FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

INTRODUCTION

The development of methods and tools for using and controlling fire was critical in human evolution and is
believed to have allowed early humans to spread northward from the warm climate of either origin into the more
severe environment of Europe and Asia. The evidence of early fire use is often ambiguous because of the difficulty
in determining whether the archeological evidence is the result of accidental fire or its deliberate use. Such
evidence include finds of occupation sites with fired or baked soils, bones or stones that have been changed
through the application of heat, and areas containing thick layers of ash and charcoal that might have hearth
structures.

The earliest finds, in Kenya and Ethiopia, date from about 1.5 million years ago. Less equivocal evidence
exist for deliberate fire use in the Paleolithic period, beginning about 500,000 years ago. Neolithic sites have
yielded object that may have been used in fire, making drill for producing friction , heat in wood and flints for
striking sparks from iron pyrites.

In legend and religion, fire is common thing. For example, in Persian literature fire was discovered during a
fight of a hero with a dragon. A stone that the hero used as a weapon missed the monster and struck a rock. Light
shone forth and human beings saw a fire for the first time. In Greek Mythology, Prometheus was bestowed with god
liked powers when he stole god's fire to give it to humanity. Fire has also played a central role in religion . It has
been used as a god and recognized as a symbol of home and family in many cultures. Fire has also been a symbol
of purification and of immortality and renewal, hence the lighting of flames of remembrance . The temple of Vesta in
Rome was an outstanding example of the importance of fire to the Romans . Vesta was originally the goddess of
the fire and her shrine was in every home.

We can only guess that pre historic people may have gained knowledge fire from observing things in nature
so the origin of the fire before dawn of civilization may be traces to an erupting volcano, or forest fire, started by
lighting. No really knows where on earth surface or what stage of early history man learned how to start a fire and
how to make use of it. Yet today man has had fire as;
1. Source of warmth and light
2. Protection against enemies
3. Cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to be digested to suit man’s body structure.
4. Provides processes for modifying chemicals into medicines.
5. Provide heat to convert wood, metals and bones into domestic tools or instruments for aggressions.
While the application of fire has served man’s needs. Its careless and wanton used exact an enormous and
careful toll from society in life and property. Hence man’s understanding of fire would enable him to develop the
technology of prevention and control to a considerable advance state.

THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

A. Basic Definitions

1. Technology – is a branch of knowledge that deals with the industrial arts and sciences. It is the application
of such knowledge that is used to produced the materials necessities of society.
2. Chemistry – is the branch of science which deals with the study of composition and the study of matter,
changes matter undergo, energy involved in a given change and conditions necessary to bring about
changes in matter.
3. Atoms – are fundamental particles of matter. It is the smallest particles of an element that takes part in a
chemical reactions and cannot be further subdivided by ordinary physical and chemical means. The
structure of the atom is conceived to be made of central core known as the nucleus that contains protons
which is positively charge and neutron are principal energy levels where electrons, which is negatively
charged travel in orbit.
4. Elements – are pure substance made up of only one kind of atom. Metallic elements are good conductors
of heat and electricity but non-metallic elements are either poor or non- conductor of heat and electricity.
5. Molecules- are combinations of two or more atoms.
6. Compounds – are two or more different atoms combined in definite proportions
7. Atomic Weight of an Element – is the relative weight of element as compared to the weight of an atom of
carbon, arbitrarily assigned.
8. Molecular weight of a compound – is the sum of the atomic weight of all atoms in one molecule of the
compound.
9. Chemical Formula – is an abbreviated way of writing the substance using the symbols of elements
composing the substance and the subscripts of whole numbers to denote the proportion at which they
combine.
B. Physical Properties of Matters related to Fire:

1. Specific Gravity – is the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume
of water. In general the higher the specific gravity of a substance, the greater the amount of heat is
necessary to decompose it.
2. Vapor Density – is the weight of a volume of pure gas compared to the weight of a volume of dry air at
the same temperature and pressure. The property is commonly used in fire protection, Vapor density of
less than 1 indicates that the gas is lighter than air.
3. Vapor Pressure - when a liquid is heated in a liquid container, the molecules in a liquid state escape to
form gaseous molecules, the gas molecules strike one another as well as the walls of the container and
may return to the liquid state. The force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at an
equilibrium is called Vapor Pressure.
4. Reactions between fuel and Temperature – is the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature which can be expressed in C (Celsius or
centigrade), F (Fahrenheit) and K (Kelvin or absolute).
5. Boiling point – is the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. is the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in
order to initiate or cause self contained combustion without the addition of heat from outside sources.
6. Ignition Temperature or Kindling Temperature – is the minimum temperature to which the substance in
the air must be heated in order to initiate or cause self contained combustion without the addition of heat
from outside sources.
7. Fire Point – is the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors are evolved fast
enough to support continuous combustion
8. Flash Point is the temperature at which a flammable liquid form a vapors –air mixture that ignites. The
minimum and maximum temperature are referred to as the lower and upper flash point in air respectively

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIRE:

1. Endothermic reaction – are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction
takes place.

2. Exothermic Reactions – are those that release or give off energy (heat0 thus they produce substance with
less energy than the reactants.

3. Oxidation – is a chemical change that is exothermic. In connection with fire technology, it is simply defined
as a chemical change in which combustible materials (fuel ) and an oxidizing agent like oxygen, react.

4. Flames – are incandescent gases. In order to be sustain, it should maintain a high temperature and a
concentration of short lived intermediate chemical oxidizer.

There are different types of flames, categorized;

A. Based on color and completeness of combustibility of fuel:

a. Luminous Flames – is orange red-will deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated due to
incomplete combustion of fuel and has a lower temperature.
b. Non-luminous Flame – is blue, forms no soot deposit due to almost complete combustion of the
fuel and has relatively high temperature.

B. Based on fuel and air mixture;

a. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by the Bunsen burner type laboratory burner where the
hydrocarbon is thoroughly mixed with air before reaching the flame zone.
b. Diffusion Flame =is observed when gas (fuel) alone is force through a nozzle into the atmosphere
which diffuse in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a flammable mixture.

C. Based on smoothness:
a. Laminar Flame – when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame.
b. Turbulent Flames – are those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddies. As physical size, gas
density or velocity are increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.

CHEMISTRY AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

The phenomenon of fire has fascinated humanity since the beginning of time. Our ancestor defied it, we still
respect it. Its value as a weapon of war and as a tool of devastation has long been recognized.

Fire is a series of chemical reactions. It is often defined as the visible active phase of combustion.
Combustion is a chemical process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light. More, accurately , it is the rapid
oxidation of a fuel so as to produce flame (burning gases), heat and light. The most common form of combustion,
and to which we address our attention, is due to oxidation. This occurs when an atom, the fundamental particle of
an element, combines ( i.e., forms chemical bond) with an atom of oxygen though there are other types of
combustion supported by other gases, such as nitrous oxide (laughing gas ), the overwhelming majority of fires are
oxygen related.

THE THEORY OF FIRE

 Fire is a result of chemical reactions of fuel ( reducing agent) with certain elements as oxygen or chlorine or
fluorine (oxidizing agent). At kindling temperature this reaction is known as oxidation.

1. Oxidation Reaction
Oxidation reaction involves in fires are exothermic. In order for an oxidation reaction to take place, a
combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent must be present.
For practical purposes, it can be stated that any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen
(hydrocarbon) can be oxidized. The most common oxidizing agent is oxygen in air.

2. Ignition and combustion

Combustion is one kind of oxidation which is the same as actual burning. It is a rapid oxidation
accompanied by heat and light. When the heat generated by combustion becomes sufficient to cause the
material being oxidize to take fire, the material has reached its burning kindling temperature.
A condensed phase combustion is usually referred to as glowing combustion. A gas phased
combustion is known as flame. If the process is confined so that an appreciable pressures occurs, it is called
an explosion.
The combustion process is observed as occurring in two (2) modes: The flaming type (including
explosion) and the flameless surfaced type (including glow and deep seated glowing ember).

Pyrolysis – is defined as the chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat.

COMPONENTS OF FIRE

Traditionally, fire has been portrayed as having three components : heat, oxygen and fuel. This triad was
illustrated by the fire triangle which symbolized, in the most basic terms, a chemical relationship that would have
required hours to explain. We now realized, however that the fire triangle falls short of integrating all the component
involved in producing flaming combustion. Today , the fire triangle technically used to explain glowing
combustion, which occurs when a fuel mass glows without flaming. This is referred to as a solid to gas reaction
(fuel being a solid, and the oxidizing agent a gas).

The additional component needed to explain flaming combustion is a chemical chain reaction. Such a
reaction yield energy or products that cause reactions of the same kind, and this is self sustaining. To show the
interrelation of all four components, a more sophisticated geometric figure than a triangle is needed; the three
dimensional, four faceted tetrahedron is the most appropriate and commonly used.
In flaming combustion, fuel and the oxidizing agent are both in the gaseous state, hence this is referred to
as a gas to gas reaction.

Heat
A fire /arson investigator must be able to understand and recognize how heat is produced and transferred
and how it applies to the fire ignition and development.
Heat is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to molecular activity. Heat should not be
confused with temperature, which is the measurement of the relative amount of heat energy contained within a
given substance. Temperature is an intensity measurement, with units in degrees on either the Celsius
9centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin scale. Heat is a measurement of quantity and is given in British Thermal Units
(Btu). One Btu is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit ( 1 F).

THEORIES OF COMBUSTION

FIRE TRIANGLE THEORY - The graphical representation of the three elements of fire namely; Oxygen,
Heat and Fuel.

Each side is just as important as either of the other two sides. There cannot be fire without all the three
parts present in equal proportion.

Using the same theory, there are three ways to extinguish fire.

1. Remove the fuel

2. Cut off the oxygen supply
3. Reduce the temperature (cooling)

Elements of fire:

Heat – is a form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in combustion or
burning.

Oxygen – a colorless, odorless gas and one of the composition of air which is approximately 21% by volume.

Fuel – any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.

FIRE TETRAHEDRON
The Fire tetrahedron theory describes the three elements of a fire as a chemical reactivity or chemical reaction.

PHASES OF BURNING / THE THREE STAGES OF FIRE:

The methods of firefighters use to extinguish a fire will depend largely on the phase in which they find the
fire.

Factors to be considered in determining phases of burning:

1. the amount of time the fire has burned.

2. The ventilation characteristics of the confining structure;
3. the amount and type of combustible present.

A. Incipient /Beginning Phase it is the initial stage base on the above factors;

Characteristics

1. Normal room temperature

2. Oxygen Plentiful
3. Thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point.
4. Flame temperature of 1000 degrees Fahrenheit.
5. Producing pyrolysis products (C02,CO,& OTHER GASES)

B. Free-Burning Phase – the second phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in the
presence of adequate oxygen.

Characteristics:

1. Fire has involved more fuel

2. Oxygen is depleted
3. Heat accumulates at upper area
4. Temperature exceeds 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit
5. Area is fully involved

C. Hot Smoldering Phase – the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and heat
completely fill the confined room.

Characteristics:

1. Flames may die and leave only glowing embers or super heated fuel under pressure with little
oxygen.
2. Intense heat will vaporize lighter fuel components, such as hydrogen and methane, increasing the
hazard.
3. Temperature throughout the building is very high and normal breathing is not possible.
4. Oxygen deficiency may cause backdraft.

SOURCES OF HEAT ENERGY

There are five (5) ways to produce heat:

1. Chemical – As we have already seen, chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation. The speed
of the oxidative reaction is an important factor ; rust is also the product of oxidation, but of very slow
oxidation.
2. Mechanical – Mechanical heat is the product of friction. Our ancestors would rub sticks together to
generate enough heat to start a fire. Internal metal components of machinery can overheat, due to lubricant
breakdown or to ball bearing failure and cause ignition of available combustibles.

3. Electrical- electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting, or other electrical malfunction. Poor wire
connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current flowing through an improperly
gauged wire are other sources of electrical heat.
4. Compressed gas- when gas is compressed. Its molecular activity is greatly increased. Consider the action
of a diesel engine. The gaseous fuel is compressed within the cylinder, increasing its molecular activity. The
heat generated by this activity eventually reaches the ignition temperature of the fuel itself. The resulting
contained explosion forces the piston back to the bottom edge of the cylinder, and the process repeats over
and over again. The drive train converts the energy produced into a mechanical action that causes the
vehicle to move.
5. Nuclear- Nuclear energy is the product of carefully controlled splitting or fusing of atomic particles (fission
or fusion, respectively. The tremendous heat energy that results is used to produce steam to turn steam
turbines.

1. Chemical Heat Energy

1.1 Heat of combustion – is the amount of heat released during the complete oxidation where the organic fuel
is converted to water and carbon dioxide.
 1.2 Spontaneous Heating – is the process of increase in temperature of a material as a result of slow
oxidation, that is without drawing heat from its surrounding, until the ignition temperature results into
combustion.
1.3 Heat of decomposition – is the heat released by the decomposition of compounds requiring, the addition
of heat for their formations.
1.4 Heat of solution - is the released when a substance is dissolves in a liquid.

2. Electrical Heat Energy

Electrical energy produces heat when electric current flows through a conductor or when a spark jumps on
air gap. In a current flow through a conductor, electrons are passed along from one atom to another within the
conductor.

2.1 Resistant Heating – is when the rate of heat generation is proportional to the resistance and square of
the current. Singles wires can carry more current than bundled or closely grouped wires.
2.2 Heat generated by lighting – the distance of an electrical charge on a cloud to an opposite charge on
another cloud or on the ground is called lighting. Lighting passing between the cloud and the ground can develop
very high temperature in any material of high resistance in its wood or masonry.
2.3 Inductive Heating – whenever atoms are subject to electric potentials gradients from external sources,
the arrangement of the atom ( or the molecules of several atoms) is distorted with a tendency for electrons to move
in the direction of opposite direction.
Potential differences appear in the conductor whenever it is subject to the influence of a fluctuating or
alternative magnetic field, whenever a conductor is in motion across the line of a force of a magnetic field.
Food in microwave oven is heated by the molecular friction induced by absorbed microwave energy.
2.4 Static electricity – or Frictional electricity – is an electric discharge that accumulates on the surface of
two materials that have been brought together and then separated. If the substance are not bonded so that spark
discharge of sufficient energy to ignite a flammable vapor.
2.5 Heat from Arcing –arcing result when an electric circuit which is carrying current interrupted, either
intentionally (as by a knife switch) or accidentally ( as when a contact or terminal becomes loosened). The
temperature of are very high, and the heat released may be sufficient to ignite combustible materials within the
vicinity.

C. Mechanical Heat energy:

Although there are a few notable examples of ignition by the mechanical heat energy released by
compression, most fires by this source are due to frictional heat.

3.1 Frictional Heat – results when mechanical energy is used in overcoming the resistance to motion when
two side are rubbed together.

3.2 Overheating of machinery – may caused fires from heat accumulating from the rolling, sliding, or
friction in machinery or between two hard surfaces, at least one of which is metal.

3.3 Heat of compression – is heat released when gas is compressed. This is also known as the diesel
effect.

D. Nuclear Heat Energy:

Nuclear energy is released in the form of heat pressure and nuclear radiation.

1.1 Nuclear Fission – the nucleus then splits into two lighter nuclei (the fission products), and at the same
time released tremendous amount of energy in the form of kinetic energy of the fission fragment. The
device in which the nuclear fission chain is initiated, maintained and controlled, so that the
accompanying energy is released at a specified rate is called a nuclear reactors.
1.2 Nuclear Fusion – Includes all nuclear reactions in which two light nuclei combine to form heavier
nucleus, with the emissions of other particles or gamma rays.

HEAT TRANSFER

There are only three ways to transfer heat: conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction – This refers to the transfer of heat via molecular activity within material or medium, usually a
solid. If you touch a hot stove, the pain you feel is a direct result of conducted heat passing from stove directly to
the hand that is in contact with it. Direct contact is the underlying factor in heat transferred through conduction.

Conduction –is transferring of heat from molecule to molecules.

Thermal conductivity is the ability of a substance to conduct heat. Heat conduction cannot be
completely stopped by any “heat insulating material. Heat insulating materials have low heat conductivity. No matter
how thick the insulation, solidly insulating the space between the source of heat and the combustion materials may
not be sufficient to prevent ignition.
 If the rate of heat conduction through the insulating materials greater than the rate of dissipation from the
combustible materials, heat may increase to the point of ignition.

Convection – heat transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in structures.
Convection entails the transfer of heat via circulating medium, usually air or a liquid. A Superheated gases the
evolved from a fire are lighter than air and consequently rise. As they travel through and collect in the upper
reaches of the structure, they can and do initiate additional damage.

Radiation – radiated heat moves in waves and rays much like sunlight or x-rays. Radiated heat energy
travels at the same speed as does visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for the
exposure hazards that develop and exist during a fire. The heat waves travel in direct or straight line from their
source until they strike an object. The heat that collects on the surface of the object or building in the path of the
heat waves is subsequently absorbed into its mass) through conduction.

Radiation – Transfer of heat energy through electro magnetic waves.

All bodies are capable of absorbing and emitting radiation, but they differ in degree. It has been
proven that dark surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters of electro magnetic radiation while polished or
white surfaces are poor absorber and poor emitters. This is why dark colored T-shirt dry faster than light colored
ones and during summer we feel comfortable when in light colored clothes.

INTENSITY of a fire is a measure of the rate at which heat is produced.

Factors that determine a fire intensity:

1. The amount of material present that can burn and the way it is arranged.
2. The quantity of heat energy locked in the chemical composition of a material which can be
released by burning.
3. The adequacy of supply of oxygen to the fire.
4. The total surface area of material available for combustion.
5. The length of flames produced, flames radiate heat and the size of the flames will effect the
intensity of the fire.
HEAT MEASUREMENTS
Heat of materials is measured by its temperature. A material is conceived to be made up of minute particles
called molecules that are in constant motion. The temperature of the material is the condition which determines
whether it will transfer heat to or from other materials.

1. Temperature Units Celsius Degree (also called centigrade) – a Celsius or centigrade degree ( c) is 1/100
the different between the temperature of melting ice and boiling water at one atmospheric pressure.
2. Fahrenheit Degree ( F) is 1/180 the different between the melting point of ice and boiling point of water at
one atmospheric pressure. On the Fahrenheit scale, the melting point of ice is 32 F while boiling point of
water is 212 F.
3. Kelvin or absolute – (K or A ) is the scale as the Celsius degree but the melting point of ice is 273 and the
boiling point of water is 373. There is 1/100 difference between the melting point of ice and boiling point of
water at one atmospheric pressure.

The device that measures the temperature defend either on the physical change (expansion , solid to
liquid) or energy change ( changes in intensity of electrical energy in emission intensities or spherical
distribution) Most common device is the thermometer. It consist of a tube
partially filled with liquid which measures the expansion and contraction of the liquid which changes on
temperature.

FUELS AND ITYS PHYSICAL STATES

Fuels is matter, and matter exists in the three (3) physical states; gas, liquid and solid. Solids melt to
become liquids, and they may vaporize to become gases.

The state of a substance is, therefore, an accepted characteristics of that substance unless the conditions
of temperature and pressure are specified. Ordinary conditions are a temperature of 65- 70 F and a pressure of
14.7 pounds per square inch.
The basic rule, unusual conditions and circumstances notwithstanding, is that at sufficiently high
temperatures all fuels can be converted to gases. Gasoline as a liquid does not burn, it is the vapors rising from the
liquid that burn. Likewise, wood, the most common solid fuel, is not flammable, but gives off flammable resin
vapors. Although these burn, the structure of the wood itself decomposes, yielding other flammable vapors.
Each of the physical states exhibits different physical and chemical properties that directly affect a fuel’s
combustibility .

GAS
Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid movements and random motion. They have no
definite shape or volume and assume the shape and volume of their container. Other properties include
compressibility, expandability, permeability and diffusion.
 Compressibility and expandability refer to the potential for changes in volume. A gas will spread and
eventually equalize its distribution (pressure) throughout a fixed room or container. Its volume is directly related to
two other factors, pressure and temperature. The nature of this interrelation is as follows:

PV=KT
where P is pressure, v is volume, T is temperature, and K is a proportionality constant.
An increase (decrease) in the temperature will cause a proportional increase (decrease) in the volume if the
pressure is constant, or in the pressure if the volume is constant.

An increase (decrease) in the pressure will cause a proportional decrease (increase) in the volume if the
temperature is constant, or increase (decrease) in the temperature will if the volume is constant.
An increase (decrease) in temperature will proportionally increase (decrease) the pressure if the volume is
fixed, or the volume if the pressure is constant.

Diffusion is the uniform distribution, seemingly in contradiction to the laws of gravity, of molecules of one
substance through those of another. The rate at which a gas diffuses is inversely proportional to the square root of
its density (Graham’s Law) . Permeability means simply that other substances may pass through or permeate a
gas
How well a gas diffuses in air depends on its vapor density or density relative to air. The nearer this is to the
vapor density of air (which has a value of 1.0), the greater the ability of the gas to mix with air.

When a gas fuel (or vapor from a liquid fuel ) diffuses sufficiently into air, the mixture may ignite or explode.
The percentage of gas to air at which this occurs is them lower limit of that gas’s flammable (explosive) range. The
upper limit is the percentage at which the mixture is too concentrated to ignite (that is, there is too little oxygen, for
natural gas, this range is 5% -15%).

CLASSIFICATION OF GAS ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

1. COMPRESSED GAS – is one which at all normal atmospheric temperature inside its container, exist
solely in the gaseous state under pressure.

2. LIQUIFIED GAS – is one, which at normal atmospheric temperature inside its contained, exist partly in
the liquid a state and partly in the gaseous state and under pressure as long as any liquid remains in the
container.

3. CRYOGENIC GAS – is a liquefied gas which exists in its container at temperature far below normal
atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point and correspondingly low moderate
pressure.

CLASSIFICATION OF GASES ACCORDING TO USAGE:

1. Fuel Gases – are flammable customarily used for burning with air to produce heat which in turns is
utilized as power, light comfort and process.

2. Industrial gases – include a large number of gases used for industrial processes as those in welding
and cutting (oxygen, acetylene); refrigeration (Freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide; chemical
processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia chlorine); water treatment (chlorine, fluorine etc)

3. Medical Gases are those use for treatment such as for anesthesia (chloroform, nitrous ,oxide) and
respiratory therapy (oxygen)

LIQUID
Liquid, like gases, assume the shape of the container and may diffuse. Unlike gases, they have a definite
volume (through they may be compressed slightly).

Liquids exhibit a free surface and, if left to stand uncovered, will evaporate. Evaporation occurs when
individual molecules of the liquid escape as gas into surrounding atmosphere. Any increase in temperature will
cause an increase in the rate of evaporation and consequently, an increase in the vapor pressure. The temperature
at which a liquid turns into a gas by producing continuous vapor bubbles is called its boiling point. At this
temperature, the vapor pressure is equal to normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 pounds per square inch).
Because a liquid’s boiling point evinces its readiness to vaporize, it is one measure of the volatility of a
liquid fuel. A low boiling point means high volatility and an increased risk of fire. Other indicators include flash point
and fire point.

FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS – refers to any liquid having a flash point below 37.8 C (100 F) and having a vapor
pressure not exceeding 40 psi at 37.8 C.

Combustible liquids are those with flash point with flash point at or above 37.8 C (100 F)

Flammable and Combustible Liquids, Strictly speaking will not cause fire. It is then the vapors from the
evaporation of these liquids when exposed to air and under the influence of heat, which will burn or explode.
Gasoline is the most widely used flammable liquid.
 Fire Point- Temperature at which a liquid produces vapors that will sustain combustion. This is several
degrees higher than the flash point. For example, the fire point of gasoline is 495 F; for kerosene, 110 F.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) define a flammable liquid as one whose flash point is
below 140 F. A liquid with a flash point of 140 F or higher is a combustible liquid. ( The temperature used to
distinguished flammable from combustible liquids is defined as 100 F by the National Fire Academy and as 80 f by
the US Department of Transportation.)

SOLID
Solid have a definite shape and volume. A solid fuel’s combustibility is directly affected by the size and
configuration of its mass. Finely divided, powdered fuels differ from bulky or large dimension solid fuels with respect
to combustibility because of the obvious difference in their masses; the larger the mass of the solid fuel, the greater
the potential loss due to conduction. One of the requirement in the formation of fire is combustible materials which
must be heated to its ignition temperature before it will burn.

SOLID COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS

A. Wood and Wood Based Products

Wood is very versatile material which is commonly used for combustion, furniture and interior decoration
among others. When the thermal environment is conducive to a given reaction, they will char, smolder, ignite and
burn. However, wood and wood based products can be used for fire protection. For instance , an insulated plywood
faced wood and wood stud wall will provide a greater degree of fire endurance than one without insulation.

1.Chemical Composition of Wood

The physical components of wood are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with smaller quantities of nitrogen,
sulfur and other elements.

2.Factors Influencing Ignition and Burning – Characteristics of wood and wood products.

A. Physical Form – Wood used for kindling are chop to smaller pieces in order to speed up burning.
Heavier wood logs or timber shows considerable resistance to ignition.

B. Moisture Content – Since the specific heat of water is high, the amount of heat necessary to drive
off moisture is quite considerable. In addition , the large quantities of water vapor that are driven of
dilute the oxygen in the air surrounding this combustible and so with the ignition or continued
burning of these combustible vapors. The rate of burning is also influenced by the moisture content
of the materials.

C. Heat of Conductivity – is a measure of the rate at which absorbed heat will flow through the mass
materials. It is the inverse property of insulating. The best of conductivity of a particular material
plays a major role in its behavior under fire condition. For example , wood is a poor conductor of
heat, thus it has a high insulating value. An illustration of this fact is that the wood match stick
burning at one end can be held at the other end between the fingers, In contrast, a steel needle of
the same size as a match stick when heated at one end cannot be held at the other end with equal
case.

D. Rate and period of Heating – influence the susceptibility of wood and wood products to ignition.
Combustible solids are usually considered less hazardous compared to flammable liquids or gases
because they do not vaporize readily nor do they give off flammable vapors at ordinary temperature
and atmospheric pressure. Ignition of solid combustible usually requires contact between the heat
source and the material for a long period enough to permit release of flammable vapors.

E. Rate of Combustion – is markedly influence by physical form of combustible, the air supply present,
the moisture content and other factors but for complete combustion to proceed, there should be
progressive vaporization of the solid.

F. Ignition Temperature – Specific Ignition temperature of wood are difficult to determined because of
the variables concerned.

Ignition Temperature of wood vary widely depending on a number of variables, among which are:

1.The specific gravity of a sample

2.The physical characteristics of sample; i.e., its size, its form, and its moisture content.
3.The rate and period of heating
4.The nature of heat source
5.The air (oxygen) supply
FIBERS AND TEXTILES
Almost all textile fibers are combustible. Since textiles are an intimate part of daily living – clothes we wear,
carpets, curtains upholstery, beddings, etc.- there is a high involvement of textiles in fire.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE BURNING OF TEXTILES:

1.Chemical composition of the textile fiber

2. The finish of the fabric.
3.The fabric Weight
4. The tightness of the weave.
5. The flame retarded treatment

1. Chemical Composition

Classification of fibers according to composition:

Natural fibers

a) Vegetables
b) Animal
c) Mineral

Synthetic or Artificial fibers

a) Organic this fibers imitates vegetable fibers, divided into cellulose, as for example rayon which
is reconstituted cellulose with acetic non-cellulose includes rayon.
b) Inorganic-like fiber glass and steel.

2. Fiber Finish
If sufficient combustible coating or decorative materials are placed on fabric this will support continued
flaming.
Many synthetic fabrics shrink when exposed to temperature approaching their melting or decomposition
temperature.

3. Fabric Weight –The heavier the fabric of the same composition, the more considerable resistance to
ignition.

4. Tightness of Weave – The closer the fibers are in the we3aving of fabrics the more it will minimize the air
spaces between them and thus delay the rate of burning.

5. Flame Retardant Treatment – The effect of chemical treatments in reducing the flammability of combustible
fabrics are varied and complex.

PLASTIC – other than cellulose nitrate, are classified as ordinary combustibles. They comprise a group of
group of material consisting mainly of organic substance or high molecular weight substance. They are solid in the
finish state although at some stage of manufacture plastics can be made to flow into a desired shape., usually
through the application of heat or pressure or both.

PYROLYZABLE AND NONPYROLYZABLE

Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat. This decomposition may take
place in the absence of oxygen, and the vapors released may include both combustible and noncombustible gases.

Pyrolizable solid fuels include many of the ordinarily accepted solid combustibles; wood paper, and so on.
The vapor released via their chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This exemplifies a gas to gas
reaction: the vapors released mix with oxygen in the air to produce flame.

Nonpyrolyzable solid fuels are difficult to ignite. Chemical decomposition does not occur because there
are no pyrolyzable elements present. No vapors are released. The glowing combustion that results is an example of
a gas to solid reaction.

CHEMICAL CHAIN REACTION

As mentioned earlier until recently it seemed clear that: combustion = oxidizing agent (oxygen) +
combustible material (fuel + ignition source (heat). In the past decade, however, it became evident that some
unknown factor played a direct role in the combustion process. This chain reaction is a complex series of events
that must be continuously and precisely reproduced in order to maintain self sustained flaming combustion. Among
the events required are these two;

1. The oxidation reaction produces sufficient heat to maintain continued oxidation.

 2. The fuel mass must be broken down into simpler compounds and liberated (vaporized) from the mass
itself, in turn, these unburned vapors must combine with available oxygen and be continuously drawn
up into the flame.

COMBUSTION PRODUCTS AND SOME OF THEIR EFFECTS

Combustion is a chemical change which brings about new substances. These products of combustion can
be divided into four categories.

1. SMOKE

Matter made up of very fine solid particles and condensed vapor as a consequence of combustion is known
as a smoke. Frequently, smoke provides warning of fire and contributes to panic because of its irritating
effects. The solid and liquid particles in suspension in the gases (smoke particles) have harmful effects.
Some particles are irritating when inhaled and long exposure to smoke particles may cause damage to
respiratory system. Then the particles are lodged in the eyes they cause tears which may impair victim’s
vision; when settled in the nostril and throaty they may cause sneezing and coughing.

STACK EFFECT – is the natural effect air movement through the building caused by the difference in
temperature and densities between the inside and outside air.

The predominant factors that cause smoke movement in the tall building are;

1.The expansion of gases due to the temperature

2. The stack effect
3.The influencing of external wind forces
4.The forced air movement within the building.

2. FIRE GASES

The term “ Fire Gases” refers to gases that remain when the products of combustion are cooled to normal
temperature. Gases form by a fire depends on many variables which are:
1. The chemical Composition of the burning materials.
2. The amount of oxygen available for combustion.
3. The temperature.

Most fuel contain carbon to form the very toxic carbon monoxide when the amount of oxygen is limited
but forms carbon dioxide when there is plenty of supply of oxygen for burning. Some other gases formed are
hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, phosgene and hydrogen
chloride.

3. FLAMES

Incandescent gases that accompanies rapid oxidation of a combustible material is called flames. It is
considered a distinct product of combustion. The observer can be sure that there is a fire when flames are present.
Burns can be caused by direct contact with flames.
These burns are classified as first degree burns, Second Degree burns, third degree burns.

4. HEAT

The combustion product mostly responsible for the spread of fire in buildings is heat. The physiological
effect ranges from minor injury to death. Exposure to heat may result in dehydration, heat exhaustion, blockage of
respiratory tract due to fluids and burns and also increased heart rate. When the intensity of heat goes beyond the
threshold of human tolerance it is fatal.

FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION:

The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and thermal
imbalance.

Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire , the normal behavior when the pattern
is undisturbed. Thermal Imbalance on the other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to the interference of
foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the fire
originated.

DANGEROUS BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

Fire is so fatal when the following conditioned occurred:

1. Backdraft - it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs in the form
of explosion. This may occur becuase of improper ventilation. If a room is not properly ventilated , highly flammable
vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is suddenly opened the room violently sucks the
oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden combustion occur, which may happen as an explosion
(combustion explosion).

2. Flashover - it is a sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is incomplete combustion
of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or flash produced when temperature
rises until flash point is reached.
When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is capable
of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form of fireballs. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards with in
a few seconds.

3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishment operations and became
stronger and bigger instead.

4. Flashfire =better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post is completely covered with
dust is going to be hit by lighting. The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent
chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.

SMOKE AND FLAME COLORS FOR CERTAIN FUELS

SMOKE COLOR FLAME COLOR FUEL

1.Gray to brown Red to yellow wood/paper/cloth

2.Black Red to white Gasoline
3,White to gray Yellow to white Benzine
4.Black to brown Yellow to white turpentine
5.Black Dark red to orange yellow Kerosene
6.Black Blue white to white Naphtha

DEFINITION OF TERMS (FIREFIGHTING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT)

1. Universal Thread Adapter – is a very useful tool on any fire vehicle. It can make a very quick connection to
damaged or unusual size male hose connections
2. Hose Jacket – a hollow cylindrical or barrel shaped device that opens lengthwise through the center on a
set of hinges. It is a rubber lined to make it water tight.
3. Hose Clamp – a tool used to stop the flow of water in a fire hose without shutting off the source of water
supply.
4. Spanner Wrench – is use to tighten leaking connections and to loosen that are too tight to “break” with
hands alone .
5. Hydrant Wrench – are use to open and close fire hydrants and to remove hydrant outlet caps. It is usually
equipped with a pentagon opening in its head that fits most standard fire hydrant opening nuts..
6. Hose Strap – It is a 36 inch length of cloth strap with a handle on one end and hook on the other. It is used
for moving hose layouts usually up ladders or staircases.
7. Hose Bridge – a hose tool used to prevent damage to the hose when vehicles cross a street, or where the
traffic can not be diverted.
8. Chafing blocks – tools used to prevent damage to the hose where the hose is subjected to rubbing from
vibrations.
9. Rubber Mallet – a hose tool used to strike the lugs of a coupling to tighten or loosen the coupling without
damaging the lugs. It is used to make a coupling completely airtight.
10. Gated Wyes – these are used to divide a line of hose into two or more line.
11. Siamese – appliances that have two or more female inlet connections and one male discharge connection.
12. Straight Ladder – this is a type of ladder that contains only one section. It ranges in length from 12 to 16
feet.
13. Extension Ladder – this consist of a bed and one or more fly ladder . The fly ladder slide through guides on
the upper end of the bed ladder. It contains locks (pawls or dogs) which hook over the rungs of the bed
ladder.
14. Aerial Ladder – this type of ladder that a mounted on a turntable, capable of extending up to 30.5 meters
(100 feet), may have three or four metal fly section of ladder that can be raised or lowered by hydraulically
controlled cables.

FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

LEGAL BASIS FOR BFP TO INVESTIGATE ALL TYPES OF FIRE INCIDENT:

During the PC/INP days, arson and related cases were under the jurisdiction ofthePC,Police and Fire
Service. Now, investigating arson and related cases is done by the Bureau of Fire Protection. Under R.A 6975 – An
act establishing the Philippine National Police , Bureau of Fire Protection and BJMP and others under a
Reorganized Department of Interior and Local Government and for other purposes.
The law on arson in the Philippines is covered by Articles 320 to 326 of the Revised Penal Code, as
amended by PD No. 1613, PD No. 1744, and Ra 6975, Chapter IV Sec. 54. Power and Functions.- The Fire Bureau
shall have the power to investigate all cases o fires and, if necessary, file the proper complaint with the
City/Provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction over arson cases.

Investigation - Is an inquiry of the facts

Criminal Investigation - It is an art of identifying the location of the offender and provides evidence of his guilt
through criminal proceedings.

Fire Investigation - Is conducted to determine the cause, origin, and nature of fire.

Arson Investigation - It is conducted to establish the elements of the crime, identity of the suspect/s and gather
evidence to prove his guilt.

Purposes of Fire Investigation:

1. To determine what property was damage;
2. What is that cause and reasons;
3. The number and extent of injuries involved;
4. The recommended corrective actions to prevent similar recurrence.

Technical Investigation - It is an in-depth investigation to determine more specific details of the cause and effects
and to establish necessary corrective actions.

Reasons to conduct technical investigation

1. There is suspicion of arson in connection w/ any fire;

2. There is suspicion of negligence or violation of regulation;
3. The cause of any fire is undetermined (to establish probable cause;
4. There is evidence of negligence or mismanagement in the fire suppression or rescue operation;
5. Loss of life or disabling as a result of fire.

Role of an Investigator
• To determine that a crime has been committed.
• To identify the victim and offender.
• To locate and apprehend the suspect.
. To present evidence of guilt in a criminal proceeding

Complexity of fire Investigation:

While fire investigation generally follows the principles of crime investigation, it is more unique and complex
than other police inquiry. It is more unique in the sense that the fire destroy evidence. It is more complex because
for one thing. If is incendiary or arson, it does not strictly conform to the character of “consummated offense” as
provided for in par. 2, art. 6 R.P.C. . For another , the crime of arson is planned, motivated committed in secret and
rarely can an eyewitness be found who can testify to the sitting of fire.

ARSON - Is the malicious burning of one’s property or property of another.

ARSON INVESTIGATION - The direct result of the basic or technical investigation or it may be brought about from
outside knowledge.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALIFIED ARSON INVESTIGATOR:

1. He should posses knowledge of investigative technique;

2. He should have an insight of human behavior;
3. He should have a first hand knowledge of the chemistry of fire a d its behavior;
4. He should be resourceful;
5. He should have a keen power of observation and accurate descriptions.

In so far as fire investigation is concerned, these must be establishing first:

1. CAUSE – that which made the fire starts;
2. REASON – that which led to the cause of fire (motive leading to the action.

FOUR GENERAL CLASSES OF FIRE

1. Natural – fire caused naturally w/ out human intervention or aid;
2. Accidental – fire causes where human action is involved directly or indirectly;
3. Arson – fire cause as a result of the willful and criminal action of some persons
4. Unknown fire – cannot be classified as to the cause.

PERSON/S RESPONSIBLE TO EXAMINE AND INSPECT THE FIRE SCENE

 • Fire Marshall
• Fire chief
• Assistant chief for technical service
• Fire inspector responsible for the specific building
• Senior fire officer at the fire scene
• Photographer
• Utilities personnel (particularly electrician)

Fire report
Reports of all fires regardless of sizes should be completed.
This report should be initiated and completed w/ out delay.

The contents of the fire report may contain the following:

1. Time of incident;
2. Location of incident;
3. Size and nature of fire;
4. Fire involvement;
5. Fire department plant response
6. Injuries and fatalities;
7. Time fire extinguished;
8. Most probable cause;
9. Follow-up and corrective action require

Determining the cause of fire

There are several factors which can be observed when arriving at the scene of a fire which will facilitate efforts to
determine the cause.

1. Color of Smoke and flame

- Burning substances can often be identified by the color emitted during the burning process.
2. The odors connected w/ that particular fire
-gasoline, alcohol, insulation, chemicals, solvents, have distinct odors which can be recognized.
3. Size, intensity and spread
4. Methods of extinguishments
5. One or more fire involved
6. Evidence indicating actual cause of fire

BASIC METHOD OF A FIRE INVESTIGATION

Using the scientific method in most fire or explosion incidents should involve the following six major steps
from inception through final analysis.

1. Receiving the assignment

The investigator should be notified of the incident, what his/her role will be, and what he/she is to
accomplished.
2. Preparing for the investigation
The investigator should marshal his/her forces and resources and plan the conduct of the
investigation.
3. Examination of the scene
The investigator should conduct the examination of the scene and collect basic data necessary to
the analysis.
4. Recording the scene
The scene should be photographed and diagrammed, and notes of the progress of the
investigation should be made. Valuable empirical data should be noted and preserved.
5. Collecting and preserving evidence
Valuable physical evidence should be recognized, properly collected, and preserved for further
testing and evaluation or courtroom presentation.
6. Analyzing the incident
An incident scenario or failure analysis should be described, explaining the origin, cause, and
responsibility for the incident. This analysis should be reported in the proper forum to help prevent reoccurrence.

LEGAL CONSIDERATION

Legal consideration impact upon every phase of a fire investigation. Whatever the capacity in which a fire
investigator functions (public or Private), it is important that the investigator be informed regarding all relevant legal
restrictions, requirements, obligations, standards, and duties. Failure to do so could jeopardize the reliability of any
investigation and could subject the investigator to civil or criminal liability.

Preliminary Legal Considerations

1. Authority to conduct the investigation

 The investigator should ascertain the basis and extent of his or her authority to conduct the
investigation. Normally the authority is public or governmental or otherwise private (e.g., in the event of
investigation conducted in anticipation of litigation). Proper identification of the basis of authority will assist the
investigator in complying with applicable legal requirements and limitations.

The scope of authority granted to investigators from the public or governmental sector is usually specified
within the codified laws of each jurisdiction, as supplemented by applicable local, agency, and department rules and
regulation. If such requirements are not followed, the results of the investigation may not be admissible and the
investigator may face sanctions.

2. Right of Entry

The fact that an investigator does not necessarily mean that he or she has the legal right to enter
the property that was involved in the fire. The Right
of Entry are frequently enumerated by statues, rules and regulation. Illegal entry upon the property could result
in charges against the investigator.
Once a legal right of entry onto the property has been established, the investigator should notify
any officer or authority then in charge of the scene of his or her entry. Once on the property, extreme caution
should be exercised to preserve the scene and protect the evidence.

3. Method of Entry

Whereas “right of Entry” refers to the legal authority to be on a given premise, or fire scene, this
section concern itself with how that authority is obtained. There are four (4) general methods by which entry
may be obtained; consent, exigent circumstance, administrative search warrant, and criminal search
warrant.

Consent – The person is lawful control of the property can grant the investigator permission or consent to enter
and remain on the property . This is a voluntary act on the part of the responsible person and can be withdrawn at
any time by that person. When consent is granted,. The investigator should document it. One effective method is to
have the person in lawful control sign a written waiver.

Exigent Circumstances – It is generally recognized that the fire department has the legal authority to enter a
property to control and extinguish a hostile fire. It has also been held that the fire department has an obligation to
determine the origin and cause of the fire in the interest of the public good and general welfare.

Administrative Search Warrant – The purpose of an administrative search warrant is generally to allow those
charged with the responsibility, by ordinance or statute, to investigate the origin and cause of a fire and fulfill their
obligation according to the law.
An administrative Search Warrant may be obtained from a court of competent jurisdiction upon
showing that consent has not been granted or has been denied. It is issued upon that traditional showing of
: “probable cause”, as is the criminal search warrant, although it is still necessary to demonstrate that the
search must be justified by a showing of reasonable governmental interest. If a valid public interest justifies
the intrusion, then valid and reasonable probable cause has been demonstrated .

The scope of an administrative search warrant is limited to the investigation of the origin and cause
of the fire. If during the search permitted by an administrative search warrant, evidence of a crime is
discovered, the search should be stopped and a criminal search warrant obtained.

3.4Criminal Search Warrant

The purpose of a criminal Search warrant is to allow the entry of government officials or agents to
search for and collect any evidence of crime. A criminal Search Warrant is obtained upon the traditional showing of
probable cause, in that the investigator is required to show that probable cause exist that a crime has been
committed.

The investigator’s application for obtaining a criminal search warrant typically includes; the purpose and scope
of the search; the location, against whom the search is directed, the time in which the search is to initiated and
concluded, and the evidence that can be expected to be recovered.

1. Evidence
Rules of evidence regulate the admissibility of proof at trial. The purpose of rules of evidence is to
ensure that the proof offered is reliable. A goal of every fire investigation is to produce RELIABLE documents,
samples, statements, information, data and documents.

RULES FOR THOSE INVESTIGATING CASE OF FIRE

1. First appearance on the scene

A} Note time of arrival

2. Inspect building and surrounding area

A} Note stages of spread of fire
 B} Note shape and color of flames and smoke
C} Note ventilation arrangements and air passages
D} Verification of person on the spot:
1} person present
2} Person unexpectedly absent
3} Behavior and actions of person present
E} Note means of access to the spot
3. Inspection of objects razed from fire.
1} Where were the Placed?
2}When was discovered?
3}In what state are they?

4. Analysis of the first statements.

1} Who discovered the fire?
2} When was it discovered?
3}How was it discovered?
4}When was the first suggested?
5} From whom did they hear about it ?
6} When did they leave the fire station?
7} When did they arrive at the fire?
8} What persons are familiar with the place where the fire broke out?
9} What persons had been there recently?
10} Who placed the objects found in safe place?
A}Where were taken from?
B} Where were they taken to?

In searching the fire scene for evidence, the investigator should be looking for “ Plants and Trailers” as
priority:
The word plants refers to the preparation and gathering of materials to start afire. Newspaper, combustible
plastic, rags, clothing and other combustible materials have been used as plants. However , in many arson fires in
the City of Manila, fire setters commonly used many rolls of toilet paper which they will weave into a rope to
connect several glass jars full of gasoline. Then they will place quantities of old newspaper around the glass jars. A
wax candle is usually used as the device to start the fire , whether alone or connected with an ordinary alarm
clock.

An accelerant which is often a combustible liquid to hasten the start of the fire, is used in connection with
the plant. The most commonly used accelerant are gasoline, fuel oil, paint thinner and lighter fluid. These
accelerants may be sprayed or poured on the filled combustible materials. A plant may be placed around an ignition
device, which may range from something simple as matches or a candle to some sophisticated electronic
mechanism. However, the most common ignition device could either be a match or a lighted candle
When searching the point of origin ( inverted cone pattern of the most devastated area} do not overlook the
possibility that a match or a candle has been used as the device to start the fire. In connection with the match,
search for
partially burned matches or matchbox or packages. Any of these found at the point of origin should be carefully
preserved for examination by the police chemist. In connection with the candle, If the ashes under the inverted cone
pattern are carefully sifted the fragile remains of wax and the wick of the candle used to start the fire may be
recovered. This , too is evidence and should be meticulously preserved for the benefit of the police chemist.
In order to spread the fire within the room or throughout the structure , a device called trailer is utilized by
arsonist . Flammable liquids, usually gasoline are used by pouring them on the floor as stated before, toiled tissue
paper, adroitly woven into ropelike pattern were used to conduct one plant and accelerant to another scattered
strategically in a room or throughout the building.
The investigator must be able to recognize plants and trailers as well as the accelerants, in whatever form
or shape they may be. He must preserve and mark them for identification to aid the chemist and other expert who
will examine them later on.
Sometimes, the fire setter will use more exotic fuels, Sometimes an arsonist will attempt to disguise the
odor of the flammable liquids. This is done by spraying strong odorants, such as ammonia, perfume or deodorants
in the area to power the odor of the accelerant. If the firemen encounter an odor of ammonia when no ammonia
should be present an explanation is necessary.

MOTIVES
Fire are set by two types of the fire setters:

1} Person with motive:

A} Those with desire to defraud the insurer.
B] Employees or such other persons who have a grievance – fire of revenge
C] Those who desire to conceal evidence of other crime
D] Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation.

2} Persons without Motive

A} Mental cases
B} Pathological Fire Setters
 C} Pyromaniacs
D Psychos

In determining motive an investigator concentrates on the three Major Factors:

1. Point of Origin of the fire
2. Modus Operandi of arsonist
3. Identity of persons who might benefit from fire.

The first two factors aid in discoveries if the fire was set by an arsonist with a rational motive or by
a pyro. The mental Case arsonist uses those portion of the building accessible to the public as the point of
origin of his fires. Fire bugs don’t set fire to their own homes or place of business they set fire in places
where they can make ready entry and hurried exit. The fire bugs do not also use extensive preparation as
an arsonist with a normal motive. The Pathological fire setters use few twist of newspaper, rubbish and
possible anything found on the place which can easily be flame and match ignition device. The arsonist
with rational motive employs more elaborate preparation usually marked by accelerants.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE ACCORDING TO MOTIVE:

1] Fire for profits

A] Fraud Fires
B] Business Fires
C} Partnerships/ Household fires

2} Fires for indirect profit

a. To stifle competition
b. To stimulate new business
c. To secure employment

3} Hate Fire
A} ANGER FIRES – an anger fire is usually set within minutes of hours of the incident which has flamed a
person to such fury than he wants to hurt his enemy by burning him out. The trouble may be business dispute,
quarrel between neighbors, fight between husband and wife.

B] SPITE FIRE – This is usually set within hours or days otherwise the desire to get even fades out under
the more pressing demands of daily life. The fire setters feeling have been hurt and has became resentful but he
is the type who cannot attack directly the subject of his hatred. The opportunity to set a fire must be a convenient
one.

C} REVENGE FIRE S- A revenge fire is so termed because it is set by a person who may have harbored a
grudge for years which may severe to trigger the fire. The strange things about revenge motivation is that hatred
lasts for so many years. A revenge fire is characterized by its direct attack against another person. It is far closer to
an anger fire than those of blazes set for spite. Persons who seek revenge have permitted their anger to smolder
before breaking out.

4} CRIME AND ARSON

Arson is now employed either to facilitate the commission of a crime o to destroy evidence of a crime.

Three Methods which may help in solving the problem of proving that the fire was or was not a criminal
design.

1} Positive evidence – competent witness or witnesses speaks for itself

2} Circumstancial evidence
3} Confession

To prove the guilt of the accused beyond a reasonable doubt.

1. Fire – building in question was burned; the burning was by criminal design and by a person criminally
responsible.
2. Incendiary Motive – not necessary to prove by direct and positive evidence.
3. Motive – not an essential element of the crime necessary for conviction.
4. Proof of guilt – it is necessary to show by facts or circumstances or both, that he could and actually did set
the fire in question. If he procured another to set the fire of if he aided or abetted the real incendiary, he is
equally guilty and liable to prosecution.

TECHNIQUES OF ARSON

1. Fuel used in arson’

The most commonly used fuel in arson are gasoline, fuel motor oil, alcohol and other flammable
liquids. Some fuels explode; some very difficult to ignite unless large quantities are used ; or some volatile
flammable liquids is used as primer. Others leave tell-tale traces or give detectable smoke and odors.
 The choice of fuels readily points the skill and ability of the suspect in the arson case, The fuels
that are more difficult to obtain and those of a more complex mixture, are of the type likely to be selected by
the professional arsonist. The impulsive, amateurish fire setter who is setting his first fire for profit will
select a more common and available fuels. He or she will show little planning or foresight in the selection
and will often use so much fuel that traces are left behind for the investigator.

2.Chemical Igniters

Chemical Igniters are propellants that are self igniting usually comprising two constituents. The chemical
referred to are some exotic compounds found only in laboratories.

EXAMPLE: calcium hypochlorite + brake fluid

Potassium Chlorate + sugar + sulfuric acid
Metallic sodium + water

EQUIPMENT TO DETECT ACCELERANTS:

1. CATALYTIC COMBUSTION DETECTORS

2. FLAME IONIZATION DETECTORS
3. DETECTOR USING CHEMICAL COLOR TESTS
4. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
5. INFRA-RED SPECTROPHOTOMETERS

THE FATAL FIRE:

Identification of the victim or victims:
1. The sex of the body. In cases of badly burned, almost destroyed bodies, sex may still be determined by an
examination of the torso by the pathologists. The deep seated organs in the pelvic region the prostate of
the male and the uterus of the female, are usually among the last organs to be destroyed by fire.
2. Fingerprints. Probably the most accurate and positive means of identification is by fingerprints.
3. Dental Features. Teeth have individual characteristics that provide another reliable methods of
identification. This rare utilized because very few Filipinos, except the very rich, x-rayed their teeth.
Likewise, not all dentists keep an up-to-date dental records of their patients.
4. Skeletal Features. Bones resist the affects of harsh environmental conditions even heat.
5. Serologic and cytological studies. These may be used to determine blood group and RB type, as well as
other factors such as whether the sample is animal blood or human blood.
6. Autopsy examination. A postmortem examination may reveal such things as occupational scars and marks,
tattoos, evidence of pre-existing diseases or prior injuries, congenital defects, operative scars and the
absence of organs due to surgical procedures. These may be compared with the medical and employment
records of the victim.

Determination of the Cause of Death

The absence of any carbon monoxide in the blood of a dead body found in a burned structure, will be
strong circumstantial evidence that the person was dead when the fire began. Was the victim alive during the fire?
There are occasions when the fire victim will die from the fire without any carbon monoxide being present in the
blood and soot in natural airways to the lungs.
This occurs when the victim is hit on the face with an extremely hot fire, such as the blast from a flammable
liquid explosion, the backfire from a furnace, or the fire ball from a rear and automobile accident.
The pugilistic position that may bodies assume in a fire means nothings. To the uniformed, the pugilistic
position demonstrate the victim’s attempt to defend himself. This is not true. The position is the result of the
contraction of larger muscle

from the heat of the fire. The posture in which a body is found in a fire-death, has no connection with its postmortem
posture. The shock that the body experience after a burn is the cause of many fire deaths.

Determination of the Manner of Death

1. Natural Causes- ex. Heart attack, chronic disease or any other natural disease process.
2. Accidental Causes.
3. Homicide. A fire is often used as a means to hide homicide.
4. Suicide

Handling of Evidence/s

1. The investigator must wear a pair of sturdy rubber gloves when collecting any evidence in the fire scene.
The gloves protect the hands from the undue effects of the accelerants or any caustic chemicals found in
the debris; they prevent exposure of the hands to infection, cuts or the entrance of foreign materials into
open wounds or cracks; they preserve the evidence from contamination with the investigator’s fingerprints.

2. Top collect samples of wood, wire, pipe and other materials for evidence, the investigator will need a kit of
hand tools and a tool-box to transport them.
 3. As the evidence is collected and marked for identification purposes, it should be entered on some type of
inventory sheet. This inventory sheet should be at least in duplicate and should carry the name or similar
data to that found in the evidence thing.

4. The evidence collected and packaged property must be transported to the CI-Laboratory with the chain
custody intact.
The result must determine if an accelerant is present; it can analyze traces from the fire debris and
positively identify a charred wick and wax of a sperm candle used by the arsonist in starting a fire. It can
also match marks made by a tool against the suspected tool. It can take partially
burned matches and compare the torn ends with the stubs in the matchbooks.
It is noteworthy to remember that if the investigator does his job properly in the collection and
submission of evidence, the laboratory can
help establish the guilt or innocence of the suspect. However, the laboratory is not substantial for a good
investigation. It is merely one of the tools used by a good professional investigator.

Lightning – it is a form of static electricity or an electrical current of great magnitude, producing tremendous
amperage.
_ the discharge of an electrical charge on a cloud or to an opposite charge on another cloud or on the
ground.
Lightning strike result in fires only when sufficient heat is produced to ignite combustible materials.

Two (2) General types of Lightning Bolts:

1. The Hot Bolt – is one of longer duration and will ignite combustible.
2. The Cold Bolt – is of shorter duration has a tendency to shutter and splinter the building materials or
even literally blow a structure apart.

Spontaneous Heating :

Spontaneous heating and ignition is the result of the slow oxidation of a combustible material. If this slow
oxidation, with its heat production (exothermic decomposition-or a chemical change in which there is a liberation
heat) continues long enough and the heat is confined, the ignition temperature of the material will be reached. At
this point, spontaneous ignition can take place. This has been defined as burning of a combustible material with out
an external source of fire.

Two (2) General categories of Spontaneous Heating:

1.Easily Oxidized Combustible materials that produce sufficient exothermic decomposition at

ordinary temperature to reach their ignition points.

Ex. Vegetable and animal oils and Metallic sulphides

2.Organic Agricultural products subject to fermentation. Ex. Hay and grains.

ACCIDENTAL FIRE CAUSES:

1. Smoking- due to carelessness of the smoker or careless disposal of smoking materials.

2. Electrical Fire Causes:
The source of almost all electrical fires can be classified as originating from three (3) conditions:
a. Arcing
b. Spark
c. Over heating
Arcing – the production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separated electrodes ; an electic
hazard that results when electrical current crosses the gap between 2 electrical conductors
If a short circuit or break in an electrical conductor occurs, the electric current tries to continue to
flow in the open space created. It creates an arc. The intensity of the arc depends upon the voltage and
amount of current flowing.
The temperature necessary for fire to burn through a conductor is in the neighborhood of 2,000 F.

Sparks – most commonly occur as the result of electric (arc) welding operations or from the arcing of short circuits.
The tremendous heat created during the electrical welding process creates a bond between the electrode
and the material being bonded ( merged or united). This also creates many sparks and glowing globules of
hot metal. If combustibles materials are in the vicinity. The sparks and molten metal can cause a fire.

Sparks (defined)- (fiery particle)-a small piece of a burning substance through off in combustion or
produced friction.

Spark (defined)-(electricity) – electric discharge a quick bright discharge of electricity between two (2)
conductors.
 Short Circuit - unusual or accidental connections between two points at different potentials (charge) in an
electrical circuit of relativity low resistance.

Overheating – damage to electrical conductors can result from heat, exposing them in two (2) ways;

a. The fire that heats the conductors from the outside.

b. Overheating from an internal source.

External Heating- can result from a fire that begins to melt a copper conductor by constant application of heat.
When the wires have reached their melting point (approximately 2,000 F) Blistering will occur on the
surface of the wire. Shortly thereafter, the wire will begin to distort, usually elongating or thinning.

Internal Heating – is most often caused by continuous over-current or short circuits. However, the short circuiting
is often the result of the continuous internal over heating. As the conductor begins to overheat, it will
transmit this heat throughout the circuit. The first will be softening of the insulation, which may be rubber
or plastic. If plastic, it is usually Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). After the insulation is softened, the continued
heat will begin to char and crack it, eventually destroying it. As the insulation is ruined, adjacent
conductors can contact each other, creating short circuits and the resulting arcing.

Incendiary Fire Causes:

When all accidental and providential causes have been eliminated, the investigator begins to look for an
incendiary cause. This requires the answers to a series of questions about the fire. A well trained fire
investigator will automatically look for the unusual, The absence of the normal, the presence of
something different from what one would normally expect for the occupancy.

1.Plants and Trailers:

In searching the fire scene for evidence, the investigator should be looking for “ Plants” and “ Trailers” as
a priority.
Plants – refers to the preparation and gathering of materials to start a fire. Ex. Newspaper, Rags, combustible
plastics, clothings, curtains cotton waste etc.

Trailers – refers to any devices used by the arsonist to insure the spread of fire with in the room or throughout
the structure. Ex. Gasoline, paint, thinner, lighter fluids these accelerant may be sprayed or poured on the
filled materials (Plants.)

LEGAL ASPECT OF FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION :

ARSON defined - is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.
It is the concern of fire investigation to prove malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be
proved otherwise, no crime exist. The law presumes that a fire is accidental , hence criminal
design must be shown. Fire cause by accident or criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by
accident or negligence does not constitute arson.

What is motive? – according to black law dictionary , Motive is cause or reason that moves the will and induces
action. It is also an inducement, or that which leads or tempts the minds to indulge a criminal act.

Motive- is the moving power which impels to action for a definite result.

Intent – is the purpose to use a particular means to effect such result.

Arson according to Lewis and Yarnell in their book Pathological Firesetting state that “Arson is a very
personal crime. It is also a very secretive crime. It can be committed with out confronting the victim or
victims. The crime is personal in that frequently the victim can provide the investigator with both the
motive and the suspect. Although the victim may not be responsible for the crime , he may the
information of vital importance to the investigator. It is not unusual for the fire setter to be in some manner
closely associated with the victim.

What constitute Arson?

1. Burning - to constitute burning pyrolysis must takes place. In other words, there must be burning or
changing i.e the fiber of the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed.

2. Willfulness - means intentional, and implies that th act was done purposely and intentionally.

3. Malice - it denoted hatred or desire for revenge.

4, Motive is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.

5. Intent - is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.

Motives of Arson:
a. Desire to gain profit. H. Insanity
 b. Incendiarism in Industry i. Sabotage
c. Revenge and Spite j. Riots
d. Desire to conceal another crime k. Radical Terrorism
e. Jealousy l. Suicide.
f. Intimidation
g. Juvenile Delinquency

Three (3) types of Pyromania according to Wilhelm Stekel’s book:

1.A person who is sexually excited by watching the fire.
2.Uses fire as a defense, sitting fires during a period of enforced sexual abstinence.
3.a person uses fire setting as a total sexual substitute, to free the fire setter from an undesirable sexual habit.
crime was committed. The following must show it:

METHODS OF PROOF IN ARSON

Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed. Corpus Delicte must be
shown and identity of the arsonist must be established. Corpus Delicte (body of the crime) is the fact of that;

1. Burning - that there was a fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complaint, firemen responding to the
crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may also indicate location.

2. Criminal Design - must shown that it was willfully and intentionally done. The presence of incendiary devices,
flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire is not accidental.

3. Evidence of Intent - when valuables were removed fro the building before the fire , ill-feeling between the
accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to put off the fire and such other indications.

THE TELL TALE SIGNS OF ARSON;

These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the scene will suspects arson or they maybe so well
concealed that moths of patient investigation to show that it is set off will be required.

1. Burned Building - the type of the building may indicate a set of fire under certain circumstance. A fire of
considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is suspicious if it is modern concrete or semi-
concrete building.

2. Separate fires - when two or more separate fire breaks out within a building. The fire is certainly
suspicious.

3. Color of Smoke - some fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The observation of the
smoke must be made at the start of the fire scene once the fire has assumed a major proportion, the value of the
smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material used by the arsonist.

4. Direction of Travel - while it is admitted that no two fires burn in an identical fashion, yet it can be
shown that fire makes normal progress through various types of building materials, combustibility of contents,
channel of ventilation and circumstances surrounding the sending of alarm, an experienced investigator can
determine whether a fire spread abnormally fast.

5. Intensity - the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes indicate that some
accelerant has been added to the material normally present in a building and the investigator must look for further
evidence pointing to use of such accelerant. Difficulty in extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of
such fluid as gasoline and kerosene.

6. Odor - the odor of gasoline , alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are often used as
accelerant is characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of this telltale sign. Most of fire -setters
are inclined to use substance which will make the blaze certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their
crime.

7. Condition of Content - persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove objects of value
either materially or semi-mentally. Store and other business establishments oftentimes remove a major portion of
their content or replace valuable merchandise without of style articles.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE FIRE DEPARTMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

1900s – On August 7, 1901, the first fire department was establishes in manila during the American occupation.

1935 – On October, 1935 the first Filipino Fire Chief in the name of Captain Lorenzo Jacinto was appointed and
began the American Policy to transfer the reign of responsibility to Filipinos.

1940- Fire department were established in neighboring cities and towns each has their own organizational set-up
1973- Fire Service Recognition Day, pursuant to P.D. 1312 issued by the late Ferdinand E. Marcos signed on his
behalf by executive secretary in commemoration to the unforgettable incident during the Meralco Rockwell Power
Plant in Makati on the 14th day of December 1973.

1975- Integration of the Local Fire Department in the City/Municipality police forces under national police
organization called Philippine Constabulary –Integrated National Police (PC-INP)

1976- President Ferdinand E Marcos issued Presidential Proclamation No. 115-A or thereafter as the observance of
Fire Prevention month.

1977- Highlighted by the promulgation of P.D. 1185 known as the Fire Code of the Philippines on August 26, 1977
and the complete publication of the arson investigation manual subsequent to the creation of anti Arson Task Force
(AATF) under C-2, PC-INP

1990- R.A. 6975 was enacted establishing a separate fire protection bureau designated to be a national in scope
and civilian in character.

1991- August 2, 1991 considered as the inaugural date of BFP official function marked by its preparation of
operation plans and Budget as a distinct agency of the government.

P.D. 1185-otherwise known as the Fire Code of the Philippines-is a law which define what acts and condition
constitute a fire hazard and penalizes such acts or conditions

P.D. 1185- On August 26, 1977, P.D. 1185 was signed into law by the late Pres. Ferdinand E. Marcos of the
Philippines
-the implementing rules and regulation of Fire Code of the Philippines was issued on March 20, 1978 and
Was approved on March 25, 1978.

May 28, 1978- is the publication of P.D. 1185

June 27, 1978 P.D. took effect

R.A 9514 –OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE COMPREHENSIVE FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES OF 2008”

December 19,2008 R.A 9514 was signed into law

January 20 2009 R.A 9514 took effect.

COMPREHENSIVE FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (R.A.9514) OF 2008)

INTRODUCTION

The New Fire Code of the Philippines was signed into law last December 19, 2008 and took effect last
January 20, 2009. Pursuant to the provision of Section 5 of Republic Act No. 9514, entitled “AN ACT
ESTABLISHING A COMPREHENSIVE FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES, REPEALING PRESIDENTIAL
DECREE NO. 1185, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES”, the implementing Rules and Regulations were crafted in
order to carry out the provisions of the Code.

SECTION 2. “It is the policy of the State to ensure public safety, promote economic development through the
prevention and suppression of all kinds, of destructive fires and promote the professionalization of the fire service
as a profession. Towards this end, the State shall enforce all laws, rules and regulations to ensure adherence to
standard fire prevention and safety measures, and promote accountability in the fire protection and prevention
service.”

Section 3. Definition of terms

Abatement- any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard

Administrator- any person who acts as agent of the owner and manages the use of a building for him
Blasting Agent- Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer use to set off explosive
Combustible Fiber- any readily ignitable and free burning fiber such as cotton, oakum, rags, wastes cloth, waste
paper, kapok, hay, straw, Spanish moss, excelsior and other similar materials commonly used in commerce.
Combustible Flammable or Inflammable- descriptive of materials that are easily set on fire
Corrosive Liquid- any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic or with certain chemicals
Curtain Board- a vertical panel of non- combustible or fire resistive materials attached to and extending below the
bottom chord of the roof trusses , to divide the underside of the roof into separate compartment so that heat and
smoke will be directed upward to a roof vent.

Cryogenic- descriptive of any materials which by this nature or as result of its reaction with other elements produce
rapid drop in temperature of the immediate surroundings.
Damper- A normally open device installed inside an air duct system which automatically closes to restrict the
passage of smoke or fire.
Duct System- a continuous passageway for the transmission of air.
Dust- a finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in the proper proportion and ignited will cause an
explosion.
Electric Arc- an extremely hot luminous formed by the passage of an electric current across a space between two
conductors or terminal due to the incandescence of the conducting vapor.

Ember- a hot piece or lump that remains after a materials has partially burned, and is still oxidizing without the
manifestation of flames.
Finishes- materials used as a final coating of a surface for ornamental or protective purpose.
Fire- The active principles of burning, characterized by the heat and light combustion
Fire Trap- a building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn easily or because it lacks adequate exit or fire
escapes.
Fire Alarm- any visual or audible signal produced by a device Or system to warm the occupants of the building or
firefighting elements of the presence or danger of fire to enable them to undertaken immediate action to save life
and property and to suppress the fire.

Fire Door- a fire resistive door prescribed for opening in fire separation walls or partitions.
Fire Hazard- any condition or acts which increase or may cause an increase in the probability of the occurrence of
fire or which may obstruct delay hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and the safeguard of
life and property.
Fire Lane- the portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept opened and unobstructed at all times for the
expedient operations of fire fighting units.

Fire Protective and Fire Safety device- any device intended for the protection of building or persons to include but
not limited to built-in protection system such as sprinklers and other automatic extinguishing system, detectors for
heat, smoke and combustion products and other warning system components, personal protective equipment such
as fire blankets, helmets, fire suits, gloves and other garments that may be put on or worn be persons to protect
themselves during fire.

Fire Safety Construction- refers to designed and installation of wall, barriers, doors windows, events means of
egress etc. integral to and incorporated into a building or structure in order to minimized danger to life from fire,
smoke, fumes, or panic before the building is evacuated. These features are also designed to achieve, among
others, safe and rapid evacuation of people through means of egress sealed from smoke or fire, the confinement of
fire or smoke in the room or floor or origin and delay their spread to other parts of the building by means to include
the treatment of building components or contents with flame retardant chemicals.

Flash Point- the minimum temperature at which any materials give off vapors in sufficient concentration to form an
ignitable mixture with air.
Forging- a process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape or dimensions.

Fulminate- a kind of stable explosive compound which explode by percussion.

Hazardous Operation/ Process- any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion, etc., that uses or produce
materials which are likely to cause fired or explosions.
Horizontal Exit- passageway from one building to another or through or ground a wall in approximately the same
floor level.
Hose Box- a box or cabinet where fire one building to another equipment are stored arranged for firefighting.
Hose Reel- a cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is wound and connected.
Jumper- a piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety device in an electrical system

Occupancy- The purpose for which a building or portion thereof is used or intended to be used.

Occupant- any person actually occupying and using a building or portions thereof by virtue of a lease contract with
the owner or administrator or by permission or sufferance of the latter

Overloading- the use of one or more electrical appliances o device which draw or consume electrical current
beyond the designed capacity of the existing electrical system.

Owner- the person who holds the legal rights of possession or title of the building or real property.
Oxidizing Materials- a material that readily yields oxygen in quantities sufficient to stimulates or support combustion.
Pressurized or Force Draft Burning Equipment- a type of burner where the fuel is subjected to pressure prior to
discharge into the combustion chamber and or which includes fans or other provisions for the introduction of air at
above normal atmospheric pressure into the same combustion chamber.

Public assembly building- any building or structure where fifty (50) or more people congregate, gather, or assemble
for any purpose.
Public Way- any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground to the sky, deeded, dedicated or
otherwise permanently appropriated for public use.
Pyrophoric- descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed to air.

Refining- a process where impurities and/or deleterious materials are removed from a mixture in order to produce a
pure element or compound. It shall also refer to partial distillation and electrolysis.
Self-Closing Doors- automatic closing doors that are designed to confine smoke and heat and delay the spread of
fire.
Smelting- meting or fusing of metallic areas or compound so as to separate impurities from pure metals.
Sprinkler system- a system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses can be attached on each floor,
including a system by which water is made available to the outlets as needed.
Vertical Shaft- an enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from the floor, as well as from the base to the top
of the building.

SECTION 4-APPLICABILITY OF THE CODE

The provisions of the Fire Code shall apply to all persons and all private public buildings, facilities or
structure, erected or constructed before and after its effectivity.

SECTION 5- GRACE PERIOD ( for P.D. 1185)

The owner, administrator or occupant of buildings or structure existing at the time of the effectivity of the
Fire Code is given two (2) years to comply with the provisions thereof on fire safety construction and on protective
and warning system. However the Director General of the Integrated National Police may prescribed a shorter
period depending upon the degree of hazard to be corrected and the cost and extent of the work to be done.

SECTION 6- RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THIS CODE (P.D.1185)

The fire service, under the direct supervision and control of the Director General of the Integrated National
Police. Hereinafter referred to as the “Director General” shall be responsible for the enforcement of this code, as
well as pertinent provisions of other laws pertaining to Fire Protection of fire safety.

SECTION 5 RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THIS CODE (R.A.9514)

This Code shall be administered and enforced by the Bureau of Fire Protection under the direct supervision
and control of the Chief of the BFP through the hierarchy of organization as provided for in Chapter VI of R.A
6975. With the approval of the secretary of the DILG; the chief BFP , is hereby authorize to;

SECTION 7- TECHNICAL STAFF (P.D. 1185) (SECTION 6 R.A.9514)

The Director General/chief BFP shall constitute as technical staff of highly qualified persons who are
knowledgeable on fire prevention, fire safety, and Fire suppression. They may be drawn not only from the organic
members of the Integrated National Police/ BFP and other government offices and agencies, but also from other
sources . In the latter case, they will either be appointed into the service or hired as consultants in accordance with
law. The technical staff shall study, review and evaluate latest developments and standards on fire technology;
prepare Plans/programs in fire safety, prevention and suppression and evaluate implementation thereof; develop
programs on the professionalization of the Fire service; coordinate with appropriate government and private
institutions for the offering of college course on fire technology and fire protection engineering; propose
amendments to the fire Code; advice the Director General/ Chief BFP on any matter brought to his attention; and
perform such other functions directed on any matter brought to his attention and perform such other functions as
may be appropriate.

SECTION 8(PD1185 SEC. 7 (RA9514)- INSPECTION, SAFETY MEASURES, FIRE SAFETY, CONSTRUCTION
AND PROTECTIVE AND/ OR WARNING SYSTEM

As may be defined and provided in the rules and regulations, owners, administrator or occupants of
buildings, structure and their premises or facilities and other responsible persons shall be required to comply with
the following, as may be appropriate:

a. Inspection requirements- A fire safety inspection shall be conducted by the Director General of his duly
authorized representatives as a pre-requisite to the grants of permits and or licenses by local governments and
other government agencies concerned for the:

1. Use or occupancy of building, structures, facilities or their premises including the installation or
fire protection and fire safety equipment, and electrical system in any building structure or
facility.
2. Storage, handling and or use of explosive or of combustible, flammable, toxic and other
hazardous materials.
3. Safety measure of hazardous materials
4. Provision on Fire safety construction, protective and warning system
.
SECTION 9 PD 1185 (SEC. 8 9514)-PROHIBITED ACTS- The following are declared as prohibited acts and
omissions

a. Obstructing or blocking the exit ways or access to building clearly marked for fire safety purposes, such
as but not limited to aisles in interior rooms, any part of stairway or exit of any kind , or tolerating or allowing said
violations.
b. Constructing gates, entrances and walkways to building components and yards, which obstruct the
orderly and easy passage of fire fighting vehicles and equipments.
c. Prevention, interference or obstruction of any operation of the fire service, or of duly organized and
authorized fire brigades.
d. Obstructing designed fire lanes or access to fire hydrants
 e. Overcrowding or admission of persons beyond the authorized capacity in movie houses, theaters,
coliseums, auditoriums or other public assembly buildings, except in other assembly areas on the ground floor with
open sides or open doors sufficient to provide safe exits.
f. Locking fire exit during periods when people are inside the building
g. Prevention or obstruction of the automatic closure of fire doors or smoke partitions or dampers
h. use of fire protective or fire fighting equipment of the fire service other than for fire fighting except in
other emergencies where their use are justified.
i. Giving false or malicious alarm
j. Smoking in prohibited areas as may be determined by fire service, or throwing of cigars, cigarettes,
burning objects in places which may start or cause fire.
k. Abandoning or leaving a building or structure by the occupant or owner without appropriate safety
measures.
l. Removing, destroying, tampering, or obliterating may authorized mark, seal, sign or tag posted or
required by the Fire service for fire safety in any building, structure or processing equipment.
m. Use of jumpers or tampering with electrical wiring or overloading the electrical system beyond its
designed capacity or such other practices that would tend to undermine the fire safety features
of the electrical system .

SECTION 10- ABATEMENT OF FIRE HAZARD (P.D.1185)

Fire hazards shall be abated immediately. For this purpose, the Director General or his duly authorized
representative may orders for such abatement. If the owner, administrator or occupant of buildings, structure and
their premises or facilities does not abate the same within the period fixed in said order, the occupancy permit or
permit to operate shall be cancelled. Any building or structure declared as a firetrap or is causing clear and present
danger to adjoining establishment and habilitations shall be declared building or structure is not more than twenty
thousand (20,000.00) pesos, the owner, administrator, or occupant thereof shall abate the hazard within thirty (30)
days or if the assessed value is more than twenty thousand (20,000.00) pesos, within sixty (60) days from receipt
of the order declaring said building or structure a public nuisance, otherwise, the Director General or his duly
authorized representatives shall mean corrective measures undertaken to abate hazards which shall includes but is
not limited to remodeling, repairing strengthening , reconstructing, removal and demotion, either partial or total of
the building or structure. The expense incurred by the government for such summary abatement shall be borne by
the owner, administrator or occupant .These expenses shall constitute a prior lien such property.

SECTION 9 VIOLATIONS,PENALTIES AND ABATEMENT OF FIRE HAZARDS (RA 9514)

Fire hazard shall be abated immediately. The Chief BFP or his /her authorized representative, upon the
report that a violation of this Code or other pertinent laws and regulations is being committed, shall issue notice/ or
order to comply to the owner, administrator, occupant or other person responsible for the condition of the building
or structure indicating among other things the period within prescribed compliance shall be effected, which shall be
within ten (10) to 15 days after the receipt of the notice or order.

If after the lapse of the aforesaid period, the owner, administrator, occupant or other responsible person
failed to comply, the Chief BFP or /her authorized representative shall put up a sign in front of the building or
structure that it is a fire hazard. Specifically, the notice shall bear the words " WARNING ; THIS
BUILDING/STRUCURE IS A FIRE HAZARD " which shall remain posted until such that the owner, administrator,
occupant or other person responsible for the condition of the building, structure and their premises or facilities
abate the same. But such period shall not exceed 15 days from the lapse of the initial period given in the notice or
order to comply

Finally, with the failure of the owner, administrator, occupant or other person responsible for the condition of
the building, structure and their premises or facilities to comply within the period specified above, the Chief BFP
may issue order for such abatement. If the latter still failed to comply the said order to abate the hazard , the Chief
BFP or his/her authorized representative notwithstanding any permit, clearance or certificate earlier issued by the
local authorities shall give order for the closure of the said building or structure or facilities .

NOTE; If the assessed value of the nuisance or the amount to be spent in abating the same is not more
than P 100,000.00, the owner, administrator or occupant thereof shall abate the hazard within 15days or if the
assessed value is more than P 100,000.00 within 30 days from receipt of order declaring said building or
structure a public nuisance.

SECTION 11 (PD 1185) SEC. 10 RA 9514- ENFORCEMENT OF THE LIEN

If the owner, administrator or occupant fails to reimburse the government of the expenses incurred in the
summary abatement within ninety (90) days from the completion of such abatement, the building or structure shall
be sold at public auction in accordance with existing laws and rules. No property subject of lien under section 10
hereof, may be sold a price lower than the government if the highest bid is not at least equal to the abatement
expenses.

SECTION 12 PD 1185 - PENALTIES

A. Administrative fines- any person who violates any provisions of this Fire Code or any of the rules and
regulations promulgated under section 6 hereof shall be penalized by an administrative fine of not exceeding twelve
thousand (12,000.00) pesos or in the proper case by stoppage of operations of closure of such buildings,
structures and their premises or facilities which do not comply with the requirements or by both such administrative
fine and closure/stoppage of operation to be imposed by the Director General provided, that the payments of the
fine stoppage of shall not absolve the violator from correcting the deficiency or abating the fire hazard. The
decision of the defense, within fifteen (15) days from the date or receipt of the order imposing the administrative
fine, stoppage the operations and or closure. The decision of the secretary of National defense shall be final and
executory.

B. Punitive- In case of willful failure to correct the deficiency or abate the fire hazard as provided in the preceding
subsection, the violator shall, upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment of not less than six (6) months nor
more than six (6) years, or by a fine of not more than twenty thousand (20,000.00) pesos or both such fines and
imprisonment; provided, however, that in the case of a corporation, firm, partnership or associations the fine or
imprisonment shall be imposed upon its officials responsible for such violations, and in case the guilty is an alien in
addition to the penalties herein prescribes, he shall immediately be deported; provided, finally that where the
violation is attended by loss of life and or damage or property, the violator shall be proceeded against under the
applicable provisions of the Revised Penal Code.

SECTION 11 (RA 9514) PENALTIES

1. AGAINST THE PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS

A. ADMINISTRATIVE FINES - Any person who violates any provision of the fire code or any of the rules and
regulations promulgated under this act shall be penalized by an administrative fine of not exceeding p50,000.00 or
in the proper case, by stoppage of operations or by closure of such buildings, structure and their premises or
facilities which do not comply with the requirements or by both administrative fine and closure/stoppage of
operation to be imposed by the chief BFP , Provided, that the payment of the fine , stoppage of operations and /or
closure of such buildings, structure and their premises or facilities shall not absolve the violator from correcting
deficiency or abating the fire hazard. The decision of the Chief BFP under this subsection, maybe appealed to the
Secretary of Interior and Local Government . Unless ordered by the Secretary of the Interior and Local Government
, the appeal shall not the execution of the order of the chief BFP. The decision of the Secretary of the Interior and
local Government shall be final and executory.

B. PUNITIVE - Incase of willful failure to correct the deficiency or abate the fire hazard as provided in the preceding
subsection the violator shall upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment of not less than 6 months nor more
than 6 years, or a fine of not more P100,000.00 or both such fine and imprisonment. Provided, however that
incase of a corporation, firm, partnership or association, the fine and /or imprisonment shall be imposed upon its
officials responsible for such violations, and in case the guilty party is an alien, in addition to the penalties herein
prescribe, he shall immediately be deported; Provided, finally, that where the violation is attended by injury , loss life
and or damaged to property, the violator shall be proceeded against the under the applicable provisions of the
Revised Penal Code.

Any person who without authority, maliciously removes the sign that a building or structure is a fire hazard/
fire trap placed by the authorized person in this code shall be liable for imprisonment for 30days or a fine not
more than P100,000.00 pesos or both in the discretion of the court.

Any person who disobeys the lawful order of the fire ground commander during a fire fighting
operations shall be penalized with imprisonment of one (1) day to 30 days and a fine of P5,000.00 pesos.

2. AGAINST THE PUBLIC OFFICER/EMPLOYEE

A. ADMINISTRATIVE - The following acts or omissions shall render the public officer/employee in charge of the
enforcement of this code, IRR and other pertinent laws, administratively liable, and shall be punished by reprimand,
suspension or removal in the discretion of the disciplining authority depending on the gravity of the offense and
without prejudice to the provisions of other applicable laws;

1. unjustified failure of the public officer /employee to conduct inspection of buildings or structures at least
once a year;

2. Deliberate failure to put up a sign in front of the building or structure within his /her AOR found to be
violating this code. Its IRR or other pertinent laws, that the same is a 'FIRE HAZARD OR FIRE TRAP;

3.Endorsing to the Chief BFP or his /her duly authorized representative for the certification, or submitting a
report that the building or structure complies with the standard set by this code, its IRR or other pertinent laws when
the same is contrary to fact.;

4. Issuance or renewal of occupancy or business permit without the fire safety inspection certificate issued
by the Chief BFP OR HIS/HER AUTHORIZED REPRESENTATIVE;

5. Failure to cancel the occupancy or business permit after the owner, administrator occupant or other
person responsible for the condition of the building, structure and other premises failed to comply with the
notice/order for compliance with the standards set by this code, its IRR and other pertinent laws with the specified
period;
 6. Failure to abate a public nuisance within 15 days after the owner, administrator, occupant or other
responsible person failed to abate the same within the period contained in the notice to abate.

7. Abusing his/her authority in the performance of his duty through acts of corruption and other unethical
practices ;

8. Other willful impropriety or gross negligence in the performance of his duty as provided in this act or its
IRR.

B. Punitive — In case of wilful violation involving the abovementioned acts or omissions enumerated under Section
11 subparagraph 2(A), the public officer/employee shall, upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment of not
less than six (6) months nor more than six (6) years, or by a fine of not more than One hundred thousand
pesos (P100,000.00) or both such fine and imprisonment: Provided, That where the violation is attended by
injury, loss of life and/or property, the violator shall be proceeded against under the applicable provisions of the
Revised Penal Code.

SECTION 12. Appropriation and Sources of Income. -

a. To support the manpower; inf..rastructure and equipment needs of the fire service of the BFP, such amount as
may be necessary to attain the objectives of the Fire Code shall be appropriated and included in the annual
appropriation of the BFP.

b. To partially provide for the funding of the fire service the following taxes and fees which shall accrue to the
general fund of the National Government, are hereby imposed:

(1) Fees to be charged for the issuance of certificates, permits and licenses as provided for in Section 7 (a) hereof;

(2) One-tenth of one per centum (0.1%) of the verified estimated value of buildings or structures to be erected, from
the owner thereof, but not to exceed Fifty thousand (P50,000.00) pesos, one half to be paid prior to the issuance of
the building permit, and the balance, after final inspection and prior to the issuance of the use and occupancy
permit;

(3) One-hundredth of one per centum (0.10%) of the assessed value of buildings or structures annually payable
upon payment of the real estate tax, except on structures used as single family dwellings;

(4) Two per centum (2%) of all premiums, excluding re-insurance premiums for the sale of fire, earthquake and
explosion hazard insurance collected by companies, persons or agents licensed to sell such insurances in the
Philippines;

(5) Two per centum (2%) of gross sales of companies, persons or agents selling fire fighting equipment, appliances
or devices, including hazard detection and warning systems; and

(6) Two per centum (2%) of the service fees received from fire, earthquake, and explosion hazard reinsurance
surveys and post loss service of insurance adjustment companies doing business in the Philippines directly through
agents.

SECTION 13. Collection of Taxes, Fees and Fines. - All taxes, fees and fines provided in this Code shall be
collected by the BFP: Provided, That twenty percent (20%) of all such collections shall be set aside and retained for
use by the city or municipal government concerned, which shall appropriate the same exclusively for the use of the
operation and maintenance of its local fire station, including the construction and repair of fire station: Provided,
further, That the remaining eighty (80%) shall be remitted to the National Treasury under a trust fund assigned for
the modernization of the BFP.

SECTION 13-A. Assessment of Fire Code Taxes, Fees and Fines. - The assessment of fire code taxes, fees and
fines is vested upon the BFP. The BFP shall, subject to the approval of the DILG, prescribe the procedural rules for
such purpose.

SECTION 13-B. Collection and Assessment of Local Taxes, Fees and Fines. - The collection and assessment of
taxes, fees and fines as prescribed in the Local Government Code, except those contained in this Code, shall be
the function of the concerned local government units.

SECTION 13-C. Use of Income Generated from the Enforcement of the Fire Code. - The Chief, BFP is authorized,
subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior and Local Government, to use the income generated under
the Fire Code for procurement of fire protection and fire fighting investigation, rescue, paramedics, supplies and
materials, and related technical services necessary for the fire service and the improvement of facilities of the
Bureau of Fire Protection and abatement of fire hazards.

The BFP shall determine the optimal number of equipment, including, but not limited to, fire trucks and fire
hydrants, required by every local government unit for the proper delivery of fire protection services in its jurisdiction.
In the procurement of firefighting and investigation supplies and materials, the Bureau of Product Standards of the
Department of Trade and Industry shall evaluate, determine and certify if the supply so procured conforms to the
product standards fixed by the BFP. For this purpose, the BFP shall submit to the Bureau of Product Standards a
detailed set of product standards that must be complied with in the procurement of fire fighting and investigation
supplies and materials within six (6) months from the effectivity of this Act.

SECTION 13-D. Monitoring the Implementation of the Fire Code and the Amount of the Fees Collected. - The Chief,
BFP shall, within six (6) months from the effectivity of this Code, submit to the Secretary of the Interior and Local
Government for his/her approval, a management tool or mechanism that would ensure effective monitoring of the
enforcement of the Fire Code to include the amount of Fire Code fees collected.

SECTION 14. Within sixty (60) days from the effectivity of this Act, the Secretary of the Interior and Local
Government shall issue the rules and regulations for its effective implementation.

SECTION 15. Presidential Decree No. 1185 is hereby repealed. All laws, presidential decrees, letters of
instructions, executive orders, rules and regulations insofar as they are inconsistent with this Act, are hereby
repealed or amended as the case may be.

SECTION 16. In case any provision of this Act or any portion thereof is declared unconstitutional by a competent
court, other provisions shall not be affected thereby.

SECTION 17. This Act shall take effect fifteen (15) days after its publication in the Official Gazette or in two (2)
national newspapers of general circulation.

Approved: December 19, 2008

Published in The Manila Times on January 5, 2009.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1613 AMENDING THE LAW OF ARSON

SECTION 1.- ARSON- any person who burns or sets fire to the property of another shall be punished by prison
Mayor. The same penalty shall be imposed when a person sets fire to his own property under circumstances which
expose to danger the life of property of another.

SECTION 2. DESTRUCTIVE ARSON- the penalty of Reclusion Temporal in its maximum period of Reclusion
Perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is any of the following:

1. Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inflammable or combustible
materials are stored.
2. Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice devoted to culture, education or social
services.
3. Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble.
4. Any train, airplane, or any aircraft, vessel or water craft or conveyance for transportation of peron or
property.
5. Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative or other official
proceeding
6. Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center, public or private
market, theater or movie house or any similar place or building.
7. Any building, whether used as a dwelling or not, situated in a populated or congested area.

SECTION 3. OTHER CASES OF ARSON- The penalty of Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua shall be
imposed if the property burned is any of the following:

1. Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies

2. Any inhabited house or dwelling
3. Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well or mine shaft, platform or tunnel
4. Any plantation, farm, pastureland, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or forest
5. Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill, or mill central
6. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse.
SECTION 4. SPECIAL AGGRAVATING CIRCUMSTANCES IN ARSON.-The penalty in any case of arson shall be
imposed in its maximum period:
1. If committed with intent to gain
2. If committed for the benefit or another
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property burned
4. If committed by a syndicate- The offense is committed by a syndicate if it planned or carried out by a
group of three (3) or more persons.
SECTION 5. WHERE DEATH RESULTS FROM ARSON- If by a reason of or on the occasion of arson death
results, the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to death shall be imposed.

SECTION 6. PRIMA FACIE EVIDENCE OF ARSON:

1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment
2. If substantial amount of flammable substances or materials are stored within the building not
necessary, in the business of the offender nor for household use.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible substances or materials soaked
therewith or containers thereof, or any chemical, electrical, mechanical or electronic contrivance
designed to start a fire, or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of
the burn building or property.
4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of the
issuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two (2) fires have occurred in
the same or other premises own or under the control of the offender and or insurer.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effect insured and stored in a building or property
have been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made were the fire in exchange for the
desistance of the offender or for the safety of the person or property of the victim.
SECTION 7. CONSPIRACY TO COMMIT ARSON- conspiracy to commit arson shall be punish by prison mayor in
its minimum period.

SECTION 8. CONFISCATION OF OBJECT OF ARSON- The building which is the object of arson including the
land on which it is situated shall be confiscated and escheated to the state, unless the owner thereof can proved
that he has no participation in nor knowledge of such arson despite the exercise of due diligence on his part .

SECTION 9. REPEALING CLAUSE- The provisions of article 320-326 B of the RPC and all laws, executive orders,
rules and regulations, or part thereof, in consistent with the provision of this decree are hereby repealed or
amended accordingly.

SECTION 10 .EFFECTIVITY

PENALTY
a. Reclusion perpetua from 20 years and 1 day or 40 years
b. Reclusion Temporal 12 years and 1 day to 20 years
c. Prison mayor 6 years and 1 day to 12 years
d. Prison correctional 6 months and 1 day to 6 years
e. Arresto Mayor 1 month and 1 day to 6 months
f. Arresto Menor 1 day to 30 days