still bisected by the cross-hair (or the reading a1 is
ill obtained).
If not, repeat the operation until perfect.
In Fig. 336, Mm is the first position of the line of collionation ;
,n, the second position; and Pp, the correct position.
Third Adjustment :-To make the axis of the bubble perpendi-
tular to the vertical axis (Figs. 329 a & b).
f Test :-(1) Set the telescope parallel to the line joining any
Iwo foot screws. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by
tleans of these screws.
(2) Turn the telescope through 90° so that it lies over
he third foot screw, and bring the bubble to the middle of
!is run. Repeat until correct. By this process the bubble is

rought to the centre of its run in two positions at right angles
o each other.
(3) Bring the telescope over the third foot screw. Turn
the telescope about its vertical axis through 180°. If the bubble
j
traverses, i. e. remains central, the adjustment is correct.
,
.534 SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
Adjustment :-(4) If the bubble deviates from 'the centre,

note its deviation, say 2n divisions. .....
(5) Bring the bubble half-way back (n divisions) by
means of the capstan-headed nuts at the end of the bubble
. tube fixing the level tube to the telescope, and the remaining
half (n divisions) by means of the foot screw beneath the telescope.
(6) Turn the telescope through 90° so that it lies parallel
to the line joining the other two foot screws, and bring the bubble
to the middle of its run by means of these screws.
(7) The bubble should now traverse, i. e. remain in its
mid-position for a complete revolution of the telescope. If not,
repeat the test and adjustment until correct. The vertical
axis will then be truly vertical.
Adjustment 3 ensures that the bubble will remain in the
centre of its run for all directions of the telescope. It is made
for convenience only. Otherwise it will be necessary to relevel
the instrument at every sight taken, since the essential require-
ment for accurate work is that the bubble must be in the middle
of its run at the instant of taking a staff reading. If, therefore, 1
the bubble deviates from its central position" it should be brought
exactly to the centre of its run by means of one of the levelling
screws beneath the telescope.
Of the three adjustments, adjustments 1 and 2 are of prime
importance. If the line of· collimation does not coincide with
the axis of the telescope, it will generate a cone, and the line
of collimation and the axis of the bubble will not be parallel for
all positions of the telescope in its socket.
Adjustplent 2 ensures that the line of collimation is horizontal
when the bubble is centred, which is the essential condition in
spirit-levelling.
/.' Adjustment 3 is made for convenience only.
Adjustment of Cushing's Level
In Cushing's level, the telescope can neither be rotated about

its longitudinal axis in its s?cket nor, can it be withdrawn from its
socket and reversed end for end .. But the eyepiece and diaphragm
can be rotated through 180 0 in their fittings, and the eyepiece and
o"t)ject glass can be interchanged, which amounts to reversing
the telescope end for end. The fundamental lines of this level
and the relations between them are the same as those for Cooke's
level. The methods and means of adjustment are exactly iden-
tical with those employed in the case of Cooke's level.
First Adjustment :-To srt the line of collimation in the
axis of the telescope:-
Test and Adjustment :-This is made in exactly the same
manner as the first adjustment of Cooke's level except for the follo-
wing: In step 3, rotate the eyepiece end (i. e. the eyepiece
and diaphragm) through 180 0 in its fitting instead of rotating
the telescope about its axis through 180°.
Second Adjustment :-to set the line of collimation at right
,angles to the vertical axis.
) Test and Adjustment :-As in the second adjustment of
Cooke's level except for the following:
In steps 2 and 7, interchange the eyepiece and object glass
'"ends.
Third Adjustment :-To set the axis oj the bubble perpen-
dicular to the vertical axis.
Test and Adjustment :-This is carried out exactly in the
same manner as the third adjustment of Cooke's level.
Adjustment of the Y Level

In the Y level, the telescope can be revolved about its longitu-
dinal axis in the Y's. It can also be lifted bodily from the Y's
by loosening and raising the wye clips, and replaced end for end.
The fundamental lines of the Y level are :
(1) The axis of the bubble tube. (2) the line of collimation,
(3) the vertical axis, (4) the bottom line of the Y's (i. e. the line
joining the bottoms of the Y's), and (5) the axis of the Y's (i. e.
the line joining the centres of the Y's). The last two lines are
,for the permanent adjustment only).
When the level is in perfect adjustment, the following
relationships should exist :
(1) The line of collimation should coincide with the axi~

~.
of the telescope.
(2) The axis of the bubble tube should be parallel to the
line of collimation.
(3) The axis of the bubble tube should be perpendicular
to the vertical axis.
First Adjustment :-To make the line of collimation coincide
'li:it~ the axis of the telescope.
Test and, Adjustment :-As in adjustment 1 of Cooke's
leveL Step 3.-Loosen and raise the wye" clips, and turn the
telescope about its longitudinal axis through 180 0 in the Y's ~
(Fig. 335).
Second A".djustment :-To make the axis of the bubble tube
parallel to the line of collimation. '
This adjustment· is made in two steps :
First step :-To place the axis of the bubble tube in the planl:.,
of the axis of the telescope.
Test
. :-(1) Set up and level the instrument
,
carefully.
Fig. 337
abTrace of :vertical plane through the axis of bubble.
ac" ". " " " o f telescope.
(2) Loosen and raise the wye clips. Rotate the telescope~
in the Y's through a small angle (say, 100) as in Fig. 337.
If th.e bubble remains central, the adjustment is correct.
Adjustment :-If the bubble deviates from the centre,
bring it entirely back to its central position by means of the
small capstan-head~d screws on the side of the bubble tube~
called the azimuth screws, which adjust the bubble tube laterally.
It may be noted that the apparent error ( deviation' of the~
bubble), is the actual error, since no reversal is made in the test.
(4) Repeat the procedure until correct.
Fig. 338
Second step :-To make the ax
to the line of collimation (or the boUo
Test :-(1) Bring the telef>cope
(-lpposite levelling screws (or over one
three foot-screw instrument) and cIa p. Bring the bubble
exactly to the centre of its run by means of these screws.
(2) Loosen and raise the Y clips: Lift the telescope
'from the wyes, turn it end for end and replace it carefully. If
the bubble remains in the centre of its run, the adjustment is
correct.
, Adjustment :-(3) If not, note the deviation of the bubble.
~S~ppose it is 2n divisions. The deviation of the bubble (apparent
(frror) is twice the actual error. The real error is n divisions:
I (4) Bring the bubble half-way towards the centre (n
ldivisions) by means of the capstan-headed screws (or nuts) at
ohe end of the level tube (by loosening one screw and tightening
the other), and the remaining half (n divisions) by means of
~he pair of the levelling screws (or one foot screw) beneath
tlretelescope.
I
(5) Repeat the operation until correct.

The following points may be noted in making the axis of
I~he bubble tube parallel to the line of collimation by the above
!ethod.
:, (1) Since the end for end reversal is made with respect
'tc the Y's, the axis of the bubble tube is made parallel to the
b~ttom line of the Y's (i. e. parallel to the bearing surface of the
qo[ars).
,
.. (2) If the telescope collars (i. e. pivot rings) are of equal
':piatneter, the line of collimation is the axis of a cylinder, ;:tnd
will then be parallel to the bottom line of the Y's. Hence the
line of collimation and the axis of the bubble will be parallel.
since they are both parallel to the bottom line of the Y's. But
if they are not of the Same diameter due to uneven wear, the
line of collimation is the axis of ~ cone, and will not be parallel
to the bottom line of the Y's, in which case, the above method
fails, as it depends upon the equality of the collars.
(3) In such a case, the direct or two-peg method as already
described for the dumpy level may be employed.
In making the adjustment by the two-peg method, the
cross-hair is brought to the calculated (or corrected) reading on
the far peg by means of the pair of levelling screws (or one
levelling screw) beneath the telescope. The line of collimation
is now horizontal, but the bubble is displaced from its central
position. It is brought back to the centre of its run by means
of the level tube screws.
Third Adjustment :-To make the axis of the bubble tube
perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Test and Adjustment :-The procedure is the same as in
adjustment 3 of Cooke's level except for the following:
Step 5 :-Bring the bubble half-way back by the Y nuts,
-and the remaining half by the foot screw beneath the telescope.
Adjustment of the Tilting Level
In the tilting level the tel~seope with its attached bubble

tube can be tilted independently of the vertical axis. With this
type of the level there is only one' condition of adjustment, VIZ.
the axis of the bubble tube should be parallel to the line of collima-
tion so that the line of collimation is horizontal when the bubble
is centred. There are two types of the tilting level, viz. (1)
reversible, and (2) non-reversible. In the reversible type, thq
telescope can be rotated about its longitudinal axis through
1800 and carries the bubble tube with it.
Watts self-adjusting level is fitted with the "constant" level
tube. The bubble does not change its length with change of
temperature, thus eliminating the loss of sensitivenes" due to
shortening of the bubble caused by increase of temperature.
Adjustment :-To place the axis of the bubble tube parallel

to the line of collimation.
Revers1ble Type.-Test :-(1) Set up the level with the
level tube on "the left face" of the instrument, and level it
approximately by means of the foot screws. Hold the staff on
a firm point or peg at a distance of about 300 ft.
(2) Bring the main bubble exactly to the centre of its

run by means of the tilting ( or micrometer) screw, and read
the staff. Let the reading be al'
(3) Turn the telescope about its longitudinal axis through I
180°, bringing the main bubble to the "right face" of the

instrume:qt.
(4) With the bubble exactly centered, again read the staff.
Let the reading be a2'
If the two readings are identical, the adjustment is correct.
Adjustment :-If the two readings disagree, bring the

bubble
.,. to the "left face" by turning the telescope, and set the
telescope to their mean reading ( ~t~) by turning the micro-
meter (or tilting) screw, ignoring the bubble. The line of colli-
mation is now horizontal, but the bubble is displaced from its
central position.
(6) Adjust the bubble exactly to its central position by

.means of the adjusting screw attaching the bubble tube to one
of its supports.
(7) Repeat the operation until perfect.
Non-Reversible Type ...:.....Test :-The level is tested by the

two-peg method as already explained with reference to the
second adjustment of the dumpy level.
Adjustment :-(1) If the apparent difference of level is

I?ot the same as the true difference of level, find the correct staff
readings on the two pegs.
(2) Set the telescope to the correct reading on the distant <
staff by means of the tilting screw, ignoring the bubble.

(3) Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means
of the bubble tube adjusting screws.
(4) Repeat the procedure until correct.
Adjustment of the Zeiss Level
The Zeiss level is the typical of the reversible tilting

(modern) levels. The -telescope is of the internal focussing
type, and can be rotated along with the attached level tube
through 180 0 in its bearings about its longitudinal axis. The
distinguishing feature of the telescope is that it is fitted witIi
an additional achromatic plano-convex le.s exactly similar to
the normal object glass, and is placed in front of the eyepiece.
This objective (subnormal objective) is used in testing the
permanent adjust.ment of the instrument. In order. to reverse
the telescope end for end, the eyepiece is removed and slipped
into the objective cap placed over the normal objective.
The fundamental lines of the level arc (1) the axis of th~
bubble tube (the bubble axis), and (2) the line of collimation.
There is only one condition of adjustment, viz. the bubble
tube axis must be parallel to the line of collimation.
Adjustment :-To make the bubble tube axis parallel to the
line of collimation.
Test :-(1) Set up the level so that the tribrach is fairly
horizontal, and a foot screw is beneath the telescope. Briu~
the circular bubble to the centre of its run by means of tht
foot screws.
(2) In the test, the' readings are taken on a staff in fOLf
positions as follows:-
(a) Position I :-With the telescope in its normal positio~
and the bubble tube on the left of the telescope, sight a staff held
vertically on a firm point at a distance of about 150 ft. Centre th,I
main bubble accurately by means of the tilting screw (the reft
ections of the halves of the two ends as seen in the prism w~
appear coincident, and note the reading (a 1 ).
0
(b) Position II: Rotate the telescope through 180 in
its bearings so that the bubble is on the right (the telescope
being in an invcrted position). 'With the bubble central, again
read the staff, and note the reading (a 2 ).
(c) Position III: Place the objective cap over the normal
object glass. Removc the eyepiece and insert it in the cap.
l"ocus it correetly. Turn the telescope about its vertical axis so
that the ordinary eyepice end is towards the staff. With the
telescope in the reversed position and the bubble tube on the
left, and with the bubble central, take a reading on the staff (a~.
(d) l)osition IV : Rotate the telescope through 180 0 in
its bearings. With the bubble tube on the right, and with the
hubble central, again read the staff, and note the reading (aJ.
If the four readings are identical, the instrument is in
perfect adjustment.
Note :-In ordinary levelling operations, position I only is
employed, while for precise work, the combined readings in
l'ositions I and II are taken. Positions III and IV are
employed for testing and adjusting the instrument only.
Adjustment :-(3) If not, find the mean of four readings
so obtaincd, which gives a horizontal collimation which is
entirely free from systematic errors.
(4) Withdraw the eyepice from the cap and place it in its
proper position. With the telescope in the normal position
and with the bubble tube on the left. set the middle cross-hair to
the correct reading (the mean of thc four readings) by means of
the tilting screw. The line of collimation is now truly horizontal.
(5) Centre the bubble (i. e. bring the bubble halvcs as seen
in the prism into exact coincidence) by moving the prism box
hy means of the milled head provided for the purpose .
.
If the error is more than can be eliminated Py adjusting
the prism box, the bubble is centred by means of the level tube
adjusting screws.
The following table gives the means of adjustment for the
various adjustments in the case of different types of level:
Level. Adjustment. I Means of adjustment.
First Diaphragm screws.

Cooke's and
Second Base plate (or Limb) nuts.
Cushing's
Third Level tube screws or nuts.
First Diaphragm screws.

Wye or Y Second Level tube screws or nuts.
Third Y nuts.
~~~ting--I--Fir~t Level tube screws.
Parallel-Plate Micrometer :-The parallel-plate micro-

meter, also called the optical micrometer (Fig. 339), is a simple
device fitted to the precise (tilting) levels such as Watts, Zeiss,
etc., in order to read the staff to
0·001 ft. directly and to 0·0001 by
estimation. It consists of an accura-
tely plane parallel glass plate (or
disc), which is optically worked, and
horizontally pivoted in front of the
object glass. The plate can be tilted
by turning the micrometer knob
beside the telescope, thus bringing
the image of the particular staff Fig. 339
division accurately between the V -lines of the graticule plate,
the amount of tilt being read off on the graduated drum or arc.
The drum or arc is divided into 20 equal parts. One complete
revolution of the graduated drum or the movement through a
range of ~O divisions of the graduated arc displaces the line of
sight in a vertical direction (i. e. raises or lowers) exactly
through 0·02 ft. on the staff so that a movement of one division
on the drum or arc equals 0·001 ft. It may be noted that the
vertical displacement of the line of sight (parallel to itself) is
absolutely parallel, and is correct for all staff distances.
PROBLEMS 548
To use this device, (i) level the instrument and sight the
staff. (ii) Tilt the plate (or disc) until the horizontal cross-hair
appears to coincide with the next lower O· 01 ft. division read
on the staff. (iii) Note the reading on the drum or arc. (iv)
The final reading is then equal to
the reading on the staff + the reading on the drum or arc.
PROBLEMS
1. Describe in detail, with sketches, the adjustments of the dumpy level.
2. Describe fully, with sketches, the adjustments of the Y level.
3. Explain fully, by the aid of neat sketches, how the Cooke's reversible level
is tested and adjueted, stating the object and necessity of each adjustment.
4. Describe in detail the procedure in adjusting Cushing's level.
5. What are the salient features of the tilting (modern) level?
Explain how you would adjuet it.
6. Describe concieely how a Zeies level is tested and adjusted.
7. A dumpy level was set up exactly midway between two pegs A and B, 250 ft.
apart, and the readings on the staff held on A and B were 4'51 and 6'62
respectively. Thc instrument was then moved and set up at C in the line
BA, 50 ft. behind A. The respective staff readings on A and B were 6' 66
and 8'15. Calculate the staff readings on A and_B during the second set up to
give a horizontal line of sight.
( Ans. OnA, 6' 784; onB, 8' 894. )
8. To test the line of collimation of a dumpy level, thefollowing observations
were made:
Instrument at Reading on
o A B
midway between A and B 3'61 5'69
01 3'78 6'66
40 ft. behind A
The pegs A and B were 300 ft. apart. With the instrument at 0 1 , what
should be the staff readings on A and B to place the line of sight truly
horizontal ?
(Ans. On A, 3'673; on B, 5'753.)
9. The following staff readings were taken in testing it dumpy level for collima·
tion error:
(i) Instrument midway between pegs A and B :
Readings on A and B: 4.90 and 4'72 respectively.
Instrument at B:
Readings on A and B : 4' 80 and 4' 56 respectively.
What should be the staff reading on A in the second case to make the
line of sight horizontal?
(Ans. 4'74.)
10. Two pegs A and B were driven into the ground 350 ft. apart. A dumpy
level was set up near A and the staff readings taken on A and B were 4'96
and 5' 02 respectively. The level was then placed near B, and the respective
readings on A and B were 5' 22 and 5'16. State whether the line of colli·
mation is in adjustment or not. Find the reduced level of B, if that of A
was 250'75.
(Ans. Out of adjustment; 250' 75.)
11. Reciprocal levels are taken with a dumpy level as given below:
Instrument at Reading on Distance between
A B A and B = 300 ft.
A 3'08
B 3'64
Is the line of collimation inclined upward or downward and how much?
What should be the staff reading on A when the instrument is at B to make
the line of collimation truly horizontal?
(Ans. Line of collimation is inclined downward; - O· 03 in 300 ft.; 5' 35.)
12. Flying levels were run from a bench mark A of R. L. 1250' 75, to determine
the reduced level of a point B on the top of a hill. The average length of the
thirteen backsights and thirteen foresights were 65 ft. and 40 ft. respectively.
The observed difference oflevel between A and B was found to be 92'48 ft.
The instrument was suspected to be out of adjustment. It was, therefore,
tested, and the following results were obtained:
Level Rading on Distance between
C D A and B
midway 5'66 3'90 ==250 ft.
near D 5'86 4'12
Compute the true reduced level of B.
(Ans.1343·256.)
13. Two pegs A and B are driven into the ground at a distance of 400 ft. A
dumpy level is set up at C-a point exactly midway between A and B. The
staff readings on A and Bare 4' 22 and 5' 80 respectil'ely. The level is then
shifted and set up over a point D on the line BA produced 40 ft. distant
from peg A. The respective staff readings on A ans Bare 5' 64 and 6' 40.
( i) What is the difference of level between A and B ?
( ii) Is the line of collimation in adjustment?
)
PROBLEMS 515
(iii)With the instrument at D, what should be the staff readings on A and

B to m:tke the line of collimation truly horizontal?
(Ans. (i) 1'58 ft.; (ii) collimation slopes downwards; (iii) on A,
5'722; on B, 7'302.)
In testing a dumpy level, the readings on two pegs A and B, 200 ft. apart,
were 6' 6 and 5' 8 respectively, the instrument being midway between them.
The instrument was then set up at C in the line AB, 50 ft. from A, the point
C being between A and B, and the staff readings on A and B were 6' 2 and
5' 2. C"lculate the readings on A and B when the instrument was at C, in
order to give a horizontal line of sight.
(Ans. On A, 6'3; on B, 5'5.)
•. The following observations are taken during testing a dumpy level:
P Q P and Q
P 4'78 7'48 = 400ft.
Q 1'88 4'18
Is the line of sight inclined upward or downward and how much? What
should be the reading on P when the instrument was at Q, to make the line
of sight truly horizontal?
(Ans. Line of sight is inclined upward; + O' 2 in 400 ft.; l' 68.)
6. The following method was adopted to test the line of collimation of a
Dumpy level: Two pegs A and B were driven 400 ft. apart and the
following readings were recorded:
(a) The instrument set up and levelled over the peg A: the height from
the top of A to the centre of the eyepiece measured 4' 62. The etaff reading
on the top of peg B 2 '12. (b) The Instrument is then shifted to peg B and set
up and lev-elled: the height from the top of the peg B to the centre of the
eyepiece measured 4'47. The staff reading on the top of peg A 6'59.
(1) Determine the difference of level of A and B, (2) If the reduced level
of A is 1846'52, calculate that of B. (3) Is the line of collimation in
adjustment? If not, with the instrument at B, how would you' adjust
the line of collimation? (U. B.)
(Ans. (1) 2'31 ft.; (2) 1848'83; (3) out ofadjuetment;
correct reading on A = 6' 78; hair to be lowered.)
The following observations were taken during the testing of a dumpy
level: (a) Instrument equidistant from pegs A and B : Staff readings on A
and B; 7' 65 and 7' 94 ft. re~pectively.
(b) Instrument on the line BA produced and 40 ft. distant from peg A :
Staff readings on A and B : 6' 58 and 6' 92 ft. respectively. Distance
between pegs A and B=200 ft. Calculate the staff readings which should
be obtained in case (b) to give a horizontal line of 3ight. In what direc-
tion would you move the diaphrgam and how? (U. P.)
(Ans. On A, 6' 57; on 6' 86; to be raised.)
P. 1.-18
CHAPTER X
MINOR INSTRUMENTS
The Hand Level :-The band level (Fig. 340) is a compact
Fig. 340
hand instrument and is used for (i) rough work, such as re-
connaissance and preliminary surveys, (ii) loeating contours in
topographic surveying, and (in) taking short cross-sections.
It consists of a sighting tube of a rectangular or circular cross-
section about 4 to 6 in. long, having (i) a pin-hole at one end,
(ii) a cross-wire at the other end, and (iii) a small bubble tube
mounted on top. Immediately below the bubble tube is an
opening in the top of the tube through which the bubble is seen
reflected in the mirror fixed inside the tube at 45° to its axis and
immediately under the bubble tube. The mirror occupies half
the width of the tube, and objects are sighted through the other
half. The line joining the pin-hole and the cross-wire furnishes.
the line of sight. It is horizontal when the cross-wire bisects
the image of the bubble.
To use the instrument,
(1) hold it in the hand or against a ranging rod at a known
height (5 ft.) above the ground, and sight the staff.
(2) Raise or lower the forward end of the tube until the
image of the bubble as seen in the mirror is bisected by the cross-
wire.
(3) Note the reading at which the cross-wire appears to
cut the staff.
Clinometers :-The clinometers are light compact hand
instruments commonly used for (i) measuring vertical angles,
(ii) observing the slope of the ground, and also for (iii) locating
MINOR INSTRUMENTS 547
points on a given grade. They are adapted for rough and rapid
work. There are various forms of clinometer, the simplest
form (Fig. 64, page 61) consisting of (i) a semi-circle graduated
in degrees in both directions with the zero placed at the middle
of the arc, and (ii) a light plumb bob suspended from the centre.
To determine the slope of the ground, the observer stands
at one end of the slope, and sights along the top edge of the
graduated arc to the mark or vane set on a ranging rod at the
height of the observer's eye, held vertically at the other end.
He then clips the cord with his thumb and reads the angle.
The Abney Level :-Of the various patterns of clinometer,
Fig. 341
the Abney level (Fig. 341) is the most commonly used type.
It is a light, compact, hand instrument of low precision. It is
very convenient for rapid work. It is chiefly used for (i) measuring
angles of elevation and depression, (ii) taking cross-sections in
a hilly or mountainous country, (iii) measuring the slope of the
ground when chaining along uneven ground, and (iv) tracing a
grade contour for the alignment of a hill road. It may also be
used as a hand level by setting the vernier to the zero of the scale.
The Abney level consists of :
(1) a square sighting tube fitted with an eyepiece or a
small telescope at one end. At the other end is placed a mirror
at angle of 45° inside the tube and occupies half its width.
A wire is fixed acrosS the tube behind the mirror by means of
which objects can be bisected.
348 SURVEYING A~D LEVELLI~G
(2) a small bubble tube attached to a vernier arm, which

can be rotated by means of a milled wheel, or a worm ·wheei"'
and milled-head screw.
(8) a semi-circular graduated arc. The middle point of

the arc is marked zero and the graduatIOns from 0° to GO° (or
90°) are marked on both sides of zero. At the inner rim of the
semi-circle are marked the slopes, which are read by the outer
edge of the .-ernier plate.
With the help of the vernier, which is of the extended type,

vertical angles may be read to 10 minutes.
Fig. V Fig. VI
(1 ) In measuring a vertical angle, the observer directs

the instrument towards the object, and bisects it with the cross
wire and at the same time turns the milled wheel until the
cross-wire bisects the reflection of the bubble as seen in the mirror.
He then reads 'the required angle on the arc by means of the
vernier. It may be noted that the bubble tube is always
horizontal and the vernier arm vertical, (Fig. VI), whatever may
be the inclination of the telescope.
(2) To measure the slope of the ground, the observer

stands at one end of the slope, and directs the instrument on to the
mark or vane fixed on the ranging rod at the same height as the
obseryer's eye, held at the other end, and turns the milled wheel
until the reflected image of the bubble is'~'brought t9 the centre
of its run and intersected by the Cl'oss-'yire. The bubble tube
is now horizontal, while the telescope is paralled to the slope
of the ground. The angle read on the arc gives the slope
of the ground.
(3) To trace the grade contour, the angle corresponding to

the given ruling gradient is set on the arc by means of the vernier.
I
The height of the eye of the observer is then marked on a rang-

ing rod. The observer stands over the first station, and directs
the instrument towards the mark or vane on the ranging rod held
at a eOllvenient distance, say 100 to 150 ft. The raging rod is
then moved up or down hill until the observer bisects the vane
with the cross-wire, and simultaneously sees the bubble centred
in the mirror and intersected by the cross-wire. The line joining
the instrument station to the point on which the ranging rod is
held is parallel to the line of sight, and is on a given grade. The
point is then pegged. The observer then moves to this point
and repeats the process to establish the next point. The pro-
cess is continued until the last point is established.
Testing the Abney Level :-There are two methods of

testing the Abney level.
First :Method :-(i) Direct the instrument to a well-defined

distant object and observe the angle of elevation or depression
( 0( 1) in the usual way.
(ii) After inverting the instrument, again sight the same

object and observe the angle ( 0( 2)'
(iii) If these two readings ( 0( 1 and 0( 2) differ, the instru-
ment is out of adjustment.
Second Methud :-(i) l;'ix a horizontal vane on a ran~ing rod
at a convenient height, say 5 ft., and hold the ranging rod at the
top of the slope.
(ii) Mark the same height (i. e. 5 ft.) on another ranging
rod. Standing at the foot of the slope and holding the instru-
ment, against the mark on the ranging rod, sight the vane on
the ranging rod held at the top of the slope, and read the angle
of elevation ( 0( 1)'
(iii) Next hold the instrument against the mark on the
ranging rod at the top of the slope, and sight the horizontal vane
on the ranging rod held at the foot of the slope. Read the angle
of depression ( 0( 2)'
(iv) If these two values ( 0( 1 and 0( 2) agree, the instrument

is in. adjustment.
\
556 SURVEYING AND \LEYELLING
\
Adjusting the Abney Level :-4i} If not, obtain the correct
value of the angle of inclination by taking the mean of the two
readings 0( 1 and 0( 2.
(ii) Adjust the instrument to the mean value (~1+2 0(2)

1
sight the object, and then centre the bubble by means of the
adjusting screws controlling the bubble tube.
Note :-(i) The correct value of the angle of inclination
0(1+ 0(2
2
_ ,0( 1 - 0( 2
(ii) The index error --~---.
2
De Lisle's Clinometer :-(Fig. 342). This is a u,.;eful instru-

ment for measuring vertical angles, deter-
mining the slope of the ground during
chaining operations, and also for setting
,0
out gradients.
It consists of (i) a mirror placed in
a metal frame, which is .. suspended from a
gimbal so that the mirror hangs vertically.
At the top of the gimbal is attached a
ring to hold the instrument. The mirror
occupies half the width of the frame and
objects are sighted through the other half
which is open.
(ii) a heavy arc attached to the bottom
of the frame. The arc is jointed on a vertical
Fig. 342 axis so that it may be revolved to bring
the arc towards the observer (i. e. forward) to measure angles of
elevation, or away from the observer (i. e. backward) to measure
angles of depression. The arc is graduated for slopes from I in
50 to I in 5.
(iii) a radial arm fitted at the centre of the arc. The
radial arm, the bevelled edge of which forms the reading index,
can be moved along the arc, and carries a sliding weight. The
lllNOlil INSTRUMENTS 551
mirror can be inclined to the vertical by sliding the arm along

the graduated arc. The angle between the line of sight (i. e.
the line from the eye to its image in the mirror) and the hori-
zontal is equal to the inclination of the mirror to the vertical.
When the weight is. moved to the outer stop at ithe end of the
arm (when the word 'Level' will appear), it counterbalances
the weight of the arc in a horizontal position, and makes the
mirror vertical. The line of sight is made horizontal by sliding.
the weight to the outer stop and turning the radial arm back to,
its fullest extent.
To measure a vertical angle,
(1) turn the arc forward for an angle of elevation, or back-
ward for an angle of depression. Slide the weight to the inner-
stop marked '1 in' .
(2) Hold the instrument at arm's length, suspending it
I from the thumb.
I (3) Move the radial arm along the arc until the reflection
: of the eye as seen in the mirror is coincident with the object
sighted through the open half of the frame.
,
(4) Note the reading on the graduated arc at the bevelled
edge of the arm, which gives the tangent of the vertical angle.
It is well to remember the approximate relation between a slope
and the corresponding angle of slope.
1° is equivalent to a slope of 1 III 60.
2° 1 in 30.
30 " " "
1 In 20.
" " " 1 m 15.
4°
50 " " " 1 In 12.
" " "
In measuring the slope of the ground, the procedure is the
same as described above except that instead of sighting an object,
a mark or vane set on the ranging rod at the height of the obser-
ver's eye, hcld at the other end of the slope is sighted. The read-
ing on the graduated arc gives the tangent of the angle of slope.
To set a point on a given grade, say 1 in 20,
(1) turn the arc towards or away from you as the case
may be.
(2) Set the arm to the graduation 20 on the arc.

(3) Send an assistant with a ranging rod on which is set
a mark or vane at the height of your eye, to a convenient dis-
tance, say 150 to 180 ft. on the hill side, and direct him to move
up or down the slope until the refiectiol1 of the eyc appears
coincident with the mark ot vanc. The foot of the ranging rod
is then the required point, and the line joining the starting point
and the point so obtained is on a grade of 1 in 20. The point is
then pegged.
Watkin's Mirror Clinometer :-This instrument (Fig. 343a),
also called the Service Pattern Clinometer 1 is used for measur-
ing angles of elevation or depression. It consists of (i) a circular
box having a pin hole (eye hole) in one edge to which the eye
is applied, and a rectangular opening in which is fitted, a piece
of plain glass in the opposit{! edge, and through which objects
are sighted. The line joining the centre of the eye hole and the
centre of the rectangular opening defines the line of . sight
(ii) a brass circle pivoted at the centre. The circle is counter
Fig. 343 a Fig. 343 b
balanced, and is made to swing freely by means of a weight. The

inner rim of the left-hand half of the circle carries an ivory scale
divided into degrees, the graduations for angles of elevation being
marked in red and those for angles of depression in black. When
the instrument is not in use, the graduated arc is clamped by
means of a slide above the rectangular opening. The arc is
released by pressing a knob acting on the spring inside the box,

and swillgs freely when the bar forming the diameter of the arc
assumes a vertical position. (iii) a small concave mirror which
reflects the graduated arc to the eye. On looking through the eye
hole, the observer sees in the mirror a magnified image of the
scale, and also at the same time the reflection of a small index
line engraved on a piece of ivory placed just beside the eye
hole (Fig. 343b).
I
To measure a vertical angle,
(1) hold the instrument in the left hand and release the
graduated scale by pressing the knob.
(2) I,ook through the eye hole, and sight the object through
the rectangular opening. Bisect the object with the reflection
of the index line, and note the reading on the scale coincident
with this reflection, which gives the required angle.
The Foot-Rule Clinometer :--Thc foot-rule clinometer
Fig. 314
shown in Fig. 344 is a simple, compact, hand instrument, and

is used for measuring the angles of slope. It consists of (i) a
boxwood rule having two arms hinged together at one end.
Each arm is 6 in. long, and is fitted wit.h a small spirit level so
that each arm can be placed perfectly horizontal.
(ii) a brass quadrant, which is attached to the hinge and

divideu in degrees from 0 0 to 90 0 • On the lower side of the arc
is engraved a scale which gives rise and fall in inches per yard.
(iii) a pair of sights, and (iv) a small compass recessed

into the lower arm for taking bearings.
The upper arm is fitted with a pair of sights, which consist

of folding brass plates in each of which is a pin-hole (eye hole)
and a glass disc on which a cross is scratched. The line joining
the centre of the eye hole to the centre of the corresponding
cross furnishes the line of sight. The lower pair is used for reading
angles of depression, while the upper one for angles of elevation.
On the two arms of the instrument are engraved two tables:

one gives the amount of rise (Dep.) for a horizontal distance of
100 ft. for a given inclination, and the othcr gives the amount of
rise (Thickness) for a distance of 100 ft. measured along the slope
for a given inclination. Two tables are also engraved on· the
back of the instrument : one gives the hypotenusal allowance
1ll inches per yard, and the other gives angles eorrespondiI,lg
to gIven gradients.
To measure an angle of elevation or depression'l
(1) hold the instrument firmly against a ranging rod so that

the lower arm is horizontal, the bubble in the lower bubble tube
being central.
(2) Turn up the sights into position. Look through the eye
hole, and open the upper arm until the line of sight bisects the
sight vane set on the ranging rod held at the other end of the slope.
(3) Note the reading 011 the quadrant indicated by the

arrow, which gives the required angle.
A more common method of using the instrument is to place

the in~trument on a straight edge laid on the slope to be
, measured, and to open the upper arm until it is horizontal, the
bubble in the upper bubble tube being central. The reading on
the quadrant gives the required angle of slope.
The Ceylon Ghat Tracer :-This instrument illustrated in

l~ig. 345 is used for setting out a grade contour, i. e. locating
Sight
Vane Pin
•
Fig. 3(5
points on a given gradient in thc preliminary survey of a h;ll

road, and also for measuring the angles of slope.
It consists of (i) a hollow brass sighting tube suspended

frbm a bracket and having a very small whole (eye hole) at one
extremity to which the eye. is applied, and a larger opening
with cross-wires at the other. The tube pivots round the point P
ancvis held suspended from an upright staff.
(ii) a horizontal racked bar. The bar is parallel and rigidly

attached to the tube at a distance of about 1 in. from it.
(iii) a weight, the upper part of which forms the reading

index. The weight can be moved along the rack by means of
a milled-head screw actuating a pinion on the rack.
On the flat side of the sighting tube are marked gradients

from 1 in 120 to 1 in 6 on both sides of the centre of the scale
so that rising and falling gradients can be read.
556 SURVEYIKG AND LEVELLIKG
The line of sight is defined by the line joining the centre

of the eye hole to the intersection of the cross-wires. The
sighting tube and along with it the line of sight can be set to any
desired gradient by moving the weight along the rack to the
required reading on the scale.
Procedure :~Suppose it is required to layout a gradient
of 1 in 30 along a hill slope.
(1) Hold the instrument at the given station, suspending
it from tbe pin inserted in the upright staff.
(2) Move tLe weight along the rack by means of the milled-
head serew until the index reads SO on the scale.
(3) Send an assistant with a sight vane (a T-shaped staff
on which is marked the height of the axis of the sighting tube
above the foot of the suspending staff) to a convenient dist-
anre, say 150 ft. or more along the hill slope.
(4) I.ook through the sighting tube and direct the assistant
to move up or (lown hill until the cross-wires bisect the centre
of the sight vanc.
The foot of the sight vane is then the required point, and
the line from the instrument station to this point is parallel
to the line of sight and is on a gradient of 1 in 3('). A peg is
driven at the point so obtained, which serves as the instrument
station for locating the next point.
(5) Proceed to the point so established, and repeat the

operation to Ioeate the next point.
To measure a slope,
(1) hold the instrument at one end of the slope and a
sight vane at the other.
(2) Move the weight along the rack by turning the milled-
head screw until the centre of the sight vane is bisected by the
cross-wires.
(3) Note the reading at the index edge of the weight,
which gives the amount of slope observed.
The Indian Pattern Clinometer;- This instrument

(Fig. 346), also called the Tangent Clinometer, is very useful for
Fig. 3<106
determining the elevations of distant points and is extensively

used in plane tabling. It consists of (1) a base plate resting on
three ivory buttons so that the instrument can be moved over
the paper of the plane table without soiling it.
(2) a brass bar carrying two vertical folding vanes 8 in.

apart at ends. The sight (or object) vane is about 7 in. high
and the eye vane about 3i in. high' abo,'e the bar. In the eye
vane is a pin hole (eye hole), while in the sight vane is a long
vertical slit. The sight vane is graduated in degrees from the
centre upwards for angles of elevation, and downwards for angles
of depression on the left side of the slit, and likewise graduated
in natural tangents on the right side, the zero of the scales being
opposite the eye whole. A spirit level is attached to the bar on
its side. By means of the milled-head screw at one end of the
base plate which raises or depresses the bar, the bubble is
centred. When the bubble is central, the line joining the eye
hole and the zero of the scales is horizontal. II
The sight vane is sometimes provided with a frame carrying

a horizontal wire, which is moved along the scales by a rack and
pinion.
To use the instrument,

(1) set up the plane table over a given st:ation, and level
it accurately.
(2) Place the instrument on the board and bring the
bubble to the centre of its run by means of the milled-head
screw at the end of the base plate. Measure the height of the
eye hole above the ground.
(3) Look through the eye hole and note the graduation
on the tangent scale which coincides with the object sighted.
If the sight vane is provided with a frame carrying a horizontal
wire, slide the frame along the scale until the horizontal
wire bisects the object. Observe the graduation opposite the
horizontal wire.
Tne reading gives tne tangent· o~ tne vertica\ ang\e \ o().
The corresponding vertical angle ( o() may be read on the scale
on the left side of the slit.
Knowing (i) the R. L. of the instrument station, (ii) the
height (h) of the eye hole above the ground, and (iii) the horizontal
distance (d) to the object as scaled from the plan, the reduced
level of the object sighted may be determined thus:
The difference in height between the eye and tbe object

= distance X tangent of the vertical angle = d tan 0(.
This computed difference should be corrected for curvature

and refraction.
The reduced level of the line of sight = the reduced level
+
of the station occupied the height of the line of sight (i. e.
of the eye hole) above the ground.
Hence (a) when the observed vertical angle is an angle of
elevation: The reduced level of the object = the reduced level
of the station occupied + +
h d tan 0( +
correction for curvature
and refraction.
(b) When the observed vertical angle is an angle of depression:
The reduced level of the object = the reduced level of the station
occupied +h - (d tan 0( - cirrection curvature in refraction).
Example 1 :-An observation was made from a station A to

a station B by means of the Indian Pattern clinometer and the
reading on the tangent scale was o· 035. The distance AB as
scaled from the plan was 5680 ft. The reduced level of the plane
table station A was 250' 75, and the height of the alidade above
the ground was 4·4 ft. Find the reduced level of the station B.
(i) The Difference in height between the eye and the station B
= d tan 0( + correction for curvature and refraction =
~
0680 X 0'035 + 0'57 (5680)2
-- = 198'8 + 0·6597 = 199·4597 ft.
5280
(ii) R. L. of the eye = R. L. of A + ht. of the alidade =

250'75 +4·4=255'15
R. L. of B = 255'15 + 199'46 = 454·61.
Example 2 :--If the reading on the tangent scale in the

example I was - O' 085, find the reduced level of the station B.
(i) The difference in height between the eye and the station B
=5680 X(0'035)_0'57(5680)2= 198·8- 0'66= 198'14

5280
(ii) R. L. of B = 255'15 - 198'14 = 57·01.
Test and Adjustment :-To test if the instrument is in
correet adjustment, i. e. if the line joining the eye-hole and the
zero of the scales is horizontal when the bllbble is central.
establish a distant point at the same level as the eye-hole with
a theodolite or level, and find whether the line of sight strikes it.
If not, the instrument is out of adjustment. Make the line of
sight horizontal with the milled-head screw, and bring the
bubble to its central position by means of the adjusting screws
at the end of the bubble tube.
Another and simpler method is to determine the natural
tangent of the vertical angle ( o() from the instrument station
"!;o another station of known elevation by the above relation,
knowing (i) the elevations of the two stations, (ii) the horizontal
distance (d) between them, and (iii) the height of the eye-hole
(h), and then to make the instrument record this value by means
of the milled-head screw. The bubble is then brought to the
560 SURVEYING AND LEVELLI~G
centre of its run by means of the adjusting screws controlling the

bubble tube.
Enlarging and Redudng Plans :-It is often necessary to

reproduce plans or portions thereof to either an enlarged or a redu-
ced scale. The most accurate and satisfactory method is to replot
them from the field notes to the required scale. This method
should preferably be used for enlarging a plan, since any errors
of plotting on the original plan are proportionally increased on
C
I
/
Afl/ ~N
e' 2'
f_ ~ I
,
/
/
1)( /
fii........
""
V
0
.1/
3'
4
,
,
I>
t--.
c
"'l{""
5 5
G
, l / {;
,
l~
II
I-- V
i:' l6t>
A /c34S678 0 a if--'
~
J
Fig. 347 a Fig. 347 b
the enlarged plan if enlarged by any other method. However,

for ordinary purposes, plans may be enlarged or reduced by
(1) the graphical method, (2) the mechanical method, and (3)
the photographic methods.
Graphical Method :--Method by Squares :-For ordinary

purposes, this method is satisfactory, provided the work is done
carefully. Suppose it is required to reduce a plan to a given scale.
(1) Rule accurately and lightly in pencil a network of squ-

ares, say 1 in. or 2 in. sides either on the original drawing or on a
sheet of tracing paper covering it. Number and letter the hori-
zontal and vertical sides of the squares as shown in Fig. 347a.
(2) Next draw a similar number of squares, but of a size

smaller according to the given scale on the new sheet of drawing
paper. Number and letter the horizontal and vertical sides of
the squares as before as in Fig. 347 b.
MINOR I~STRUMENTS 561
(3) Note the points of intersection of the lines on plan and

the detail with the sides of the squares, and their distances with
reference to the sides of the squares.
i (4) Fix the corresponding points on the copy by trans-

ferring these distances by scaling, by the use of proportional
!compasses, or by judging by eye. The work of transferring these
lpoints is greatly facilitated by the use of proportional compa-
sses, thereby increasing the accuracy of work.
Fig. 348
Proportional Compasses :-The proportional compasses

(Fig. 348) consist of two slotted (or grooved) and double-pointed
similar brass arms (or limbs) clamped together by means of a
milled-head screw. This screw passes through the slider which
moves in the slots. An index line is marked on either face of the
slider. On one face of the instrument are marked lineal ratios such
, as i, ~, etc., on the left of the slot (or groove), and a scale of lines
, on the right, the divisions being marked 2, 3, 4, ctc. On the
other face of the instrument are marked a scale of plans and a
scale of solids on the left and right of the slot respectively. To
set the instrument, first close it so that the two arms appear
as one, and then slacken the screw. Move the slide until the
index line accurately coincides with the division marked with a
number representing the given ratio on the seale of lines, say 2.
Tighten the screw and open the instrument. The distance
between the points at the long end will be twice that between the
points at the short end.
To use the instrument, measure the distances from the
plan with the points at the short end, and transfer them on the
copy by means of the points at the long end, and vice versa.
Mechanical Method :-In this method the enlargement O~

reduction of plans is effected by the use of either thc Panta·
graph or Eidograph. Both instruments are based on the principle
of similar triangles.
Fig. 349
The Pantagraph :-The pantagraph illustrated in Fig. 349

consists of four tubular brass arms (or bars), square in section.
The tvw long bars KL and KM are pivoted together at one end
K and the two short bars NP and NQ are likewise hinged toge-
ther at one end N, and also connected with longer arms at P
and Q. Thus the four bars form a parallelogram having equal
sides in every position of the instrument. The instrument is
supported parallel to the paper on several castors or small
rollers, which allow the instrument to move freely on the paper
in all directions. The arms KM and NQ are graduated and
marked t, i, i, etc., giving the corresponding reduction
(enlargement) ratios. A sliding tubular frame carrying an index
line and a vertical axis of rotation slides on the arm KM, and a
similar frame carrying an index line and a pencil slides on the
short arm NQ. Both frames can be clamped at any of the divi-
sions by means of the clamping screws. The vertical axis is
fixed to a triangular weight called the fulcrum, which keeps
the instrument in position. The other long arm KL carries a
tracing point at L which is moved over the lines of the original
drawing, while the pencil fitted to the short arm NQ produces

the copy. As shown in the figure the instrument is set for
reducing a plan. The tracing point and the pencil, which are
interchangeable, are interchanged when a plan is to be enlarged.
When the instrument is accurately set, the tracing point L,
the pencil point R, and the vertical axis M will lie in one straight
line as shown by the dotted line in the figure and will always
remain so in all positions of the instrument. The pencil can
be raised off the paper by means of a cord passing from the
pencil round the instrument to the tracing point when the
tracing point is to be passed from one part of the original plan
to another in order to avoid false lines on the copy.
To use the instrument for reducing a plan, first set the

sliding indices at the divisions representing the required reduc-
tion, and clamp them. Set the tracing point on the origiji(nal plan
and the pencil point on the drawing paper on which a copy is
t.o be made. Move t.he t.racing point carefully along every line
on the original plan when a t.rue copy, but reduced t.o t.he re-
quired seal,:: will be drawn by the pencil on t.he paper beneath it.
If a plan is to be enlarged, interchange the pencil and the

tracing point, the pencil being placed on the arm KL at Land
the tracing point on the arm NQ.
When the weight is kept on the long arm KM, erect copies
arc obtained, while reverse copies are obtained, if the weight is
kept on t.he short arm NQ and the pencil on the long arm KM,
the divisions to the left being used.
The instrument is chiefly used for reducing plans. It does

not give satisfactory results when used for enlarging plans
because of its unsteadiness arising from its several points of
support and joints.
The Eidograph :-The eidograph (Fig. 350) invented by

Professor Wallace to remedy unsteadiness of the pantagraph, is
an elaborate and expensive instrument, but it is more reliable
and gives more accurate results than the pantagraph. The
instrument has only one point of support upon the paper and
564 SrnVLYU,G Al\D I.EVELLING
three joints, and, therefore, it is more regular and smooth in

its action than the pantagraph, which has four points of support
and five joints.
The eidograph consists of three square tublllar brass bars.

The point of support is a heavy weight (W) having three needle
points by mcans of which it is kept steady on the paper. A pin
projecting from the centre of the weight (W) forms the fulcrum
upon which the entire instrument rotates, and is attached to a

sliding box. The centre bar AB slides through this sliding box,
and can be adjusted to any desired position and clamped by
a clamping screw. The ,fulcrum may also be moved along the
centre bar AB. Thc other two bars Be and AD are so
eonnected to the ends of the centre bar AB that they are
parallel to each other in all positions of the instrument. At the
extremitics of the ccntre bar An are pulley wheels of exactly
equal size, which are connected hy an adjustable thin steel
Land, which ensures that the other two hars Be and AD will
always remain parallel to each other. The hars Be and AD
slide through the sliding boxes fixed to the underside of the
pulley wheels, and may be adjusted to the desired position
and clamped by means of clamping screws.
One of the bars carries a tracing point at its end, and the
other a pencil. The pencil holder can be raised from the paper
when required by means oC- a lever attached to a cord passing
over the instrument to the tracing point. The three bars are
cach divided into 200 equal parts, which are figured each way
from the centre upto 100. By means of verniers engraved on
the sliding boxes, readings may he obtained to one-tenth of a
division. A loose lead weight is supplied with the instrument
to keep the centre bar in even balance.
When the instrument is accurately set, the traeing point, ful-
crum, and the pencil point will always lie in the same straight line.
Test :-In order to test if the bars Be and AD are parallel,
set all the verniers to zero, and make marks with the tracing
and pencil points. \Vheel the instrument half round and place
the tracing point on the mark made by the pencil. If the pencil
coincides with the mark made by the tracing point, the hars
are parallel.
Adjustment :-If not, make a second mark with the pencil.
Mark a point exactly midway between this mark and the mark
; made by the tracing point. Bring the pencil point exactly to this
I point of bisection by turning the adjusting screws on the steel band.
t
•, bars
Setting the instrument :-The number (x) to which the two
Be and AD, and the centre bar AB are to be set may be
obtained by the rule,
x = diff~~ence of t~~_fr~c_tional_terl1l~"ofthe pr<)p~r~ion X 100

sum of the fractional terms of the proportion
e. g. let it be required to reduce to one-fourth (1). Then
4 - 1
x = X 100 x= 60.
4+1
Having found the required number, the centre bar should
be set to this number (60) on the pencil side of the zero. The
bar carrying the tracing point should be lengthened to the
number (60), and that carrying the pencil should be shortened
to the same number (60). When the instrument is thus set,
a true copy reduced to one-fourth the scale of the original plan
will be obtained. When a plan is to be enlarged, the arrange-
ment is to be reversed, i. e. the centre bar should be set to
the required number on the tracing point side of the zero, an'd
the pencil bar and the tracing bar should be lengthened and
I shortened to the required number respectively.
Determination of the Meridian:- The direction of the true
meridian (geographical north and south line) at a place may
be determined approximately by the following methods
\
\
\
\
\
\
Fig. 351
(1) By the Sun's Shadow :-The method consists in noting
the points where the shadow of the top of a vertical pole falls
at equal intervals of time before and afternoon. To do this, a
pointed pole is driven quite vertically into the ground (Fig. 351).
With the pole as a centre, a number of concentric circles are
drawn, and on these are marked the points where the shadow of
the top of the pole intersects them at equal intervals of time
before noon by means of pegs 1, 2, 3, etc., as shown in Fig. 351.
MINOR 1NS'rRUMENTS
567
Similar points are marked at th .
noon by means of pegs 4' 3' 2' e sa~e mtervals of time after
, , , etc. 'Ihc corresponding points on
I
Fig. 352
the same circle (4 and 4', 3 and 3', etc.) are joined to the foot
of the pole, and the angles so formed are bisected. These
bisectors should be in the same straight line. If not, the mean
direction is taken as the direction of the true meridian. For
example, in Fig. 352, bi and b2 are the corresponding points
and Ob s, the bisector of the angle b10b 2 •
(2) By the Magnetic Compass :-In this method a magnetic

meridian is established by means of a compass set up at a given
point. It is established by taking several observations and
taking the mean of the points so marked as the point on the
magnetic meridian. Knowing the magnetic declination at the
place, the direction of the true meridian may be established.
(3) By Observation on the Pole Star :-In this method the

true meridian is established by observing Polaris (Pole star) when
it is on the meridian either above or below the pole (at culmina-
tion). To do this, (i) suspend a plumb line at a convenient
point, and drive a peg exactly beneath the plumb bob. (ii) On
the south side of this line, suspend another plumb line at a
distance of about 15 ft. (iii) As the time of culmination appro-
aches, move the second plumb line so that the two plumb lines
are in line with Polaris until the time of culmination is reached.
(iv) Drive a peg exactly below the plumb bob. The line
joining the centres of the pegs represents the direction of the

true meridian. In this method the time of culmination must
be accurately known.
PROBLEMS
1. Sketch and describe the Abney level. Explain how you would use it in
measuring the angles of slope of the ground, and in setting out a grade
contour.
2. Describe, with sketches, De Lisle's clinometer, and explain its use.
3. Explain, with the aid of a diagmm, the construction and use of WatkiD's
mirror clinometer.
4. Describe, with a neat sketch, the construction and the use of the hand level.
5. Sketch and describe the Indian pattern clinometer. For what purpose is i
chiefly used and how?
6. Sketch and describe the Foot-rule clinometer. Explain how it is used.
7. Describe, with neat diagrams, the construction of the Ceylon Ghat Tracer.
Explain fully how it is used in setting out a grade contour.
S. Describe the various methods of enlarging and reducing plans.
9. Describe, with a neat sketch, the construction and use of the pantagraph.
10. Sketch and describe the eidograph. Explain fully how it is used in enlarging
and reducing plans and maps.
II. Describe, with a neat sketch, the construction and use of the proportional
compasses.
12. Describe concisely but fully the various methods of determining the
direction of the true meridian.
CHAPTER XI
TRIGONO~IETRICAL LEVELLING
Trigonometrical Levelling is a branch of levelling in which
the relative elevations of different stations are determined from
the observed vertical angles and known horizontal or geodetic
distances. The vertical angles may be measured by means of a
theodolite, and the horizontal distances may be either measured
or computed.
Various cases will now be considered.
• Fig. 353
Indirect Levelling :-Referring to Fig. 353, let P be a point
of known elevation, and Q a point, the elevation of which is to
be determined.
J_Jet 0< = LQPR = the vertical angle measured at P.
D = PQ' = the horizontal distance in ft. between P and Q.
\Vithout sensible error, we may take PR = PQ' and
LQRP = 90°.
Then QR = PR tan QPR = D tan 0< . .. (1)
When the distance is great, the combined correction for
curvature and refraction must be applied. The correction is
additive when the measured vertical angle is an angle of eleva-
tion (+ angle), and subtractive when it is an angle of depression
(- angle).
The correction 'for curvature and refraction = RQ' = R'P'
= 0.57 I __!!___ '\ 2
t5'280/'
Hence we have
The differenee in elevation (H) between P and Q is
H = QR + RQ' = Dtan 0( + 0':57 (_ D)2 (2)

5280
If the vertical angle (fJ) be observed from Q to P, we have
I)R' = QR' tan PQR' = D tan fJ (3)
QR' being taken equal to PQ' = D.
Then H=PR'-R'P'=Dtan fJ-0'57 (__E-;-)2

5280
(4)
Adding the equations 2 and 4, we get

D
H = -- (tan 0( + tanfJ) ... (5)
2
From equation (5), it may be seen that when the effects
of the earth's curvature and atmospheric refraction are to be
eliminated, the vertical angles should be measured from (and
to) each of the two points whose relative elevation (difference
III elevation) is to be determined.
F G
Fig. 354 a
Procedure :-In Fig. 354 a, suppose a line of indirect levels
is to be run between two points C and G whose difference of
level is required. Then
Fig. 3.54 b
(1) Set up a theodolite at some convenient position 0 1 on
the line approximately midway.
TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING 571
(2) Measure the vertical angle ( 0( 1) to C, and the horizontal

distance 0lC (D I ) (Figs. 354 a and 354b).
(3) Measure the vertical angle (PI) to D, and the horizontal
distance OlD (D 2 ).
(4) Shift the instrument and set it up at 02'
(5) Measure the vertical angles ( 0( z and ( 2 ) to D and E,
and the horizontal distances 02D and 02E (D3 and D 4 ) res-
pectively.
(6) Continue the process until the end of the line is reached•.
The difference in elevation between C and D
+
= HI = CC' DD' = (CC" - C"C') + (DD" +D"D').
Now CC" = Dl tan 0( 1; DD" = D z tan fJ 1 ; C"C' = D"D', smce
the horizontal distances Dl and D z are nearly equal.
III = D 1tan 0(1 + D ztanP1 ... (6)
Similarly, the difference in elevation between D and E
= Hz = Da tan 0( 2 + D, tan.8 a (6a)
and so on.
Whenever possible, the instrument should placed midway
between the points to which the backsights and foresights are
taken to eliminate the effects of curvature and refraction.
If the distance is small as is usually the case in practice, there
is no need to apply the correction for curvature and refraction.
Hence no attention is paid to equalising the backsight and fore-
sight distances. The results obtained by this method are generally
correct to tenths of a foot. The method is generally used in
rough country.
Fig. 355
Levelling on Steep Ground :-To determine the elevations

of points along a given line on steep ground, a theodolite may
be used with advantage. In Fig. 355, suppose a section is run
with a theodolite along the line commencing at A. The instru-
ment is set up in any convenient position 0 1 on the line, and

having made the line of collimation roughly parallel to the slope
of the ground and clamped the tcIescope, a backsight (All) is
taken on A, and the vertical angle to B is observed. Staff
readings arc then taken at the required points, and thc dis-
tances to these points from A measured along the slope with a
chain. When the instrument requires to the shifted, a forcsight
(CD) is taken on the change point C. The instrument is then
transferred to the second position O 2 on the line. With the line
of collimation placed roughly parallel to the slope of ground, a
back sight (CE) is taken on th~ change point C, and the vertical
angle to E is observed. Staff readings are then taken at the
required points, and the· distances to these points from C
measured as beforc. The work is repeated until the end of the
line is reached. Fr0m the data collected in the field, the
reduced levels and horizontal distances of the various points may
be computed thus :
Let A = the starting point of known elevation of the line
of section.
0( 1 = the vertical angle to B observed at 01'
0( 2 = " "to E" at 02'
AB = the backsight on A.
CD = the foresight Oil the change point C.
CE = the backsight " " "C.
K and P = any points on the line.
KK' == the staff rcading at K.
PP' = " at P.
AK = BK' the distance of K on the slope from A.
0-=0
CP = EP' = " of P " " from C.

Then R. L. of B = R. L. of A + AB (backsight).
R. L. of any point = R. L. of B + measured distance of the point
X sin 0( 1 - stafT reading at that point.
R. L. of K=H. L. ofB + BK' sin 0(1 - KK'.
R. L. of C '--= R. L. of B + BD sin 0( 1 - CD (foresight).
R. L. of E = R. L. of C + CE (backsight).
R. L. of P = 11. L. of E + EP' sin ,'< 2 _ PP'.
The horizontal distance of any point K = BK'cos 0( c=AK cos 0( l'
" " " "P = EP' cos 0( 2~=CP cos 0( 2'

The several methods of angular levelling.... : available for

determining the elevations of particular points such as a top of
chimney or church spire, etc., will now be considered.
}!'ig.356
Method (1) Base of an Object Accessible :-i. e. the
distance from the instrument station to the base of the object
can be measured or obtained hy calculation; e. g. top of a
parapet wall (Fig. 35G).
Notation : -
H = the height of the object above the bench mark (B. lVI).
h = the height of the object above the instrument axis.
hs = the staff reading on the bench mark.
<>( = the vertical angle observed at the instrument station.
D = the distance in ft. measured from the instrument sta-
tion to the base of the object.
Then h =-coo D tan <>( (7)
H = D tan <>( + hs (7a)
and R. L. of the object = R. L. of B. 1\1. + H
= R. L. of B. 1\1. + D tan <>( + hs .. , (8)
When thc distance D is large, the correction for curvature
and refraction, viz. { 0·57 ( 5~O) 2} may be applied.
R. L. of the object = R. L. of B. M. + D tan + hs

<>(
+ 0·57 (~o y (8a)
If the bench mark is close by, the elevation of the inst. axis
may be found by taking a backsight on the bench mark and
adding it to the elevation of the bench mark.
R. L. of inst. axis. = R. L. of B. lVI. + backsight.
If the reduced level of the instrument station IS known,
the elevation (or R. L.) of the instrument axis may be obtained

by adding the 'height' of instrument axis' or 'height of axis' to the
reduced level of the inst. station. By the height of instrument
axis or height of axis or ' height of instrument' (H. 1.) is meant
the vertical distance from the inst. station (top of peg) to the
centre of the object glass. This is obtained in two ways:
(1)By measuring it verticl}lly with a steel tape.
(2) By reading the staff through the object glass when
held just near the eyepiece end.
R. L. of inst. axis = R. L. of inst. station + H. 1.
p
Fig. 357
Method (2) :-Base of an Object Inaccessible :-i. e. the
distance from the instrument station to the base of the object
cannot be measured. Two instrument stations in the vertical
plane through the elevated object (i. e. in the same vertical
plane as the elevated object):
In this method two stations A and B are suitably chosen
on a fairly level ground so as to lie in a vertical plane passing
through the object (in line with the object), and the distance
between them is accurately measured.
Procedure :-(1) Set up a theodolite over the station A.
Having levelled it accurately, bisect the object. Transit the
telescope, and mark the second station B on the ground. Me~sure
the distance AB. If the instrument is set up over B, mark
the station A on the ground by bisecting the object, and then
depressing the telescope.
(2) With the vertical vernier reading zero, and with the
altitude bubble central, take a reading on the staff held on the
B. M. or reference point.
TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLINd 575
-' ~3) Bisect the object and read both vernjers. Face Left
and Face Right observations should be bken to eliminate
instrumental errors. The mean of the four readings gives the
correct value of the vertical angle.
(4) Remove the instrument to the stat;ion B and take
similar observations as at A.
(a) Instrument axes at the same level : -
In Fig. 357, let 0( 1 = the angle of elevation observed at A.
0( 2 = the angle of elevation observed at B.
b = the horizontal dist[tnce between the
inst. stations A and B.
D = the distance of the
object from the
nearer station A.
It = th~ \\~ight ~f th~ ~b)e~t P a\}Q~e the
inst. axis at A'.
Then h = D tan 0( 1 = (D +
b) tan 0( 2'
or (tan 0( 1 - tan 0( 2) D = b tan 0( 2'
D = ' b tan 0( 2
( 9 )
(tan 0( 1 - tan 0( 2)
and h = D tan 0( 1 = b tan 0( 1 tan 0( 2 ( 10 )

(ta~ :(~::___ ta~-~~r'
b sin 0( 1 sin 0( 2
-- - -- (lOa)
sin { 0( 1- 0( 2)
11
l
8.M.
t--- h -.....j-..-- D ____.j
Fig. 358
(b) Instrument axes at different levels :-'-It is very difficult
and takes much time to set up a theodolite exactly at the same

level at both the stations. The usual practice is to set up the
instrument over the stations, and determine the elevation of
the instrument axis at each station. The above formulae (9)
and (10) may be used with a little modification as shown below.
In Fig. 358, suppose the instrument axis at the farther station
B is higher. Let the line of sight through B' (PB') be produced
to intersect the lower axis at C. Let the difference of level
between thc two axis be denoted by hd.
Now in the L,B'CE, CE = hd;
and LEB'C = 0< 2 (vertically opposite).
B'E = hd cot 0< 2
Hence the distance at which the axes are at the same level
is equal to b +
hd cot 0< 2' and this value should be substituted
for b in the above formulae (9 and 10).
p
h
_t
8.M.
Fig. 359
When the instrument axis at the farther station B is lower,
it is evident from Fig. 359, that this distance is equal to
b-hd cot 0< 2' which may be substituted in the formulae (9) and
(10).
Hence the formulae 9 and 10 may be written as
D = _(!J__±hd co~~~) ta~ _~ ~ ( 9a)
(tan 0< 1 - tan 0< 2)
h = (~±~~ cot~ ~ltan _~1 tan ~_2 (lOa)
(tan 0< 1- tan 0< 2)
= (b±~d CO!_~2) si~_o(!_ sin 0<3 (lOb)
sin ( 0( 1 - 0< 2)
Use plus sign when the instrumen(axis at the farther station

is higher, and minus sign when the instrument axis at the farther
station is lower.
I
/; -f... D -----t
Fig. 360 a
a
•
I
I
I
h -,
Fig. 360 b
(c)-; Instrument axes at very different levels :-Referring to

'. 360:a, let A and B be the two inst. stations, and P the objec::t.
ha = the height of P above the instrument axis at A'.
hb = " " " " at B'.
0< 1 = the angle of elevation to P observed at A.
0< 2 = " " " " at B.
0< 3 = " " "observed at B to a sight vane
at s st. above the foot of the staff held at A.
hd = the difference of level between the two axes.
h' = the height of instrument axis at A.
b = the horizontal distance between A and B.
D = the horizontal distance of the object P from the nearer
station A.
Then in Fig. 360b,
height of the station A above the instrument axis at B'
= b tan 0< 3 - 8.
P. 1.-19
The height of the instrument axis at A' above the inst.

axis at B' = b tan 0( 3 - 8 + h'.
hd = b tan 0( 3 - 8 + h'.
Now ha = D tan 0( 1 and hb = (D + b) tan 0( 2'
But hb - ha = hd hd= (D + b) tan 0( 2 - D tan 0( 1
or (tan 0( 1 - tan 0( 2) D = b tan 0( 2 - hd

(b tan 0( 2 - hd)
Hence D = ----.------- (11)
(tan 0( 1 - tan 0( 2)
and ha
= (btano(z-hd)
X
t
an 0(1 •••• (12)
(tan 0( 1 - tan 0( 2)
R. L. of the object P = R. L. of inst. axis at A' + ha .

• = R. L. of inst. axis B I
+ (b tan 0( 3 -+ h') + ha.

8
or " "" = R. L. of inst. axis at B' + hb.

R. L. of inst. axis at B' = R. L of B. M. + becksight taken
from B.
or = R. L. of inst. station B + H. 1.
Method (3) :-Two Instrument Stations A and B not
in the Same Vertical Plane as the Elevated Object P :
p
Fig. 361
Procedure :-(1) Fix two station A and B suitably on

a fairly level ground, and measure the distance between them.
•
(2) Set up a theodolite over A and level it accurately

With the vertical vernier set to zero, and the altitude bubble.
central, read the staff held on the B. M. or reference point.
(3) Observe the angular elevation of the object P, and the
horizontal angle between the station B and the object P.
( 4) Remove the instrument to B and take similar observa-
tions as at A.
In Fig. 361, let
0( = the angle of elevation to P measured at A.
f3 = the angle of elevation to P measured at B.
PP 1 = ha = the height of P above the inst. axis at A.
PP 2 = hb = the height of P above the inst. axis at B.
o = the horizontal angle measured clockwise at the
station A between the station B and the object P.
I/> = the horizontal angle measured clockwise at the
station B between the object P and the station A.
b = the horizontal distance between A and B.
The oblique triangle A'B'P is reduced to horizon as the
triangle ABC. N ow in the L."ABC, L BAC = 0; LABC = Ib;
L ACB = 11' - ((J + 1/» ; and AB = b.
U sing the Sine rule, we get
b~n(J b~nl/>
BC = . - - - -.-- .. ---- and AC = - _____-------::---___
sin {11' - (0 +
I/»} sin {1f - (0 I/»} +
b sin I/> tan 0(
Hence ha = AC tan 0( (13)
sin-{ 11'=(0 -+~)}
b sin 0 tan fJ
hb = Be tan f3
- ii~-C1r - -(O-H-)) (14)
R. L. of P = R. L. of inst. axis at A + ha.

= R. L. of inst. axis at B + hb.
Examples
Example 1 :-A vane 12 ft. above the foot of a staff was
sighted at a point 6000 ft. away from the instrument. The
observed angle of elevation was 2° 30', the reduced level of the
trunnion axis being 100' 75. Allowing for curvature and re-
fraction, find the reduced level of the staff station.
Height of the staff vane above the instrument axis
= 6000 tan 2 0 30' = 262'2 ft.
The cQrrection for curvature and refraction
= 0'57D2 = 0·57 (
6000 )2 = 0·74 ft. ( + ve).
:3280
Height of the staff vane above the inst. axis

= 262'20 + 0·74 = 262·94 ft.
Whence, R. L. of the staff vane = 100' 75 + 262' 94 = 363' 69.
R. L. of the staff station = 363' 69 -12 = 351' 69.
Example 2 :-A vane 10 ft. above the foot of a staff was
sighted at a point 4000 ft. away from the instrument. The
0
observed vertical angle was- 1 30'. The reuuced level of the
instrument station was 250' 50, and the height of the instrument
axis 5· 00 ft. Find the reduced level of the staff statioJl.
The vertical distance of the staff vane below the instrument
axis = 4000 tan 1 ° 30' oc= 104' 8 ft.
The correction for curvature and refraction = 0 ~ 57 D2
= 0.57 ( 4000)2 = O' 327 ft. Since the observed vertical angle
5280
is a minus angle (angle of depression), this correction is subtractive.
The vertical distance of the staff vane below the instru-
ment axis = 104'80 - 0·33 = 104'47 ft.
Now R. L. of the inst. axis = R. L. of the inst. station + H. I.
= 250·50 + 5'00 = 255'50.
Whence, R. L. of the staff vane = 255'50 - 104'47 = 151·03
R. L. of the staff station = 151' 03 - 10 = 141· 03.
Example 3 :-A theodolite was set up at a distance of

450 ft. from a tower. The angle of elevation to the top of
the parapet was 10 0 8', while the angle of depression to the foot
of the wall was 3° 12'. The staff reading on the B. M. of R. L.
150' 65 with the telescope horizontal was 2·64. Find the
height of the tower and the reduced level of the top of the parapet ..
RIGONOllETRICAL LEVEI,LING 581
Let hi = the height of the top of the parapet above the

inst. axis.
112 = the vertical distance to the foot of the wall below
inst. axis.
Then, h1 == 450 tan 10~ 8' = 8()',H ft.; h2 = 450 tan 3 12'
0
=-= 25 ·16 ft.

Height of the tower=hdh2=80'41+25'16 = I05·57ft.
Now R. l~. of inst. axis = R. L. of B. M. + B. S.
= 150·G5 + 2'64 = 153'29.
R. I .. of the top of the parapet = R. L. of inst. axis + hl'

= 153'29 + 80'41 = 233·70.
Example 4 :-To determine the elevation of the top of
the aerial pole, the following observations were made:
lnst. station. Reading on B. M. , Angle of elevation. , Remarks.

! '
i
A llO 53'
!
B 8° 5'
Stations A and B, and the top of the aerial pole are in the
same vertical plane.
Find the elevation of the top of the aerial pole, if the distance
between A and B was 100 ft.
( See Fig. 359 ).
R. 1.. of the inst. axis at A' = 100·50
I
+ 4·59 == 105' 09
" " at B' = 100·50 + 4·21 = 104'71
The difference of level between the two axeS.
= hd = 105·09 - 104'71 == 0'38 ft.
The correction to be applied to the distance (b)
= hd cot 0
c< 2 = 0·38 cot 8 5' == :l'075 ft. The inst. axis at the
farther stn. B being lower than that at the nearer stn. A, the
correctioa is subtracti ye.
Now from equation (lOa), the height of the top of the aerial
pole above the inst. axis at A' = ha
675) tan 11° 53' tan 8" 5'
= (100
- -- - 2'
---- - ---- ------- --- - - = 42·50 ft.
(tan 11 ° 53' - tan 8° 5')
R. L. of the top of the aerial pole
= 105'09 + 42·50 = 147·59
. . (100 - 2' 675) tan 8° 5'
Check .-D = - - - - - - = 202 ft.
(tan 11 a 53' - tan 8 5') 0
D +b= 202 + 100 = 302 ft.

The height of the top of the aerial pole above the inst.
axis at B '= hb = 302 tan 8 5' = 42·88 ft.
0
R. L. of the top of the aerial pole

= 104·71 + 42·88 = 147·59.
Example 5 :-Find the elevation of the top of a lightning
conductor from the following data :
A 2'16 22° 0' R. L. of B. M. = 150'65
B 3'28 14° 35' Distance AB = 70 ft.
Stations A and B, and the top of the lighting conductol

are in the same vertical plane.
(See Fig. 358)
Here 0(1=22° 0'; 0(2 = 14° 35'; b = 70 ft.
R. L. of the inst. axis at A' = 150·65 +
2'16 = 152'81.
" " at B' = 150'65 +
3·28 = 153'93.
The difference of level between the two axes
= ha, = 153'93 - 152'81 = 1·12 ft.
The correction to the distance (b)

= hd cot 0( 2 = 1'12 cot 14° 35' = 4·304 ft.
The correction is additive, since the inst. axis at-the farther

station B is higher than that at the nearer station A.
TRIGONOllETRICAL LEVELLING 583
Hence, the height of the top of the lightining conductor

above the inst. axis at A
10.
= ha =
(70 + 4·304) tan 22° tan 14° 85'
---------------.--~ = 54'31 ft.
O
(tan 22° - tan H 35')
R. L. of the top of the lightning conductor
= 152·81 + 54·31 = 207·12.
'1"11' '
Example 6 :-to find the elevation of the top (P) of a
hill, a flagstaff of height five feet was erected, and the following
observations were made from two stations A and B at considerable
dilferent elevations, 520 ft. apart. The angle of elevation from
A to the top of the flagstaff was 38° 24' and that from B to the
same point 2(l° 12'. A vane 4 ft . above the foot of a staff held
on A was sighted from B, and the angle of elevation was observed
to be 9° 54'. The height of the instrument axis at A was 4· 98,and
the reduced level of the instrument axis at B was 150' 00. Find
the horizontal distance of P from B, and the reduced level of p.
(See Fig. 3(0)
The difference of level between the inst. axes at A and B
b = 520 ft.; s = 4 ft. =hd = b tan 0(3- s+h'
h' = 4·98 ft.; 0(3 = 9° 54' == 520 tan 9° 54'- 4<+4'98
~=91·74ft.
The horizontal distance from A to the top (P) of the hill

(b tan 0( 2 - Ita)
=D=
(tan 0( 1 - tan 0( 2)
"'1 = 38°24'; 0(2 =26° 12'; _ (520 tan 26° 12' - 91'74)
- rt~~38° 24'='-tan 26°-12')
hd = 91·74 ft.; b = 520 ft. 546·4 ft.
Height of the top of the flagstaff above the inst. axis at A
= ha = D tan "'1
= 546'3 tan 38° 24' = 433·0ft.
Now R. L. of inst. axis at A = R. L. of inst. axis at B + ltd
= 150'00 + 91·74 = 241'74.
R. L. of the top (P) of the hill = 241·74 + 433'00-5·00
= 669·74.
Horizontal distance from B to P=b+D=520+546' 4= 1066·4 ft,
584 SURVEYING AND J~EVELLING
Check :-Height of the top of the flagstaff above the inst.

aXiS at B
0( 2 =" 26° 12' ; =,hb =-: (b + D)tan 0( 2 = 1066· 4 tan 26° 12'
= 524'7 ft.
b +D = 1066"1, ft. :. R. L. of P = 150'00+ 524'70- 5'00
= 669·7.
Example 7 :-To find the height of the top of a chimney,
the following observations were made from two stations A and
B, 63 ft. apart. The horizontal angle measured at A between
B and the top of the chimaney was 75°19', and that measured at B
between the top of the chimney and A was 83° 42'.
Angle of elevation to the top of the chimney at A = 17° 14'.
at B = 17° 39'.
" "
Staff reading "on B. M.
" when the" inst. was at A = 3'41 ft.
" "" " " a t B = 2· 96 ft.
Calculate the elevation of the top of the chimney, if the
R.L.~ilieB.M.w~150·~.
(See Fig. 361).
In the triangle ABC, 0 =75° 19'; 1/>=83° 42'; AB=b = 63ft.
LACB = 180° - (J - ¢ = 180° - 75° 19 ' - 83° 42' ~ 20° 59'.
Knowing one side and the three angles of the ,6,ABC, the sides
AC and BC may be calculated by the Sine rule.
AC = b sin t1> and BC _ b sin (J
+
sin [ 1l' - «(J ¢) } sin ( 1l' - «(J + ¢) }
63 sin 83° 42' 63 sin 75° 19'
sin 20° 59' sin 20° 59' .
= 174·9 ft. =170·1 ft.
Height of the top of the chimney above the inst. axis at A
= ha = AC tan 0( = 174·9 tan 17° 14' = 54'24 ft.
Height of the top of the c~~~ove the inst. axis at B
= hb = BC tan /1 = 170'1 tan 17° 49' = 5·1,'68 ft.
Hence, R. L. of the top of the chirr;~r
=R. L. of inst. axis at A+ha =150·75+3· 41 +54·24=c208· ~~.
Check :-R. L. of the top of the chimney

= R. L. of inst. axis at B + hb
= 150'75 + 2·96 + 54'68 = 208·39.
Example 8 :---From the ends of a base line AB, 4:30 ft.

long, two points P and Q were observed with a theodolite, and
the following angles were recorded:
LPAB=95°; LPBA=4>Oo; LQAB=500; LQBAc=78°; and
LPAQ=c=,:t5°; Altitude of P from A = 22°; Altitude of Q
from A=cl!)o; R. L. of stn. A =460·75. Height of instrument at
A =0 4'80 ft.
Fiwl the reduced levels of P and Q, and the horizontal
distance PQ;
In }~ig. 362, let PI and Q I be the projections of P and Q
on horizon.
Now in the ,6ABP1, LP1AB = 95°; LABP1 = 40°; and
AB = 450 ft.
APJ3 = 180° - 95° - ,10° = 45°.
Applying the Sine rule, we get
450 sin 40°
API = - - - - - _. = 409'1 ft.
sin 45°
Height of P above the instrument axis at A = API tan 22°
. . = 409·1 tan 22° = 165·30 ft.
Similarly, in the ,6 AQ1B, LQIAB = 50°; LQIBA = 78°;
and AB = 4~0 ft.
A
Fig. 362
LAQlB = 180° - 50° - 78° = 52°.

By the Sine rule,
AQ l = 450 sin 78°

------- = 558·6 ft.
sin 52°
Height of Q above the inst. axis at A = AQ l tan 19°
= 558·6 tan 19° = 192'30 ft.
The horizontal distance PQ may be calculated from the

triangle APlQl' in which AP 1 = 409'1 ft.; AQ l = 558·6 ft.; and
LPlAQl = Pp~B - QlAB = 95° - 50°= 45°.
Using the Cosine rule, we have
P1Ql = VAP l 2 + AQ l 2AP l
2
- X AQ 1 cos P1AQl
= V(40i):1)Z- + (558'-6)2 - 2 X409'1--X--558'6co~ 45°
= V 156200 = 395·3 ft.
Now R. L. of inst. axis at A = R. L. 'of stn. A + height of inst.
= 460'75 + 4·80 = 465'55.
R. L. of P = 465·55 + 165·30 = 630·85.
R. 1.. of Q = 465·55 + 192·30 = 657·85.
Check :-The distance PQ may also be calculated from the
'
1':, P 1BQ l' III W
h'IC h BP1 = 450, sin 95°
° - = 633· 9 f t.
sm 45
BQ 1 = 45~ sin 50° = 437' 5 ft.

SIn 52°
and LP1BQl = Q1BA - PlBA = 78° - 40° = 38°.
PQ = V (633·9)2 +(437'5)2~2 X 6:33·9 x487·5 cos 8So

= V 156200 = 395·3 ft.
PROBLEMS 587
PROBLEMS
1. A thcodoh . .e was set up at a distance of 600 ft. from a church tower, and the
angle of elevation to its top was 10° 48'. The staff reading on a bench mark
ofR. L. 180'75 with the telescope horizontal was 2'93. Find the reduced
level of the top of the church tower.
(Ans. 298'18.)
2. An instrument was set up at A, and the angle of depression to a vane 6 ft.
L , above the foot of the staff held at B was 6° 26'. The horizontal distance
between A and B was 450 ft. Determine the reduced level of the staff
station B, give that the R. L. of the instrument axis was 285' 65.
(Ans. 228' 91.)
A transit was set up at a distance of 1)60 ft. from a temple. The angle of
elevation to its top was 10° 2', and the angle of depression to the foot of the
wall was 3° 12'. The elevation of the instrument axis was 528' 45. Find
the height of the temple, and the elevation of its tl'lp.
(Ans. 130' 37 ft.; 627' 51. ft.)
The top of a hill subtends an angle of 39° 28' at a point A near its foot, and
angle of 53° 49' at a point B, 240 ft. from A towards the hill, the points A
and B being in line with its top. Determine the height of the hill, and the
horizontal distance from A to the top of the hill, assuming the elevation of
the instrument axis to be the same for each setting.
(Ans. 496'9 ft.; 603'4 ft.)
5. Find the reduced level of the top of a chimney from the following data:
lnst. Reading Vertical R. L. Distance Remarks.
Stn. on B. M. Angle. of B. M. AB in ft. A and B
A 5' 26 10° 12' 1810' 25 100 in line with thc top of
B 4' 23 8° 20' thc chimney.
(Ans. 1888' 86.)
6. In order to ascertain the clevation of the top of thc signal on a hill, the
.. _I following observations were made from two instrument stations A and B at
a horizontal distance 300 ft. apart, the stations A and B being in line with
the top of the Rignal. The angles of elcvation of thc top of the signal at
A and B were 32° 40' and 22° 30' respectively. The staff readings upon the
bench mark of elevation 135' 45 were respectively 4'55 and 10' 05 when the
instrument was at A and B, the telescope being horizontal. Determine the
elevation of the top of the signal.
(Ans. 506'7.)
r. A flagstaff of height 4 feet on the top of a hill was sighted from two stations
A and B at very different levels, the st.ations A and B being in line with the
top of the flagstaff. The angle of elevation from A to the top of the flagstaff
was 38° 28' and that from B to the top of the flagstaff was 26° 15'. The
angle of elevation from B to a vane 5 ft. above the foot of the staff held
588 PROBLEM3
at A was 11° I::!'. The heights of instrum.~nt at A and B were 5'2 ft. and
4' 98 ft. respectively. The horizontal distance between A and B was 420 ft.,
and the reduced level of B was 126' 75. FiBd the reduced level of the top of
the hill, and the horizontal distance from B to the flagstaff.
(Ans. 537'09; 830'4 ft.)
8. From the enda of a base line CD, 400 ft. in length, two points A and B were
sighted with a transit, and the following observations were recorded:
Bearing of CD = N. 44° E. Angle of elevation from C to A = 18°.

" CA = N. 40° W. CtoB=16 Q
•
" CB = N. 12° E. Reduced level of inst. axis at C = 526' 45.

" DA = S. 80° W.
DB = N. 18° W.
Find the horizontal distance between A and B, and the f£'duced levels
of A and B.
(Ans. 580'1 ft.; R. L. of A = 614'67; R. L. of B = 728';);5.)
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Q. 1. Give a list of errore in chaining and state which are cumulative and
which are compensating errors. A..tape was standardised as 100 ft. at 60°F.
A line was measured as 1325 ft. with temperature during measurement 76° F.
Calculate the true length of the line. Given :-Coefficient of Thermal expansion
for steel 0'0000063 per degree F. (K. U.)
(Ans. 1325 '13 ft.)
i Q. 2. The length of a line measured with a 100-ft. chain on a gradient of
~oJ. in 12 was found to be 585 ft. It was afterwards found that the chain was
,3 too inches short. Find the correct horizontal length of the line. (U. B.)
r (Ans. 581'6 ft.)
Q. 3. How would you proceed to test a Measuring chain? Explain the
iuaccuracies which affect accurate measurements when the chain is too long and
when the chain is too short.
A plot of ground was measured with an incorrect chain and a plan was
drawn from these measurements.' This area on the plan when measured and
calculated was found to be 16' 25 eq. miles. Find the correct area of the plot
if the accurate length of the chain was found to be 101 ft. (U. B.)
(Ans. 16'58 sq. miles.)
Q. 4. The paper of an old map drawn to a scale of 330 ft. to one inch has
shrunk so that a line originally 5 inches has now become 4'96 inches. The
~urvey was done with an engineer's chain O' 25 ft. too short. If the area
measured now is 14 sq. inches, find the correct area on the ground. (U. B.)
(Ans. 35'38 ac.)
Q. 5. The plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 66 ft. to an inch
was found to have shrunk so that a line originally 10 inches long is now 9' 92
inches. There was also a note stating that the chain (100 ft.) used was 3 inches
too long. If the area of the plan measured now by a planimeter is 24'75 sq.
inches, find the correct area of the survey in acres. (U. P.)
(Ans. 2'528 ac.)
Q. 6. Two flags are fixed one on each of the slopes on either side of (i)
the ridge of a high hill and (ii) a deep valley. Explain by neat sketches how
you would range the line joining the flags in each of the above cases. (U. B.)
Q. 7. The plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 66 ft. to an inch was
found to have shrunk so that a line originally 10 inches long was only 9'86
inches. There was also a note stating that the chain ueed was O' 4 link too
short. If the area of a plot on the plan as given by a planimeter is 36' 75 sq.
inches, what is the correct area of the plot in acres? (U. B.)
(Ans. 3'751 ac.)
Q. 8. (a) In commencing field measurements in a' chain survey, if the
question as to what fraction of a link or a foot the distances ought to be
measured is to be mainly decided by the scale of representation of the plan and

assuming that __!_ th of an inch is about the smallest length that can be shown
100
on paper, state as to what nearest link or foot the measurements should be
recorded in those surveys in which the following scales of representation of the
plan will be adopted. (i) _l:_, (ii) a scale of R. F. __ :L_ ,
a scale of R. F.
120 1200
(iii) a scale of 50 ft. to an inch. Illustrate in anyone of the above three cases
as to how much part of a link or a foot will be ignored and how much will be
included in the nearest recording. How will these different scales of represen-
tation of the plan affect the number and length of the offsets to be taken for
the location of details? (U. P.)
(Ans. To the nearest (i) inch; (ii) foot; (iii) i ft.)
Q. 9. What are offsets? How are they taken and recorded? Why is it
desirable that offsets should be as near as possible to the survey line. An offset
50 ft. in length is accidentally laid out 3° from its true direction on the field.
Find the consequent displacement of the plotted point on paper in a direction
parallel to the chain line. The seal!' is 100 ft. to 1 inch. (K. U.)
(Ans. O· 026 in.)
Q. 10. The following fore and back bearings were observed in traversing
with the compass in a place where local attraction was suspected:
Line. Fore bearing. Back bearing. Line. Fore bearing. Back bearing.
AB 195° 45' 17° 00' DE 243° 30' 61 ° 15'
BC 45° 00' 223° 45' EA 329° 15' 151 ° 30'
CD 21°30' 201°30'
Compute the correct bearings of each of the lines. Check the total of interior
angles of the figure. (K.U.)
(Ans. Correction at E = + 2° 15'; that at B = - 1° 15'; sum of the interior
angles = 540°.)
Q. 11. A, B, C, D, and E are five survey stations in an open traverse. At
stations B, C, and D the angles ABC, BCD, and CDE are measured clockwise,
they being 196°, 142°, and 158° 37' respectively. If the whole circle bearing of
AB is 10°, what are the bearings of BC, CD, and DE 1 (K. U.)
(Ans. 26°; 348° ; 326° 37'.)
AB
Fore bearing
40° 30'
Back bearing
221° 10'
i
with the compass in a place where local attraction was suspected :
Line Line
CD
Fore bearing
27",49'
Back bearing.
209° 2'
BC 98° 55' 277° 2' DE 324° 18' 144° 18'
Find (1) the corrected bearings and (2) the true bearings of each of the lines.
Take the deolination of the compass needle N. 16° 20' W. (U. P.)
(Ans. Corrected
Line. Correction at F. B. B. B. True fore bearing.
AB B = - 40' 40° 30' 220° 30' 24° 10'
BC C= + 1° 13' 98° 15' 278° 15' 81 ° 55'
CD 29° 2' 209° 2' 12° 42'
D1<J 324° 18' 144° 18' 307° 58')
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 591
with a compass in a place where local attraction was suspected:
Line Fore bearing Back bearing.
AB 38° 30' 219 0 15'
I Line Fore bearing Back bearing.
CD 25° 45' 207° 15'
BC 100° 45' 278° 30' DE 325 0 15' 145° 15'
Find the corrected fore and back bearings and the true bearings of each of
the lines, given that the magnetic declination was 10° W. (U. P)
(Ans. Corrected
Line Correction at F. B. B. B. True fore bearing.
AB B = - 45' 38° 30' 218° 30' 28° 30'
BC C= _, 1° 30' 100° 0' 280° 0' 90° 0'
CD 27° 15' 207° 15' 17° 15'
DE 325° 15' 145° 15' 315° 15')
Q. 14. The following are the bearing5 taken on a closed compass traverse:
~ine Fore bearing Back bearing. J..ine Fore bearing Back bearing.
AB S. 37° 30' E. N. 37° 30' W. DE N. 12° 45' E. S. 12° 15' W.
:BC S. 43° 15' W. N. 44° 15' E. EA N. 60° 00' E. S. 59° 00' W.
CD N. 73° 00' W. 8. 72° 15' E.
Compute the interior angles and correct them for observational errors.
Assuming the observed bearing of the line AB to be correct, adjust the bearings
of the remaining sides. (U. P.)
(Ans. Summation error = -I- 1° 15';
Line F. B. B. B. I Line F.B.
N. 11° 45' E.
B.B.
BC S. 43° 30' W. N. 43° 30' E. DE S. lIo 45' W.
CD N. 73° 30' W. S. 73° 30' E. I EA N. 58° 45' E. S. 58° 45' W.)
Q. 15. The following bearings were observed while traversing with a-
compass:
Line Fore bearing Back bearing
AB 45° 45' 226° 10'
lLine Fore bearing Back bearing
CD 29° 45' 209° 10'
BC 96° 55' 277° 5' DE 324 0 48' 144° 48'
Mention which stations were affected by local attraction and determine
the corrected bearings.
(Ans. Stations Band C; correction at B = - 25'; that at C = - 35' ;
Line Correctllcl. Line Corrected
F. B. B. B. F. B. B. B.
AB 45° 45' 225° 45' CD 29° 10' 209° 10'
BC 96° 30' 276° 30' DE 3240 48' 144° 48')
Q. 16. The following bearings were taken in running a compass traverse:
Line Fore bearing Back bearing Line fore bearing Back bearing.
AB 1240 30' 304° 30' CD 310° 30' 135 0 15'
BC 68° 15' 246° 0' DA 2000 15' 17° 45'
At what stations do you suspect local attraction? Find the corrected bearings
of the lines, and also calculate the included angles. (U. B.)
Line
FB.
Corrected
BB.
I
(Ans. Stations C and D; correction at C=+ 2° 15'; that at D= _2° 30'.
Line
F. B.
Corrected
B. B.
AB 124° 30' 304° 30' CD 312° 45' 132° 45'
BC 69° 15' 248° 15' DA 197 45'
0
17° 45'
a = 106° 45'; B = 123° 45'; C = 64° 30'; C = 65°.)
Q. 17. A, B, C, and D are four survey stations: At station B, the angle

ABC is measured clockwise, and found to be 196° 53'. On setting up at C, the
angle BCD, also measured clockwise is observed to be 142° 17'. If AB is adopted
as the meridian, what are the bearings of BC and CD 1 ,D. B.)
(Ans. Bearing of BC = 16° 53'; that of CD = 339° 10'.)
Q. 18. Determine the values of the included angles in the closed compass
traverse ABCD conducted in the clockwise direction, given the following fore
bearings of the respective lines : -
Line Fore bearing Line Fore bearing.
AB 40° CD 210 0
BC 70° DA 280 0
Apply the check. (D. B.)
,Ans. A = 60°; B = 150°; C = 40°; D = 110°; sum = 360°.)
Q. 19. A line shown in an old plan is to be set on the ground. Its magnetic
bearing as shown in the drawing is 5°. The line was drawn when the
variation was 6° west. If the variation at the time of setting out the line is 3°E.,
determine the actual bearing at which you would set out the line while tracing
it on the ground.
Explain why the dip and declination of a compass are subject to variations
at different places on the earth and even at the same particular place. (D. B.)
(Ans. T. B. = 359°; M. B. = 356°.)
Q. 20. In an old survey made when the declination was 4° W., thcmagnetic
bearing of a given line was 210°. The declination in the same locality is now
100 E. What are the true and the present ma.gnetic bearings of the line. (D. B.)
(Ans. T. B. = 206° ; M. B. = 196°.)
Q. 21. In an old survey when the declination was 5° 12' W., the magnetic
bearing· of a given line was S. 36° 24' W. Find the true bearing and the present
magnetic bearing of the line, given t.hat the declination in the same loeality
is now 6° 4' E. (U. B.)
(Ans. T. B. =- S. 31° 12' W. ; M B. '" 25° 8' W.)
Q. 22. In an old survey made when the declination was 2° 10' W., the
magnetic bearing of a given line was 35° 15'. The declination in the same locality
is now 3° 15' E. Find the true bearing and the present magnetic bearing of
the line. (K. D.)
(Ans. T. B. = 33° 5'; M. B. = 29° 50'.)
Q. 23. (a) The magnetic bearing of a line as observed by the prismatic
compass at a survey station is found to be 272°. If the local attraction at this
station is known to be 5° East, and the declination is 15° West, what is the true
bearing of the line ?
(b) The observed magnetic bearing of a line in an old survey was S. 60° E.
and the variation at the time was 2° West. What would be the magnetic bearing
of the same line today when the variation is 15° west? (D. P )
(Ans. (a) T. B. = 262°; (b) M. B. = S. 47° E.)
Q. 24. The following give the values in links of the offsets taken from a
lain line to a hedge during survey. Calculate in acres the area included
between the chain line, the hedge, and the first and last offsets by the applica-
tion of (a) Simpson's rule (b) Trapezoidal rule, and (c) Average ordinate rule:
Offsets: 15, 5, 4, 9, 10, II, 6, 10, 10
Distance: 0, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 275, 300, (U. B).
(Ans. (a) 2625 sq. links; (b) 2562'5 sq. links; (c) 2433'2 sq. links.)
Q. 25. The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 50 ft., intervals
from a chain line to an irregular boundary:-1O'6, 15'4, 20'2,21'3, 18'7'
16'4, and 20'4 feet. Caloulate the area in square yards enclosed between the
chain line, the irregular boundary, and the first and last offsets. (R. U.)
{Ans. 597' 2 sq. yds. (trapezoidal) ; 594' 8 sq.yds.(simpson's). }
Q. 26. The area of a figure was measured by a planimeter with the ancbor
point outside the figure and the tracing arm set to tbe natural scale. The initial
reading was 8' 735 and the final reading was l' 238. The zero mark of the disc
passed the index mark once in the clockwise (positivp) direction. Calculate the
area of the figure. (U. B.)
(Ans. 25' 03 sq. in.)
Q. 27. What is meant by "zero circle" ? Describe the various methods
'of determining its area.
The tracing arm of ~ planimeter is so set that one revolution of the roller
corresponds to 10 sq.in. A figure is traversed clockwise, first with the anchor point
outside and then with the anchor point inside. The observed difference in
planimeter readings are 2' 342 and - 9: 319 respectively. Find the area of
the zero circle. (U. B.)
(Ans. 116'61 sq. in.)
Q. 28. Describe the polar planimeter and explain its principle. The
, perimeter of a figure is traversed clockwise, with the anchor point inside and with
'" the tracing arm so set that one revolution of the roller measures 10 sq. in. on
the paper. The initial and final readings are 3' 099 and 8' 547 respectively. The
zero mark of the disc has passed the fixed index mark once in the reverse direc-
tion. The area of the zero circle is found to be 164' 31 sq. in. What is the area
of the figure? (U. P.)
(Ans. 119' 69 sq. in.)
Q. 29. Describe working of a planimeter and explain what is meant by
zero circle. Work out a formula for the area of zero circle and state where it is
used. In a polar planimeter the wheel is placed outside the tracing arm l' 5
inches away from the pivot. For natural scale the tracing arm is 4 inches long,
the multiplier M = 10 and the constant C = 20'11. Calculate the values of M
and C for scale 1 inch"" 4 feet if the tracing arm for this scale is 5 inches long.
(U. B.)
(Ans. M = 12'5; C = 19'104.)
Q. 30. While constructing a building, bottom of balcony A was taken as a
temporary B. M. (R. L. 32' 78). Following notes were recorded in a note book:-
594 SURVEYING AND LEV~LING
Reading on inverted staff B. M. No. A. \ 7'S9
Reading on Peg P on ground. 4'65
Change of Instrument.
Reading on Peg P on ground. 4' 92
Reading on inverted staff on bottom of cornice B. 13' 77
Write out these readings in a field book form, work out rises and falls,
and calculate R. L. of bottom of cornice B. Apply usual checks. (U. B.)
(Ans. 38' 93).
Q. 31. Rule out a page of a level field book in your answer book and enter
the following readings which were taken successively with a Dumpy level and
14 ft. staff at a series of pegs fixed 100 ft. apart on a continuously sloping ground
along the centre line of a length of road :-2' 75, 4' 71, 7' 51, 9' 58, 12' 52, 13' 75,
3'32,5'88,8'31, 10'52,12'98,4'02,7'07, and 10'21. The reduced level of the
last point was 153' 95. Calculate the reduced levels of the pegs and -apply the
check. Determine the gradient of the line joining the first and last points. (U.B.)
(Ans. 1 in 40'97, falling.)
Q. 32. A page of a level book was defaced so that the only legible figures
were :-(a) all consecutive entries in the column of reduced 1eveI8-75'60 B.
M.; 70'41 chage point; 64'07, 65'51, 67'48, 70'93 change point; 72'69,74'77,
76' 85 change point; 78' 67, 79' 52, 81' ] 8 T. B. M. ; (b) all cntries in the backsight
column l' 75, 2' 68, 8' 98, and 10' 27 in order from the top of the page. Recon-
struct the page as booked and check your work. Calculate the corrected
reduced level of the T. B. M., if the instrument is known to have an elevated
collimation error of 60", and backsight and foresight distances averaged 210 ft.
and 90 ft. respectively. (U. B.)
(Ans. 81' 04).
Q. 33. :Flying levels were taken from a bench mark of R. L. 125' 40, and
the following staff readings were obtained:-
Backsight 4'26,7'24,3'12, 2'08.
Foresight 2'82,4'35,6'65.
From the last position of the instrument station, it is required to drive six
pegs at 50 ft. intervals with the tops of the pegs on a uniform falling gradient
of 1 in 40; the first peg is to have a reduced level of 124'65. Work out the
staff readings for setting the pegs to the required levels and enter all the
readings in level book form, using the rise and fall method. (U. P.)
(Ans. 1st peg. 3'63; last peg, 9'88.)
Q. 34. Rule out a page of a level book and enter the following staff readings
taken at 100 ft. intervals along the centre line of a proposed road :-
4'78 (on B. M. 1.), 6'92, 3'48, 5'23, 6'28, 3'37, 4'86, 3'05, 2'79, 5'72,
l' 21, 2' 72, 1'45, 5' 31 (on B. M. 2 of R. L. 950' 60).
The instrument was shifted after the fifth and tenth readings. Find the
reduced levels of the points by the Rise and Fall method :.lnd apply the usual
checks. (K. U.)
(Ans. R. L. of B. M. (1)=958'55 R. L. ofC. P. (1)=957'05; R. L. ofC. P.
(2) = 954' 70).
Q. 35. The following consecutive readings were taken on pegs at 100 ft.
intervals on a continuously sloping ground by means ofa level and a 14 ft. staff : -
3'86 (onB. M.), 4'67,5'12,6'98,9'64, ll'26, 13'48; 4'35, 6'49, 8'78,
10'16, 12'03, 13'74,4'27,6'09, 7'86.
The reduced level of the bench mark was 650' 75. Rule out a page of
your answer book in the form of a level field book and enter the above readings
therein. Calculate the reduced levels of the pegs by the Rise and Fall method
and apply the usual checks. (K. D.)
(Ans. R. L. ofthe last peg = 628: 14.)
Q.36. The alignment of the centre line of a proposed road is marked out
on the ground by means of pegs fixed at every 100 feet. Staff readings taken
on these pegs were recorded thus.
Distance. Reading. Distance. Reading.
3'50 (B.l\I. ofR. L.
166'40).
0 4'69 600 4'30
100 6'10 700 4'90
200 6'90 800 7'10
300 8'20 900 7'40
400 9'30 1000 6'70
500 10'40 UOO 8'50
600 11-.'50 1200 9'65
(a) Enter the above readings in the proper form of a levelling field book
in your answer book and find the reduced levels of all these points. Show by
mathematical checks that your calculations are correct. The road is to have
formation level 3' 20 ft. below ground level at chainage 0, and a falling gradient
of 1 in 50. Calculate the formation level of the road and the depth of cutting or
height of embankment at each of the above points and enter these in the field
book. (K. D.)
(Ans. F. L. of the last peg =,,138 '10; depth of cutting = 14' 95 ft.)
Q. 37. Explain the significance of determining corrections for Curvature and
Refraction to be made in a reading obtained on a staff when a levelling instrument
is set up at a long distance from the staff. A reading of 9' 60 is obtained on a
staff placed at a distance of 700 ft. from a levelling instrument. Find the
corrections to be made in the staff reading, assuming the radius of the earth to
be 4000 miles and the correction for refraction 1/7 of that for curvature. Will
the-'\mount of correction be perecptible on an ordinary levelling staff? (D. B.)
(Ans. O' 01 ft.)
Q. 38. Describe, with sketches, the process of reciprocal levelling. Reciprocal
levels are taken with one level as below : -
Level at Reading on Distance between
A B A and B
A 4'64 6'80 1320 ft.
B 2'82 4'78
Determine (a) the true difference of level between A and B, and (b) the
collimation error of the instrument. (U. B.)
(Ans. (a) 2'06 ft.; (b)+0'005 in 100 ft.)
Q. 39. How do curvature and refraction affect levelling operations, and why
are their effects not usually allowed for in ordinary operations?
Reciprocal levels are taken with one level as below:-
A B A and B
A 4'50 6'76 2640 ft.
B 3'15 4'97
Assuming constant refraction, what is the true difference of elevation bet-
ween A and B? If the level is out of adjustment, does the line of collimation
point downward or upward, and how much? (U. P.)
(Ans. 2'04 ft.; upward; +0'0775.)
Q. 40. (a) What is Reciprocal levelling ? Explain where and why it is used.
(b) Two pegs A and B are driven into the ground about 300 ft. apart.
A dumpy level is set up near A and levelled, and observations are taken upon a
staff held on A and then on B, giving the readings on A=5'48; on B=5·53.
The level is then placed near B, and sights of the same lengths as before are
taken with the staff held on the same points. The readings are now - on A =
5'31; on B=5·26. State whether the instrument is in adjustment or not. If
the R. L. of peg A is 100' 00, what is that of B ? (G. U. & K. U.)
(Ans. Out of adjustment; 100' 00.)
Q. 41. How do curvature and refraction affect levelling operations ? Why
are their effects usually neglected in ordinary levelling operations? Derive a
formula for correction for curvature and refraction. A level is set up at a station A.
Reading on the staff held at B which is at a distance of 1320 ft. is 5'62 ft. The
same staff when held at C 1980 ft. away from A reads 13' 38 ft. Calculate the
difference of level of Band C, allowing for curvature and refraction. (K. U.)
(Ans. 7' 716 ft.)
Q. 42. Reciprocal levels are taken with one level as below:-
Distance between Instrument at Reading on
A and B A B
2500 ft. A 4'03 6'01
B 3'34 5'24
Assuming constant refraction, what is the true difference of elevation
between A and B ? If the level is out of adjustment, does the line of collimation
point upward or downward and how much? (K. U.)
(Ans. l' 94 ft,; downward: - O' 0035 in 100 ft.)
Q. 43. To an observer at a height of 120 ft. above sea level a luminous
point on thc top of a hill is visible just above the horizon. The hill is known to ,
be 45 miles from the observer's station. Find the height ofthe hill. (U. P.)
(Ans. 530'1 ft.)
Q. 44. To an observer at a height of 100 ft. above sea level a luminous

point on the top of a hilI is visible just above the horizon. Determine the height
of the hill, if the distance between the observer's station and the top of the hill
is 40 miles. (U. B.)
(Ans. 408'3 ft.)
Q. 45. A reading is taken on a levelling staff at a distance of 400 ft. with the
bubble central. If the telescope is tilted until the reading has changed by
0'1 ft., the bubble has movcd through four divisions. What is the sensitive-
ness of the bubble? (K. U.)
(Ans. 12"' 89.)
Q. 46. (a) Explain what is meant by the sensitiveness of a level tube.
Describe how you would determine in the field the sensitiveness of a level tube
attached to a dumpy level.
(b) If the bubble tube has a sensitiveness of 23 seconds for 2 mm.
division, find the error in the staff reading at a distance of 300 ft. caused by
the bubble being one division out of centre.
(c) Find the error of reading of a levelling staff if the observed reading
is 12' 00 and at the point sighted the staff is 6 in. off the vertical through the
bottom. (U. P.)
(Ans. (b) 0'033 ft.; (c) 0'01 ft.)
Q. 47. To a perdon standing on the deck of a ship a light from the top of a
lighthouse is visible just above the herizon. The height of the light in the light-
house is known to be 233 yards above M. S. L. If the deck of the ship is 9 yards
above M. S. L., work out the distance between the lighthouse and the ship.
Make the necessary assumptions. (U. B.)
. (Ans. 41' 893 miles).
Q. 48. Calculate by prismoidal formula the volume of earthwork in cubic
yards in an embankment where the heights of consecutive sections 200 ft. apart
are 0, 20, 30, 10, and 0 ft. The side slopes are 2 to 1 and the width of embank-
ment at formation level is 30 ft. The ground is level in a direction transverse to
the centre line. (K. U.)
(Ans. 32099 cub. yds.)
Q. 49. Le,els taken at every 100 feet along a piece of ground were as follows:
Feet Reduced levels Feet Reduced levels
o 480'00 300 4()5'50
100 485'75 400 4()0'00
200 490'25
first and last points. The formation width is 30 ft. and the side slops Ii to. 1.
JJalculate by the prismoidal method the volume of the cutting in cubic yards
on the assumption that the ground is level in a direction transverse to the centre
line. (K. U.)
Q. 50. What is a prismoid? State the prismoidal formula. Calculate the

quantity of earth in cubic yards for a cutting of a road beteeen two cross· sections
200 ft. apart from the following data: Formation brcadth 40 ft.; side slopes 2 to 1.
Reduced lcvels of formations at both sections to be 100'00. At one section the
ground level is 135' 00 and at the other section it is 150' 00. Ground is level across
at both sections. (U. B.)
{Ans. 40185 cub. yds. (trapezoidal); 39630 cub. yds. (prismoidal).}
Q. 51. A railway cmbankment 800 ft. long is 25 ft. wide at the formation
level and has side slopes It to I. The ground levels at every 200 ft. along the
centre line are as under:-
Distance : 0 200 400 600 800
Ground level: 189'40 190'00 188'20 187'60 186'20
The formation level at 0 is 194' 60 and the embankment has a rising gradient
of 1 in 500. The ground is level across the centre line. Calculate by the prismoidal
formula the volume of earth required for the embankment and find the cost at
Rs. 60 per 100 cubic yards. (U. B.)
(Ans. 7307'4 cub. yds.; Rs. 4384.)
Q. 52. Calculate by the prismoidal formula the quantity of earthwork
required for the embankment from the following data : -
Upward gradient of formation level: 1 in 200; Depth of bank at near end;
8 ft. ; Width at formation level: 40 ft. ; Side slope: It to I : ; Distance between
cross· sections : 500 ft. The original ground surface slopes downwards from the
near end at a gradient of 1 in 40, but is level across. (U. B.)
(Ans. 18676 cub. yds'
Q. 53. The surface levels taken along a line 400 ft. long are as follows:
Chainage in ft : 0 100 200 '300 400
Level in ft. : 235 242' 5 250 258 255
first and last points. The formation width is 36 ft. and the side slopes It to I.
Assuming the ground to be level transversely, compute by the prismoidal
formula the volume of the cutting in cubic yds. (U. B.)
Q. 54. A railway cutting is 30 ft. wide with side slopes of 1t to 1. Assuming
the ground to be level in a direction perpendicular to the centre line, calculate
by the prismoidal method, the volume of the cutting in cubic yards contained
in a length of 600 ft., the centre depths at 100 ft. intervals being in feet 3, 5,
6'5,4, I, 2, and 2'5. (U. P.)
Q. 55. Explain the Prismoidal formula and apply it to find the quantity of
earthwork in cubic yards required for the embankment from the following data:
Upward gradient offormation level : 1 in 150; depth of bank at near end : 10 ft.;
side slopes: 2 to 1 ; distance between cross· sections : 400 ft.; width at formation
level : 30 ft. The surface of the ground slopes downwards from the near end at a
gradient of 1 in 30, but is level across. (U. P.)
UNIYEnSITY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 599
Q. 56. A cutting i~ to be made through ground where the cross slope

varies considerably. At A, the depth of cut was 12 ft. at the centre line and the
cross slope was 8 to l.At B, the corresponding figures were 10 ft. and 12 to I, and
at C, 14 ft. and 10 to 1. AB and BC are each lOO ft. The formation width is
30 ft. and the side sloPes l~ to 1. Calculate by the prismoidal method the
. .lume of the cutting in cubic yards between A and C. (U. P.)
(Ans. 3919 cub. yards.)
Q. 57. At every 100 ft. along a piece of ground levels were taken. They
were as follows:
Feet Redqccd levels :Fcet Reduced levels
0 :?1O'00 300 237'96
100 220'22 400 240'53
200 231'49 500 235'00
A cutting to be made for a line of uniform gradient passing through the
first and last points. What is the gradient? Calculate the volume of cutting
on the assumption that the ground at right angles to the centre line is level.
Given:-Breadth offormlttion 30 ft., and the slope of cutting on each side I~ to I.
Use prismoidal formula. (U. P.)
(Ans. 6865 or 6968 cub. yds.)
Q. 58. A rectangle ABCD forms the plan of a pit excavated for roadwork.
E is the point of intcrsc~tion of diagonals. Calculate the volume of excavation
in cubic yards from the following data :
P~~ A B C D E
Original Levd 68'5 72'7 71'5
Final Level 56'2 56'2 57'4 56'8
Length AB =60 ft,. and BC = 90 ft. (U. B.)
Q. 59, (a) If in a l~ngth of one chain along a slope the ground rises 10 ft.,
0&1 the.s:,w,1e of &'q;-elUld the hypotenClsal allowance per chain, when it is (i) lUi
. Engineer's chain, (ii) a Clunter's chain.
(b) The length of a line measured with a Gunter's chain was found to be
1225 links. The same nleasured with a 100 ft. chain was found to be 806 ft.
If the Gunter's chain wa~ ith link too short, what was the error in 100 ft. chain?
(G. U.)
(Ans. (a) (i) 5° 44'; 6' 03 in; (ii) 8° 43'; 1.16 links. (b) + 0'136 ft.)
Q. 60. The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 33 ft. intervals
from the chain line of a Survey to the hedge. Calculate the area in square yards
included between the chmn line and the hedge by the application of (i) Simp.
son's Rule, (ii) the TraIlezoidal Rule.
Offsets in ft. : H 19 25 41 38 32 28 24 18 12 7
J):stance in ft. : 0 33 66 99 132 165 198 231 264 297 330
(G.U.)
(Ans. (i) 914' 2 sq. yds.; (ii) 902 sq. yds.)
600 SURVEYING AND I,EVELLlNG
Q. 61. The following perpendicular offsets were measured from a chain lin
to an irregular boundary of a plot of land at regular inter"als of 100 ft.
Distance in ft. : - 0 100 200 300 400
Offsets in ft. : - 90 82 95 99 88
Calculate the area of the plot of land by Simpson's Rule. (G. U.)
\ (Ans. 4044'4 sq. yds.)
Q. 62. The area of a figure is 210 sq. inches. This area is traversed by a
planimeter in the clockwise direction with the anchor point inside. Find the area
of the zero circle from the following data :-Difference between initial and· final
readings,=6·77. Value uf M=12. The Zero of the counting disc passed the
index mark once ill the anticlockwise direction. (G. U.)
(Ans. 248' 76 sq. in.)
Q. 63. The roller of a planimeter recorded a reading of l' 320 revolutions
in the clockwise direction. while measurin: an area of -20 sq. inches with the
anchor point outside. With the same setting of the tracing arm, and the anchor
point outside, another figure was traversed and the reading recorded was 2' 973
revolutions in the clockwise direction. Find the area of the figure in acres, if it
is drawn to a scale of 330 ft. to an inch. (G. U.)
(Ans. 112' 7 ac.)
Q. 64. Calculate the area of a figure from the following readings recorded
by a planimeter :-1. R_'= 7'70, F. R.",3·15, M= 10, and C= 16'30.
It was observed that the zero mark on thc dial passed the index once in the
clockwise direction, with the anchor point inside. (G. U.)
(Ans. 217'5 sq. in.)
Q. 65. Find out the volume of earthwork in a road cutting 300 ft. long
from the following data : -
Formation width 20 ft., side slopes 1 to 1, average depth of cutting along
centre line 15'4 ft., slope of ground in cross-section 10 to 1. (G. U.)
Q. 66. (a) Calculate the volume of earthwaork by Prismoidal formula in
a road embankment with the following data:-
Chainage along the Centre line 0 100 200 300 400
Ground levels 201' 70 202' 90 202' 40 204' 70 206' 90
Formation level at chainage 0 is 209'30, top width is 20'0 ft., side slopes
are 2 to 1. The longitudinal gradient of the embankment is 1 in 100 rising. The
ground is assumed to be level all acrOll1l the longitudinal section.
(b) If the transverse slope of the ground at chainage 200 is assumed to be
I in 10, find the area of the embankment section at this point. (G. U.)
(Ans. (a) 4013 cub . .rds; (b) 352' 52 sq. ft.)
Q. 67. The following angles were observed in clockwise direction in an open
raverse :-
ngle ABC = 1240 15' 'Angle CDE = 102 0 0' Angle EFG '= 215° 45'
BCD = 156 30' I· " DEF = 95° 15'
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION QUES'rIONS 601
Magnetic bearing of the line AB is 241° 30'. What would be the bearing of
the line FG ? (G. U.)
( Ans. 35° 15'.)
• Q. 68. In 1764 a certain line had a magnetic bearing of N. 15° W. The
declination of the needle at that place in 1764 was 2° 39' W. In 1807 the declina-
tion was 4° 58' E. What was the magnetic bearing 'of the line in 1807? (G. U. )
(Ans. N. 22° 37' W. )
Q. 69. In 1662 a certain line had a magnetic bearing of N. 20° W. The
declination of the needle at that place in 1662 was 2° 40' West. In 1750, the
declination was 3° 52' East. What was the magnetic bearing of the line in
1750 ?
( Ans. N. 26° 32' W.)
Q. 70. The following deflection angles were observed in running a traverse
from A to G.
Station Deflection angle Station Deflection angle
B 22° 42' R E 12° 24' R
C 19° 18' L F 9° 9' L
D 35° 37' R
If the reduced bearing of AB is N. 73° 24' W., calculate the reduced bearings
of the remaining lines. (G. U. )
(Ans. Bearing ofBC = N. 50° 42'
" " 'CD = N. 70° 0' W.
w.) Bearing ofEF
" FG
= N. 21° 59' W.
= N. 31° 8' W.)
" ,,"DE = N: 34° 23' W.
Q. 71. The following bearings were taken in running a compass traverse-
Line F. B. B. B. Line. F. B. B. B.
PQ 67° 30' 247° 45' RS 120° 15' 300° 15'
QR 105° 30' 285° 0' ST 160° 45' 339° 30'
Mark the stations affected by local attraction and determine the correct
bearings.
(Ans. Stations P, Q, and T affected: correction at P = - 15' ; that at
Q = - 30'; that at T = + 1° 15'. )
Q. 72. On an ordinary dumpy level. the value of a 1/20 inch division on the
bubble tube is equal to 1 minute of arc. What would be the difference in the
reading on an oridnary levelling staff 300 ft. distant, if the bubble were t inch
out of centre? (G. U.)
(Ans. 0'873 ft.)
Q. 73. In order to adjust the collimation line of a Dumpy level, the instru-
ment was set up at C midway between A and B, the distance between A and B
being 200 ft. The staff readings observed were 5' 20 (on A) and 7' 00 ( on B ).
The instrument was then shifted and set up midway between A and C, and the
readings on A and B were 4' 71 and 5' 86 respectively. Is the line of collimation
in adjustment? With the instrUJ,llent midway between A and C, find the correct
readings onA and B after the line of collimation is properly adjusted. (G. U.)
( Ans. out of adjustment: On A: 5' 035; on B: 6' 835.)
Q. 74. In order to test a dumpy level for its collimation line, staff readings
were taken from the mid-position on pegs A and B driven at a distance of 300 ft"
and the staff readings were :-Peg A 5' 22 and peg B 6' 81. The level was then
shifted and placed over a point D a little away from A, along the line BA.
produced. The readings taken over pegs A and B were 6' 64 and 7.41
respectively. (1) What is the true difference in levels between the two pegs?
(2) Calculate the correct readings on A and B from the point D and explain
clearly how you will adjust the line of collimation. ( O. U. )
( Ans. l' 59; reading on: A = 6' 64; B = 8' 23: hair to be lowered.)
Q. 75. In levelling down a hill-side the backsight distances were not

kept equal to the foreight distances and hence they were observed with stadia
lines, the average length of twelve back sights and the twelve foresights being.
40 ft. and 65 ft. respectively. Since the observed difference of reduced level
73'56Iwas disputed, the level was set up midway between two pegs A and B
200 ft. apart and the reading on A was 2' 63 and on B 3 '15 ; and when set up in
line AB produced 50 ft. from B, the reading on A was 7'36 and on B 7'92.
Calculate the true difference of reduced level. (U. P.)
(Ans. 73'62.)
Q. 76. The area of a cross-section is to be measured wit·h the anchor point
of the planimeter inside the figure. The scale of the drawing 18 1 inch = 10 feet.
The tracing arm is so set that one revolution of the roller measures 10 sq. in.
on the paper. The area of the zero circle is found to be 131'64 sq. in. The
initial reading is O· 321 and after tracing clockwise around the figure the final
reading iR 7' 578. :Find the area of the cross-section. ( G. U. )
( Ans. 20421 sq. ft. )
Q. 77. The area of an irregular figure was measured by a planimeter, with
the tracing arm set to natural scale. The readings were as under:-
Initial reading Final reading Position of anchor point Remarks
3.615 2.4!J7 Inside the figure zero of the dial
passed the index
mark once in
the reverse direction
0.820 9.276 Outside the figure
Find the are_a of the figure and also of the zero circle. (K. U. )
(Ans. 84'56 sq. in.; 195'74 sq. in.)
Q. 78. A road 30 ft. wide, I! to I side slopes with an average height of bank
II ft., is constructed with a gradient of 1 in 60 from contour 1220 ft. to 1396 ft.
'he surface of the ground has a uniform slope of I in 12 transversely. Calculate
a) the length of the road (b) volume of earth required. (U. P.)
(Ans, 2 miles ; 204100 cub. yds.)
Q. 79. In a certain railway cutting the width at formation level is 36 ft.,
~~?:~_of the cutting slope at I!to l,and the surface ofthe ground has a uniform
~ of 1 in 10. Find the volume of excavation in cubic yards between tw 0
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 60.3
points 200 ft. apart on the centre line, the depth of the cutting at the first point
being 12 feet, and at the second point 18 ft., while at a point half.way between
the depth is 15 ft. (V. B.)
( Ans. 6722 cub. yds. )
Q. 80. (a) A railway cutting 400 ft. long has a formation width of
20 ft. with side slopes 1 to 1. The depth of cutting at 100 ft. intervals along the
centre line is given as under: 1'5,4'0,6'0, 3'0,1'0 ft. Calculate the volume of
earthwork by Prismoidal formula, assuming the ground to be level in a direction
transverse to the centre line.
(b) Calculate the volume of earthwork by Prismoidal formula, for
100 ft. length from chainage 100 to 200 only, assuming the ground to have a slope
of 1 in 10 in a direction transverse to the centre line. (K. V. )
(Ans. (a) 1266 cub. yds. (b) 472'8 cub. yds. )
Q. 81. Find the volume of a tank which is excavated in level ground to a
depth of 9 ft. The top which is rectangular in shape has an area of60 ft. X 30 ft.,
while the bottom is 40 ft. X 4 ft. (G. V. )
( Ans. 8040 cub. ft. )
Q. 82. A map plotted from an oid survey to a scale of 660 ft. to an inch
was found to have shrunk, so that a line originally 10 inches long was 9' 82
inches. There was also a note on the map that the Gunter's chain used was
O' 5 link too long. If the area on the map measured with a planimeter was
24'68 sq. inches, find the area of the survey. (G. V.)
(Ans. 258'4 ac.)
Q. 83. In chaining along a uniformly sloping ground the difference in
height between two points at a distance of 3 chains measured along the slope is
34' 5 ft. Find the angle of the slope and the hypotenusal allowance for (i) A
Gunter's chain, (ii) An Engineer's chain. (K. V.)
(Ans. (i) 100 2'; 11' 88 in.; (ii) 60 36'; 7' 97 in.)
Q. 84. Following are the bearings' of the sides of a closed traverse :_
Side Fore bearing. Side Fore bearing
AB 107° 15' DE 189° 15'
BC 22° 0' EA 124° 45'
CD 281" 30'
Find the interior angles of the traverse. (K. V.)
(Ans. LA=162° 30'; LB=94° 45'; LC=79° 30'; LD=87° 45'; LE=1l5° 30'.)
Q. 85. Calculate the values of included angles in a closed traverse PQRS
conducted in a clockwise direction, given the following fore bearings of their
respective lines:-
Line Fore bearing Line Fore bearing
PQ 50° RS 220°
QR 80° SP 290° (U. B.)
INDEX
units of 8, 326
Arrows, 42
Aberration, chromatic, 199 Average end area nde for volumes, '4&
A verage ordinate rule for aTeas, 3311
spherical, 199
Axis of level tube, 195, 361
Abney level, 547
of telescop<" 195, 361
Accuracy of chaining, 52
of compass traversing, 186
of geodetic levelling, 435
of ordinary levelling, 435
of theodolite traversing, 248 Back bearing, 150 tl •
Achromatic lens, 200 Backsight, 361
Achromatism, 205 Balancing backsight and foresi~ht
Adjusting box sextant, 295 distances, 374
chain, 41 "Ba)ancing traveroe, 261
optical square, llO Balancing-in 224
\djustment of Abney level, 549 Band chain, 39
of bearings, 260 Barometer, aneroid, 426
of box sextant, 295 mercury, 426
of compass traverse, 175 Barom 'trio levelling, 426
of Cooke's level, 531 Base line, 82
of Cushing's level, 534 Batter board, 457
of dumpy level, 513 Bearing, arbitrary, 148
of plane table, 321 back, 150
of theodolite, 195 check, 239, 314
of tilting level, 538 fore, 150
of traverse,:260 magnetic, 148
of wye level, 535 quadrantal, 148
of Zeiss level, 540 reduced, 149
~onic lines, 178 true, 148
idade, 305 whole circle, 148
19les, measurement, Bench mark, 361, 372
with Abney level, 548 al'bitrary, 373
with box sextant, 292 G. T. S. 372
~ith clinometer, 61, permanent, 372
vith theodolite, 213 temporary, 373
leflection, 219 Boning-in, 463
lirect, 218 Boning rods, 457, 463
orizontal, 213 Booking angular mel1surements,
ertical, 221 field notes, 97
anatism, 205 levels, 382
a, computation of, traverse survey, 264
f closed traverse, 266 Bowditch's rule, 261
INDEX 605
Box sextant, 288 method of reducing levels, 380

Bubble tube, 206 '~olouring, 135
radius of curvature of, 436 Oombined correction, 408
. value of division, 436 Oomparative scales, 22
Oompass, 142, 191
o prismatic, 143
surveyor's 145
ltlculation of bearings from traveroe, 169
deflection angles, 242 trough, 192
included angles, 239 Oompass rule, 261
:Japacity of reservoir, Oomputation of areas, 326
determination of, 485 volumes, 468
Oare of instruments, 9 Oomputing scale, 329
Oentering, arrangement Oonjugate foci, 197
for theodolite, 18' Oontour drawing, 450
error of, • gradient, 454
plane ,Ible, 323 interval, 443
theodolite, 252 lines, 443
vernier plate, 252 Oontouring, methods of, 444
Ohain, 37 Oontours, characteristics of, 443
adjustment of, 41 interpolation of, 448
engineer's, 39 uses of, 444
Gunter's, 38 Oonventional signs, 131, 132
metre, 39 Oonverging lens, 197
revenue, 39 Oooke's reversible level, 365
surveying, 80 Oo-ordinates, area from, 266
·hain angle, 140 consecutive, 258
haining a line, 50 independent, 258, 263
on sloping ground, 59 plotting by, 172
Jhange point, 362, 373 Oorrection for, absolute length, 71
Ohanging face, 194 curvature, 407
( haracteristics of contour lines, 443 refraction, 408
Oheck bearing, 239, 314 curvature and refraction, 408
levels, 398 sag, 72
line, 83 slope, 63, 73
Checks on closed kaverses, 237 temperature, 71
field, on open traverses, 238 tension or pull, 72
Oircle of correction, 349 Cross-hairs, 204
area of, 346 Cross-head, 457
mp and tangent screw, 190 sectioning by Abney level, 403
sification of surveys, 3 sectioning by hand level, 402
levelling, 393 sectioning by level, 402
'ncters, 61, 546 sectioning by theodolite, 404
!sed traverse; 139 sections, 402
.}sing error in levelling, 435 areas of, 469
traversing, 175, 259 Cross staff, 103
~" timation, line of 194, 361 adjustable, 105
French, 105 Equipment for chain survey, 100

Cross ~taff survey 125 Error of closure, 175, 259
Curvature and refractji:>U, 406 relative, 259 n
correction for, 408 Error due to incorrect ranging, 91
Curvature correction in earthwork Error, sources of, in chaining, 67
computation, 484 in compass observations, 184
Cushing's level, 365 in lP.'ltdliTJ..'E" 4_~2.
in plane tabling, 322'
D in theodolite work, 248
Extent of earthwork, 478
Datum, 361 Eyepiece, 202
Declination, magnetic, 177 Ramsden, 202
Definition, 205 erecting, 202
Deflection angles, 219
De Li~le's clinometer, 650
Departures, 257
Diagonal eyepiece, 202
Face left and right, 193
Diaphragm, 203
Fast needle method of traversing, 233
Dip of compass needle, J76
Field book, 97
of horizon, 409
Focal length of lens, 197
Direct angles, 218
Foci, conjugate, 197
Direct method of contouring, 444
Focus, principal, 197
Distance to visible hori2lon, 409
Focussing of telescope, 362
Distriburion of angular error, 260
of eyepiece, 212, 370
Diverging lens, 197
of object glass, 212, 371
Double-rodded lines, 39$
Double-sighting, 223 Folded vernier, 27
Drawing instruments, 128 Folding chain, 52
materials, 130 Follower, 50 •
Drop arrow, 59 Foot peg, 373
I)\>'~");PJl \'C-"'C\, ?,~ Foot ~late, 37:1
Foot-rule clinometer, 553
Fore bearing, 150
E
Foresight, 362
Earthwork, computation from cross- Formulae, trigonometrical, 13
French cross staff, 105
sections, 469
borrow pits, 486
G
Eastings and Westings, 257
Eccentricity of theodolite circles, 251
of verniers, 252 Geodetic surveying, 1
Eidograph, 563 Ghat tracer (Ceylon), 555
Elevation, 361 Give and take lines, 328
Engineering surveys, 4 Grade contour, 454
Enlarging plans, 559 Grade rod, 452
Equalising backsight and foresight Graphical adjustment of compass
distances, 374 traverse, 175
Equalising lines, 328 Gunter's chain, 38
INDEX 61]'
u Virtual image, 197, 199

Volumes of earthwork, 468
frame, 306 straight, 468
Unclosed traverse, 139 curved, 466
field checks on, 238 of borrow pits, 486
Unfolding chain, 50 of reservoir, 485
Units of angular measure, 8
area, 8, 326 W
linear Iueasure, 8
volume, 8 Waving levelling staff, 376
'seful data, 11 Well-conditioned triangles, 81
Westings and Eastings, 257
V Whites, 45
Whole circle bearings, 148
lariation of magnetic decIination,178 (W.e.B.)
annual, 178 Work of surveyor, 9
diurnal, 178 Working profile, 400
irregular, 178 Wye level. 365
secular, 178
Vernier, 23 y
direct, 23
double, 25 Y level, 365
extended, 26
folded, 27 Z
retrograde, 25
Vertical, angle, 360 Zeiss level, 364,
axis, 195, 361 Zero circle, 349
line, 360 (circle of correctio,l )
plane, 360 area of, 350
i,
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...

«~FACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION

In meeti"' ~ the call for a new edition, the opportunity has

The author gratefully acknowldges his debt to the'

Shooting-in Grade ... 4~

account the curvature of the earth, since large distances and

angles of polygons as plane angles. It, therefore. involves

(iii) Tacheometric Surveys.

and complete surveys. In all Engineering projects the pre-

~\ \ the method of surveying by chain

~~OE1l:!J,,_ b~_!_~~~xta~~ _~_s_<:_<ijn measuring an angle

in placing it in its box. It should never be lifted by the telescope,

Surveying is partly an art and partly a science. A sound

Useful Data and Formulre

Abbreviations :-in. = inch; ft. = foot; yd. = Yard;

(1) Linear Measure

I foot 12 inches. 1 metre =100 cm. =1000 mm.

I link (Gunter's chain) = 0'66 ft. = 7'92 in.

(2) Square Meas',ure

1 guntha -:-,121 sq. yds.=1089 sq. ft.

(3) Cubic Measure

1 pound (lb.)= 16 oz. 1 gallon of water =

(5) Angular Measure

1 right angle = 90 degrees. 1T radians = 180°.

1i' = 3'1416; L1[ = 0'3183; 1[2= 9'87; log 1i' = 0'4972.

In the right-angled triangle ABC (Fig. 8),

a = b sin A = b cos C = c tan A = c cot C = V bS _ ell.

c = b sin C = b cos A = a tan C = a cot A = V bl _ a2 •

Si~~ Rule : _~_ = _b_ = _e_ ,) Cosine Rule:

tan ~_ / sin (8 - b) sin (s__ c)

( I-x ) =1-2~-8-16-········· 0.~.

Rhombus (Fig. 15):= (base X height} =1 product of two diagonals.

In Fig. 17, let 6 = the angle subtended at the centre of a

= i (chord X height of segment), .approxi-

Perimeter of ellipse = ,1r_(major axis + minor axis).

Circular cylinder (Fig. 23). = (area of base X height).

Fig. 23 Fig. 24 :Fig.25

Cone (Fig. 25). = ~ (area of base X height)

= '!!_ (radius)2 X height.

Frustum of pyramid or cone (Fig. 26).= : (Ao + Al +vAOA1)'

Prismoid (Fig. 27). = !:__

where Ao and A2 = the areas of the ends; Al = the area of

where a = the length of the base; b = the breadth of the

Sphere (Fig. 29). =~ 7T(radius)3= ~~ (diameter)8.

Spherical shell (Fig. 30). = _~ 7T(R3_ 1·3) = ~(D8 - dB).

Fig. 29 Fig. 30 Fig. 31

where R = the outer radius; r = the inner radius; D = the

where R = the outer radius; r = the inner radius; C = ,the

in parallel planes (Fig. 82). = D (6. 1 + 46. 2 + 26. 3 +... + 6.,,).

last parallel line and join the points of subdivisions to these

that trots at 6 miles per hour, given that the R. F. = ~1__ .

Shrunk Scales :-If a scale is omitted from an old map

factor is~, and the R. F. = -~ 1 or the scale is 25 inches to

required to read ~th part of the smallest division on the

divided into 11, equal divisions on the vernier scale. In this

The difference between the value of a Illain scale division

and that of a vernier division = d- v = d _- (~: I) d=~ d.

This difference is known as the least C01mt of the vernier.

primary graduatioll by I_th of a primary division, and the pth

with some division on the main scale. Then the approximate

fractional part = r X least count = r X ~ main division.

It is important to observe that the vernier is read in the

The least count = (v - d) = (n + 1) d ~ d = ~ d.

In this case the least count is the difference between two

~~OE1l:!J,,_ b~_!_~xta _~_s_<:_<ijn measuring an angle

R. F. of the scale of the village map = _ !~ = _1_ •