Summer 2019

Chapter Contents
Digital Systems
Binary Numbers
Number Base Conversion
Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
Complements
Signed Binary Numbers
Binary Codes
Binary Storage and Registers
Binary Logic and Logic Gates
Timing Diagrams
 Analog and Digital Systems
• Real world is analog but digital circuits are found in an astonishingly
wide range of electronic systems.
• Analog systems process information that varies continuously .
Examples of analog represented variables are:
– a mercury thermometer
– needle speedometer of cars
– sine wave voltages indicated on a galvanometer
– audio amplifier
– simple light dimmer switch
• Digital systems process discrete information. Discrete means distinct
or separated as opposed to continuous or connected. The examples
are:
– telephone switching exchanges
– Speedometer of cars with numerical readout
– electronic calculators
– ten position switch
– digital computers
 Analog and Digital Systems

Analog Digital watch

watch

Figure: A basic audio public address system

 Analog and Digital Systems

• Analog systems process • Digital system use discrete set

signals that take on continuous of values that can be
range of values. Examples are represented by 1’s and 0’s.
Examples are

Digital Multimeter

Digital thermometer
Analog and Digital Systems

Figure: Block diagram of a CD player

 Digital Systems
• Digital Systems have such a prominent role in everyday life that we refer to
the present technological period as the digital age.
• Digital systems manipulate discrete elements of information and have wide
applications.
– Digital systems are used in communication, business transactions,
traffic control, space guidance, medical treatment, weather monitoring,
the Internet, and many other commercial, industrial, and scientific
enterprises.
– We have digital telephones, digital television, digital versatile discs,
digital cameras, and digital computers.
• The discrete elements of information are represented in a digital system by
physical quantities called signals i.e voltage and current.
• The signals in present-day electronic digital systems use just two discrete
values and are therefore said to be binary. A binary digit, called a bit, has
two values: 0 and 1.
• Why binary?
– reliability: a transistor circuit is either ON or OFF (two stable states)
 Digital Computer
• The digital computer is one of the most well known
digital systems.
• The digital computer consists of the following
components:
– Memory unit
– Central processing unit
– Input and output units
• The digital computer can perform both arithmetic and
logical operations.
 A digital computer

Inputs: Keyboard, mouse, modem, Outputs: CRT, LCD, modem,

speakers
microphone

- stored program
- control unit
- arithmetic computations and logical operations
 Digital Systems
• Digital Systems represent systems that understand,
represent and manipulate discrete elements.
– A discrete element is any set that has a finite
number of elements, for example 10 decimal digits,
26 letters of the alphabet, etc.
• Discrete elements are represented by signals, such as
electrical signals (voltages and currents)
• The signals in most electronic digital systems use two
discrete values, termed binary.
• Digital Systems takes a set of discrete information
inputs and discrete internal information (system state)
and generates a set of discrete information outputs.
 Digital Systems

Discrete Discrete
Inputs Information
Processing
System Discrete
Outputs

System State
 Signals
• A collection of information variables mapped to some
physical quantity.
• For digital systems, the quantities take on discrete
values. Two level, or binary values are the most
prevalent values in digital systems.
• The binary values are represented abstractly by digits
0 and 1.
• other physical signals represented by 1 and 0?
– CPU Voltage
– Disk Magnetic Field Direction
– CD Surface Pits/Light
– Dynamic RAM Electrical Charge
 Why Digital Components?
• Why do we choose to use digital components?
– The main reason for using digital components is
that they can easily be programmed, allowing a
single hardware unit to be used for many different
purposes.
– Advances in circuit technology decrease the price
of technology dramatically.
– Digital integrated circuits can perform at speeds of
hundreds of millions of operations per second.
– Error-checking and correction can be used to
ensure the reliability of the machine.
 Binary Digits
• A binary digit, called a bit, is Decimal Binary Code
represented by one of two values: 0 0 0000
or 1. 1 0001
– Discrete elements can be 2 0010
represented by groups of bits 3 0011
called binary codes. For example 4 0100
the decimal digits 0 to 9 are 5 0101
represented as follows:
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
 Different Bases
• In order to represent numbers of different bases, we
surround a number in parenthesis and then place a
subscript with the base of the number.
– A decimal number (9233)10
– A binary number (11011)2
– A base 5 number (3024)5
• Decimal number digits are 0 through 9
• Binary number digits are 0 through 1
• Base (radix) r number digits are 0 through r - 1
 Commonly Used Bases

Name Radix Digits (0 through r-1)

Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
 Decimal Numbers
• A decimal number such as 5723 represents a quantity
equal to:
– 5 thousands
– 7 hundreds
– 2 tens
– 3 ones
• Or, it can be written as:
– 5 X 103 + 7 X102 + 2 * 101 + 3 * 100
• The 5, 7, 2, and 3 represent coefficients.
• The decimal number system is said to be of base or
radix 10 because it uses the 10 digits (0...9) and the
coefficients are multiplied by powers of 10.
 Binary Numbers
• The binary system contains only two values in the
allowed coefficients (0 and 1).
• The binary system uses powers of 2 as the
multipliers for the coefficients.
• For example, we can represent the binary number
10111.012 as:
– 1 X 24 + 0 X 23 + 1 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 1 X 20 + 0 X 2-1 +
1 X 2-2 = 23.2510
 Understanding Binary Numbers
• Binary numbers are made of binary digits (bits):
– 0 and 1
• How many items does an binary number represent?
– (1011)2 = 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 1x20 = (11)10
• What about fractions?
– (110.10)2 = 1x22 + 1x21 + 0x20 + 1x2-1 + 0x2-2
• Groups of eight bits are called a byte
– (11001001) 2
• Groups of four bits are called a nibble.
– (1101) 2
 Understanding Binary Numbers (Cont…)
• Each digit (bit) is either 1 or 0 MSB LSB
1011001010011100
• Each bit represents a power of 2 15 0
• Bit numbering
• MSB: most significant bit 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

• LSB: least significant bit 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Why Binary Numbers?

• Easy to represent 0 and 1 using electrical values.
• Possible to tolerate noise.
• Easy to transmit data
• Easy to build binary circuits.
 Powers of Two

Important Powers of Two are:

210 is referred to as Kilo, called "K"
220 is referred to as Mega, called "M"
230 is referred to as Giga, called "G”
240 is referred to as Tera, called “T”
 Octal Numbers
• The octal number system is a base-8 system that
contains the coefficient values of 0 to 7.
• The octal system uses powers of 8 as the multipliers
for the coefficients.
• For example, we can represent the octal number
720328 as:
7 X 84 + 2 X 83 + 0 X 82 + 3 X 81 + 2 X 80 = (29722)10
 Hexadecimal Numbers
• The hexadecimal number system is a base-16 system
that contains the coefficient values of 0 to 9 and A to
F.
• The letters A, B, C, D, E, F represent the coefficient
values of 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15, respectively.
• The hexadecimal system uses powers of 16 as the
multipliers for the coefficients.
• For example, we can represent the hexadecimal
number C34D16 as:
– 12 X 163 + 3 X 162 + 4 X 161 + 13 X 160 = (49997)10
 Conversion between bases
• To convert from one base to other:
– Convert the integer portion
– Convert the fraction portion
– Join the two with radix point
Octal (base 8)

Binary (base 2) Decimal (base 10)

Hexadecimal
(base16)
 r-Decimal Conversion
• Conversion of a number in base r to decimal is done
by expanding the number in a power series and
adding all the terms.
• For example, (C34D)16 is converted to decimal:
12 X 163 + 3 X 162 + 4 X 161 + 13 X 160 = (49997)10
• (11010.11)2 is converted to decimal:
1 X 24 + 1 X 23 + 0 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 0 X 20 + 1 X 2-1 + 1 X 2-2 = 26.75

• In general (Number)r =  i  n 1
i 0
ai  r 
i
  j  1
a
j  m j
 r j

(Integer Portion) + (Fraction Portion)
 Decimal-r Conversion
• If a decimal number has a radix point, it is necessary to
separate the number into an integer part and a fraction
part.
• The conversion of a decimal integer into a number in
base-r is done by dividing the number and all
successive quotients by r and accumulating the
remainders in reverse order of computation.
• For example, to convert decimal 13 to binary:
Integer Remainder Coefficient
Quotient
13/2 = 6 + ½ a0 = 1
6/2 = 3 + 0 a1 = 0
3/2 = 1 + ½ a2 = 1
1/2 = 0 + ½ a3 = 1

Answer (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

Decimal to Binary Conversion
 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Example
• Convert (37)10 to binary

(37)10 = 1001012
 Decimal-r Conversion (Converting
Fractions)
• To convert the fraction portion repeatedly multiply the
fraction by the radix and save the integer digits that
result. The process continued until the fraction
becomes 0 or the number of digits have sufficient
accuracy. The new radix fraction digits are the integer
digits in computed order.
• For example convert fraction (0.6875)10 to base 2
0.6875 * 2 = 1.3750 integer = 1
0.3750 * 2 = 0.7500 integer = 0
0.7500 * 2 = 1.5000 integer = 1
0.5000 * 2 = 1.0000 integer = 1
Answer = (0.1011)2
 Converting Fractions Cont…
• When converting fractions, we must use multiplication
rather than division. The new radix fraction digits are
the integer digits in computed order.
 Another example:
• Convert 0.8125 decimal to
binary.
– To convert the decimal
0.8125 to binary, we
multiply by the radix 2.
– (0.1101)2
 Decimal to Octal Conversion
• In converting decimal to octal we must divide integer
part by 8 till quotient becomes lesser than divisor.
 Converting Fractions (Decimal to Octal)
• Decimal to Octal fraction conversion takes the same
approach but it multiplies by the base 8.
 Converting Decimal to Hexadecimal
• The conversion of a decimal integer into hexadecimal
is done by dividing the number and all successive
quotients by 16 and accumulating the remainders in
reverse order of computation.

(422)10 = (1A6)16
 Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal
• Conversions between binary, octal and hexadecimal
have an easier conversion method.
– Each octal digit represents 3 binary digits.
– Each hexadecimal digit represents 4 binary digits.
 Binary to Octal and back
• Binary to Octal:
– Group the binary digits into three bit groups starting at the
radix point and going both ways, padding with zeros as
needed (at the ends).
– Convert each group of three bits to an equivalent octal digit.
• Octal to Binary:
– It is done by reversing the preceding procedure
– Restate the octal as three binary digits
– Start at the radix point and go both ways, padding with zeros
as needed.
 Examples
• Convert (10110001101011.11110000011)2 to Octal
= 010 110 001 101 011 . 111 100 000 110
= 2 6 1 5 3 . 7 4 0 6
= (26153.7406)8
• Convert (673.124)8 to binary
= 110 111 011 . 001 010 100
= (110111011.001010100)2
• Convert (11010100011011) 2
to Octal
 Binary to Hexadecimal and back
• Binary to Hexadecimal:
– Group the binary digits into four bit groups starting at the
radix point and going both ways, padding with zeros as
needed (at the ends)
– Convert each group of four bits to an equivalent hexadecimal
digit
• Hexadecimal to Binary:
– It is done by reversing the preceding procedure
– Restate the hexadecimal as four binary digits
– Start at the radix point and go both ways, padding with zeros
as needed
 Examples
• Convert (10110001101011.11110010)2 to hexadecimal
= 0010 1100 0110 1011 . 1111 0010
= 2 C 6 B . F 2
= (2C6B.F2)16
• Convert (306.D)16 to binary
= 0011 0000 0110. 1101
= (001100000110.1101)2
• Convert (11010100011011) 2
to hexadecimal
 Base-r Arithmetic
• Arithmetic operations with numbers in base r follow
the same rules as for decimal numbers.
• When a base other than 10 is used, one must
remember to use only the r-allowable digits.
• The following are some examples:
 Arithmetic Rules
• The sum of two digits are calculated as expected but
the digits of the sum can only be from the r-allowable
coefficients.
• Any carry in a sum is passed to the next significant
digits to be summed.
• In subtraction the rules are the same but a borrow
adds r (where r is the base) to the minuend digit.
• The examples of addition and subtraction of binary
numbers are presented in the next slides.
 Binary Addition Rules
Given two binary digits (X,Y), a carry in (Z) we get
the following sum (S) and carry (C):
Carry in (Z) of 0: Z 0 0 0 0
X 0 0 1 1
+Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 00 01 01 10

Carry in (Z) of 1: Z 1 1 1 1
X 0 0 1 1
+Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 01 10 10 11
 Binary Addition Examples
carry: 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 (4)

+ 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 (7)

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 (11)
bit position: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

1 1 1 1 1
1 carries
1
1 1 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 1 1
---------------------
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
 Binary Subtraction
• Subtraction Table
0-0=0
0 - 1 = 1 and borrow 1
1-0=1
1-1=0
• The borrow process works well both for decimal and
binary numbers.
• Decimal subtraction:
– 1 x 10n = 10 x 10n-1
• Binary subtraction:
– 1 x 2n = 2 x 2n-1
Binary Subtraction Example

1 10 borrows
0 10 10 0 0 10

1 0 0 1 1 0 1
- 1 0 1 1 1
------------------------
1 1 0 1 1 0
 Binary Multiplication
• Multiplication table
0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1 0 1 1 1
1x1=1
X 1 0 1 0
-----------------------
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
-----------------------
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
 Binary Division
• Binary division is similar to decimal division
 Complements
• Complements are used in digital computers to simplify
the subtraction operation and for logical manipulation.
We can perform subtraction by adder circuits i.e
A – B = A+ (-B)
• There are two types of complements for each base-r
system:
– The radix complement, called the r’s complement.
– The diminished radix complement, called the (r-1)’s
complement.
• When the value of the base r is substituted in the
name, the two types are referred as the 2’s
complement and 1’s complement for binary numbers
and the 10’s complement and 9’s complement for
decimal numbers.
Diminished Radix Complement (DRC)
• Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r-1)’s
complement of N is defined as:
(rn – 1) – N; where
r: radix or base of the given number
n: number of digits of integer part
N: Given number
• Decimal numbers are in base-10.
(r-1) = (10-1) = 9.
• The 9’s complement would be defined as:
(10n – 1) – N
• So, to determine the 9’s complement of 52:
(102 – 1) – 52 = 47
• Another example is to determine the 9’s complement
of 3124:
(104 – 1) – 3124 = 6875
Finding Diminished Radix Complement
(DRC)
• The DRC or (r-1)’s complement of decimal number is
obtained by subtracting each digit from 9
• The (r-1)’s complement of octal or hexadecimal
number is obtained by subtracting each digit from 7 or
F, respectively
• The DRC (1’s complement) of a binary number is
obtained by subtracting each digit from 1. It can also
be formed by changing 1’s to 0’s and 0’s to 1’s
 Diminished Radix Complement for
Binary Numbers
• For binary numbers r = 2 and (r-1) = 1. So, the 1’s
complement would be defined as:
(2n – 1) – N
• To determine the 1’s complement of 1000101:
(27 – 1) – 1000101 = 0111010
• To determine the 1’s complement of 11110111101:
(211 – 1) - 11110111101 = 00001000010
Note: 1’s complement can be done by switching all 0’s
to 1’s and 1’s to 0’s.
 Radix Complement
• The r’s complement of an n-digit number N in base-r is
defined as:
rn – N - for N  0
0 - for N = 0
• We may obtain r’s complement by adding 1 to (r-1)’s
complement. Since rn – N = [(rn – 1) – N]+1
• 10’s complement of 3229 is:
104 – 3229 = 6771
• 2’s complement of 101101 is:
26 – 101101 = 010011
Note that to determine 2’s complement, leave the least
significant 0’s and the first 1 unchanged and then
switch the remaining 1’s to 0’ and 0’s to 1’s.
 2’s Complement
• Another method to find 2’s complement is
– Complement (reverse) each bit
– Add 1
• Example:

Note that 00000001 + 11111111 = 00000000

 Notes on Complements
• A couple of points on complements to keep in mind:
– If you are trying to determine the complement of a value that
contains a radix point:
» Remove the radix point.
» Determine the complement.
» Replace the radix point in the same relative position.
– The complement of a complement will restore the original
number i.e
N= 2n – 1 – [ (2n – 1) – N] 1,s complement
N=rn – ( rn – N) 2,s complement
 Subtraction with Complements
• In digital computers the use of borrows to complete
subtraction is inefficient. Complements are used to
overcome this inefficiency.
• The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M –
N in base r can be done as follows:
– Add the minuend, M, to the r’s complement of the subtrahend,
N:
» M + (rn – N) = M – N + rn
– If M  N, the sum will produce an end carry, rn, which can be
discarded; what is left is the result of M – N.
– If M  N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal
to rn – (N – M), which is the r’s complement of (N – M). To
obtain the answer in a familiar form, take the r’s complement
of the sum and place a negative sign in front.
 10’s Complement Subtraction
• Using 10’s complement, subtract 62513 – 2140

• Note that the extra 9 in the 10’s complement of N is to fill the

space holder 0.
 10’ Complement Subtraction
• Using 10’s complement, subtract 2140 - 62513
 2’s Complement Subtraction
• Using 2’s complement, subtract 1001001 - 1000110
 2’s Complement Subtraction
• Using 2’s complement, subtract 1000110 - 1001001
 Using 1’s Complement
• You can also use the 1’s complement for performing
subtraction.
• You can add the minuend M to the (r-1)’s complement
of subtrahend N. Then inspect the result
– If an end carry occurs add 1
– If there is no end carry take (r-1)’s complement of the result
obtained and place a negative sign
– Note: Remember that 1’s complement is 1 less than 2’s
complement. This means we must compensate by adding 1
when an end carry occurs. Removing an end-carry and
adding one is called an end-around carry.
 1’s Complement Subtraction
• Using 1’s complement, subtract 1001001 - 1000110
 1’s Complement Subtraction
• Using 1’s complement, subtract 1000110 - 1001001
 Signed Binary Numbers
• In ordinary arithmetic a negative number is indicated
by minus sign and positive number by plus sign. This
is not possible in computers, because of hardware
limitation computers must represent everything with
binary digits. There are two methods to do this:
– The signed magnitude convention uses the left-most bit to
represent the sign (0 for positive and 1 for negative).
– The signed complement system negates a number by taking its
complement.
» It could be either, 1’s complement representation
» or 2’s complement representation.
Representations of Negative Numbers

Magnitude
MSB

Sign Magnitude
0 denotes + MSB
1 denotes -
 sign bit
Signed Magnitude
Convention 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
Negative

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Positive

• The signed magnitude convention uses the left-most bit to

represent the sign (0 for positive and 1 for negative).
– The user determines whether the number is signed or unsigned
– If the binary number is signed then the leftmost bit represents the
sign and the rest of the bits represents the number
– If the binary number is unsigned then the leftmost bit is the most
significant bit of the number
– For example:
» 01001 can be considered as 9 (unsigned binary) or a +9
because the left most bit is zero.
» On the other hand, the string of bits 11001 represents binary
equivalent of 25 when considered as an unsigned number or as
–9 when considered as signed number
 Signed Complement System
• The signed Complement System negative number is
indicated by its complement (Complement of positive
number)
– Positive numbers always start with 0 (plus), its complement
(representing negative number) will always start with 1
– Signed complement system can use either 1’s complement or
2’s complement.
– For example:
» +9 is represented only as 00001001 but –9 can be
represented as:
• 11110110 Signed 1’s complement representation
• 11110111 Signed 2’s complement representation
 Number Representations
• The following is the representation for +11:
– 00001011
• The following are different methods for representing
-11:
– Signed magnitude: 10001011
– Signed-1’s-complement: 11110100
– Signed-2’s-complement: 11110101
 Signed Binary Numbers

0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
 Arithmetic Addition (Signed-
Magnitude System)
• The addition of two signed binary numbers in the
signed-magnitude system follows the rules of ordinary
arithmetic
• If the signs are the same we add the two magnitudes
and give the sum the common sign
• If the signs are different we subtract the smaller
magnitude from the larger and give the result the sign
of the larger magnitude
 Arithmetic Addition (Signed 2’s
Complement system)
• This system doesn’t require the comparison of the
signs and the magnitudes (as in signed-magnitude
system), but only addition.
• The addition of two signed binary numbers with
negative numbers represented in signed-2’s
complement form is obtained from addition of the two
numbers, including their sign bits.
• A carry out of the sign-bit position is discarded.
• If the sum is negative, it will be in 2’s complement
form.
2’s Complement Addition Rules

An overflow occurs since SUM≥ 2n-1

2’s Complement Addition Rules

An overflow occurs since SUM ˃2n-1

+64
+65
- 127
 1’s Complement Addition Rules

–3
–4

Note: Case 1 and 2 are same for both complement methods

1’s Complement Addition Rules
Addition Examples

(end carry discarded)

 Arithmetic Subtraction
• Subtraction can be performed by simply converting
the equation into an addition formula.
– Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (including the
sign bit) and add it to the minuend (including the sign bit)
– A carry out of the sign bit position is discarded
– Note: Subtraction operation can be changed to an addition
operation if the sign of the subtrahend is changed. This is
easily done by taking it’s 2’s complement as demonstrated in
the following relationship
(±A) – (+B)= (±A)+(–B)
(±A) – (–B)= (±A)+(+B)
– For example (–6) – (–13) in binary
(11111010 –11110011)
=11111010+00001101
=100000111
=00000111 (+7) Removing the end carry
 Binary Codes
• Digital systems use discrete elements of information represented
with binary codes (i.e., a pattern of 0’s and 1’s). The codes
should be in binary because computers have circuits that
represent and manipulate 0’s and 1’s.
• An n-bit binary code is a group of n bits that can represent up to
2n distinct combinations of 1’s and 0’s.
– Each distinct combination represents a single symbol in the
computer.
– The bit combination of an n-bit code is determined from the count in
binary from 0 to 2n-1. Each element must be assigned a unique binary
bit combination, and no two elements can have the same value.
• Although the minimum number of bits required to code 2n distinct
quantities is n, there is no maximum number of bits that can be used for
a binary code.
• Codes can be categorized as numeric and alphanumeric used for
numbers and transmission of textual data.
 BCD Code (8,4,2,1)
• The most common representation for binary digits is the binary coded
decimal (BCD) form which is a binary assignment of the decimal
numbers.
– This code is the simplest, most intuitive binary code for decimal
digits and uses the same weights as a binary number, but only
encodes the first ten values from 0 to 9 (6 out of 16 possible
combinations remains unassigned ).
– A number with k distinct decimal digits will require 4k bits in BCD.
– Each digit of a decimal value is converted to its respective binary
representation.
– BCD number needs more bits than its equivalent binary value?
• Each decimal digit in BCD code can be represented as shown in the
next slide.
Binary Coded Decimal Code (BCD)
 BCD Addition
• BCD only represents each of the decimal digitals 0 through 9 as a
single 4-bit binary value. BCD is a numeral code used in arithmetic
operations in digital machines. Addition is the most important
operation because the other three operations (subtraction,
multiplication, and division can be accomplished by the use of
addition. Following rules apply:
– Add the two BCD numbers, using the rules of binary addition.
– If a 4-bit sum is equal to or less than 9, it is a valid BCD number.
– If a 4-bit sum is greater than 9, or if a carry out of the 4-bit group is
generated, it is an invalid result. Add 6(0110) to the 4-bit sum in order to
skip the invalid states and return the code to 8421. If a carry results when
6 is added, simply add the carry to the next significant 4-bit group.
• Some BCD addition examples are:
Multi-Digit BCD Addition
 BCD Arithmetic
• BCD arithmetic involving negative numbers uses
the 10’s complement for representing the negative
numbers including the sign digit.
– 0 (0000) represents a positive sign and 9 (1001) represents a
negative sign
• As an example, imagine we want to add
(+257) + (-160) = +97 Are these signed?

• Note: To obtain 10’s complement of a BCD number, we first

take the 9’s complement (by subtraction of each digit from 9)
and then add one to least significant digit
Perform subtraction (-257) - (+160) both signed and
unsigned?
 Other Decimal Codes
• There are various other decimal codes that can be
used:
– BCD (8, 4, 2, 1)
– 2, 4, 2, 1
– Excess-3 code. (adds binary 0011 to the BCD code)
– 8, 4, -2, -1
– Gray Code
– ASCII Character Code
– Error-Detecting Code
• Each bit has a "weight" associated with it and you can
compute the decimal value by adding the weights
where a 1 exists in the code-word.
Four Different Binary Codes
 Gray Code
• The Gray (reflected) code is named after Frank Gray who
patented it for shaft encoders in 1953. It is un-weighted and non-
arithmetic code; that is, there are no specific weights assigned to
the bit positions
• Some of the uses of Gray code are:-
– Conversion of physical variables like position or voltage that have a
continuous range of values to a digital representation.
– A different use of Gray codes appears in low-power CMOS
logic circuits that count up or down.
• Gray code is cyclic code i.e any n-bit code can be generated form
n-1 bit code by taking reflection along the mirror and padding the
two halves with 0’s and 1’s respectively.
• The advantage of Gray code over straight binary number
sequence is that only one bit in the code group changes when
going from one number to the next (unit distance code).
 Gray Code Cont…
• This property is important in many applications, such as optical shaft
angle encoders, where error susceptibility increases with the number
of bit changes between adjacent numbers in a sequence.
• Optical shaft encoder is a disc attached to rotating shaft to measure its
rotational position. The disc contains areas that are clear for binary 1
and opaque for binary 0. An illumination source is placed on one side
of the disc, and optical sensors, one for each of the bits to be encoded
are placed on the other side of the disc. When a clear region lies
between the source and a sensor, the sensor responds to the light with
a binary 1 output. When opaque region lies between the source and the
sensor, the sensor responds to the dark with a binary 0.
• The optical shaft encoder using 3-Bit Gray code for positions 0
through 7 is shown in the next slide.
 Gray Code Vs Binary Code

• Compare the number of

bits changing when
going from one number
to the next for a three-bit
Binary and Gray Code:
– In Gray code it is
always 1-bit change
(unit-distance code).
– Can you guess the
applications where this
important property can
be used in digital
applications?
Gray Code
Cont…
 Conversion from Binary to Gray Code
• Binary to Gray code Conversion: The following rules apply:
– The most significant bit (left-most) in the Gray code is the same as the
corresponding MSB in the binary number.
– Going from left to right, add each adjacent pair of binary code bits to get
the next Gray code bit and discard carries. Which addition?

– For example, the conversion of binary number 10110 to Gray code is as

follows

– The Gray code is 11101.

 Conversion from Gray to Binary Code
• Gray to Binary code Conversion: The following rules apply:
– The most significant bit (left-most) in the Binary code is the same as the
corresponding MSB in the Gray code.
– Add each Binary code bit generated to the Gray code bit in the next
adjacent position and discard carries.

– For example, the conversion of Gray number 11011 to Binary code is as

follows

– The binary number is 10010.

 Class Activity
Write 196510 in the following codes:
1. 8, 4, 2, 1
2. 8, 4, -2, -1
3. 6, 3, 1, 1
4. XS-3
5. Gray
Which of these codes are self-complementing?
Class Activity Cont…

Excess-3

0111
0101
0100
1100
1101
 ASCII Character Code
• The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
uses seven bits to code 128 characters.
• The ASCII code contains 94 graphic characters that are printable
and 34 nonprinting characters used for various control functions.
The graphic characters consist of the 26 uppercase letters (A
through Z), the 26 lowercase letters (a through z), the 10
numerals (0 through 9), and 32 special characters, such as %, *,
and $.
• The 34 control characters are designated in the ASCII table with
abbreviated names. They are listed again in the table with their
function names. The control characters are used for routing data
and arranging the printed text into a prescribed format.
– The following ASCII chart allows you to specify the characters in
decimal representation by concatenating the column headings to the
row headings. For example, the character 5 is represented in binary
as 0110101
ASCII Table
ASCII Table (Cont …
 Error-Detecting Code
• Error-Detecting uses an eighth bit (added to 7-bit ASCII
character) to indicate parity.
– A parity bit is an extra bit that is set to 0 or 1 as needed to make the
total number of 1’s either even or odd.
– In an odd-parity code, the parity bit is specified so that the total
number of ones is odd.
– In an even-parity code, the parity bit is specified so that the total
number of ones is even.
– It detects one, three or any odd combination of errors but even
combination of errors is undetected.

P Information Bits
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
 
Added even parity bit Added odd parity bit
 Parity Code Example
• Concatenate a parity bit to the ASCII code for the
characters 0, X, and = to produce both odd-parity and
even-parity codes.

Character ASCII Odd-Parity Even-Parity

ASCII ASCII

0 0110000 10110000 00110000

X 1011000 01011000 11011000

= 0111100 10111100 00111100

 Class Activity
Express your registration number in ASCII code
using:
1. Even parity
2. Odd parity
3. MSB set as zero.
 Binary Storage
• Binary storage represents the storage mechanisms for
binary data stored in a computer.
– A binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states and
it can store a single state value (0 or 1). It stores single bit of
data. examples: flip-flop circuits, ferrite cores, capacitor
– A register is a group of binary cells. n cells allows the register
to store n bits and thus 2n possible states.
» The type of information (BCD, ASCII, etc.) stored in a
register has to be agreed upon by the users of the
register.

0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

Binary Cell
 Register Transfer
• A register transfer operation involves the transfer of
binary information from one set of binary registers
into other set of binary registers.
• The capture and storage of information requires:
– An input register to store the key inputs from the keyboard
– A processor register to store the data when processed by the
CPU
– A memory register in the memory unit to store the values
 Register Transfer

• Data input at keyboard

• Shifted into place
• Stored in memory

– NOTE: Data input in ASCII

 Binary Information Processing
• The actual processing of binary information in a
computer is completed by digital logic circuits which
have been implemented to serve a specific purpose
(i.e. addition).
– The registers are accessed (read and write) when they are
needed to complete an operation. For example we need two
register sets to store two values to be added and a register
set to store the result of the sum.
» Furthermore, we need three registers in both the memory
unit and in the processor.
Example Binary Information Processing

• We need processing
• We need storage
• We need communication
 Binary Logic
• Binary logic consists of binary variables and logical
operations.
– The variables are designated by letters of the alphabet (A, B,
C, x, y, z, etc.).
– There are three basic logical operations:
» AND
» OR
» NOT
 Logical Operations
• AND is represented by a dot or the absence of an operator.
– x·y = z or xy = z
– Read as “x and y is equal to z”
– Means that z=1 if and only if x=1 and y=1
• OR is represented by a plus sign.
– x+y = z
– Read as “x or y is equal to z”
– Means that z=1 if x=1 or y=1 or both x=1 and y=1
• NOT is represented by a prime or an over bar.
– x’=z or x = z
– Read as “not x is equal to z”
– Means that if x=1 then z=0 or if x=0 then z=1
 Truth Tables
• Since each binary variable consists of value of 0 or 1,
each combination of values for the variables involved
in a binary operation has a specific result value.
• A truth table is a method of visualizing all possible
combinations of the input values and the respective
output values that occur due to the operation on the
specified combination.

AND OR
NOT
A B A.B A B A+B
0 0 0 A A′
0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
 Logic Gates
• Logic gates are electronic circuits that operate on one or
more input signals to produce an output signal.
– The state (high-low, on-off) of electricity on a line represents
each of the two states for binary representation (1 or 0).
• Logic Gate Symbols
 AND Logic Function
• Using door • Using Switches
– Both doors are opened • Switches are input and
to pass the light LED is output
• Both switches closed
(ON) to give output
 OR Logic Function
• Using door • Using Switches
– Any one or both doors • Switches are input and
are opened to pass the LED is output
light • Any one switch or both
closed to give output
Timing Diagram
Multi-Input Circuits
 End of Chapter1
End of Chapter 1