NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SMME

Lab report (01)

Course: Applied Physics (PHY-102)
Group: B6
Names: Moazam Mustafa Mughal
Mehmood Ayaz
Muhammad Ahmad
Muhammad Ali
Section: ME 10-A
Topic: Error Analysis
Submitted to: Teacher Jameela Fatheema
Date: 25 September 2018
Experiment no.1
Objective:
To calculate error in length, width, area and perimeter of the table.

Abstract:
A sample table whose dimensions are to be measured, a meter rule and a measuring tape.

Theory:
The length and the width of the table can be measured by a meter rule. The least count of
the meter rule is 1mm or 0.1cm. A better way to find the dimensions of the table is by
taking the average. The average s taken by using the formula:
Average = (sum of measurements)/ (No. of measurements)
𝑥1+𝑥2+𝑥3+⋯…𝑥𝑛
X= 𝑛

The standard deviation in the measurement is calculated using the formula:

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑥
Standard deviation = √
𝑁−1

Where ∑𝑖 𝛿𝑥 = lx1-x l+ lx2-x l+….lx n -x l

And N= no of measurements
Standard error is to define the error in any measured value. It is calculated by the formula:

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Standard error (𝜎𝑥) = (𝑆. 𝐸) = √
𝑁

The perimeter of the table can be calculated by the formula:

Perimeter = 2(length + width) ± (S.E) perimeter
The area of the table can be calculated by the formula:
Area = (length*width) ± (S.E) area
Standard error (S.E) perimeter in perimeter can be calculated by the formula:

𝑑𝑃 2 𝑑𝑃 2
(S.E) perimeter = √( 𝑑𝑙 ) (𝜎𝑙)2 + (𝑑𝑤) (𝜎𝑤)2

Similarly, Standard error (S.E) area in area can be calculated by the formula:

𝑑𝐴 2 𝑑𝐴 2
(S.E) area = √( 𝑑𝑙 ) (𝜎𝑙)2 + (𝑑𝑤) (𝜎𝑤)2
Where,
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
= 2 and 𝑑𝑤 = 2,
𝑑𝑙

𝜎𝑙= standard error in length and 𝜎𝑤= standard error in width,

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
= Average length (L) and = average width (W)
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑤

Measured Value = {Best estimate ± standard error (uncertainty)} (units)

Procedure:
1) First use the meter rule to take three measurements of the length of the table from
three different sides i.e., top, middle and bottom.
2) Similarly, take three measurements of the width of the table.
3) Take the averages of the measured lengths and widths of the table.
4) Find the standard error in length and width of the table.
5) Use the average values of length and width to find the best estimate of the area and
perimeter of the table.
6) Now find the standard error in area and perimeter of the table.
7) Use the best estimate and standard error to find the measured value in area and
perimeter of the table along with their standard errors.

Data Analysis:
Sr. No Calculated Length Of Given Table (cm) Calculated Width Of Given Table (cm)
1 91.5 31.3
2 91.8 31.6
3 91.9 31.5
Length
Average length = L = (l1 + l2 + l3)/3
91.5+91.8+91.9
L= = 91.7 cm
3

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑙
Standard deviation in length = (S.D) L = √
𝑁−1

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑙 = ll1- L l+ ll2-L l+ ll3 -L l

= l 91.5-91.7 l + l 91.8-91.7 l + l 91.9-91.7l

= 0.2+0.1+0.2
=0.5

(0.5)2
(S.D)L = √ =0.4
3−1
 ((S.D)L)2 0.42
(S.E)L = 𝜎𝑙 = √ =√ = 0.2
𝑁 3

𝜎𝑙 = 0.2
Total length = (91.7± 0.2) cm
Width
Average width = W = (w1 + w2 + w3)/3
91.5+91.8+91.9
W= = 31.5
3

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑤
Standard deviation in length = (S.D) w = √
𝑁−1

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑤 = lw1- W l+ lw2-W l+ lw3 -W l

= l 31.3-31.5 l + l 31.6-31.5 l + l 31.5-31.5l

= 0.2+0.1+0
=0.3

(0.3)2
(S.D) w = √ =0.2
3−1

((S.D)L)2 0.22
(S.E) w = 𝜎𝑤 = √ =√ = 0.1
𝑁 3

𝜎𝑤 = 0.1
Total width = (31.5± 0.1) cm
Perimeter
Perimeter = 2(L+W)
= 2(91.7 + 31.5)
P = 246.4 cm

𝑑𝑃 2 𝑑𝑃 2
(S.E) perimeter = √( 𝑑𝑙 ) (𝜎𝑙)2 + (𝑑𝑤) (𝜎𝑤)2

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
Here, = 2 and 𝑑𝑤 = 2, and
𝑑𝑙
𝜎𝑤 = 0.1 and
𝜎𝑙 = 0.2

(S.E) perimeter =√(2)2 (0.2)2 + (2)2 (0.1)2

(S.E) perimeter = 0.4
Perimeter = (246.4 ± 0.4) cm
Area
Area = L*W
A = 91.7*31.5 = 2888.6 cm2

𝑑𝐴 2 𝑑𝐴 2
(S.E) area = √( 𝑑𝑙 ) (𝜎𝑙)2 + (𝑑𝑤) (𝜎𝑤)2

Here, 𝜎𝑙= standard error in length and 𝜎𝑤= standard error in width,
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
= Average length (L) and = average width (W)
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑤

(S.E) area = √(31.5)2 (0.2)2 + (91.7)2 (0.1)2

(S.E) area = 11.1

Area = (2888.6 ± 11.1) cm2

Conclusion/ Discussion

The area of the table is 2888.6 ± 11.1 square centimeters and the perimeter of the table is
246.4 ± 0.4 cm.
Experiment No. 02
Objective:
This experiment is performed to calculate the error in the length of the simple pendulum
and the standard error in the gravitational acceleration.

Abstract:
A simple pendulum with a metallic bob and a stopwatch.

Theory:
Simple Pendulum:
A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely.

The length of the pendulum can be measured easily with the help of a measuring tape from
the upper end of the string to the mid of the bob. For accurate value take three successive
measurements and then find the mean. The average s taken by using the formula:
Average = (sum of measurements)/ (No. of measurements)
𝑥1+𝑥2+𝑥3+⋯…𝑥𝑛
X= 𝑛

While the time period can be measured by noting the time for 10 vibrations and then
calculating the time period using formula
T= t/10
The standard deviation in the measurement is calculated using the formula:

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑥
Standard deviation = √
𝑁−1

Where ∑𝑖 𝛿𝑥 = lx1-x l+ lx2-x l+….lx n -x l

And N= no of measurements
Standard error is to define the error in any measured value. It is calculated by the formula:

Standard error (𝜎𝑥) = (𝑆. 𝐸) = ∆𝜋 2

The gravitational acceleration(g) is calculated by the following formula:

𝑙
Gravitational Acceleration (g) = 4𝜋 2 + (S.E)
𝑇2

The Standard Error in gravity is calculated as:

𝑑𝑔 2 𝑑𝑔 2
(S.E)𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = √( 𝑑𝑙 ) (𝜎𝑙)2 + (𝑑𝑇 ) (𝜎𝑇)2
Procedure:

1) First measure the length of the string of the simple pendulum with the help of
measuring tape. Repeat it 3 times.
2) Then note the time period by noting the time for 10 vibrations using a stopwatch.
3) Take the average of the three measurements of length.
4) Take the deviation of each measurement from the mean value.
∑𝑖 𝛿𝑙
5) Add all the deviations and find the standard deviation using √
𝑁−1
6) Then find the standard error in length (𝜎𝑙).
7) Now find the time period of the simple pendulum.
8) Similarly, find the standard deviation and standard error in the time period.
9) Finally, use the values to find the value of ‘g’ and the standard error in it.

Data Analysis:
Sr. No Calculated Length of Pendulum (cm) Time period for 10 vibration
1 33.9 11.39s
2 34.0 11.48s
3 34.1 11.48s
Length:
Average length = L = (l1 + l2 + l3)/3
= (33.9 + 34.0 + 34.1)/3

= 34.0 cm

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑙
Standard deviation in length = (S.D) L = √
𝑁−1

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑙 = ll1- L l+ ll2-L l+ ll3 -L l

= 0.2cm

(0.2)2
S.D = √ 3−1 = 0.1

((S.D)L)2 0.12
(S.E)L = 𝜎𝑙 = √ =√ = 0.1
𝑁 3

𝜎𝑙 = 0.1
Total length = (34.0 ± 0.1) cm

Time Period:
Time for 10 vibrations is
t1 = 11.39s
t2 = 11.48s
t3 = 11.48s

Time Period :
T1 = 11.39/10 = 1.139s = 1.14s
T2 = 11.43/10 = 1.148s = 1.15s
T3 = 1.148s = 1.15s
T( = (T1 + T2+ T3)/3 = 1.14s

∆𝑇𝑖 = |1.14 − 1.14| + |1.15 − 1.14| + |1.15 − 1.14|

= 0.02

∑𝑖 𝛿𝑇
(S.D)T = √
𝑁−1

(0.02)^2
(S.D)T = √ 2
= 0.01

(0.01)^2
(S.D)T = √ 3
= 0.01

T = 1.14 ± 0.01 𝑠

Gravitational Acceleration:
g1 = 4𝜋^2 l1 / T1 ^2
= 1029.8 cms^-2

g2 = 4π^2 l2 / T2 ^2
= 1014.9 cms^-2

g3 = 4π^2 l3 / T3 ^2
= 1017.9 cms^-2

g = (g1 +g2 +g3)/3

= 10.2 ms^-2

𝑑𝑔 2 𝑑𝑔 2
(S.E) gravity = √( 𝑑𝑙 ) (𝜎𝑙)2 + (𝑑𝑇 ) (𝜎𝑇)2

Dg/dl = (4π^2)/T^2 = 30.4

Dg/dt = -8π^2 L/T^3

 = -1811.9

(S.E) gravity = √(30.4)2 (0.1)2 + (−1811.9)2 (0.1)2

(S.E)g = 18.37 cm/s2 = 0.18 m/s2

G = 10.2 ± 0.18 m/s2

Discussions and Conclusions:

When performing the experiment, there were many
sources of errors that could occur and we tried our best to reduce those errors from our
calculations. Time period for 10 vibrations was calculated and its mean was calculated to further
reduce the error in the calculations. In additions, the pendulum was released from a small angle to
reduce air friction and to make sure that pendulum remained isochronous one. It is to be noted that
true or expected value of ‘g’ was taken as 9.8m/s2.

Due to expected errors in calculation, the

uncertainty in the value of ‘g’ was 0.18m/s2 which is very high. Therefore, it can be concluded that
the calculated value is accurate to some extent.