THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSING THE IMPACT OF THE NATIONAL

IDENTITY MESSAGES ON THE ZAMBIA NATIONAL BROADCASTING CORPORATION

(ZNBC) TV1 MAIN NEWS.

By Mutale F. Chileshe, Master of Mass Communication Degree candidate at the University of

Zambia. This essay was part of the course assignment in Communication Theories.

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this essay is to provide a theoretical framework for analysing the impact of the Ministry
of Religious Affairs and National Guidance messages (i.e. One Zambia, One Nation) broadcast during
every newscast by the Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC) on TV1. The essay begins
by situating the role of theory in a systematic inquiry. After this, the essay shall describe the case under
review. Focusing on audience and environmental factors of media effects, the essay adopts the media-
dependency-theory as a framework for analysing the case.

ROLE OF THEORY IN INQUIRY

According to Stephen Littlejohn and Karen Foss (2008), an inquiry is the “systematic study of
experiences that leads to understanding, knowledge and theory” (p.7). They assert that the process of
inquiry involves three aspects: questions, observations and theory. In this sense, scholars ask questions
and then look for answers to questions by observing events and then finally, attempt to define,
describe , explain and interpret what was observed.

Theories are part of inquiry. Stephen Littlejohn and Karen Foss (2008) define a theory as “an organised
set of concepts, explanations and principles of some aspect of human experience” (p.14). They further
describe concepts as “terms and definitions” derived from the classification and labelling of many
variables according to perceive patterns. Explanations, on the other hands, are simply statements about
how concepts are connected. Principles are “guidelines” that enable one to “interpret an event, make
judgment about what is happening and then decide to act in the situation“(p.21).

Kenneth Bordens and Bruce Abbott (2018, pp45-46) assert the theories play several roles in research.
Firstly, theories provide ways of understanding the phenomenon for which they account. Secondly,

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theories provide a sound framework for organising and interpreting research results. Thirdly, theories
provide a way to predict the behaviour of the system. Lastly, theories provide ideas for new research.
This means that theories can have a hermeneutic value to provide a framework within which certain
problems and questions become important.

Nicholas Walliman (2011) adds the role of control. He states that “once you understand an event or
situation, you may be able to find ways to control it. For this, you will need to know what the causes
and effects relationships are” (p.9).

In summary, theories in research can used to understand, describe, explain, predict and control the
phenomenon under investigation.

CASE STUDY: MINISTRY OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS AND NATIONAL GUIDANCE

MESSAGES (I.E. ONE ZAMBIA, ONE NATION) BROADCAST EVERY EVENING BY THE
ZAMBIA NATIONAL BROADCASTING CORPORATION (ZNBC) TV1

Since 2015, the Public Service Broadcaster ZNBC's TV1 main news broadcasts have opened with the
newscaster proclaiming the “One Zambia One Nation” slogan. This followed the directive by President
of the Republic of Zambia Mr Edgar Chagwa Lungu for ZNBC to reinstate the slogan in their main
news broadcast as it was during the Kenneth Kaunda One Party State Era (1972-1991).

President Lungu said: “Tribe and colour should not be a factor. Politics should not divide us just like
religion has not divided us. I will talk to the director-general to reinstate the slogan of One Zambia,
One Nation which should be played before the main news. This is an official directive” (Lusaka Times,
2015).

In 2019, The Ministry of Religious Affairs and National Guidance, one of the latest Government
Ministries created under President Lungu, added more messages to be read at the end of newscasts in
spirit of fostering national unity and identity. The messages include: “Service to My Country above
Self”, “Serve, Support, Promote This Great Nation”, Love Your Country, Be Loyal to Your Country, Be
Devoted to Your Country” and “I Love My Country”. The “One Zambia One Nation” slogan is read at
the beginning of the news while the other messages are provided at the end of the newscast.

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The paper suggests that the introduction of the “One Zambia One Nation” slogan and National
Guidance Messages can be described as government's propaganda to inculcate the ideology of
nationalism.

Denis McQuail in his McQuail's Mass Communication Theory defines propaganda as “‘the deliberate
and systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behaviour to achieve a
response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist” (2010, p.593). He also defines ideology as
an “organized belief system or set of values that is disseminated or reinforced by communication”
(ibid, p.713). Miroslav Hroch defines nationalism “a political ideology or set of ideas designed to unite
and sustain ties between diverse ethnicities, mobilize the masses through its political power, create a
strong sense of shared national identity, and provide a solid basis of trust between citizens who are
willing to sacrifice for others” (Fortner & Fackle, p.670).

A simple analysis of this phenomenon reveals that the Patriotic Front Government is attempting to
propagate values of nationalism or to use ZNBC to disseminate and reinforce a national ideology.

This view is supported by statements in the State of the Nation Address on the Progress made in the
Application of National Values and Principles speech as delivered on 17 th March 2017 in the Zambian
Parliament. The President stated that the national values and principles are enshrined in the Zambian
Constitution (see article 8, 9 and 86 of the Amended Zambian Constitution of 2016). Further, he stated
that the Constitution demands that these values and principles be applied in the “interpretation of the
Republican constitution, enactment and interpretation of the laws and development and implementation
of state policies.”

Therefore, the case under analysis represents the Patriotic Front Government agenda to use ZNBC to
create national awareness about values of nationalism.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
The goal of this paper is to propose a theoretical framework that can be used to analyse the impact of
the Ministry of Religious Affairs and National Guidance messages (i.e. One Zambia, One Nation)
broadcast during every newscast by the Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC) TV1.

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Whilst there are various approaches to the study of media message effects, this paper adopts an
audience centred approach.

PROPOSED RESEARCH QUESTION

The following ore some of the questions the theory intends to answer in the relation to the case under
study.
(a) What is the relationship between media exposure and feelings of national identity?
(b) To what extent are citizens exposed to ZNBC national identity messages?
(c) What factors influence citizens from accessing to ZNBC?
(d) What factors prevent citizens from accessing ZNBC?

The next section in this essay looks at some of plausible theories that could answer the above questions.

AUDIENCE CENTERED MEDIA EFFECT THEORIES

Use and Gratification Theory

The first theory proposed as a framework for analysis is the Use and Gratification theory. The theory
provides a framework for understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to
satisfy specific needs. The theory contains five basic assumptions (West & Turner, 2018, p.389):
(i) The audience is active and its media use is goal oriented.
(ii) The initiative in linking need gratification to a specific medium choice rests with the audience
member.
(iii) The media compete with other sources for need satisfaction.
(iv) People have enough self-awareness of their media use, interests, and motives to be able to provide
researchers with an accurate picture of that use.
(v) Value judgments of media content can only be assessed by the audience.

Elaborating on the first assumption of the theory, Denis McQuail and his colleagues identified several
ways of classifying audience needs and gratifications (West &Turner, 2018). The first is diversion,
which is defined as escaping from routines or daily problems. The second is personal relationships,
which occurs when people substitute the media for companionship. The third is personal identity, or

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ways to reinforce an individual’s values. Lastly, there is surveillance, or information about how media
will help an individual accomplish something.

Stuart Hall: Encoding, Decoding and Ideology

The second plausible theory for the case under review is the encoding and decoding theory. The
Encoding/Decoding model of communication was first developed by cultural studies scholar Stuart
Hall in 1973. Hall's model claims that Television and other media audiences are presented with
messages that are decoded, or interpreted in different ways depending on an individual's cultural
background, economic standing, and personal experiences (During, 1992).

Hall identifies three positions from where the audience/reader might decode the message. He calls
these the dominant position', the 'negotiated position' and the 'oppositional position' (Longhusrt, B., et
al., 2008, p.55).

Dominant position: “This position is one where the consumer takes the actual meaning directly, and
decodes it exactly the way it was encoded. The consumer operates within the dominant point of view,
and fully shares the codes of the text and accepts and reproduces the intended meaning. In this sphere,
there is barely any misunderstanding because both the sender and receiver have the same cultural
biases.” (During, 1992).

Negotiated position: “This is a mixture of accepting and rejecting elements; Readers acknowledge the
dominant message, but do not accept everything the way the encoder intended. The reader to a certain
extent shares the text codes and generally accepts the preferred meaning, but simultaneously also
resists and modifies the message in a way which reflects his/her own experiences and interests” (Fuchs,
2016).

Oppositional position: “In this position a consumer understands the literal meaning, but due to different
backgrounds each individual has his own way of decoding messages, while forming his own
interpretations gets exactly the opposite of the intended meaning” (ibid).

Media Dependency Theory

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Media Dependency theory or Media System Dependency Theory was proposed by Sandra Ball-
Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur in 1976. Dependency theory is an expansion of Uses and Gratification
Theory. It states that people depend on media information to meet certain needs and achieve certain
goals, like uses-and-gratifications theory. But people do not depend on all media equally (University of
Twente, 2019). Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur proposed that a key variable in understanding how, when,
and why media messages influence an audience's beliefs, feelings, or behaviour is the degree of
audience dependence on mass media sources of information (Elliot, 1995).

Ressian Ebb categorises three factors that influence the degree of media dependence: Individual, Social
Stability and Active Audience.

(i) Individual: Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (cited in Ebbio, 2013) state that: “an individual will become
more dependent on media, if the medium satisfy his/her needs. Otherwise the media dependence will
become less.”

(ii) Social Stability: Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (cited in Ebbio, 2013) state that “during the period of
strong social change, conflicts, riot or election media dependency is dramatically increased, because
there is a strong need for information, support and advice.”

(ii) Active audience: In communication process, Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (ibid) state that the “active
audience chooses the media dependence on their individual needs and other factors such as economic
conditions, society and culture. If alternative source fulfil the audience needs, then it will reciprocally
decrease the media dependence.”

Elliot (1995), adds that the absence of alternatives might also increase dependency on available
information sources: "the more an individual comes to rely on a single communication channel, the
greater is the predictability of the outcome of· communication. The more functional alternatives
available to an individual, in terms of both quantity and quality, the lesser is the dependency on and
influence of a specific channel"

Elliot (1995) further explains that "the greater the media dependency, the greater the level of attention
during exposure, the greater the level of affect toward the message and its senders, and the greater the
likelihood of post-exposure communication about the message--and thus, the greater the probability of

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message effects intended or unintended"

Empirical Evidence for the Dependency Model

A study was proposed to find out whether television could be employed to influence opinions regarding
racism, sexism, and environmentalism .

An elaborate experiment was designed and conducted in which thousands of individuals were exposed to a
television program conceived to influence audiences on the above topics. It was hypothesized that people with
strong television dependencies for social and self understanding would be more likely to watch the program
with a high level of commitment (i.e., attention, involvement) and consequently would be more likely to be
affected by the program. Television dependency was measured through the following question: "How often do
you use television to ...” (several purposes were listed). A survey was conducted before and after the show was
broadcast to assess attitudes and attitude changes on the issues explored. Levels of attention and involvement
while watching were also assessed through the survey. It was concluded that among those segments of the
audience highly dependent on television for orientation on issues of social relevance, the likelihood of watching
the program increased, and higher levels of attention and involvement while watching were observed. It was
also found, as expected, that high television dependency audiences contributed more money for pro-
environment, anti-racism, and anti sexism causes when later solicitations were made”

(Halpern, 1992).

Another research was conducted to examine associations between feelings of national identity and
mass media exposure in Central American nation of Belize (Elliot, 1995). The goal was to determine
whether heavy users of foreign media feel less Belizean than fellow citizens who rely less on imported
television and more on local media for news and entertainment. The study found that those with higher
exposure to magazines published in Belize were more likely to report stronger feelings of Belizean
national identity.

THEORY ADOPTION AND APPLICATION

Having described the plausible theories, the paper adopts the media dependency theory. The theory
gives an adequate framework for understanding the impact media messages on audiences and in this
case, the impact of national guidance messages being proclaimed during the ZNBC TV1 news

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broadcast. The theory is relevant for the following reasons:

One, media-dependency theory is relevant because it applies to a pluralistic media environment. Since
1991, Zambia has a pluralistic media landscape. ZNBC is no longer the sole broadcast media in Zambia
as it was before 1991. According to Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) in Zambia, as at 31 st
August, 2019, there were combined total of hundred and eleven (151) fully registered radio and
television content providers countrywide with full operating licenses (https://www.iba.org.zm/). Among
these were 60 community radio stations and 49 commercial radio stations. The rest comprised a
combined total of 42 subscription and commercial free to air television content providers. Although
still a dominant player, the growing number of content providers indicates ZNBC (Radio and TV) is
no longer a main and only source of media messages among Zambians. A 2018 “National Survey On
Access And Usage Of Information And Communication Technologies By Households And Individuals”
Report found that:

“The proportion of households across the country that own a working radio reduced from 45 percent in 2015 to 40
percent in 2018. ZNBC television stations remain the most widely accessed local television stations by households
that own working television sets in Zambia. On the other hand, the majority of households in the country that own
working radios indicated that they access community radio stations. GoTV and Topstar recorded the highest
frequency of households that indicated that they owned a working television set which was used to access
broadcasting services and had access to pay television channels constituting 56.5 percent and 28.4 percent
respectively.” (ZICTA, 2019)

ZNBC also faces the challenge of the growing internet and social media use in Zambia. According to
Zambia Information and Communications Technology Authority (ZICTA) website (www.zicta.zm), as
at 30th June 2019, a total of 10,478,954 Zambians were mobile internet users and 41241 has fixed
internet subscription. A 2018 ZICTA survey estimated that 78.4 percent of all the users of the internet
had at least one social media account. Facebook was the most used social media platform followed by
WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter, Google+, Yahoo Messenger, Snap Chat, Skype, LinkedIn, We Chat and
Viper (ZICTA, 2019).

Two, the media-dependency theory is relevant to the case because it considers audience and
environmental factors. There are a number of social-psychological and economical factors that
influence which media channels people are exposed to. As Potter (2012) states, “the factors that lead to

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media effects are not exclusively media factors. While characteristics in the media messages are of
course important influencers of those effects, other factors—about the audience members and the
exposure environment—are also important.”

Three, the media-dependency theory is relevant to the case because has been used in empirical studies
similar to the one this paper intends to analyse. The closest example is the study that examined
associations between feelings of national identity and mass media exposure in Central American nation
of Belize (Elliot, 1995). As such, it shall be easy to replicate the methodology in that case study to the
Zambian situation.

Lastly, the media-dependency theory shall be useful in evaluating how influential ZNBC is in
disseminating and reinforcing beliefs of national identity,and if not, provide a basis for proposing
strategies to remedy the problem to fulfil the government agenda.

CONCLUSION
The purpose of this paper was to provide a theoretical framework for analysing the impact of the
Ministry of Religious Affairs and National Guidance messages (i.e. One Zambia, One Nation)
broadcast during every newscast by the Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC) on TV1.
The paper has adopted the media-dependency-theory as a framework to analysing the case. This is
because tenets of the theory strongly relate to prevailing circumstance under which the media and
citizens operate in modern day Zambia. The theory has been tested in a similar and related study and as
such would provide an effective mechanism of understanding and interpreting the results of the
intended study.

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