[ T N T PHYSICS ]

A LEVEL
MODULE: MORDEN PHYSICS

It contains the following ZIMSEC A LEVEL

SYLLABUS TOPICS , Charged Particles , Atomic
Structure and Radioactivity

T NYUNGU
1/1/2019

Cell : 0779 589 439 email : kepaznyungu1@gmail.com

 ∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin )
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
CHARGED PARTICLES

Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

- Experiment used to provide evidence for quantisation of charge i.e provides

evidence that charge is quantized
Quantisation : having discrete values ( i.e specific values which cannot be
divided , shared or separated)
- Charge ( Q) = n e
Where e – basic charge unit
n – is an interger value { 1 , 2 , 3, 4 ,,,} which is a whole number multiple
of basic charge unit e.
numerical value of e = 1,6 x 10-19 C ( Coloumb)

OPERATION OF THE EXPERIMENT / PRINCIPLE

- The experiment balances weight of an oil drop with drag force ( Stock’s Law)
- This is used to measure , / determine radius of oil drop
- It balances weight of the oil drop with electric force
- This is used to measure or determine charge on oil drop

DIAGRAM OF APPARATUS constant temperature bath

atomiser
upper metal plate

Radioactive source +ve illumination

microscope * insulation

-ve

Window lower metal plate

Chosen oil drop

Atomiser- device that spreads oil drops from upper to lower part

- Oil drops are spread into the region into the region between upper and lower
metal plates through the hole on the upper plate
- The oil drops are charged by friction as they squizz through the hole
- The unchanged oil drops are charged by radioactive radiation
- The region between upper and lower fixed plates is illuminated with a light source/
illumination for visibility
- An oil drop is chosen using a microscope ( with a vernier scale) for study
 1. With electric field switched off
- the chosen oil drop is timed as it drops a distance 𝒙 on vernier scale in the
microscope.
- this is used to measure terminal velocity of oil drop as it falls under gravity.
𝒗𝒕 = 𝒙/𝒕 in air
- At terminal velocity weight of oil drop balances drag force

Drag Force
vt
weight ( Apparent weight = weight of the oil drop – upthrust)

By Stock’s Law 𝐷 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣𝑡

Where 𝐷 – drag force
𝜂 - (eta) viscosity of air
𝑣𝑡 - terminal velocity
Therefore W = mg = 𝑫 = 𝟔𝝅𝜼𝒓𝒗𝒕
. mg = ( volume of oil drop x density of oil drop x gravity ) – Upthrust (U)
Mass of oil drop
Upthrust ( U) = (volume of air x density of air x gravity)

𝒎𝒈 = 𝑽𝛒𝐨𝐢𝐥 − 𝐔

𝐔 = 𝐕𝛒𝐚𝐢𝐫 𝐠

𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟑
𝑽= 𝟑

𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟑
𝒎 = (𝛒𝐨𝐢𝐥 − 𝛒𝐚𝐢𝐫 )
𝟑

𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟑
(𝛒𝐨𝐢𝐥 − 𝛒𝐚𝐢𝐫 )𝒈 = 𝟔𝝅𝜼𝒓𝒗𝒕
𝟑

Therefore 𝑟 can be determined from the equation.

2. Electric Field switched on

- The oil drop is attracted by the electric field and begins to move upwards
- The electric field is adjusted until weight balances electric force ( no longer
moves) and the oil drop becomes stationary

Eq

Therefore there is no vt = v = 0

W = mg

Mg = Eq E is determined by the p.d between the plates

 Therefore q = mg / E
The experiment is repeated with several other oil drops.

OBSERVATION
- Charge (q) on each oil drop was drop was found to be a whole number multiple of
a basic charge unit, e and this provides evidence that charge is quantised.

BEHAVIOUR OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC

FIELDS.

UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

- A charged particle in electric field experiences an electric force in a direction

parallel to electric field.
+ve

Eq

-ve

A uniform electric field between the plates is created between the plates.

 If an electron enters in this field it experiences a force parallel to the electric field
lines but in a opposite direction to the field i.e experience electric forces towards
the +ve plate
 The electron moves towards the +ve plate

ELECTRON DYNAMICS
+ve

-ve

- an electron moving into region of uniform electric field , it is deflected towards the
positive plate and it moves in 2 perpendicular directions , describing a parabolic path
between the plates and straight path after the field

+ve vy straight path

Eq vy vx

vx

-ve Parabolic path

NB. The moving electron describes , a parabolic path in the region between the plates
because of the net electric force in the vertical direction and a constant motion in the
horizontal direction.
-It is in an acceleration motion in the vertical direction

QUANTITATIVELY DESCRIBING MOTION IN Vy

𝒗𝒚 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

At start uy = 0

Therefore vy = at

Vertical direction has resultant force

resultant force = F = ma

. a = F / m = Eq /m
𝑬𝒒𝒕
𝒗𝒚 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 𝒘𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆 that it does not change for both 𝒗𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒚
𝒎

𝒕 = 𝒍/𝒗

𝑬𝒒𝒍
𝒗𝒚 =
𝒎𝒗

By the time electron leaves the field / plate , it is displaced through displacement y.

𝟏
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒚 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒚 = 𝟎
𝟐
𝟏𝑬𝒒 𝒍
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = × ( )𝟐
𝟐𝒎 𝒗

QUESTIONS.
𝑬𝒒𝒍
QN. 𝑽𝒚 = 𝒎𝒗
Show that / is it true that for a charged particle moving through an
uniform electric
𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔
field its vertical velocity is given by 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

Solution

- True because mv is momentum

𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
i.e 𝒗 = 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
- After the field , no resultant force so it moves with a constant velocity in a
straight line.
Given by 𝒗 = √𝒗𝒚 𝟐 + 𝒗𝒙 𝟐
 𝒗𝒚
- Direction 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝒗𝒙

QN. An electron enters a uniform electric field with a velocity of 3,7 x 107 ms-1. The
uniform field is created by 2 parallel plates each of length 10 mm and the upper plate is
at + 500 V while the lower plate is at – 500 V. The places are 2,5 mm apart.
Q a) Find the velocity of the electron in the vertical direction just before it leaves the
field.
b) Find the gain in Ek of the electron
c) Sketch the path of the electron , between the plates and after the field. Explain the
shape of your
sketch.
d) Find the velocity of the electron after the field

Solution
𝑬𝒒𝒍
a) 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒎𝒗
−(−𝟓𝟎𝟎−𝟓𝟎𝟎)
𝑬= NB. Electric Fields
(𝟐,𝟓 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒅𝒗 −𝒗𝒇−𝒗𝒊𝒏
𝑬= = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑽𝒎−𝟏 𝑬=− = ( if you are
𝟐,𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒅𝒓 𝒅
not given p.d)

𝒅𝒗
𝑬= ( 𝒊𝒇 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒑. 𝒅)
𝒅𝒓

.e = 1,6 x 10-19 C m = 9,11 x10-31Kg

𝟒×𝟏𝟎𝟓 ×𝟏,𝟔×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 ×𝟏𝟎 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟑

=
𝟗,𝟏𝟏×𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 ×𝟑,𝟕×𝟏𝟎𝟕

= 189871540

Vy = 1,9 x107 ms-1

b) In horizontal direction velocity is not changed so Ek is not changed

Gain in Ek = Ek in the vertical direction

𝟏
= 𝟐 𝒎𝒗2
𝟏
= ( 𝟗, 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 ) × ( 𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟎)2
𝟐
= 1,642132238 x10-14
= 1,64 x 10-16 J
+ve straight path
c)
* Parabolic
- it has a resultant force in the vertical direction and no resultant force in the horizontal
directions
- straight path after the field , no resultant force ( straight path due to that it has no
resultant force)

d) 𝒗 = √𝒗𝒚 𝟐 + 𝒗𝒙 𝟐

BEHAVIOUR OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN MAGNETIC FIELD

- A charge moving in an magnetic field experiences force.

CONDITIONS FOR THE CHARGED PARTICLE TO EXPERIENCE FORCE (
MAGNETIC)

𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒗 ≠𝟎
𝜽 ≠ 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟖𝟎° , 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒃𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅.

 Direction of the force on the force on the charged particle is given by Left Hand
Rule or Right Hand Rule ( LHR)
F

+Q v
* Direction of a +ve charge is the direction of Current
* Direction of a –ve charge ( opposite to flow of current)

 V in the opposite direction of I

-Q v

Diflected download ( in opposite direction)

OBSERVATIONS

- By LHR the charge moving in magnetic field is deflected by magnetic force / field
In uniform magnetic field

X x x x x x x x x

-Q X x x x x x x x v

X x x x x x x x xv
- The charged particle is deflected into a circular path and it describes a circle.
 Nature of the magnetic force
- It is a deflecting force
- It deflects the particles into a circular path
- The magnetic force provides a centripetal force , a force that keeps the particle
in a circular motion.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
 Motion in a circle

𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎°
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗
And that F gives the centripetal Force
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑭𝒄 = 𝒓
𝒓 – 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄
𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑩𝒒𝒗 =
𝒓
𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝒎𝒗
𝒓= 𝑩𝒒𝒗 𝑩𝒒

𝒎𝒗
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒓 =
𝑩𝒒
Factors affecting radius of the Circular path described
1. Speed (v) of the charge. i.e. 𝑟 =∝ 𝑣
2. Flux density (B) / Magnetic Field Strength
𝟏
𝒓 ∝ 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑩
3. Mass of the particle , 𝒓 ∝ 𝒎 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟏
4. Charge of the particle 𝒓 ∝ 𝒒 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒘𝒆 𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒎𝒗 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
PERIOD
*Period of the particle in circular motion
𝟐𝝅
𝝎= 𝒗 = 𝒓𝝎
𝑻
𝒓(𝟐𝝅)
𝒗=
𝑻
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑩𝒒𝒗 =
𝒓
𝒎𝒗
= 𝑩𝒒
𝒓
𝑩𝒒𝒓
𝒗=
𝒎
 𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝑩𝒒𝒓
=
𝑻 𝒎
𝟐𝝅 𝑩𝒒
= 𝑻𝑩𝒒 = 𝟐𝝅𝒎
𝑻 𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝒎
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑻 =
𝑩𝒒
FACTORS AFFECTING PERIOD
 Mass
 Flux density ( Field Strength)
 Charge
NB. IT IS NOT AFFECTED BY RADIUS

EXPRESSION FOR FREQUENCY

𝑩𝒒 𝟏 𝟏
𝒇= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑻= 𝒐𝒓 𝒇 =
𝟐𝝅𝒎 𝒇 𝑻

FACTORS AFFECTING FREQUENCY

- If mass is doubled f is halved

SUMMARY
- Charged particles are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields

VELOCITY SELECTION
- Magnetic and electric fields can be used to select charged particles with a
particular velocity
- The fields , electric and magnetic fields are crossed at 900 to each other
+ve

uniform electric field uniform magnetic field

.x x .x x Eqx x
Beams of
elctrons .x x x x Bqv x x If Bqv = Eq

.x x x x x
Slit 1 -ve slit 2
- Beams of electrons is deflected towards the positive plate i.e deflected upwards
by the electric field
- The beam is deflected downwards by the magnetic field ( some electrons are –ve
and opposite to +ve )
- NB. So it deflected in opposite directions by the fields

- If Eq = Bqv / FE = FB Net Force or Resultant Force is zero (0)

so the beam is not deflected and it passes through the crossed fields ( through
 the slit 2)
𝑬
therefore Eq = Bqv and at that time 𝒗 = 𝑩

- The expression shows that all charges with velocity equal to the ratio E / B are
selected to pass undeflected.

𝑬
- 𝒗=𝑩
If v is smaller than E / B ratio then the electron is deflected by the electric Field ,
because Eq > Bqv
 Eq ( Electric Force) – is independent of velocity , ie it does not depend on velocity
 Bqv( Magnetic Force) is dependant of velocity
If v is greater than E/B ratio then the electron is deflected by the magnetic field
, because Bqv > Eq
Because Bqv is dependent of velocity

MASS SPECTROMETRY

- Velocity selection is used in mass spectrometry to measure ( relative atomic

Mass)

+ve
r2
r1 photographic
film
- .x x.x x x x o o o o o o
Beams of
- x xx x x x o o o o o o
electrons
- .x x x x x o o o o o o

o o o o o o magnetic field 2 of
o o o o o o o flux density B
Slit 1 -ve slit 2
Magnetic field 1 of flux density Bo
 In flux density B they are separated due to their radius
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞
𝐸
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝐵𝑜

𝑐𝐸
𝑟=
𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑞

Therefore radius (𝑟) is directly proportional to mass ( 𝑚)

After velocity selector the ions enter a region of uniform magnetic field only , and are
deflected by the magnetic field of flux density B.

They describe a circular paths of different radius because of different masses.

Ions with larger mass describes larger radius and vice versa M2 > M1

NB. Radius : can be measured using a ruler

Charged particles cause fogging of the photographic film

MEASUREMENT OF SPECIFIC CHARGE

𝒒
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 =
𝒎
𝒆
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 =
𝒎𝒆

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆.

FINE BEAM DISCHARGE TUBE

Vaccum evacuated Glass tube

Electron gun
Fluorescent screen

heater beam of electrons

cathode System
of
anodes uniform magnetic field

- Electrons are emitted from cathode by thermionic emission

- The electrons are accelerated and collimated into a fine beam of electrons
collimation – streaming of a divergent electron beam in a pencil sharp straight
beam.
- The beam of electrons from the electron gun enter a region of uniform magnetic
field where it is deflected into a circular path by the field .
- Magnetic force will then provide centripetal force

𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑩𝒆𝒗 =
𝒓
𝒆 𝒗
= …………………………………………………….. 𝟏
𝒎 𝒓𝑩
  The p.d between cathode and anode does work to accelerate the electrons to
velocity v.
- workdone = Gain in Ek by the Electrons
1
Workdone = 𝑒𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒗=
𝟐𝒆𝑽
√
𝒎
………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Substitute v in equation 1
2
2𝑒𝑉
√
𝑒 2 𝑚
( ) = ( )
𝑚 𝑟𝐵

𝑒 2 2𝑒𝑉 𝑒 2𝑉
( ) = 2 2 =
𝑚 𝑟 𝐵 𝑚 𝑚 𝑟 2 𝐵2
𝒆
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒎

𝒆 𝟐𝑽
= 𝟐 𝟐 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑽 = 𝒑. 𝒅 , 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 , 𝑩 = 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒎 𝒓 𝑩

SUMMARY
* Charged particles may experience a force in both magnetic and electric
field
Sample Question
Q. Distinguish between electric and magnetic forces on a charged particle.

Solution.

Electric Force Magnetic Force

1. charged particle moves in a - It desciribes a circular path

parabolic motion /path
2. electric force can act both - Magnetic force only acts on a
when charge is moving and moving charge
when it is stationary
3. independent of velocity of a - Dependent of the velocity
charged particle
4. it is in the direction of - Perpendicular to the field
electric field / parallel
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

ALPHA PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

vaccum
3 Movable detector
2

Source of
Apha(∝) particles

Heavy metal foil e.g. Gold / Aluminium foil

Alpha particle scattering experiment is used to provide evidence for :-

1. Small size of nucleus
2. Mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
3. Provide evidence that the nucleus of an atom is positively charged

 The apparatus is set up as shown above

 Alpha particles , from a radioactive source were fired at a heavy metal foil, one
atom layer thick i.e. at a very thin metal foil

OBSERVATIONS ( inform of diagrams)

1. Majority of the apha particles passed through foil

deflected

Nucleus of the atom

- majority of the alpha passes through

2.
A few alpha particles were deflected
through angles
Greater than 1800.
 3. - a tiny number of ( 1 /20 000 ) of alpha particles
were
deflected through angles greater than 900
- some where even reflected or bounced
backwards.
EXPLANATIONS
1. That the majority of alpha particles passed undeflected shows that much of
the atom is empty spaceand the nucleus of an atom occupies a very small
space in the stom.
NB. This provides evidence that nucleus of an atom is very small in size
2. Deflection shows repulsion between positive and alpha particles. Alpha
particles are Helium nuclei and they are positively charged so the deflection/
repulsion provides evidence that the nucleus is positively charged.
3. Bounding backward/ reflection of alpha particles shows that mass of an atom
is concentrated in the nucleus

NUCLIED NOTATION
- A Nuclide means a nucleus of an atom or a nucleus spicie
- A nuclide notation is the way of representing the atom or nucleus
- The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons
- Each of a proton or a neutron is called ,a nucleon

Nucleus Is Represented As Shown

A - nucleon number / mass number

Z - proton number or atomic number

Definitions

1. Nucleon number : total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus of an atom

2. Proton number : total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom e.g 12 6𝐶
i.e X – C - nucleus
A – 12 – nucleon number
Z - 6 - protons
ISOTOPES
- Atoms of the same element , with same proton numbers but with different
numbers of neutrons of different nucleon or mass numbers
- Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties
- Same number of electrons determine same chemical properties that take part in
the chemical reaction
- Masses different means they have different physical properties
EXAMPLE
 𝟏𝟔 𝟔
𝟖𝑶 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟕𝟖𝑶 𝟑𝑳𝒊 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟕
𝟑𝑳𝒊
𝟑𝟔 𝟑𝟕
𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍

MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

- Einstein in his relativity theory showed that mass and energy are related.
- They are related by the equation 𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
where E – energy i.e electromagnetic energy / radiation
- ∆𝑚 – mass excess
- 𝑐 − speed of light

SIGNIFICANCE OF 𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 EQUATION

- Mass and energy are inter changeable i.e mass can be converted to energy and
energy can be converted to mass
- Energy has a mass equivalence and mass has an energy equivalence

QUESTION.
Q. Calculate energy equivalence , of 2Kg mass of Iron , c = 9,81 x 108ms-1
Solution
E = 2 x ( 3 x108)2 = 1,8 x 1017J
Q. 2,6 MJ of energy . Calculate the mass equivalence of the energy.
 RADIOACTIVITY

- Spontaneous and random disintegration or breakdown of an unstable nucleus.

 spontaneous process is a process not influenced by external factors like
volume , temperature , pressure , chemical composition and time.
Only internal factors affects it

- e.g mass and ratio of protons to neutrons. Stable should have 1 : 1 or Odd ratio

* neutrons compensate for repulsion between protons

 Random process means unpredictable process.

- Radioactive cannot be predicted when , where and how the process will occur.
The process has a sure chance to occur.

RADIOACTIVE RAYS / RADIATIONS

1. Gamma rays
2. Alpha rays
3. Beta rays

PROPERTIES
- All the 3 radioactive rays cause ionisation i.e all the 3 rays causes removal of
electrons from any matter , they interact with.
 TABLE OF PROPERTIES

RAYS NATURE MASS CHARG PENETRATIO IONISATIO DEFLECTIO SPEE

E N N N D
∝ 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 Helium 4u +2e Weakest upto Strongest Deflected 0.1 c
(𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎) nuclei 42𝐻𝑒 5cm into air because it by both
is double fields i.e.
charged electric
and
magnetic
𝛽 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 Electrons 𝑈 +𝑒 (can
− Moderate ( Moderate Deflected 0.9 c
( 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑎) in nature 20000 be +ve 10 times because it by both
or –ve ) more than is single electric and
+ve beta alpha charged magnetic
is called particle) fields
positron Stopped by 3
and –ve mm thickness
is called of Aluminium.
neutrino
No Weakest No 3x108
𝐺𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 Electromag physic No Strongest ( it can deflection ms-1
𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 netic al Charge { cannot be only ionise because it (speed
radiation in mass stopped matter by has no of
nature i.e. it completely} photoelect charge light)
has It can be ric effect)
mass reduced by (Gamma
energ 10 cm Photons)
y thickness of
equiva Lead
lence Penetrates
100 times
more than
alpha - rays

 HAZARDS / DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVE RAYS

-it causes genetic mutation
- causes cancer
- it causes ionisation

 SAFETY MEASURES AGAINST RADIOACTIVE RAYS

1. Wearing protective clothing e.g. gloves
2. Use of forceps for handling of radioactive material
3. Radioactive material should be kept under Lead(Pb) containers
4. Keep safe distance from radioactive material

 BACKGROUND RADIATION
- Radiation in the environment without source of origin in site ( in sight)

 SOURCES OF BACKGROUND RADIATION

 - From cosmic – rays from outer space
- Lightining , causes Nitrogen in the atmosphere to be radioactive
- Industrial and medical disposals
- Water , soil , underground rocks and trees

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Types Of Radioactive Decay

1. ∝ - Decay
2. 𝛽 - Decay
3. 𝐺𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 Decay

1. ∝ - Decay
− Disintergration of an unstable nucleus with release of an ∝ particle as
decay product
e.g.
226 222 4
88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 2𝐻𝑒
parent nucleus daughter decay product
nucleus

- Mass number of parent nucleus dicreases by 4 while proton number dicreases

by 2.
NB. Daughter nucleus becomes an isotope of an element 2 steps down the
Periodic table
- In an alpha decay energy is released

MAGNITUDE OF THE ENERGY RELEASED IN THE FORM OF KINETIC ENERGY

OF PRODUCT PARTICLE AND RECOIL NUCLEUS IS A MEASURE OF THE SPEED
OR RATE OF NUCLEAR REACTION.
- If the energy is large nuclear reaction is fast and half life of the nuclide or
unstable nucleus is short , and decay constant is long and vice-versa.

𝑨−𝟒
- Kinetic energy of the alpha-particle is given by 𝑲 ∝ = ×
𝑨
𝑩𝑬( 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒂 − 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚)
NB. A – nucleon number of the parent nucleus.

SAMPLE QUESTION.

Q. Radium is a radioactive its mass is 225 , 98780u , it decays by alpha-decay to

produce radon-222 whose mass 222, 01754u and an alpha-particle of mass 4,00260u.
Calculate the percentage of the energy possessed by the alpha-particle and account
for the remaining percentage.
SOLUTION.
procedure
energy released = ∆𝒎𝒄𝟐

𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 → 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 + 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆

𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓, 𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟖𝟎𝐮

𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟒𝐮 + 𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟎𝐮

= 𝟐𝟐𝟔 , 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟒𝒖

∆𝒎 = 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 − 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝟐𝟐𝟔, 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟒𝒖 − 𝟐𝟐𝟓, 𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟖𝟎𝒖 = 𝟎, 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟑𝟒𝒖

𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 = ∆𝒎𝒄𝟐

= 𝟎, 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏, 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 × ( 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 )𝟐

= 𝟒, 𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑱

𝟐𝟐𝟔 − 𝟒
𝐊 ∝= × 𝟒, 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐉 = 𝟒, 𝟕𝟒𝟒𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟕𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐉
𝟐𝟐𝟔

𝑲 ∝ = 𝟒, 𝟕𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑱

𝑲∝ 𝟒, 𝟕𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟕𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟗𝟖, 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟑 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟗𝟖%
𝑩. 𝑬 𝟒, 𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎

NB. The other 2% is the Ek of the daughter nucleus / recoil nucleus.

2. The 𝛽 − 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦
- The most common form of beta-decay converted into a proton and into an
electron.
- In beta decay an electron is emitted as a decay product.
EVENTS IN BETA DECAY
1. A neutron in the nucleus is converted into a proton and into an electron.
𝟏
𝟎𝒏 → 𝟏𝟏𝑯 + 𝟎
−𝟏𝒆

- The electron is passed into energy levels and is rejected because of lack of spin
and it is emitted from the atom as a beta-particle
- The proton is returned into the nucleus
2. The proton number increases by 1 while the mass number remains constant (
due to that mass of proton ≈ neutron
- The resultant nucleus is an isotope of the element one step above in the periodic
table e.g. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑩
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟎
𝟓𝑩 → 𝟔𝑪 + −𝟏𝜷 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
3. Gamma Decay
- A radioactive decay with an emission of a radiation
- In Gamma decay , no change in proton number and mass number
- In most cases , gamma decay associates 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 decays.

DECAY RATE

- Decay rate is speed of disintergration of unstable nucleus

- Rate of disintergration is proportional to number of undecayed nuclides or
undecayed unstable nuclei
𝒅𝑵
𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 =
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑵
∝𝑵
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑵
= −𝝀𝑵
𝒅𝒕
- The (-ve) shows that the decay rate dicreases with time .
- 𝜆 is a constant of proportionality called decay constant.

DECAY EQUATION

- (𝜆) – decay constant is the PROBABILITY of disintergration per unit time. ( OR

chance of breakdown of an element / unit time )
S I units of Decay Constant (𝜆) are s-1 / per second.

Decay Equation
𝒅𝑵
= − 𝝀𝑵
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑵
= −𝝀𝒅𝒕
𝑵

𝑵
𝟏
∫ 𝒅𝑵
𝑵
𝑵𝒐

𝒍𝒏𝑵 = −𝝀𝒕 + 𝒄

[ 𝒍𝒏𝑵]𝑵
𝑵𝑶 = −𝝀𝒕
 𝑵
= 𝒆−𝝀𝒕
𝑵𝒐

𝑵 = 𝑵𝒐 𝒆−𝝀𝒕

HALF LIFE AND DECAY CONSTANT

 HALF LIFE ( T1/2 )

- Is time taken for half of the original amount of a substance to decay
𝑵𝒐
When 𝑵 = 𝟐
𝒕 = 𝑻𝟏
𝟐

𝑵𝒐 −𝝀𝑻𝟏
= 𝑵𝒐 𝒆 𝟐
𝟐

𝟏 −𝝀𝑻𝟏 𝟏 −𝝀𝑻𝟏
= 𝑵𝒐 𝒆 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒆 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝟐 = − 𝝀 𝑻𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 (𝟐) 𝒍𝒏 − 𝒍𝒏𝟐
𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟏 =
𝟐 −𝝀 𝟐 −𝝀

𝟏
𝒍𝒏𝟏 – 𝒍𝒏𝟐 = 𝐥𝐧 𝝀𝑻𝟏
𝒆 𝟐
𝒍𝒏𝟐
𝑻𝟏 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝀 = 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐 𝝀 𝟐

HALF LIFE , DECAY CONSTANT AND ENERGY

- In decay processes or nuclear process , energy is released
- Released energy appears in the form of Ek , of product particles and daughter
nuclei.
IF KINETIC ENERGY OF PRODUCT PARTICLE OR RE-COIL NUCLEUS OR
DAUGHTER NUCLEUS IS VERY LARGE , SPEED OF REACTION IS VERY FAST
,HALF LIFE IS SHORT.

𝑙𝑛2
𝑇1 =
2 𝜆
 𝒍𝒏𝟐
𝝀 =
𝑻𝟏
𝟐

NB. 𝝀 ∝
𝟏
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑬𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝝀 𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑬𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝝀 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝑻𝟏
𝟐

Therefore 𝝀 ∝
𝑬𝒌 𝒊. 𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝟏
𝑬𝒌 ∝ 𝑻𝟏
𝟐

Q. 𝜶 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎𝟐𝟐𝟔 = 11,36 𝑀𝑒𝑉

𝜶 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎𝟐𝟐𝟒 = 9,56 𝑀𝑒𝑉

a) Define decay constant ?

b) Suggest with a reason which of the 2 isotopes has a large decay constant
Solution
𝑙𝑛2
a) 𝜆 = 𝑇1 where 𝜆 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇1 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒
2 2

b) 𝜶 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎𝟐𝟐𝟔 isotope has a greater decay constant .

large Ek of alpha particle shows a fast nuclear reaction hence short half
life
𝒍𝒏𝟐
𝝀=
𝑻𝟏
𝟐
Therefore decay constant is large.

APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
1. Carbo dating