Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
290
Disadvantages
not recorded, it is a great inconvenienc.:e if
SURVEYING
@]
(I) Since ootes of measurements are
duced to some different scale.
the map is required to be repro
(2) The plane tabling is not in!en
ded for very accurate work .
. (3) It is essentially a ttopical
instrumen!.
n and in wet climate.
Calculation of Area
It is most inconvenien! in rainy seaso
(4)
nt to transport,
(5) Due to heavyness, iE is inconvenie
es, there is every likelihood of these being
(6) Since there are. so many accessori
lost. 12.1. GENERAL the tract
PROBLEMS surveying is to determine the area of
One of the primary objects of land land in plane surve ying
of earthwork. The area of
vantages of plane table surveying over other
methods. surveyed and to determine the quantities urem ents of area
I. (a). Discuss lhe advantages and disad ontal plane. The units of meas
ng a point by plane_ table survey. means the area as projected on a horiz units are sq. metr es or
Explain with sketcbfs. the follow ing methods of locati while in metric units, the
(b) of tbe foUowing methods : in English units are sq. ft or acres,
Also discuss the relative merits and appli cation the relation between the two systems.
(ii) Inter section hectares. The following table gives
(l) Radiatioo. VALI!NTS
(A.M.I.E.) RE MEASURE WITH METRIC EQUI
(iii) Resection.
.. ·; TABLE 12.1. BRITISH VNITS OF SQUA
us iccessories of a' pJane table. e yards Square Jeer Square links Merrie j
2. Describe briefly the use of vario Sq. mih AtrtS Square clwim Sq. polts OT· Squar Equiva/e,us
us methods of orienting lhe plane table.
1
Pen:hes
3. Diseuss with sl:etcbes, the vario 258.99 ha
I
12.2. GENERAL METHODS OF DETERMINING AREAS (z) Mid-ordinate rule ; (ii) Average ordinate rule
(iiz) Trapezoidal rule ; (iv) Simpson's one-third rule.
The following are the general methods of calculating areas:
(1) MiD-ORDINATE RULE (Fig 12.1)
1. By computaJions based directly on field measurements ~
The method is used with the
These include :
assumption that the boundaries be-
(a) By dividing the area into a number of triangles
tween the extrentities of the or!iinates
(b) By offsets to base line
o,
~
(or offsets) are straigltt lines. The o, ,o,
(c) By latitudes and departures :
base line is divided into a number
lo,
(i) By double meridian distance (D.M.D. method)
(il) By double parallel distance (D.P.D. method)
of divisions and the ordinates . are i
measured at the ntid-points ~f each ~
1 '\t '
·.· _ ~ •
I·'
d->1
r 4 n
8
(d) By co-ordinates.
division, as illustrated in Fig: 12.2. ------~ L=nd
2. By computaJion based.· ~n ''fneosurements scakd from a map.
' . The area is calculated by the AG. 12.2
3. By meclwnical method : Usually by means of a planimeter.
formula
12.3. AREAS COMPUTED BY SUB-DIVlSlON lNTO TRIANGLES Area = /!. = Average ordinate x Length of base
In this method, the area is divided into a D J• ~ + Oz + O, + .... +On) d = d EO
= 0,+0,+0,+ ...... +On "-"'-\0, ... (12.3)
number of triangles, and the area of each triangle n .
is calculated. The total area of the tract will then where o, 0, ... = the ordinates at the ntid-points of each division
be equal to the sum of areas of individual triangles. EO = sum of the mid-ordinates ; n = number of divisions
Fig. 12.1 shows an area divided into several triangles. c . L =length of base line = nd ; d =distance of each division
For field work, a transit may be set up at 0, and
the lengths and directions of each of the lines OA, (2) AVE~g~2.3)
OB ..... el!:. may be measured. The area of each triailgle This rule also assumes that the boundaries between the extrentities of the ordinates
~
can then be computed. In addition, the sides AB, are straight lines. The offsets are measured to each of the points of the divisions of the
BC.. ... etc. can also be measured and a check may
be applied by calculating the area from the three base line.
The area is given by /!. = Average ordinate x Lengt!!__of the b>§e
known sides of a triangle. ThU&, if two sides and
one included angle of a triangle is measured, the
8 =[ Oo+ 0, ...... + On]L =-L-EO J(@
.•.. n+1 (n+l) ·
...(12.4)
area of the triangle is given by AG. 12.1
where Oo = ordinate at one end 'of fue base.
On= or~t.e at the other end of the base divided into n equal divisions
o.. 0, .... = ordinates at the end of each division.
(3) ~(1'1g.12.3)
This rule is based on the as-
where s =half i
perimeter = (a + b + c). sumption that the figures are trape-
The method is suitable only for work of small nature where the determination of zoids. The rule is more accurate than
the closing error of the figure is not imporrant, and hence the computation of latitudes the previous two rules which are ap-
o, o, o, o, o,
I
and departure is unnecessary. The accuracy of the field work, in such cases, may be determined proximate versions of the trapezoidal o,
by measuring the diagoual in the field and comparing its length to the computed length. rule.
Referring to Fig. 12.3, the area
-
.. -
2 3 4 n
@AREAS FROM OFFSETS TO A BASE LINE: OFFSETS AT REGULAR lNTERVALS
· This method is, suitable for long narrow strips of land. The offsets are measured
of the first trapezoid is given by \4---d
o, + o, •I• d----+1
L=niCI--------->1
from the boundary .{o the base line or a survey line at regular intervals. The method 1!.,=--2-d
can also ·j)e applied to a plotted plan from which the offsets to a line can be scaled· FIG. 12.3
off. The area may be calculated by the following rules :
!''
295
294 SURVEYING CALCULATION OF AREA
... (4\
, _ O,-+-o,d
given by uz- d
.1,,, ~3 (0, + 40, + 0.)
Similarly, the area of the second trapezoid is 2
Area of the last trapezoid (nth) is given by Area cif the last two intervals (8, _ " <1,) is given by
... (5)
<1n-
On- L +On
d ~·
o,. I..= 3d (0,., + 40n-l + 0,)
2
Adding all these to get the total area (<1), we get
Hence the total area of the figure is given by
Oo+O, 0 1 +-0, 0,_, +0, d [Oo + 40, + 20, +40, ...... + 20n-1 + 40, -I+ 0,]
<1 = 3
t.= .1, +<1, + ....... t., =--2-d+--2-d+ ..... + 2 d
~ + 0,) + 4 (9.L+ a;!+ ... + o...a + 2 (0, + D,t.+ ... 0,-tlQ
~~+;+ .... +o,.y):i} or ... (12.6)
or ... (12.5)
It is clear that the rule is applicable only when the number of divisions of the
Equation (12.5) gives the ·trapezoidal rule wbich may be expressed as below : area is even i.e., the total number of ordinates is odd. If there is an odd number of
Add the qyemre of the end offsets to the sum of the jnlermemqle nfl<ets. M!!!!!I!JY divisions (resulting in even number of ordinates), the area of the last division mllSt be
the I<Wll sum thus ob/llined by tKi common dUtance between the ordinates. io get the calcnlated separately, and added to equation 12.6.
------
requjrsd «tel!:_ Simpson's one third rule may be stated as follows : Tht area is equal to the sum
G
(4) SIMPSON'S ONE-THIRD RULE . F -----------· of the two end ordinates plus our liiMs um intermediJJie orditwJes
+ twtce t e sum o t e odd. i rmediate ordinates the whole mu · · d bv one-third
~hort lengths E•• ----~ T .::-.>IC
of boundary between the ordinates are parabolic the common interval between them.
arcs. This method is more useful when the bound-
oL<:---------------·ifi·----------- .,- Comparison of Rules. The results obtained by the use of Simpson's rule are in
all cases the more accurate. The results obtained b using ·Simpson's rule ,are ter or
ary line departs considerably from the straight
smaller than those obtained by using the trapezoidal rule accordin as the curve of the
line. o, o,
10, bo~ndary is ''!!!"~ or convex tow~ the base line. In dealing with irregularly shaped
Thus, in Fig. 12.4, the area between the number
figures, the degreeof precision of either mpllod can be increased by increaSing the
line AB and the curve DFC may be considered
to be equal to the area of the trapezoid ABCD of ordinates.
plus the area of the segment betw<\'n the parabolic A
1
a ......E(ample 12.1. The follawing perpendicular offsets were taken at 10 metres imervals
arc DFC and the. corresponding chord DC. d d _ __.., from a survey line to an irregular boundary line :
Let 0 0 , 0 1 , 0 2 = any three consecutive 3.2?. 5.60, 4.W. 6.65, 8.75, 6.20. 3.;15 4.2o. 5.6;5.
FIG. 12.4
ordinates taken at regular interval of d. Ca/culare the area enclosed between the survey line, the irregular bowulary line.
and 1he firsi aJUi /iJsl offsets, by tile app/icalion of (a) average ordinate rule. (b) trapezoidal
Through F, draw a line EG parallel to the chord DG to cut the ordinates in E
and G. nde, and (c) Simpson's rule.
. Oo+Oz Solution.
Area of trapeemd ABCD = - - · 2d ... (1) (a) By average ordinate rule
2
To calculate the area of the segment of the curve, we will utilize the property of From equation 12.4 (a), we have <1 = _L_ EO
n+l
the parabola that area of a segment (such as DFC) is equal to two-third the area of the
enclosing parallelogram (such as CDEG): Here n = number of divisions = 8 ; n + I = number of ordinates= 8 + I = 9
2 2([ Oo+O,l 2d,II L= Length of base= 10 x 8 = 80 m
3 , o, - - 2-
Thus, area of segment DFC = (FH x AB) = ... (2)
3 l:O = 3.25 + 5.60 + 4.20 + 6.65 + 8.75 + 6.20 + 3.25 + 4.20 + 5.65 = 47.75 m
Adding (I) and (2), we get the required area (8..,) of first two intervals. Thus, 80 x 47.75 = 424.44 sq.metres = 4.2444 ares.
6 =9
Oo+Oz
<1,,,=- -·2d+ ,.o,-- 21[
Oo+O'll
- 2d = d (0o+40,+0z) ... (3)
2 3 2 3 (b) By trapewidal nde
Similarly, the area of next two intervals (<11.4) is given by . . ( Oo+O, "j
From Eq. 12.5, tJ. =
2
l--
- + o, + o, + ... + o,-' 1d
'J!T1
CALCULATION OF AREA
296 SURVEYING
he calculated by Simpson's rule, and the area enclosed between the seventh and last offseiS
Oo+ 0, 3.25 + 5.65 may he found by the trapezoidal rule.
Here d =I0 m; --= _ 4.45 m
2 2 Thus,; (00 + 0,) = 0 + 4.95 = 4.95
01 + 0, .... 0,- 1 = 5.60 + 4.20 + 6.65 + 8. 75 + 6.20 + 3.25 + 4.20 = 38.85 m 4 (01 + o, + ... o.-1> = 4 (2.65 + 3.75 + 3.60) = 40
1!. = (4.45 + 38.85) 10-= 433 sq. metres = 4.33 ares.
2 (0, + o. + ... 0.- 2) = 2 (3.80 + 4.65) = 16.90
(c) By Simpson's nde
1!.' = 5"(4.95 + 40 + 16.90) = 309.25 sq. m.
From Eq. 12.6, 1!. =
d
[(Oo + O,) + 4 (01 + o, + .... + o,_ 1) + 2 (0, + o...... + o,_ :i)) 'i = 81.0
3 Area of the last trapezoid= (4.95 + 5.85) sq. m.
Here d = 10 m ; 0 0 + o, = 3.25 + 5.65 = 8.9 m Total area= 309.25 + 81.0 = 390.25 sq. m = 3.9025 ares.
4 (01 + o, + ..._.o;-1>;, 4 (5."~o + 6.65 + 6.20 + 90> =.90.60
2 co,+ O.+ .... o,_2),;·z(4.:iO·+ 8.75 +3.25)= 32.40. 12.5. OFFSETS AT IRREGULAR INTERVALS
5
:. 1!. =
1
3
°
(8.9 ~ 90.60 + 32.40) = 439.67 sq. metres = 4.3967 ares.
(a) First Method
In this method, the
(Fig. 12.5)
area of each trapezoid
3
4
~pie 12.2. A series of offsets were taken from a chain line to a curved boundary is calculated Separately and then added together
line al intervals of I ~es in the following order. ' to calculate the tbtal aiea. Thus, from Fig.
o, o, o, o,
o. 2 .65, 3.80, 3:75, 4.'65, 3.60, 4.95, 5.85 m- . 12.5, IO,
A B
Compwe the area between the chain line, the cuJ;.;d boundary and the end- offsets dl
1!.=2(01+
d, 0, +O,)
0 ,)+2(
to-d,-4!+--d 2 Ill <1,---oJ+-d,~
by (a) average ordinate rule, (b) trape2oidal rule, and (c) Simpson's nde.
,f
Solution. AG. 12.5
(a) By average ordinate nde
+ d, (0, + 0,) ... (12.7)
2
(b) Second Method. By method of co-ordinates : See § 12.7
From Eq. 12.4 (a), we have 1!. = _!:_! :W
n+ Example 12.3. The following perpendicular offsets were taken from a chain line
Hence n=7; n+l=S. to an irregular boundary : \
10 ', 25 42 60 75m
L = nd = 7 x 15 = lOS m Chainage 0
Offset 15.5 26.2 J 31.8 25.6 29.0 31.5
:W = 0 + 2.65 + 3.80 + 3.75 + 4.65 + 3.60 + 4.95 + 5.85 = 29.25 m
Colculate the area berween the chain line, the boundary and the end offsets.
105
1!. = x 29.25 = 383.91 sq. m = 3.8391 ares.
8 Solution.
2
10-0 '
(b) By lrflpewidol rule Area of fust u:aP"wid = 1!.,1 = .,, (15.5 + 26.2) 208.5 m
l
=
= , Oo + 0, 0 + 5.85 = 2.925 m
Here d .15 m,
2 2 ·-
,. •• of tltird trapezOl'd = 1!.3 = -42-- 25 (31.8 + 25.6) = 487.9 m2
2
o1 + o, + .... o.-1 = 2.65 + 3.8o + 3.75 + 4.65 + 3.60 + 4.95 = 23.40 60-42 2
:. 1!. = (2.925 + 23.40) 15 = 394.87 sq. m = 3.9487 ares, Area of fourth trapezoid= 1!.4 = - - (25.6 + 29.0) = 491.4 m
2
(c) By Simpson's rule · ' . 75-60 2
Area of fifth trapezotd = 1!., = - - (29.0 + 3LS) = 453.7 m
From equation 12.6, 1!. =~ [(Oo+ 0,) + 4 (01 + 0 3 + ... On-1) +2(0,+ 0.+ ... On-2)] 2
Total area=l!.=l!.l+l!., +l!.,+l!.<+l!.s
. d IS
Here, -=-=5 m. = 208.5 + 435 + 487.9 + 491.4 + 453.7
3 3
It will he seen that the Simpson's rule is not directly applicable here since the number = 2076.5 m' = 20.765 ares.
of ordinates (n) is even. However, the area between the first and seventh offsets may
• 299
SURVEYING CALCULATION OF AREA
298 /
.,
;:7·· \.
~
f
= [(y,- y,)(x, + x,) + (y, -_y,)(.i, + x3) BC + IS + 249 257 + 3855
__ FIG. 12.9
In general, if we have n stations, we get ,. 2
i
Area= l:mL = 29221 m = 2.9221 - hectares.
·:,.. ··
/ =} [y, (x, + x,) + y, (x3 - x,) + y, (x,- x,) + ... + y,(x, - x, -I)] ... (12.7)
(3) By Deparlure and totoJ latiJudes : Let
us first calculate the . total latitudes of
ted latitudes and departures (in metres) the point, starting with· A as the reference point,
--Eiample 12.5. The following toble gives the correc
of the sides of a closed traverse ABCD · Thus, total latitude of B = + 108
Side l.<Jiitude total latitude of C = + 108 + 15 = + 123
\,
N sr- _l E (-\ w total latitude of D = + 123 - 123 = 0
AB /08 : 4
/
total latitude of A = 0 + 0 = 0
BC
CD
IS
~ 123
249
4
The area·= iJ: (Total latitude x algebraic sum of adjoining depart
ures)
~
lndepttuknJ to-ortlbuiUJ or dotted. The traCing is then placed on the drawing in such a way that lhe area is
11M I.IIJ/Ju4< .~
rf":v)'\ Slllllon
exactly enclosed between two of the parallel lines. The figure is thus divided into a number
(~-'''' North GJ &ut(x)_
of strips. As,luming that the strips are either trapezoids or triangles, the area of each is
A 100,'. 100 . ' equal to the length of the mid~dinate multiplied by the constant breadth. The mid-ordinates
AB + 108 + 4 of the strips are represented by the length of the dotted lines intercepted within the maps.
B 208- 104 The total sum of these intercepted dotted lines is measured and multiplied by the constant
BC + IS ' + 249 breadth to get the required area. More accuracy will be obtained if the strips are placed
c 223. 353 nearer.
I
CD - 123 - + 4
12.9. AREA BY PLANIMETER
100 I 357
D A planimeter is an instrument which measures the area of plan of any sbape very
0 ' . I
DA - 257\ accurately. There are two types of planintete1's: (I) Amsler Polar Planimeter, and (2) Roller
IQq .
. A
1
100 -
Planimeter. The polar planimeter is most commonly used and is, therefore discussed here .
Substituting the values of x and y in equation 12.7, we gef Fig. 12.11 shows !lie essential parts o{ a polar planimeter. It consists of two arms
I .·
A = (y,(x, - x,) + y,(x, - x1) + y,(x. - x,l + y,(x, - x,)]
hinged at a point .known as the pivot point. Ooe of the two arms carries an aucbor at
2 its end, and is known as the anchor arm. The length of anchor arm is generally fixed,
=i [100(208 - 100) + 104(223 - 100) + 353(100 --}08) +357(100 - 223)) but in some of the planimeters a variable length of anchor arm is also provid~. The
other arm carries a tracing point at its end, and is known as the tracing arm. The length
=i (10800 + 12792- 38124- 43911) =- 29221 ~; of the tracing arm can be varied by means of a fixed screw and its corresponding slow
Since the negative sign does not bave significance,. the area = 2.9221 hectans. motiou screw. The tracing point is moved along the boundary of the plan the area of
which is to be de1ermined. The normal displacetnent of the tracing arm is measured by
12.8. AREA COMPUTED FROM MAP MEASUREMENTS means of a wheel whose axis is kept parallel to the tracing arm. The wheel may either
(A) By sub-division of the area into geometric . fiiJIIl"'S be placed between the hinge and the tracing point or is placed beyond the pivot point
The area of the plan is sub-divided into common geometric figures, such as triangles, away from the tracing point. The wheel carries a concentric drum which is divided into
rectangles, squares, trapezoids etc. The length and latitude of eath such figure is scaled 100 divisions. A small vernier attached near the drum reads one-tenth of the drum division.
off from the map and the area is calculated by using the usual formulae.
(b) By sub-division into . square;; : Fig. 12.10 (a)
The method consists in drawing squares on a tracing paper each square representing
some definite num6er of square metres. The tracing paper is placed on the drawing and
the number of squares enclosed in the figure are calculated. The positions .of the fractioual
squares at the ·:1.!.!-\red tJlili~~· .: ..::~ ~t~t:~. 7!::-: :2L?.! ~E.:. ~f tll~ figw:e will then be
equal to the total number of squares ·
multiplied by the factor (i.e., sq. me-
tres) ••rresented by each square.
(c) By division Into trapezolli>;
Fig. 12.10 (b).
In this method, a number of --~-----------------·~-
·parallel lines, atconstantdistaru:e apart, FIG. 12.11. AMSLER POLAR PLANIMETER.
are drawn on a tracing paper. The
6. WHEEL
constant IM!tween the consecutive P'!'- I. TRACING ARM
~
displacem ent -when it
cenrre line of the tracing arm; ·the wheel measures only notrnal i
dA, = L(dw- ad6) + L'd9 ... (2)
acrually rolls.
To find the area of the pl~;· the anchor point is either placed outside
the area ...,___ L i+.!..ot
(if the area is small) or it is placed inside the area
then marked on the boundary. of ate;. and the
initial reading of the wheel is then
the boundary till it comes to the
taken.
starting
The
tracing
tracing
point. The
(if
point
final.
the
point
is
area
kept
now
r~ading
is
of
large).
exactly
moved
the
:
drum
A
over·
clock-wis
is
point is
e
it. The
along
tal¢en.
I~
The area of the figure is then calculated from the following formula
(li) ~ M (F- I± 10 N + C) ... (12.8) .
Area
where F ~ Final reading : I ~ Initial reading (a)
N ~ The number of times the zero mark of the dial passes
the fixed index mark.
Use plus sign if the zero mark-df the dial passes the index mark in a
clockwise direction and minus sign when it passes in the anti-cloc kwise direction.
M ~ A multiplying constant, also sometimes known as the planimet
er constant.
It is equal to the area per revolutio n of the roller.
the area
C ~ Constant of the instrument which when multiplied by M. gives
of zero circle. The constant C is to be added only when the anchor
poim is inside the area. (b) (c)
e direction
It is to be noted that the tracing point is to be moved in the clockwis
formula is gi~en belo\1.'.
only. Proper sign mU:;t be given to i''r'. The proof of the above
THEORY OF PLANIMETER
Fig. 12.12 (a) shows the schematic diagram of polar planimeter. where
A,: Area to be measured, the anchor point being outside the area.
A
A,
and the hinge.
L ~'Length of the tracing arm = Distance between the tracing point
R ~ Length of anchor arm = Distance between the pivot and the anchor point.
between
a ~ Distance between the wheel and the pivot, the wheel being placed
the tracing point and pivot.
w ~ Distance rolled by the roller in tracing the area.
A,= Area swept by the tracing arm.
movement
Fig. 12.12 (b) shows the section of the perimeter of the area. Any such (d)
simultaneous. motions : (I) translatio n of the tracing arm
of the arm is equivalent to two
rotation of the tracing arm about the pivot. Fig. 12:t2 FIG. t2.t2. THEORY OF PLANIMETER.
TP in parallel motion and (il)
309
SURVI!YINO CALCULATION OF AREA
308
of the roller passes
moves downwards is held in such a position relative to the anchor arm that the plane
When the tracing point is moved along the boundary, the arm through the anchor point i.e., the line joining the anchor point and the wheel is at right
the net area A, swept
along one side of. area and upwards along the other side. Heu:e, angles to th~ line joining the tracing point and the wbeel.
by the tracing arm is equal to the area of the plan (Ao)
~athol tradng point
Thus Ao= f dA_s=L lttw-aL f dO +}L' de I ... (3)
But f
dw = total distance moved by the wbeel = w ",/ ~.--- 14/ L a-+!
n W
Ide ... (4)
A0 =Lw-a Lfda+ iL' T
of the pivot is
Now when the anchor point is kept oulside the area,· the motion
completes one revolution about the A;
constrained along the arc of a circle i.e., ·it never
the arc in upward and downward directions so that
anchor point but simply moves along
fdO=O . A
A
... (12.~) (t-~
Hence from (4), A0 = Lw (a)
moves along
However, if the anchor point is kept inside the area, the pivot point FIG. 12.13
point is brought
the circle of radiU. R and completes one revolution when the tracing
back .10 ils original position after tracing the area. Hei)Ce the quantity dO = f
2n ..
In Fig. 12.13 (a), the wbeel has been placed between the tracing
point (1) and
A1 = Area of the plan when the anchor point ~ ; kept inside the
perpendicular distance
Let
area. the pivot (P). Let R0 be the radius of the zero circle. If x is the
where n and n' are the two corresponding readings of the wheel.
It is to be noted thoJ
ZERO CIRCLE
area of the. zero circle,
or correction n will be positive. if. the area of the figure is- greater than the
The quantity MC = 1t (L' - 2aL + R') is known as the area of the zero circle area of the zero
the circle round the circumfe rence while it will be negative if the area of the figure is smaller than the
circle. ~ zero circle or the circle of correction is defined as
·
the wheel will simply slide (without rototion) on circle.
of which if the tra~ing point is moved,
in the reading. This is possible when· the tracing . arm
the paper without any change
311
SURVEYING CALCULATION OP AREA
310
MULTIPLIER CONSTANT (M) Example 12.7. Calculate the area of a figure from the following readings recorded
by the planimeter with the anchor point inside the figure.
The multiplier constant or the planimeter comtant is equal to the number of units
'lnirial reading= 9.9I8 ; Final reading = 4.254 ; M = IOO sq. em : C = 23.52I
of area per revolution of the roller. Numerically, it is equal to LnD . Since the diameter
of the roller or wheel is a fixed quantity, the value of M depends on L. Thus, the It was observed thai the zero mark on the dial passed the index once in the ami-clockwise
length of the tracing arm is set to such a length that one revolution of the wheel corresponds direction.
to a whole number and convenient value of area. When the figure is drawn to a natural Solution
scale, and the area is desired in sq. incbes, the value of M is generally kept as eqlial Theareais given by A=M(F-I ±ION+C )
to 10 sq. in of area. Here M= 100 sq. em; I=9.918; F=4.254; C=23.521 and N=-1
For any other setting of the tracing arm. the value of M can be determined by A= 100(4.254- 9.918- 10 + 23.521) = 785.7 sq. em.
traversing the perimeter of a·fi~. of known· area (A), with anchor point outside the figure.
Then . /' Example 12.8. The following readings were obtained when an area was measured
by a planimeter the tracing arm being set to the nalural scale. The initial and final readings
M Known ilrea ~ ~ where n' = Change in the wheel readings
n' / n' were 2.-268 and 4.582. 'J'fte zero of disc passed the index mark once in the clockwise
direction. The anchor poim was inside the figure with the value of the constam C of
It is to be noted that the value of M and C depends upon the length L which
the instrumem = 26.430.
is adjustable. The manufacturers, therefore, supply a table which gives the values 'of L
(a) Calculate the area of the figure:
and C for different convenient values of M.
The manufacturers always supply the values of ihii' vernier setting on the .tracing (b) If the area of the figure drawn be ·to a scale of 1 inch = 64 feet, find the
arm with the corresponding values of M and C. The following table is an extract from area of the figure.
the values for a typical planinteter. .r SoIuton .
Since the tracing arm was set to the natural scale, the value of M = 10 sq .. inches.
Area .of one rel'Olution of
Vemitr porilion lht meMutr!nunl whtel ConsJJJnJ A =M (F-I± 10 N+ C)
Scak on lnJdng bar (M) (C)
Here F=4.582: I=2.268 ; N=+ I; C=26.430
SCIIle A.<lllal
.. A= 10(4.582- 2.268 + 10 + 26.430} = 387.44 sq. inches.
100 sq. em 23.521
I: 1
1:l
I
I
33.44
21.58
!
I
100 sq. em
(I)
(2)
Area
Known area of 60 sq. inches
Unkno wn area
I.R..
2.326
8.286
F.R.
8.286
a planinreter.
5.220 +I
N
0
sq. inches.
A= M (F- I+ 10 N) = 10 (1.08 6- 5.286 + 10) =58 1. What is Simpson's rule ~ Derive an expres
sion for it.
With the anchor point inside the offsets taken from a chain line 10 an irregular
2. The following give the values in feet of
N=- 2
A =M( F-I± 10 N+ C) ; Here A= 58 and boundsly :
ISO 200 250 3SO
300 400
58= 10 (3.842 - 5.282 ~ 20 C) + Distance
Offset
0
10.6
SO
15.4
100
20.2 18.7 16.4 20.8 19.3
22.4 17.6
l}' and
5.8 = (- 21.440 +C) from which c = 5.8 + 21.440
= 27.240 n the chain line, the inegul at bonnda
or ·Calculate the area in sq. yards included betwee (U.P.)
sq. in. the first and the last offset by Simpson's rule.
Area of zero circle= MC = 27.240 x 10 = 272.40 eter with the anchor point outside the fisure
between the tracing point and the 3. The area of a fisure was measored by a planim
Example 12.12. The length of the tracing arm diameter and the tracing arm set 10 the natural scale (M = 100
sq. em ). The initial reading was 8.628 and final
from the hinge is 22.6 em. The mark once in the clockwise direction.
hinge is 16.6 em. The distance of the anchor point and the reading was 1.238. The zero mark of the disc passed the index
being placed between the hinge
of the rim of the wheel is I. 92 em, the wheel area of Calcolate the area of the figure.
the hing• is 1.68 em. Find the revolutions in the clockwise direction
tracing point. The distance of the wheel from 4. The roller of a planimeter recorded a reading ofx 1.2606 em with the anchor point outside. With
wheel and area of the zero circle. while the measuring area of a rectangular plot 21
em
one revolution of the measuring and th• anchor point ootside , another fisure was traversed and
Solution. the same setting of the tracing arm ise direction. Find the area of the fisure
the reading recorded was 2.986 revolutions in thO .
clockw
(I) Area of one revolution of the measuring
wheel = M scale of 1 em = 20 metres
if it is drawn to a
= Length of tracing arm x Circumference
of the wheel
II'II
314
~~
are first calculated by standard formulae
developed below, and the volumes of
the prismoids between successive· cross-
sections are then calculated by either (a) (b)
trapezoidal formula or · by prismoidal
formula. ---..--------------r
~
, .. ~'
The various cross-sections may
/ --
be classed as
(I) Level section,
>(
---- Cirtling
(Figs. 13.1 a and 13.2) •" FUiing
(2) Two-level section, (C) (d)