Primary Service Equipment *With MCCBs and ICCBs, the breaker typically is rated for only 80% of its
*With MCCBs and ICCBs, the breaker typically is rated for only 80% of its capacity within a
In some smaller facilities, panel boards may be used as a primary service; but for larger facilities,
the primary service equipment will be based on a switchboard or switchgear.
*Engineers, architects, contractors, and facility owners often use the terms “switchboard” and
“switchgear” interchangeably when referring to 480 V circuit breaker distribution equipment.
*But there are notable differences in configurations, components, standards, applications,
reliability, and selection criteria between these two types of power distribution equipment.
*There are several notable differences between switchboards and switchgear including physical
size, front or rear access, and how breakers are mounted and removed.
*The type of breakers used also is a major difference between switchboards and switchgear. The
basic types that we are concerned with, here, are sealed, semi-open, and open types. Specifically,
these are called molded-case, insulated-case, and power circuit breakers.
PANEL BOARD is also known as distribution board, breaker panel or electric panel. is a component
of an electricity supply system that divides an electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits, while
providing a protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit in a common enclosure
SWITCHGEAR is composed of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to
control, protect and isolate electrical equipment.
SWITCHBOARDS is an apparatus (as in a telephone exchange) consisting of a panel on which are
mounted electric switches so arranged that a number of circuits may be connected, combined, and
controlled.
CIRCUIT BREAKER is an automatic device for stopping the flow of current in an electric circuit as a
safety measure.
MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER is a type of electrical protection device that is used to protect the
electrical circuit from excessive current, which can cause overload or short circuit. MCCBs are the
most commonly used in all types of low-voltage switchboards and panel boards. One will find these
breakers in ratings from 15 to 3,000 amps. The breaker mechanism is totally sealed within an
external molded case. If the breaker has a failure or problem, it must be replaced. These breakers
typically are bolted onto the bus, or may have plug-in designs. The removal or addition of MCCBs
to a switchboard should take place only with the switchboard power turned off
INSULATED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER is a molded case circuit breaker with an integral 2-step stored-
energy mechanism. They have the functionality of an iron-frame breaker, or a low-voltage-
power breaker with a molded plastic instead of an iron frame. ICCBs are a type of MCCB designed
to provide features typically available in PCBs. The internal parts are mostly, but not completely,
sealed like those in an MCCB. Typical ratings range from 400 to 5,000 amps. These breakers are
available as options in switchboards and can be fixed or draw out. Designed to the same standards
as MCCBs, they provide access to replaceable parts, such as contacts.
POWER CIRCUIT BREAKER Typical ratings range from 800 to 5,000 amps. PCBs are designed and
tested under much different standards than MCCBs or ICCBs. PCBs are connected to the bus in a
draw out design, allowing the breakers to be withdrawn partially or fully while the entire
switchgear is powered on (see Figure 2). PCBs have numerous components that can be inspected
and replaced, such as contacts, pole assemblies, and arc chutes.
APPLICATIONS CONSIDERATION
The amount of continuous current that can be put on a 400-amp circuit breaker depends on the
breaker.
switchboard or panel board. In this case, you could put no more than 320 amps continuously on
that breaker. This is a limitation that not everyone is aware of.
*It is possible to specify optional 100%-rated MCCBs and ICCBs in some frame sizes with some cost
premium. PCBs are 100%-rated as standard.
*Beyond continuous current, there are important differences when considering short circuits and
faults. While beyond the scope of this article, is important to note that PCBs are tested and rated
to higher levels of initial (or asymmetrical) fault than MCCBs or ICCBs. Depending on the engineer’s
detailed calculations, the MCCB’s or ICCB’s listed fault rating may need to be derated.
*Beyond a circuit breaker’s ability to withstand and interrupt a maximum short circuit, there are
trip levels or regions to consider.
*Circuit breakers will open based on various magnitudes and durations of current.
*These trip levels are expressed as a curve on a graph of current versus time.
There are three regions to consider:
 long-time (continuous-current range) faults
 short-time faults
 instantaneous fault
SHORT-TIME REGIONS - The area of difference between MCCBs, ICCBs, and PCBs.
PCBs -have higher short-time ratings, which along with the ability to eliminate the instantaneous
range, allows PCBs to wait for breakers further downstream in the distribution system to trip and
isolate faults.
SELECTIVE OR FULLY COORDINATED SYSTEM -use in large distribution systems where one doesn’t
want main circuit breakers to trip when a fault occurs on a smaller downstream breaker. This type
of coordination is more readily achieved with the use of PCBs at main service points.
SWITCHGEAR AND SWITCHBOARD
*Switchgear is larger than switchboards and requires front and rear access. In addition, the
clearance in front must take into account the space needed to draw out a breaker.
*While not covered in the code when withdrawing a draw out breaker, it may occupy the NEC-
required clearances—making egress and access difficult. Rear-connected switchboards, depending
on specified options, also will require similar careful space considerations.
*Front-accessible switchboards have the least space requirements and may be located against a
wall.
*Both switchboards and switchgear are code-compliant and proven in the industry.
ADVANTAGES TO SWITCHGEAR AND REAR- CONNECTED SWITCHBOARDS THAT CAN REDUCE
DOWNTIME AND FAILURES.
*First, there is the idea of individual compartments for breakers. In the event of a short circuit on a
breaker, the resulting energy will be contained and isolated from other breakers and from the bus
and cable compartment.
*Second, the ability to have drawout breakers also permits repair, inspection, and replacement of
a breaker while the rest of the switchboard or switchgear continues to operate.
*Third, PCBs, and to a lesser extent ICCBs, have exposed and accessible parts that can be regularly
inspected and replaced without having to buy an entirely new breaker.
*Lastly, PCBs have a more rugged construction and are able to handle more closing and opening
operations, including faults, and provide for automatic remote control for transfer schemes.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SWITCHGEAR AND SWITCHBOARD SELECTION
INITIAL COSTS – It often play a major role in the selection. The cost differences between a low-end
switchboard and high-end switchgear can be substantial—as high as two or three times—and must
be weighed against the long-term issues of maintainability, reliability, and downtime.
PROJECT TYPE AND COMPLEXITY – It often determine the choice. A simple office facility with no
maintenance staff is much different from a manufacturing facility. Recommended applications for
switchgear include manufacturing or process facilities with round-the-clock operations, data
centers, and telecommunication switching sites, airports, convention centers, or skyscrapers.
HYBRID OR HIGH-END REAR-ACCESS – It is a good choice for medical facilities, laboratories, light
manufacturing, and large institutional or commercial facilities. Front-accessible switchboards are
recommended for basic office and commercial buildings, K-12 schools, warehouses, or retail
facilities.
BASIC CONFIGURATIONS OF SWITCHBOARD/S AND SWITCHGEAR/S
In its most basic form, a low-voltage switchboard is a common grouping of fixed molded-case
“sealed-type” circuit breakers in a common enclosure. The breakers are directly connected to the
bus and may be group-mounted or individually mounted in their own compartment within the
entire enclosure. Cable connections are made by an electrician standing in the front of the board.
They typically require only front access and may be mounted against a wall. These are often seen
in small- and medium-size commercial or institutional facilities.
SWITCHGEAR consists of individually mounted and compartmentalized drawout power, open-type
circuit breakers. There are physical barriers between the breaker and between the breakers and
the bus. Cable connections are made in the rear compartment. They are larger and require front
and rear access. These typically have been used in industrial and large commercial and institutional
facilities.
Historically, these two simple explanations have helped to highlight the differences between a low-
voltage circuit breaker switchboard and switchgear. Recently, however, the lines have been blurred
with the availably of rear-connected switchboards that can provide hybrid options of individual
compartments and drawout circuit insulated-case semi-open breakers with semi-open or open-
type power circuit breaker construction.
DISTRIBUTION PANELBOARDS
In the 2005 and earlier versions of the NEC, panelboards were classified as either lighting and
appliance branch-circuit panelboards or power panelboards, based on their content.
Specifically, NEC 2005 Article 408.34: Classification of Panelboards contained the following two
definitions of panelboard types:
*LIGHTING AND APPLIANCE BRANCH-CIRCUIT PANELBOARD. A lighting and appliance branch-
circuit panelboard is one having more than 10% of its overcurrent devices protecting lighting and
appliance branch circuits
* POWER PANELBOARD. A power panel board is one having 10% or fewer of its overcurrent
devices protecting lighting and appliance branch circuits.
One of the reasons is that major electrical-equipment manufacturers typically have several types of
panel boards with different features, capabilities, and space needs.
A further benefit to using these terms is when designating panelboards on one-line diagrams,
risers, and plans, one can link different types to different specifications.
A common application approach might be to use the terms distribution or power panels for panels
that feed other panels or large loads, lighting panels for lighting loads and lighting controls, and
receptacle or branch panels for panels that feed outlets or smaller loads. Given the benefits of
using these panel designations, consider the common application issues for these applications.
Most panelboards are available in ampere ratings from 100 to 1,200 amps.
Common Ratings of Panelboard:
100 amps,200 amps,225 amps,400 amps,600 amps,800 amps,1,200 amps
NOTE: If an amperage rating of more than 1,200 amps is needed, switchboards must be specified,
as panelboards are not available above 1,200 amps. Commercial and industrial facilities use
voltage ratings of 120/208 V, 277/480 V, and 480 V. Residential often will use 120/240 V.
*Panels should have a main breaker (main disconnect) or main lugs only.
*Certain requirements in the code may mandate a main breaker (or disconnect) nearby, such as
when a panelboard is supplied from a transformer per NEC Article 240.21(C).
*Additionally, if the panel is fed from a breaker in an upstream panel, switchboard, or switchgear,
it is technically protected under code.
*However, providing a main breaker in some panelboards that are not within sight of their
upstream protection can provide enhanced safety and maintainability.
*Panelboards also offer the choice of bolt-on or plug-on (stab) breaker-to-bus connections.
*A bolt-on breaker connection secures to the panel bus by screws.
*Stab-on uses a spring-clip-type conductor.
*Generally speaking, bolt-on connections are considered more reliable and secure and are
common in distribution panels.
*Plug-on breakers are more common on lighting or branch panels.
*In nearly all panelboards, the circuit breakers used are fixed-rated, molded-case thermal magnetic
type.
*However, numerous optional breaker types are available. Adjustable magnetic trips are available
on larger-frame breakers.
*In addition, adjustable electronic trip breakers are available with various trip settings on most
breakers, providing enhanced selective coordination.
*Also, it is possible to specify 100%-rated breakers in larger frames to use the full ampacity of the
rating, rather than the 80% rating standard with most MCCBs.
*When a main breaker is used in larger panels, or as a larger branch breaker on a distribution
panel, it may be desirable to select 100%-rated and electronic trip features to permit the full rating
of the panel to be used and improve coordination with upstream panels, switchboards, or
switchgear.
*Lastly, numerous optional features can be specified for molded-case breakers in special
applications, such as motor circuit protectors (magnetic only), ground-fault circuit interrupters for
wet areas, ground-fault equipment protectors for heat trace, shunt trips for remote control, key
interlocks and padlocked operators for safety, arc fault circuit interrupters typically for residential,
and more.
*Like switchgear and switchboards, it’s also important to consider whether the main feeder and
branch feeders will be top- or bottom-feed.
*This can affect the panel enclosure and may also necessitate the addition of vertical gutter ways
to accommodate all the branch feeders.
*When laying out floor plans, it’s important to understand that distribution panelboards will
require significantly more space than lighting or branch-circuit panelboards.
*In addition, distribution panelboards are usually surface-mounted (not recessed), and some may
actually require floor mounting or equipment pads.
TRANSFORMERS
Introduction
In 1820, a Danish physicist, Hans C. Oersted (1777-1851), accidentally discovered an interesting
phenomenon. Placing a compass near a current- carrying conductor, he noticed that the needle of
the compass pointed to the conductor rather than north. He was quick to realize that electricity
and magnetism was related. This phenomenon is referred to as electromagnetism.
In 1831, the English physicist Michael Faraday explored further Oersted’s discovery of
electromagnetism and found that the process could be reversed. Faraday observed that if a
conductor was passed through a magnetic field, a voltage will be induced in the conductor and
cause a current to flow. This phenomenon is referred to as electromagnetic induction.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
*The action that causes electrons to flow within a conductor when that conductor is moved
through a magnetic field.
*It is the voltage or emf induced or produced in a coil as magnetic lines of force link with the turns
of coil.
The Great Experimenter
*In 1831 MICHAEL FARADAY (1791-1867), a British physicist/chemist often hailed in England as the
father of Electrical Engineering, carried out a number of experiments which are generally accepted
as the discovery of electromagnetic induction.
*born to James and Margaret Faraday on September 22, 1791.
*At twenty-two impressed the brilliant professor Humphry Davvy, who made him his research
assistant at Count Rumford’s Royal Institution. After two years he was given a promotion and an
apartment at the Royal Institution and in 1821 he married.
*In 1855 he had written three volumes of papers on electromagnetism, the first dynamo, first
transformer and the foundation of electrochemistry, a large amount on dielectrics and even some
papers in plasma.
*The unit of capacitance is measured in farads , in honor of his work in these areas of science.
Faraday’s Law
Michael Faraday carried out an experiment in which he used a coil, a zero center ammeter
(galvanometer), and a bar permanent magnet
*When the magnet is moved into a coil the magnetic line of flux cut the turns of the coil. This
action that occurs when the magnetic lines of flux link with a conductor is known as flux linkage.
*When the magnet is stationary within the coil, the magnetic lines are no longer cutting the turns
of the coil, so there is no induced voltage and the meter returns to zero.
*When the magnet is pulled back out of the coil, a voltage is induced that causes current to flow in
the opposite direction and the meter deflects in the opposite direction.
*If the magnet is moved into or out of the coil at a greater speed, the voltage is induced also
increases, and therefore so does current.
*If the size of the magnet and therefore the magnetic flux strength are increased, the induced
voltage also increases.
*If the number of turns in coil is increased, the induced voltage also increases.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER
*A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
*It can raise or lower the voltage in circuit.
 The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuit linked by a
common magnetic flux.
 In simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but
magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance.
 The two coils posses high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is
linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced e.m.f.
 If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is
transferred (entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil.
 The first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the a.c. supply mains, is called primary
winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called primary winding.
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
THE BASIC TRANSFOREMER IS MADE UP OF THE:
CORE, PRIMARY WINDING, SECONDARY WINDING, ENCLOSURE
*The simple elements of a transformers consist of two coils having mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core.
Other necessary parts are:
 some suitable container for assembled core and windings
 a suitable medium for insulating the core and its winding from its container
 a suitable bushing (either of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-type) for insulating and
bringing out the terminals of windings out from the tank.
 The core of transformer is either square or rectangular in size.
It is further divided into parts:
*Limb – the vertical portion on which coils are wound
*Yoke – the top and the horizontal portion of the core
CORE LAMINATION
*is made up of laminations.
*Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current losses get minimized.
*Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5 mm thick) are used.
*These laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnished.
*Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the air gap at joints.
TRANSFORMERS CLASSIFICATION
1. ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF PHASES
*single-phase transformer
*three-phase transformer
2. DEPENDING ON THE VOLTAGE LEVEL AT WHICH THE WINDING IS OPERATED
*Step-up transformer: primary is a low voltage (LV) winding
*Step-down transformer: primary is a high voltage (HV) winding
3. DEPENDING UPON CONSTRUCTION
*Shell type – Core surrounds the considerable part of the winding
*Core type – Winding surrounds the considerable part of the core
4. DEPENDING TO THE COOLING EMPLOYED
*Oil – filled self – cooled - ( small and medium size distribution transformer). The assembled
windings and cores of such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil-tight steel tank provided
with steel cover. After putting the core at its proper place, the tank is filled with purified, high
quality insulating oil.
*Oil – filled water – cooled – a more economical form of construction for such large transformer.
The windings and core are immersed in the oil, but there is a mounted near the surface of oil, a
cooling coil through which a cold water is kept circulating.
Oil-filled transformers are built for outdoor duty and as these require no housing other than their
own, a great saving is thereby effected.
*Air – blast type - for voltages below 25, 000 V. The transformer is not immersed in oil, but is
housed in a thin sheet-metal box open at both ends through which air is blown from the bottom to
the top by means of a fan or lower.
CORE-TYPE TRANSFORMER
*The coils used are form-wound and of the cylindrical type,
*The general form of these coils may be circular or oval or rectangular.
*On small size core-type transformers, a simple rectangular core is used with cylindrical coils which
are either circular or rectangular in form.
*But for large-size core-type transformers, round or circular cylindrical coils are used which are so
wound as to fit over a cruciform.
SHELL-TYPE TRANSFORMERS
*The coils are form-wound but are multi-layer disc type usually wound in the form of pancakes.
*The different layers of such multi-layer discs are insulated from each other by paper.
*shell-type transformer is constructed from a stack of E- and I-shaped laminations. In a shell-type
transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound on the same leg of the core, as
concentric windings, one on top of the other one.
AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses.
-Its winding has no ohmic resistance
-There is no magnetic leakage
-There no core loss
In other words, an ideal transformer consist of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO
COMMON TRANSFORMER RATIO
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
1.The maximum flux in the core of a 60 cycle transformer flux has 1320 primary turns and 46
secondary turns is 3.76x10^6 Maxwell. Calculate the primary and secondary induced voltage.
2.The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000 – volts, 50 – Hz single-phase transformer is
1.2Wb/m^2. If the emf per turn is 8 volt, determine (a) primary and secondary turns and (b) area of
the core.
3.The core of a 100-kVA, 11000/550 V, 50 Hz, single phase, core type transformer has a cross-
section of 20 cm x 20 cm. Find (a) the number of H.V. and L.V. turns per phase and (b) the emf per
turn if the maximum core density is not to exceed 1.3 Tesla. Assume a stacking factor of 0.9.
4.A single-phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 turns. The net cross-sectional area of the
core is 60 cm^2. If the primary winding be connected to a 50 – Hz supply at 520 V, calculate (a) the
peak value of the flux density in the core (b) the voltage induced in the secondary winding.
5.A 25-kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary winding. The
primary is connected to 300 V, 50 Hz supply. Find the full load primary and secondary currents, the
secondary emf and the maximum flux in core. Neglect leakage drops and no-load primary current.
TRANSFORMER POLARITY
*A transformer may have multiple windings that may be connected either in series to increase the
voltage ratings or in parallel to increase the current rating.
*Transformer polarity refers to the relative direction or polarity of the induced voltage between
high-voltage and low voltage terminals of the transformer.
*An understanding of transformer polarity is essential in making three-phase and single – phase
transformer connection.
TRANSFORMER RATINGS
*The nameplate of a transformer provides information on the apparent power and the voltage-
handling capacity of each winding.
*For example, the nameplate data of a 5 – kVA, 500/ 250- V, step-down transformer, we conclude
the following:
1. The full-load or nominal power rating of the trans former is 5 kVA
2. Since it is a step-down transformer, the (nominal) primary is 500 V and the
(nominal) secondary voltage is 250 V.
3. The nominal magnitudes of the primary and the secondary currents at full load
are
I1 = 5000/500 = 10 A
I2 = 5000/250 = 20 A
1. The a - ratio can be determine
a = 500/250 = 2
TRANSFORMER WITH LOSSES BUT NO MAGNETIC LEAKAGE
- When transformer is on no load
- When it is loaded