Polytechnic University of the Philippines - Maragondon Branch

ECE ELECTIVE 3

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

Research Work # 3

Submitted by:

Mark Kenneth M. Apuyan

2014 - 00238 - M

ECE-IV

ENGR. JOMER V. CATIPON

Professor

January 22, 2017

Respiratory System

Respiratory System - Function

When humans breathe, air enters and exits via the respiratory system. This allows the body to
obtain oxygen, which is needed for metabolic processes, and eliminate carbon dioxide, which is
a metabolic waste product and can affect the body's pH homeostasis.

Like the digestive system, the respiratory system can be thought of as a tube, or rather, as a
branching series of tubes that get smaller and smaller as they branch off. Unlike the digestive
system, which moves solids and liquids in a single direction, the respiratory system moves gases
in both directions, when we inhale and exhale.

When we inhale, air passes through the nose or mouth into the pharynx, larynx , trachea , lungs,
and into smaller and smaller airways termed bronchi and then bronchioles, until it reaches the air
sacs, oralveoli . Only a single cell thick, the walls of the alveoli allow the oxygen in air to diffuse
into the blood, and the cardiovascular system carries it to each cell in the body.

Carbon dioxide, a waste product of cell metabolism, also diffuses through the alveolar walls, but
in the opposite direction, from the blood to the airways. Carbon dioxide is then exhaled through
the airways to the external environment.

Respiratory System - Organs

The organs of the respiratory system are arranged in a roughly superior to inferior direction and
include:

 Nose

 Mouth

 Pharynx

 Larynx

 Trachea

 Lungs

Within the lungs, the respiratory system can be further divided into:

 Bronchi (singular bronchus)

 Bronchiole tree

 Alveoli (singular alveolus)

Note that the pharynx (the part of the throat just behind the mouth) is listed as a part of both the
digestive and respiratory systems.

 Food and beverages pass through the pharynx on the way through the digestive tract.

 Air passes through the pharynx on its way to and from the lungs.

Food and water are prevented from entering the airway when we swallow by a structure called
the epiglottis. It is not uncommon for organs to be part of more than one organ system. The
pancreas, for example, has both digestive and endocrine functions, and the kidneys play a role in
both the urinary and endocrine systems.

Respiratory System - Anatomy and Direction

The respiratory system is superior to the abdomen and internal to the ribs.

Skeletal System

Skeletal System - Function

The skeletal system, which includes the skeleton and articulations (joints), provides support and
protection for soft tissues and organs, aids in movement, serves as a reservoir of calcium, and
produces all blood cells.

Although we often think of bones as the only organs of the skeletal system, cartilage, ligaments
and tendons are equally important organs. These structures of the skeletal system work together
to:

 provide leverage and resist forces from muscles and gravity.

 keep joints together.

 allow flexibility within joints.

 maintain a safe range of motion.

Bones are found throughout the body from the skull in the head to the 26 bones in the foot.
Bones allow us to maintain our stature, they protect softer internal organs, and they let us move
around. Bones are interconnected by articulations, another word for joints. In an articulation,
where bone meets bone, there is a layer of softer cartilage. Articulations are then stabilized by
ligaments, which help keep the bones aligned properly. Bones are connected to the muscular
system by tendons, which allow the body to move.

Skeletal System - Organs

The major structures within the skeletal system are:

  bones

 cartilage

 ligaments

 tendons

The skeletal system consists of bones, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage. Bone is the primary
organ of the skeletal system. Although there are different types of bones in our body, the basic
components of all bone tissue are the same:

 Osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes, which are specialized cells that are responsible
for bone formation, regulation and repair.

 Collagens and other proteins, which give bone its flexibility.

 Inorganic calcium and phosphate minerals, which give bone its hardness.

 Red bone marrow, which produces all blood cells in a process termed hematopoiesis (or
hemopoiesis).

These basic components give bone tissue its load-bearing, protective qualities. The living cells in
bone allow it to sense and respond to stress. The inorganic matrix of bone gives the bone rigidity
and also acts as a storage depot for calcium and phosphorus in the body.

Cartilage is a firm, flexible, and smooth connective tissue found at the ends of bones. Cartilage is
present in joints to protect the bone and to evenly distribute forces to the underlying bone.

Ligaments are band-like elastic structures that surround joints to hold them together. Ligaments
connect one bone to another bone, and allow movement in very specific directions.

Tendons are band-like structures similar to ligaments. However, tendons are more rigid and
connect bones to muscles. Tendons play a role in integrating the force generation of the muscle
with the rigid bone, which helps actuate large-scale motion.

The numerous organs and structures of the skeletal system allow it to serve an important role in
the support and protection of our body. Bones are very strong, yet flexible which makes them
perfect for supporting our weight and allowing movement. The connective tissues such as
cartilage, ligaments, and tendons aid in protecting our joints and providing stability. The red
bone marrow inside the bone is vital for hematopoiesis or the production of all blood cells.
Bones are also a reservoir for calcium. If your diet is deficient in calcium, a hormone will
mobilize calcium from the bones to the blood, and your bones will be weaker.
Skeletal System - Anatomy and Direction

Bones are found throughout the body. Regions capable of more intricate movements, such as the
hands and feet, have more articulations and therefore more bones. Each articulation has cartilage
and is stabilized by ligaments.

Urinary System
Urinary System - Function

The urinary system filters blood and adjusts the composition of blood/interstitial fluid by
removing excess water, salt, acid, and metabolic waste from the body as urine. This allows the
urinary system to control body fluid volume, blood pressure, pH, and electrolyte balance. It is a
critical system for maintaining homeostasis.

We have seen how the digestive and respiratory systems remove some wastes from the body—
undigested food leaves the digestive tract through the anus and carbon dioxide leaves through the
lungs and airways. The urinary system (or excretory system) filters blood to remove excess
water, electrolytes and other metabolic wastes and reabsorbs water, electrolytes and other
molecules as needed to maintain homeostasis in the body fluid. The resulting excess and wastes
are excreted as urine. In this way, the urinary system also works with the respiratory system to
maintain pH balance in the body.

Urinary System - Organs

The organs of the urinary system include:

 Kidneys

 Ureters

 Urinary Bladder

 Urethra

The kidneys, the main organs of the urinary system, are located against the posterior wall of the
abdomen. They serve as a filtration and reabsorption system, where soluble substances are
filtered and then those that the body needs to keep are reabsorbed. Those that are not reabsorbed
(or not reabsorbed fully), such as our metabolic waste products, end up in the urine. Because our
bodies are constantly producing wastes, the kidneys continuously work to prevent the buildup of
waste products and toxins, filtering about 180 liters of fluid a day. Because the average person
has about three liters of plasma (the fluid fraction of blood), this means that our plasma is filtered
about 60 times a day!
One of the most important of the waste products removed from the blood is urea, the main end
product of protein metabolism. Other waste products and some toxins are also removed from the
blood by the kidneys.

In addition, ions and water are also filtered by the kidneys, but a large fraction of these are
reabsorbed to keep the fluid and electrolyte concentration of the blood and other body fluids
within an optimal range for proper cell function. The kidneys also play an important role in the
regulation of pH by managing the amount of acid in the urine.

As previously described the kidneys filter the blood to form urine. Urine leaves the kidneys and
flows through the ureters to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until it passes out of the body
through the urethra . On average, two liters of urine are produced per day, but this can vary
greatly depending upon fluid intake, fluid loss through perspiration, and other factors.

Urinary System - Anatomy and Direction

The right and left kidneys are located against the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity. The
kidneys’ location is also described as retroperitoneal because they are behind the peritoneal
cavity that encloses the intestines.

Reproductive System

Human reproductive system, organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring.
Provided all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly, the essential
features of human reproduction are (1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the
reproductive cycle, (2) internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells, (3)
transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb, (4) implantation of the blastocyst, the
early embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of the uterus, (5) formation of
a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire period of gestation, (6) birth of
the child and expulsion of the placenta, and (7) suckling and care of the child, with an eventual
return of the maternal organs to virtually their original state.

For this biological process to be carried out, certain organs and structures are required in both the
male and the female. The source of the ova (the female germ cells) is the female ovary; that of
spermatozoa (the male germ cells) is the testis. In females, the two ovaries are situated in the
pelvic cavity; in males, the two testes are enveloped in a sac of skin, the scrotum, lying below
and outside the abdomen. Besides producing the germ cells, or gametes, the ovaries and testes
are the source of hormones that cause full development of secondary sexual characteristics and
also the proper functioning of the reproductive tracts. These tracts comprise the fallopian tubes,
the uterus, the vagina, and associated structures in females and the penis, the sperm channels
(epididymis, ductus deferens, and ejaculatory ducts), and other related structures and glands in
males. The function of the fallopian tube is to convey an ovum, which is fertilized in the tube, to
the uterus, where gestation (development before birth) takes place. The function of the male
ducts is to convey spermatozoa from the testis, to store them, and, when ejaculation occurs, to
eject them with secretions from the male glands through the penis.

At copulation, or sexual intercourse, the erect penis is inserted into the vagina, and spermatozoa
contained in the seminal fluid (semen) are ejaculated into the female genital tract. Spermatozoa
then pass from the vagina through the uterus to the fallopian tube to fertilize the ovum in the
outer part of the tube. Females exhibit a periodicity in the activity of their ovaries and uterus,
which starts at puberty and ends at the menopause. The periodicity is manifested
by menstruation at intervals of about 28 days; important changes occur in the ovaries and uterus
during each reproductive, or menstrual, cycle. Periodicity, and subsequently menstruation, is
suppressed during pregnancy and lactation.