FABRICATION OF WATER FUEL ENGINE WITH

POWER GENERATION
Submitted in a partial fulfillment of the requirement to award the
degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by

CH.Sravani 15JR1A0303
A.Prudhvi 15JR1A0309
A.V.Bharath Raj 15JR1A0311
M.Pavan Kalyan 15JR1A0353

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr.M.Chaitanya,M.Tech
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

KKR&KSR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES
(Approved by AICTE,New Delhi & affiliated to JNTU Kakinada)
Accredited with A Grade by NAACVINJANAMPADU VILLAGE,
VATTICHERUKURU MANDAL,GUNTUR.

i
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify the work report titled “FABRICATION OF WATER FUEL

ENGINE WITH POWER GENERATION” is the bonafide work of

CH.SRAVANI (15JR1A0303), A.PRUDHVI(15JR1A0309), A.V.BHARATH RAJ
(15JR1A0311) , M.PAVAN KALYAN (15JR1A0353) who carried out the work
under my supervision certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work
reported herein does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation on the basis of
which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other
degree

Mr.M.Chaitanya,M.Tech DR.K.Rama Kotaiah,M.Tech,Ph.D

Assistant professor Professor
Dept. of mechanical engineering Dept.of mechanical engineering
PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing moment of having successfully completed our

project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the
management of our college and our beloved chairman Sri K.SUBBA
RAO and secretary Sri K.SEKHAR who provided all the facilities to
us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal

DrP.BABU,Ph.D, for forwarding us to do our project and offering
adequate duration in completing our project.

We are also grateful to the Head of Department Prof Dr K.RAMA

KOTAIAH ,M.Tech,Ph.D for his constructive suggestions &
encouragement during our project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest & sincere

thanks to our guide Mr M.CHAITANYA,M.Tech Department of
MECH for his kind guidance & encouragement during this project.

We also express our indebt thanks to our TEACHING and NON

TEACHING staffs of mechanical engineering department.

BY

CH.Sravani 15JR1A0303
A.Prudhvi 15JR1A0309
A.V.Bharath Raj 15JR1A0311
M.Pavan Kalyan 15JR1A0353

iii
 DECLARATION

WE declare that the project entitled “FABRICATION OF WATER FUEL

ENGINE WITH POWER GENERATION” has been carried out by us and

contents have been presented in the form of dissertation in partiaal fulfillment for the
award of the degree of bachelor of technology in MECHANICAL
ENGGINEERING.we further declare that this dissertation has not been submited
elsewhere for any degree.

CH.Sravani 15JR1A0303
A.Prudhvi 15JR1A0309
A.V.Bharath Raj 15JR1A0311
M.Pavan Kalyan 15JR1A0353

iv
 KKR & KSR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &
SCIENCES

Institute Vision: To produce eminent and ethical Engineers and Managers for
society through imparting quality professional education with emphasis on human
values and holistic excellence.

Institute Mission:

 To incorporating benchmarked teaching and learning pedagogies in

curriculum.
 To ensure all round development of students through judicious blend of
curricular ,co curricular and extra-curricular activities.
 To support cross-culture exchange of knowledge between industry and
academy.
 To provide higher/continued education and research opportunities to the
employees of the institution

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Department Vision:

To produce qualitative engineers inclined towards technology and

socio economic development of the Nation.

Department Mission:

1. Meeting the needs of students in the area of their interest and to make
them good engineers.
2. Promoting creativity and innovative thinking among students.
3. Inculcating integrity, honesty and ethical values through curricular, cocurricular
and extra-curricular activities

v
Program Educational Objectives (PEO’S):

PEO1: Have profound knowledge in various domains of mechanical engineering

for successful career in Industry or pursue higher studies or research.
PEO2: Become effective collaborators / innovators, addressing the social,
Technical and engineering challenges.
PEO3: Acquire lifelong learning skills, professional ethics, good communication
Capabilities and leadership qualities for successful career.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S):

PS01: The mechanical Engineering Graduates will be able to function in software

industry in the areas of Design and development of software tools such as
AUTOCAD, CATIA, Ansys and so on.
PS02: To prepare students for successful careers in industry that meets the needs of
industries society and the country in general.
PS03: Ability to implement the learned principles of Mechanical Engineering to
analyze, evaluate and create more advanced mechanical systems or
processes.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES TO BE ATTAINED IN THIS PROJECT

PO1 : Engineering Knowledge

PO2 : problem analysis
PO3 : Design / development of solutions
PO4 : Conduct investigation of complex problems
PO5 : Modern Tool Usage
PO6 : The Engineer and Society
PO7 : Environment and Sustainability

vi
PO8 : Ethics
PO9 : Individual and Team Work
PO10 : Communication
PO11 : Project Management and Finance0
P012 : Long Life Learning

Title of the PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO P0 PO PO
project 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

WATER
FUEL
WITH 2 2 3 -- 2 2 2 1 3 3 1 1
POWER
GENERATI
ON.

vii
CONTENTS PAGE NO

ABSTRACT

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. LITERATURE SURVEY 2

3. I.C ENGINE 5

3.1 PETROL ENGINE 5

3.2 WORKING 5

3.3 ENGINE TERMINOLOGY 6

3.4 SPARK IGNITION ENGINE 11

3.5 EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM 12

4. BEARING WITH BEARING CAP 14

4.1 INTRODUCTION 14

4.2 CONSTRUCTION AND TYPES OF BALL BEARINGS 15

5. SPROCKET WITH CHAIN DRIVE 17

5.1 ENGAGEMENT WITH SPROCKETS 18

5.2 CHAIN WEAR AND JUMPING SPROCKET TEETH 21

5.3 BASIC STRUCTURE OF TRANSMISSION CHAIN 26

6. HYDROGEN PRODUCTION 29

6.1 HYDROGEN GAS 29

6.2 HYDROGEN GAS FROM WATER MIXED WITH KOH 31

viii
7. BATTERY 34

7.1 INTRODUCTION 34

7.2 CHARINGING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES 36

8. MANUFACTURING PROCESS 37

8.1 FABRICATION PROCESS 37

8.2 METAL REMOVAL PROCESS 38

8.3 WELDING 39

8.4 DRILLING 41

9. WORKING PRINCIPLE 42

10. DESIGN DRAWING AND CALCULATION 44

10.1 DESIGN OF BALL BEARING 44

10.2 ENGINE DESIGN CALCULATIONS 46

10.3 SPECIFICATION FOR FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE 46

10.4DESGINE OF ENGINE PISTON 56

11. LIST OF MATERIALS 64

12. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 65

12.1 ADVANTAGES 65

12.2 DISADVANTAGES 65

12.3 APPLICATIONS 65

13. CONCLUSION 68

ix
 ABSTRACT

In internal combustion engines, water injection, also known as anti-detonant

injection, is spraying water into the cylinder or incoming fuel-air mixture to cool the

combustion chambers of the engine, allowing for greater compression ratios and

largely eliminating the problem of engine knocking (detonation). This effectively

reduces the air intake temperature in the combustion chamber, meaning that

performance gains can be obtained when used in conjunction with a supercharger,

turbocharger, altered spark ignition timing, and other modifications.The reduction of

the air intake temperature allows for a more aggressive ignition timing to be

employed, which increases the power output of the engine. Depending on the engine,

improvements in power and fuel efficiency can also be obtained solely by injecting

water. Water injection may also be used to reduce NOx or carbon monoxide

emissions. Finally the load test is carried out in order to find the efficiency of the

engine and they are compared with that of the conventional engines.

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

FigureNumber FigureName Page

number
4.1 Type of ball bearings 19
4.2 Bearing arrangement 20
5.1 Type sprockets 22
5.2 Flat belt drive 24
5.3 Roller/tooth forces 24
5.4 Balance of force 25
5.5 Back tension on toothed belt 28
5.6 Sprocket tooth shape 28
5.7 Engagement between a 28
sprocket and elongated chain
5.8 elongation versus the number 28
of sprocket teeth
5.9 The basic components of 31
transmission chain
5.10 Standard connecting link 32
5.11 Offset link 32
6.1 Block diagram of hydrogen kit 37
8.1 Butt joint edge preparation 57
8.2 Welding positions 58
9.1 Working principle diagram 60
10.1 Bearing 60
10.2 Bearing cap 61
10.3 Engine sprocket 61
10.4 Wheel shaft sprocket 61
10.5 frame 62
10.6 Block diagram 64
10.7 2d modelling 68
10.8 2d drawing of model 71

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 10.1 55

Table 11.1 64

x
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Many companies are working to develop technologies that might efficiently exploit
the potential of hydrogen energy for mobile uses. The attraction of using hydrogen as
an energy currency is that, if hydrogen is prepared without using fossil fuel inputs,
vehicle propulsion would not contribute to carbon dioxide emissions.

The drawbacks of hydrogen use are low energy content per unit volume, high
tank age weights, the storage, transportation and filling of gaseous or liquid hydrogen
in vehicles, the large investment in infrastructure that would be required to fuel
vehicles, and the inefficiency of production processes.

Buses, trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes, golfcarts, motorcycles,
wheelchairs,ships,airplanes,submarines, and rockets can already run on hydrogen, in
various forms. NASA uses hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into space. There is
even a working toy model car that runs on solar power, using a regenerative fuel cell
to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel
back into water to release the solar energy.

The current land speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle is 286.476 mph
(461.038 km/h) set by Ohio State University's Buckeye Bullet 2, which achieved a
"flying-mile" speed of 280.007 mph (450.628 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in
August 2008. For production-style vehicles, the current record for a hydrogen-
powered vehicle is 333.38 km/h (207.2 mph) set by aprototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen
999 Fuel Cell Race Car at Bonneville Salt Flats in Wend over, Utah in August 2007.
It was accompanied by a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power. Honda has
also created a concept called the FC Sport, which may be able to beat that record if
put into production.

1
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

 I.Vinoth Kanna and A. Vasudevan and K. Subramani in the journal

international research for ambient energy in the year 2017 has explained that
they decided to try using hydrogen as a means of alternative power for the car.
With a hydrogen generator, the idea is to replace some of the gasoline with
hydrogen. Gaseous hydrogen burns readily and produces loads of power. The
idea is that the extra boost (not replacement) in gasoline power from the
hydrogen would cause a gasoline-burning engine to back off on using so much
gasoline. This in turn should result in less gas being burned. This paper brings
about hydrogen fuel generator, whose fuel generated can be used as alternate
source of fuel.

 M. Falahat and M.A.Hamdan and J.A.Yamin in the journal of

International journal of automotive technology in the year 2014 has
wrote that the performance of an SI engine powered with both gasoline and
HHO as supplement fuel was studied and compared with pure gasoline-
fuelled engine. The amount of HHO gas quantities added was 1, 1.5, and 2
LPM. The engine speed was varied from 1350 to 2250 rpm. The
performance was found by measuring the engine torque, the brake power, the
brake specific fuel consumption and the thermal efficiency, while gas
analyzer was used to measure the amounts of nitrogen oxides and carbon
dioxide that are emitted from the engine during operation. It was found that
the engine performance was best when 2 LPM HHO gas was used with pure
gasoline fuel. Further, it was found that, at high amount of HHO gas
addition, the nitrogen oxide decreases. Further, the CO level increased when
using HHO gas as supplement fuel.

2
 Choongsik Bae and Jaeheun Kim in the journal Alternative fuels for internal
combustion engines in the year 2017 wrote that the representative alternative
fuels for SI engines include compressed natural gas (CNG), hydrogen
(H2) liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and alcohol fuels (methanol and ethanol);
while for CI engines, they include biodiesel, di-methyl ether (DME), and jet
propellent-8 (JP-8). Naphtha is introduced as an alternative fuel for advanced
combustion in premixed charge compression ignition. The contents of engine
combustion basically consist of the combustion process from spray
development, air–fuel mixing characteristics, to the final combustion
product formation process, which is analyzed for each alternative fuel.
 P.Balashanmugam and G.Balasubramanian in the journal Global journal of
advanced research in the year 2015 ha explained that hydrogen vehicle is an
alternative fuel vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive
power. The term may refer to a personal transportation vehicle, such as an
automobile, or any other vehicle that uses hydrogen in a similar fashion, such
as an aircraft. The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy
of hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal
combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run
electric motors. The widespread use of hydrogen for fueling transportation is a
key element of a proposed economy. Hydrogen fuel does not occur naturally
on Earth, and thus is not an energy source, but is an energy carrier. Currently it
is most frequently made from methane or other fossil fuels. However, it can be
produced from a wide range of sources (such as wind, solar, or nuclear) that
are intermittent, too diffuse or too cumbersome to directly propel vehicles.
Integrated wind-to-hydrogen plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring
technologies to deliver cost low enough, and quantities great enough, to
compete with traditional energy sources.

3
 Akhileshpati tiwari, Manoj kumar yadav, Surender kumar ,Ramnaresh yadav
in the journal International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology
(IJETT) in the year 2017 has explained that Hydrogen is an environmentally
friendly alternative to fossil fuels, and they can be used to power just about
any machine needing energy. The fuel cell, which is the energy conversion
device that can capture and use the power of hydrogen effectively, is the key
to making this happen. Compared to diesel or gas, hydrogen is much more fuel
efficient as it can produce more energy per pound of fuel. This means that if a
car is fueled by hydrogen, it can go farther than a vehicle loaded with the same
amount of fuel but using a more traditional source of energy. Hydrogen-
powered fuel cells have two or three times the efficiency of traditional
combustion technologies.

4
 CHAPTER-3

I.C ENGINE

Internal combustion engines are those heat engines that burn their fuel inside

the engine cylinder. In internal combustion engine the chemical energy stored in

their operation. The heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy by the

expansion of gases against the piston attached to the crankshaft that can rotate.

3.1 PETROL ENGINE

The engine which gives power to propel the automobile vehicle is a petrol

burning internal combustion engine. Petrol is a liquid fuel and is called by the name

gasoline in America. The ability of petrol to furnish power rests on the two basic

principles;

 Burning or combustions always accomplished by the production of heat.

 When a gas is heated, it expands. If the volume remains constant, the pressure

rises according to Charle’s law.

3.2 WORKING

There are only two strokes involved namely the compression stroke and the

power stroke; they are usually called as upward stroke and downward stroke

respectively.

5
UPWARD STROKE

During this stroke, the piston moves from bottom dead center to top

dead center, compressing the charge-air petrol mixture in combustion chamber of the

cylinder, at the time the inlet port is uncovered and the exhaust, transfer ports are

covered. The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by a spark

given by spark plug.

DOWNWARD STROKE

The charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston moves

downwards, during this stroke the inlet port is covered by the piston and the new

charge is compressed in the crankcase, further downward movement of the piston

uncovers first exhaust port and then transfer port and hence the exhaust starts through

the exhaust port. As soon as the transfer port open the charge through it is forced in to

the cylinder, the cycle is then repeated.

3.3 ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

The engine terminologies are detailed below,

1.CYLINDER

It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a

reciprocating motion.

6
2.PISTON

It is a cylindrical component fitted to the cylinder which

transmits the bore of explosion to the crankshaft.

3.COMBUSTION CHAMBER

It is the space exposed in the upper part of the cylinder where the

combustion of fuel takes place.

4. CONNECTING ROD

It inter connects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the

reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of crankshaft.

5. CRACKSHAFT

It is a solid shaft from which the power is transmitted to the clutch.

6. CAM SHAFT

It is drive by the crankshaft through timing gears and it is used to

control the opening and closing of two valves.

7
7. CAM

These are made as internal part of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to

open the valves at the current timing.

8. PISTON RINGS

It provides a tight seal between the piston and cylinder wall and preventing

leakage of combustion gases.

9. GUDGEON PIN

It forms a link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston

10. INLET

The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine end

through which air or air fuel mixture is drawn in to the cylinder.

11. EXHAUST MANIFOLD

The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the

engine through which the product of combustion escape in to the atmosphere.

12. INLET AND EXHAUST VALVE

They are provided on either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder

and regulating the charge coming in to the cylinder and for discharging the product of

combustion from the cylinder.

8
13. FLYWHEEL

It is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crank shaft. It absorbs

energy when the engine speed is high and gives back when the engine speed is low.

14. NOMENCLATURE

This refers to the position of the crank shaft when the piston is in it

slowest position.

BORE(d)

Diameter of the engine cylinder is refers to as the bore.

STROKE(s)

Distance traveled by the piston in moving from TDC to the piston

in moving from TDC to the BDC.

CLEARANCE VOLUME (V)

The volume of cylinder above the piston when it is in the TDC position.

SWEPT VOLUME (V)

The swept volume of the entire cylinder

Vd = V s N

Where,

9
 Vs ------- Swept Volume

N --------- Number of cylinder

COMPRESSION RATIO (R)

It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at BDC to

the clearance volume.

ENGINE SPECIFICATION

Type of fuel used : Petrol/Hydrogen with LPG

Cooling system : Air cooled

Number of cylinder : Single

Number of stroke : Four Stroke

Arrangement : Vertical

Cubic capacity : 100 cc

10
3.4 Spark Ignition Engine

A spark ignition (SI) engine runs on an Otto cycle—most gasoline engines run on a

modified Otto cycle. This cycle uses a homogeneous air-fuel mixture which is

combined prior to entering the combustion chamber. Once in the combustion

chamber, the mixture is compressed, and then ignited using a spark plug (spark

ignition). The SI engine is controlled by limiting the amount of air allowed into the

engine. This is accomplished through the use of a throttling valve placed on the air

intake (carburetor or throttle body). Mitsubishi is working on the development of a

certain type of SI engine called the gasoline direct injection engine.

Advantages

 A century of development and refinement - For the last century the SI engine

has been developed and used widely in automobiles. Continual development of this

technology has produced an engine that easily meets emissions and fuel economy

standards. With current computer controls and reformulated gasoline, today's engines

are much more efficient and less polluting than those built 20 years ago.

11
Disadvantages

The SI engine has a few weaknesses that have not been significant problems in

the past, but may become problems in the future.

 Difficulty in meeting future emissions and fuel economy standards at a

reasonable cost - Technology has progressed and will enable the SI engine to meet

current standards, but as requirements become tougher to meet, the associated engine

cost will continue to rise.

 Throttling loss lowers the efficiency - To control an SI engine, the air allowed

into the engine is restricted using a throttling plate. The engine is constantly fighting

to draw air past the throttle, which expends energy.

 Limited compression ratio lowers efficiency - Because the fuel is already

mixed with the air during compression, it will auto-ignite (undesirable in a gasoline

engine) if the compression ratio is too high. The compression ratio of the engine is

limited by the octane rating of the engine.

3.5 Emission Control Systems

Automotive emissions contribute significantly to urban air quality problems.

HEVs can reduce this contribution significantly through increased fuel economy, use

of alternative fuels, and improved power unit and after treatment technology. A well-

tuned spark ignition engine produces relatively low emissions. Significant emissions

occur when the vehicle is started and warming up. During this time the engine must

be choked to run properly. This creates excess unburned fuel in the exhaust, which

leads to hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. During normal driving,

12
emissions are relatively low because the air-to-fuel mixture is precisely controlled,

allowing the catalytic converter to effectively reduce emissions.

The diesel engine emissions are primarily nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate

matter (PM). NOx is produced because the engine is operated with a lean air-to-fuel

mixture. The high compression ratio of a diesel engine (required because of

compression ignition) creates much higher pressure and temperature in the

combustion cylinder. This lean mixture and high temperature cause the higher level of

NOx production. At high engine loads, where more fuel is injected, some of the fuel

burns incompletely leading to the black smoke (PM) characteristic of a diesel engine.

Other types of fuel cells have reformers that convert methane to hydrogen, then use

the hydrogen.

13
 CHAPTER-4

BEARING WITH BEARING CAP

The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts because if hammered

the bearing may develop cracks. Bearing is made upon steel material and bearing cap

is mild steel.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines in order

to minimize friction and power loss. While the concept of the ball bearing dates back

at least to Leonardo daVinci, their design and manufacture has become remarkably

sophisticated. This technology was brought to its p resent state o f perfection

only after a long period of research and development. The benefits of such

specialized research can be obtained when it is possible to use a standardized bearing

of the proper size and type. However, such bearings cannot be used indiscriminately

without a careful study of the loads and operating conditions. In addition, the bearing

must be provided with adequate mounting, lubrication and sealing. Design engineers

have usually two possible sources for obtaining information which they can use to

select a bearing for their particular application:

14
4.2 Construction and Types of Ball Bearings

A ball bearing usually consists of four parts: an inner ring, an outer ring, the

balls and the cage or separator.

To increase the contact area and permit larger loads to be carried, the balls run

in curvilinear grooves in the rings. The radius of the groove is slightly larger than the

radius of the ball, and a very slight amount of radial play must be provided. The

bearing is thus permitted to adjust itself to small amounts of angular misalignment

between the assembled shaft and mounting. The separator keeps the balls evenly

spaced and prevents them from touching each other on the sides where their relative

velocities are the greatest. Ball bearings are made in a wide variety of types and sizes.

Single-row radial bearings are made in four series, extra light, light, medium, and

heavy, for each bore, as illustrated in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), and (c).

100 Series 200 Series 300 Series Axial Thrust Angular Contact

Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 4.1Types of Ball Bearings

The heavy series of bearings is designated by 400. Most, but not all,

manufacturers use a numbering system so devised that if the last two digits are

multiplied by 5, the result will be the bore in millimeters.

15
 The digit in the third place from the right indicates the series number. Thus,

bearing 307 signifies a medium-series bearing of 35-mm bore. For additional digits,

which may be present in the catalog number of a bearing, refer to manufacturer’s

details.

fig 4.2 bearing arrangement

Some makers list deep groove bearings and bearings with two rows of balls.

For bearing designations of Quality Bearings & Components (QBC), see special

pages devoted to this purpose. The radial bearing is able to carry a considerable

amount of axial thrust. However, when the load is directed entirely along the axis, the

thrust type of bearing should be used. The angular contact bearing will take care of

both radial and axial loads. The self-aligning ball bearing will take care of large

amounts of angular misalignment. An increase in radial capacity may be secured

by using rings with deep grooves, or by employing a double-row radial bearing.

Radial bearings are divided into two general classes, depending on the method of

assembly. These are the Conrad, or non filling-notch type, and the maximum or

filling-notch type. In the Conrad bearing, the balls are placed between the rings as

shown in Fig. 1-4(a). Then they are evenly spaced and the separator is riveted in

place. In the maximum-type bearing, the balls are a (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 100

Series Extra Light 200 Series Light 300 Series Medium Axial Thrust Bearing Angular

Contact Bearing Self-aligning Bearing fig 4.1,4.2.

16
 CHAPTER-5

SPROCKET AND CHAIN DRIVE

This is a cycle chain sprocket. The chain sprocket is coupled with another

generator shaft. The chain converts rotational power to pulling power, or pulling

power to rotational power, by engaging with the sprocket.

The sprocket looks like a gear but differs in three important ways:

1. Sprockets have many engaging teeth; gears usually have only one or two.

2. The teeth of a gear touch and slip against each other; there is basically no slippage

in a sprocket.

3. The shape of the teeth is different in gears and sprockets.

Fig 5.1Types of Sprockets

17
5.1 Engagement with Sprockets:

Although chains are sometimes pushed and pulled at either end by cylinders,

chains are usually driven by wrapping them on sprockets. In the following section, we

explain the relation between sprockets and chains when power is transmitted by

sprockets.

1. Back tension

First, let us explain the relationship between flat belts and pulleys. Figure 2.5

shows a rendition of a flat belt drive. The circle at the top is a pulley, and the belt

hangs down from each side. When the pulley is fixed and the left side of the belt is

loaded with tension (T0), the force needed to pull the belt down to the right side will

be:

T1 = T0 3 eµu

For example, T0 = 100 N: the coefficient of friction between the belt and

pulley, µ = 0.3; the wrap angle u = ¼ (180).

T1 = T0 3 2.566 = 256.6 N

In brief, when you use a flat belt in this situation, you can get 256.6 N of drive

power only when there is 100 N of back tension.

For elements without teeth such as flat belts or ropes, the way to get more drive power

is to increase the coefficient of friction or wrapping angle. If a substance, like grease

or oil, which decreases the coefficient of friction, gets onto the contact surface, the

belt cannot deliver the required tension.

18
 In the chain's case, sprocket teeth hold the chain roller. If the sprocket tooth

configuration is square, as in Figure 2.6, the direction of the tooth's reactive force is

opposite the chain's tension, and only one tooth will receive all the chain's tension.

Therefore, the chain will work without back tension.

Fig 5.2 Flat Belt Drive

Fig 5.3 Simplified Roller/Tooth Forces

19
 Fig 5.4 The Balance of Forces Around the Roller

But actually, sprocket teeth need some inclination so that the teeth can engage

and slip off of the roller. The balances of forces that exist around the roller are shown

in Figure 2.7, and it is easy to calculate the required back tension.

For example, assume a coefficient of friction µ = 0, and you can calculate the

back tension (Tk) that is needed at sprocket tooth number k with this formula:

Tk = T0 3 sin ø k-1 sin(ø + 2b) Where:

Tk= back tension at tooth k

T0 = chain tension

ø= sprocket minimum pressure angle 17 64/N(š)

N= number of teeth

2b = sprocket tooth angle (360/N)

k= the number of engaged teeth (angle of wrap 3 N/360); round down to the

nearest whole number to be safe

20
 By this formula, if the chain is wrapped halfway around the sprocket, the back

tension at sprocket tooth number six is only 0.96 N. This is 1 percent of the amount of

a flat belt. Using chains and sprockets, the required back tension is much lower than a

flat belt. Now let's compare chains and sprockets with a toothed-belt back tension.

Although in toothed belts the allowable tension can differ with the number of pulley

teeth and the revolutions per minute (rpm), the general recommendation is to use

1/3.5 of the allowable tension as the back tension (F). This is shown in below

Figure 2.8. Therefore, our 257 N force will require 257/3.5 = 73 N of back

tension.

Both toothed belts and chains engage by means of teeth, but chain's back

tension is only 1/75 that of toothed belts.

Fig 5.5 Back Tension on a Toothed Belt

5.2 Chain wear and jumping sprocket teeth

The key factor causing chain to jump sprocket teeth is chain wear elongation (see

Basics Section 2.2.4). Because of wear elongation, the chain creeps up on the sprocket

teeth until it starts jumping sprocket teeth and can no longer engage with the sprocket.

21
 Figure 2.9 shows sprocket tooth shape and positions of engagement. Figure

2.10 shows the engagement of a sprocket with an elongated chain.

In Figure 2.9 there are three sections on the sprocket tooth face:

a: Bottom curve of tooth, where the roller falls into place;

b: Working curve, where the roller and the sprocket are working together;

c: Where the tooth can guide the roller but can't transmit tension. If the roller, which

should transmit tension, only engages with C, it causes jumped sprocket teeth.

The chain's wear elongation limit varies according to the number of sprocket

teeth and their shape, as shown in Figure 2.11. Upon calculation, we see that

sprockets with large numbers of teeth are very limited in stretch percentage. Smaller

sprockets are limited by other harmful effects, such as high vibration and decreasing

strength; therefore, in the case of less than 60 teeth, the stretch limit ratio is limited to

1.5 percent (in transmission chain).

Fig 5.6 Sprocket Tooth Shape and Positions of Engagement

22
 Fig 5.7 The Engagement Between a Sprocket and

an Elongated Chain

Fig 5.8 Elongation Versus the Number of Sprocket Teeth

In conveyor chains, in which the number of working teeth in sprockets is less

than transmission chains, the stretch ratio is limited to 2 percent. Large pitch conveyor

chains use a straight line in place of curve B in the sprocket tooth face.

23
 A chain is a reliable machine component, which transmits power by means of

tensile forces, and is used primarily for power transmission and conveyance systems.

The function and uses of chain are similar to a belt. There are many kinds of chain. It

is convenient to sort types of chain by either material of composition or method of

construction.

We can sort chains into five types:

Cast iron chain.

Cast steel chain.

Forged chain.

Steel chain.

Plastic chain.

Demand for the first three chain types is now decreasing; they are only used in

some special situations. For example, cast iron chain is part of water-treatment

equipment; forged chain is used in overhead conveyors for automobile factories.

In this book, we are going to focus on the latter two: "steel chain," especially

the type called "roller chain," which makes up the largest share of chains being

produced, and "plastic chain." For the most part, we will refer to "roller chain" simply

as "chain."

NOTE: Roller chain is a chain that has an inner plate, outer plate, pin, bushing, and

roller.

In the following section of this book, we will sort chains according to their

uses, which can be broadly divided into six types:

24
 1. Power transmission chain.

2. Small pitch conveyor chain.

3. Precision conveyor chain.

4. Top chain.

5. Free flow chain.

6. Large pitch conveyor chain.

The first one is used for power transmission; the other five are used for

conveyance. In the Applications section of this book, we will describe the uses and

features of each chain type by following the above classification.

In the following section, we will explain the composition of power

transmission chain, small pitch chain, and large pitch conveyor chain. Because there

are special features in the composition of precision conveyor chain, top chain, and

free flow chain, checks the appropriate pages in the Applications section about these

features.

25
5.3 Basic Structure of Power Transmission Chain

A typical configuration for RS60-type chain is shown in Figure 1.1.

Fig 5.9 The Basic Components of Transmission Chain

Connecting Link

This is the ordinary type of connecting link. The pin and link plate are slip fit

in the connecting link for ease of assembly. This type of connecting link is 20 percent

lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. There are also some special connecting

links which have the same strength as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)

Tap Fit Connecting Link

In this link, the pin and the tap fit connecting link plate are press fit. It has

fatigue strength almost equal to that of the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)

26
Fig 5.10 Standard Connecting Link (top)

and Tap Fit Connecting Link (bottom)

27
Offset Link

An offset link is used when an odd number of chain links is required. It is 35

percent lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. The pin and two plates are slip

fit. There is also a two-pitch offset link available that has fatigue strength as great as

the chain itself. (See Figure 1.3)

Fig 5.11 Offset Link

28
 CHAPTER-6

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

6.1 Hydrogen Gas

Hydrogen gas is a volatile gas at room temperature, but when

chilled to -253C and compressed, it makes the perfect fuel. Hydrogen’s greatest

feature, as a fuel, is that it causes no pollution.

A hydrogen fuel cell works by combing hydrogen gas with atmospheric

oxygen. The resulting chemical reaction generates electric power, and the only by-

product it produces is clean water. At a time when there is real concern about global

warming due to carbon emissions, this makes hydrogen fuel a desirable technology

and perhaps the most feasible alternative to petrol and gasoline.

Many scientists and researches are working towards a vision of the hydrogen

economy. Hydrogen based fuel could potentially be used to run our cars or even drive

larger scale power plants, generating the electricity we need to light our buildings, run

our kettles and fridges, and power our computers. But hydrogen does not occur

naturally and it has to be processed. The big challenge is the large scale production

ofhydrogen in sustainable way. There are a number of challenges to be overcome

before hydrogen gas is common place as a fuel.

Hydrogen fuel is used to generate electricity, but conversely, electricity is

required to generate the hydrogen fuel. Electrolysis uses electricity to break water into

hydrogen and oxygen, with the two gases forming at opposite electrodes. Electricity is

also required to power the compression of the hydrogen and the refrigeration to chill it

to less than -200 degrees.

29
 However, this initial requirement of electricity could be generated sustainably

through

Wind power, biomass, tidal, hydro power or nuclear. Hydrogen can also be

generated by extracting it from natural gas, but this process generates carbon dioxide

and negates the main motivation for moving to hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles: ending

dependence on fossil fuels. Further exciting alternative technology at an early stage

in development is Solar Powered Hydrogen Generation utilizing water-splitting solar

panels.

30
6.2 HYDROGEN GAS FROM WATER MIXED WITH KOH:-

Here's some information on a simple homegrown method for producing pure

hydrogen gas. The beauty of this system, is that it uses a common inexpensive

chemical which is not consumed in the reaction, so it can be used again and again

almost indefinitely (if you use pure water in the reaction).

The chemical is Potassium hydroxide, commonly called caustic potash. It's

chemical formula is KOH, and its used to manufacture soaps, dyes, alkaline batteries,

adhesives, fertilizers, drain pipe cleaners, asphalt emulsions, and purifying industrial

gases.

The chemical reaction we are interested in occurs with water in the following

equation.

KOH + H2O = KOOH + H2

The balanced equation is

2KOH + 2H2O = 2KOOH + 2H2

Notice the free Hydrogen gas 2H2 which is stripped from the water added to

the KOH. Making this reaction more than a one-time event is the key to cheap

hydrogen production, which means controlling the reverse reaction to recover the

KOH without giving back the hydrogen. There is an easy way to do this however.

Stripping the Hydrogen from the water removed stored energy from the first

reaction, and it must be replaced to drive the reaction in the opposite direction,

31
butinstead of giving back the hydrogen gas we can give back the energy in another

form like solar radiation.

Fig 6.1 hydrogen gas production

32
 Thus, heating the KOOH in a solar cooker will produce the following reaction:

KOOH + HEAT --> KOH + O. The balanced reaction is 2KOOH + HEAT --> 2KOH

+ O2 Notice the free Oxygen gas released in this reaction.

The combined result of our double reaction cycle is the splitting of H20 into 2

free gases, and our initial Potassium Hydroxide is ready to be used again.

Furthermore, not only have we created a fuel supply, but also an oxygen

supply. Designing a continuous fuel supply system from this reaction cycle would

require 2 potassium hydroxide tanks. One for each reaction They would have to be

exchanged between reactions on a regular timed schedule.

Hydrogen production can be regulated with a flow control value from the H2O

storage tank. O2 production is regulated by heat input. Matching gas production with

consumption would reduce the size of tanks needed for surplus gas storage. I haven’t

done the exact calculations on how much potassium hydroxide is needed to supply the

average gas requirements per capita consumed in the US, but I am guessing that it

wouldn’t require very many pounds of KOH, so the system size could be pretty small.

The solar collector for the oxygen reaction would probably be the biggest component,

and I suggest a focusing solar collector be used for higher heat input.

There you have it, a non-polluting source of free hydrogen and oxygen from

nothing but the Sun and water!

33
 CHAPTER-7

BATTERY
7.1 INTRODUCTION:

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess solar

energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine

load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact for small

units with output less than one kilowatt.

Batteries seem to be the only technically and economically available storage means.

Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs. It is

necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy and

local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage of solar electricity

requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life

(3) High reliability

(4) High overall efficiency

(5) Low discharge

(6) Minimum maintenance

(A) Ampere hour efficiency

(B) Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel

for lighting the street .

34
CURRENT RATINGS:

Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge

currents they can supply for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be

maintained above a minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common rating

is ampere-hours (A.h.) based on a specific discharge time, which is often 8h. Typical

values for automobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h.

As an example, a 200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A,

used on 8h discharge. The battery can supply less current for a longer time or more

current for a shorter time. Automobile batteries may be rated for “cold cranking

power”, which is related to the job of starting the engine. A typical rating is 450A for

30s at a temperature of 0 degree F.

Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance,

200 A.h. corresponds to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s) then equals 720,000 A.S, or

coulombs. One ampere-second is equal to one coulomb. Then the charge equals

720,000 or 7.2*10^5ºC. To put this much charge back into the battery would require

20 hours with a charging current of 10A.

The ratings for lead-acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to

80ºF. Higher temperature increase the chemical reaction, but operation above 110ºF

shortens the battery life.

Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The

ampere-hour capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1º F

below normal temperature rating. At 0ºF the available output is only 60 % of the

ampere-hour battery rating. In cold weather, therefore, it is very important to have an

35
automobile battery unto full charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily

when diluted by water in the discharged condition.

7.2 CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY:

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source is

necessary to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must be

more than the battery e.m.f.

It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge

circuit. The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes,

driver by a belt from the engine. When you start the car, the battery supplies the

cranking power. Once the engine is running, the alternator charges the battery.

36
 CHAPTER-8

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

8.1 Fabrication Processes:

These are secondary manufacturing processes where the starting raw materials

are produced by any one of the previous manufacturing processes desired. Its

assembly involve joining pieces either temporary or permanent. So that they would be

perform the necessary function. The joining can be achieved by either or both of heat

and pressure joining materials. Many of the steel structure construction, we see are

first rolled and then joined together by a fabrication process are

· Gas welding

· Electric arc welding

· Electrical resistance welding

· Thermo welding

· Brazing welding

· Soldering welding

· Cold welding

37
8.2 Material removal processes:

These are also a secondary removal manufacturing process, where the

additional unwanted material is removed in the form of chips from the blank material

by a hard tools so as to obtain the final desired shape.

Material removal is normally a most expensive manufacturing process.

Because more energy is consumed and also a lot of waste material is generated in this

process. Still this process is widely used because it deliver very good dimensional

accuracy and good surface finished. Material removal process are also called

machining processes. Various processes in this category are

 Turning

 Drilling

 Shaping and planning

 Milling

 Grinding

 Broaching

 Sawing

 Trimming

38
8.3 WELDING:

Welding is a process of joining two metal pieces by the application of heat.

Welding is the least expensive process and widely used now a days in fabrication.

Welding joints different metals with the help of a number of processes in which heat

is supplied either electrically or by mean of a gas torch. Different welding processes

are used in the manufacturing of Auto mobiles bodies, structural work, tanks, and

general machine repair work. In the industries, welding is used in refineries and pipe

line fabrication. It may be called a secondary manufacturing process.

Classification of welding processes:

There are about 35 different welding and brazing process and several

soldering methods, in use by the industry today. There are various ways of classifying

the welding for example, they may be classified on the basis of source of heat (flames,

arc etc.)

In general various welding processes are classified as follows.

1: Gas Welding

(a): Air Acetylene

(b): Oxy Acetylene

(c): Oxy Hydrogen Welding

2: Arc Welding

(a): Carbon Arc welding

(b); Plasma Arc welding

(c): Shield Metal Arc Welding

(d): T.I.G. (Tungsten Inert Gas Welding)

3: Resistance Welding:

39
(a): Spot welding

(b): Seam welding

(c): Projection welding

4: Solid State Welding:

(a): Cold welding

(b): Diffusion welding

(c): Forge welding

(d): Fabrication welding

(e): Hot pressure welding

(f): Roll welding

6: Radiant Energy Welding

(a): Electric Beam Welding

(b): Laser Beam Welding

Welding Joints:

Fig 8.1 butt joint edge preparation method

40
 Fig 8.2 welding positions

8.4 DRILLING:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-

section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often

multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates from

hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge

against the workpiece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting motion,

though the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by hammering a

drill bit into the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The hammering

action can be performed from outside of the hole (top-hammer drill) or within the

hole (down-the-hole drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilling are called

drifter drills.

41
 CHAPTER-9

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The hydrogen gas is produced by mixing the KOH and water with the

help of cathode and anode terminals. The 12 volt battery supply is given to these

electrodes, so that the hydrogen is comes out from the negative terminal tank. This

output gas is dipped to the water tank so that hydrogen is produced. This will

explained in the above chapter.

Here's some information on a simple homegrown method for producing pure

hydrogen gas. The beauty of this system is that it uses a common inexpensive

chemical which is not consumed in the reaction, so it can be used again and again

almost indefinitely (if you use pure water in the reaction).

The chemical is Potassium hydroxide, commonly called caustic potash. It's

chemical formula is KOH, and its used to manufacture soaps, dyes, alkaline batteries,

adhesives, fertilizers, drain pipe cleaners, asphalt emulsions, and purifying industrial

gases.

The chemical reaction we are interested in occurs with water in the following

equation.

KOH + H2O = KOOH + H2

The balanced equation is

2KOH + 2H2O = 2KOOH + 2H2

42
 Notice the free Hydrogen gas 2H2 which is stripped from the water added to

the KOH. Making this reaction more than a one-time event is the key to cheap

hydrogen production, which means controlling the reverse reaction to recover the

KOH without giving back the hydrogen. There is an easy way to do this however.

Fig9.1 working principle

43
 CHAPTER-10

DESIGN,DRAWING AND CALCULATIONS

10.1 DESIGN OF BALL BEARING

Bearing No. 6202

Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 35 mm

Thickness of Bearing (B) = 12 mm

Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 15 mm

r₁ = Corner radii on shaft and

housing

r₁ = 1(From design data book)

Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (From

design data book)

Mean Diameter (dm) = (D + d) / 2

= (35 + 15) / 2

dm = 25 mm

44
 fig 10.1 bearing

fig10.2 bearing cap

45
10.2ENGINE DESIGN CALCULATIONS:-

DESIGN AND ANYLSIS ON TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

FOR TWO-STROKE ENGINE COMPONENT USING FINITE

ELEMENT METHOD:

10.3 SPECIFICATION OF FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE:

Type : four strokes

Cooling System : Air Cooled

Bore/Stroke : 50 x 50 mm

Piston Displacement : 98.2 cc

Compression Ratio : 6.6: 1

Maximum Torque : 0.98 kg-m at 5,500 RPM

CALCULATION:

Compression ratio = (Swept Volume + Clearance Volume)/ Clearance

Volume

Here,

Compression ratio = 6.6:1

∴ 6.6 = (98.2 + Vc)/Vc

46
 Vc = 19.64

Assumption:

1. The component gases and the mixture behave like ideal gases.

2. Mixture obeys the Gibbs-Dalton law

Pressure exerted on the walls of the cylinder by air is P₁

P₁ = (M₁RT)/V

Here,

M₁ = m/M = (Mass of the gas or air)/(Molecular

Weight)

R = Universal gas constant = 8.314 KJ/Kg mole

K.

T₁ = 303 ºK

V₁ = V = 253.28 x 10¯⁶ m³

Molecular weight of air = Density of air x V mole

Here,

Density of air at 303ºK = 1.165 kg/m³

V mole = 22.4 m³/Kg-mole for all gases.

∴Molecular weight of air = 1.165 x 22.4

47
 ∴P₁ = {[(m₁/(1.165 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/253.28 x 10¯⁶

P₁ = 381134.1 m₁

Let Pressure exerted by the fuel is P₂

P₂ = (N₂ R T)/V

Density of petrol = 800 Kg/m³

∴P₂ = {[(M₂)/(800 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/(253.28 x

10¯⁶

P₂ = 555.02 m₂

Therefore Total pressure inside the cylinder

PT = P₁ + P₂

= 1.01325 x 100 KN/m²

∴381134.1 m₁ + 555.02 m₂ = 1.01325 x 100 ------------------------- (1)

48
Calculation of air fuel ratio:

Carbon = 86%

Hydrogen = 14%

We know that,

1Kg of carbon requires 8/3 Kg of oxygen for the complete combustion.

1Kg of carbon sulphur requires 1 Kg of Oxigen for its complete combustion.

(From Heat Power Engineering-Balasundrrum)

Therefore,

The total oxygen requires for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel

= [ (8/3c) + (3H₂) + S] Kg

Little of oxygen may already present in the fuel, then the total oxygen required

for complete combustion of Kg of fuel

= { [ (8/3c) + (8H₂) + S ] - O₂} Kg

As air contains 23% by weight of Oxygen for obtain of oxygen amount of air

required = 100/23 Kg

∴Minimum air required for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel

= (100/23) { [ (8/3c) + H₂ + S] - O₂} Kg

So for petrol 1Kg of fuel requires = (100/23) { [ (8/3c) x 0.86 + (8 x

0.14) ] }

49
 = 14.84 Kg of air

∴Air fuel ratio = m₁/m₂ = 14.84/1

= 14.84

∴ m₁ = 14.84 m₂------------------------- (2)

Substitute (2) in (1)

1.01325 x 100 = 3.81134 (14.84 m₂) + 555.02 m₂

∴m₂ = 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg/Cycle

Mass of fuel flow per cycle = 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg cycle

Therefore,

Mass flow rate of the fuel for 2500 RPM

[(1.791 x 10¯⁵)/3600] x (2500/2) x 60

= 3.731 x 10¯⁴ Kg/sec

Calculation of calorific value:

By Delong’s formula,

Higher Calorific Value = 33800 C + 144000 H₂ + 9270 S

= (33800 x 0.86) + (144000 x 0.14) + 0

HCV = 49228 KJ/Kg

50
Lower Calorific Value = HCV – (9H₂ x 2442)

= 49228 – [(9 x 0.14) x 2442]

= 46151.08 KJ/Kg

LCV = 46.151 MJ/Kg

Finding Cp and Cv for the mixture:

We know that,

Air contains 77% N₂ and 23% O₂ by weight

But total mass inside the cylinder = m₁ + m₂

= 2.65 x 10¯⁴ + 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg

= 2.8291 x 10¯⁴ Kg

(1) Weight of nitrogen present = 77% = 0.77 Kg in 1 Kg of air

∴In 2.65 x 10¯⁴ Kg of air contains,

= 0.77 x 2.65 x 10¯⁴ Kg of N₂

= 2.0405 x 10¯⁴ Kg

Percent of N₂ present in the total mass

= (2.0405 x 10¯⁴/2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 72.125 %

51
 (1) Percentage of oxygen present in 1 Kg of air is 23%

Percentage of oxygen present in total mass

= (0.23 x 2.65 x 10¯⁴)/(2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 21.54 %

(2) Percentage of carbon present in 1 Kg of fuel 86%

Percentage of carbon present in total mass

= (0.866 x 1.791 x 10¯⁵)/(2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 5.444%

(3) Percentage of Hydrogen present in 1 Kg of fuel 14%

Percentage of Hydrogen present in total mass

= (0.14 x 1.791 x 10¯⁵)/(2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 0.886 %

Total Cp of the mixture is = ∑msi Cpi

Cp = (0.72125 x 1.043) + (0.2154 x 0.913)

+ (0.54444 x 0.7) + (8.86 x 10¯³ x 14.257)

Cp = 1.1138 KJ/Kg.K

Cv = ∑msi Cvi

= (0.72125 x 0.745) + (0.2154 x 0.653)

+ (0.05444 x 0.5486) + (8.86 x 10¯³ x 10.1333)

= 0.8 KJ/Kg.K

52
(All Cvi, Cpi values of corresponding components are taken from clerks table)

n For the mixture = (Cp/Cv)

= 1.11/0.8

n = 1.38

Pressure and temperature at various PH:

P₁ = 1.01325 x 100 bar

= 1.01325 bar

T₁ = 30ºC = 303 K

P₂/P₁ = (r)ⁿ¯¹

Where,

P₁ = 1.01325 bar

r = 6.6

n = 1.38

∴P₂ = 13.698 bar

T₂ = (r)ⁿ¯¹ x T₁

Where,

T₁ = 303 K

∴T₂ = 620.68 K

53
Where,

T₁ = 303 K

∴T₂ = 620.68 K

P 4

Heat Supplied by the fuel per cycle

Q = MCv

= 1.79 x 10¯⁵ x 46151.08

Q = 0.8265 KJ/Cycle

0.8265 = MCv (T₃ - T₂)

T₃ = 4272.45 K

(P₂ V₂) / T₂ = (P₃ V₃) / T₃

Where,

54
 V₂ = V₃

∴P₃ = (T₃ x P₂)/T₂

Where,

P₃ = 94.27 bar

P₄ = P₃ / (r)ⁿ

∴P₄ = 6.973 bar

T₄ = T₃ / (r)ⁿ¯¹

= 2086.15 K

POINT PRESSURE (bar) TEMPERATURE

POSITION

POINT-1 1.01325 30 ºC 303 K

POINT-2 13.698 347.68 ºC 620.68 K

POINT-3 94.27 3999.45 ºC 4272.45 K

POINT-4 6.973 1813.15 ºC 2086.15 K

Table 10.1

55
10.4 DESIGN OF ENGINE PISTON:

We know diameter of the piston which is equal to 50 mm

Thickness of piston:

The thickness of the piston head is calculated from flat-plate theory

Where,

t = D (3/16 x P/f)½

Here,

P - Maximum combustion pressure =

100 bar

f - Permissible stress in tension = 34.66

N/mm²

Piston material is aluminium alloy.

∴t = 0.050 (3/16 x 100/34.66 x 10⁶/10⁵)½ x 1000

= 12 mm

Number of Piston Rings:

No. of piston rings = 2 x D½

Here,

D - Should be in Inches = 1.968 inches

∴ No. of rings = 2.805

56
We adopt 3 compression rings and 1 oil rings

Thickness of the ring:

Thickness of the ring = D/32

= 50/32

= 1.5625 mm

Width of the ring:

Width of the ring = D/20

= 2.5 mm

The distance of the first ring from top of the piston equals

= 0.1 x D

= 5 mm

Width of the piston lands between rings

= 0.75 x width of ring = 1.875 mm

Length of the piston:

Length of the piston = 1.625 x D

Length of the piston = 81.25 mm

Length of the piston skirt =Total length – Distance of first ring from top of

The first ring (No. of landing between rings x

Width of land) – (No. of compression ring x

57
 Width of ring)

= 81.25 – 5 – 2 x 1.875 – 3 x 2.5

= 65 mm

Other parameter:

Centre of piston pin above the centre of the skirt = 0.02 x D

= 65 mm

The distance from the bottom of the piston to the

Centre of the piston pin = ½ x 65 + 1

= 33.5 mm

Thickness of the piston walls at open ends = ½ x 12

= 6 mm

The bearing area provided by piston skirt = 65 x 50

= 3250 mm²

58
Figure 10.3 engine spraket

fig 10.4 wheel shaft spraket

59
fig 10.5 frame

60
fig 10.6 block diagram

61
 2D DRAWING

Fig10.7 2d modelling

62
fig10.8 2d drawing of model

63
 CHAPTER-11

LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl. No. PARTS Qty. Material

i. Frame Stand 1 Mild Steel

ii. LPG Tank 1 M.S

iii. Hydrogen Gas Tank 1 -

iv. Bearing with Bearing Cap 1 M.S

v. Engine 1 75 Cc

vi Chain with Sprocket 1 M.S

viii. Connecting Tube 1 meter Plastic

ix. Bolt and Nut - M.S

x Wheel Arrangement 1 -

Xi Battery 1 Lead Acid

Xi Electrode 2 Steel

Xii KOH - -

Xiii Distilled Water - -

Table 11.1

64
 CHAPTER-12

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

12.1 ADVANTAGES

 It requires simple maintenance cares

 This method is fuel saving method

 Checking and cleaning are easy, because of the main parts are screwed.

 Repairing is easy.

 Replacement of parts is easy.

 To reduce the NOx or carbon monoxide emissions.

12.2 DISADVANTAGES

 Initial cost is required to install this testing equipment.

 Some coolant oil require to mix into water tank

12.3 APPLICATIONS

 Two wheeler Application

 Four wheeler Applications

 Hydrogen cars are beneficial for the environment in a number of ways. For

example, they do not emit greenhouse gases that are harmful for the welfare of

the ecosystem. These cars are much more fuel efficient than gasoline vehicles,

and let out less pollution overall. However, there are many drawbacks to using

65
 hydrogen-powered vehicles, though scientists are working to eliminate these

downsides.

GOING GREEN

 The main objective of using hydrogen cars is to save the environment from the

negative impacts of burning fossil fuels. According to greenliving.com,

hydrogen fuel is better because it does not release carbon dioxide into the air.

Hydrogen cars also give more mileage as compared to gasoline-powered

vehicles; for example, a car using hydrogen fuel can go up to twice the

mileage as a gasoline car on the same amount of fuel.

ENGINE DURABILITY

 Another advantage of hydrogen cars is the engine's strength and durability.

Many other types of engines cannot work properly in high temperatures, and

tend to overheat. Hydrogen engines, however, can work in extremely high

temperatures, plus the engines do not corrode as easily as their gasoline

counterparts.

COST

 There is a disadvantage around the cost of hydrogen fuel: the initial

expenditure to convert the infrastructure from gasoline to hydrogen is huge. It

would cost billions of dollars to replace all of the current gas stations with

hydrogen fueling stations.

66
HYDROGEN AVAILABILITY

 Another disadvantage of hydrogen fuel cars is the difficulty of obtaining liquid

hydrogen to use as a fuel. Hydrogen is not readily gotten from air, so it must

be obtained from water molecules. There are several ways for hydrogen to be

extracted from water, but none are efficient and all are very expensive.

HYDROGEN STORAGE

 Hydrogen storage is another problem. It takes enormous amounts of space to

store liquid hydrogen. Research is in process on how to more effectively store

hydrogen in vehicles, but the solution is yet to be found. According to

greenliving.com, several companies have invested billions of dollars in the

development of efficient hydrogen fuel cells which will carry more hydrogen

fuel in a vehicle.

67
 CHAPTER-13

CONCLUSION
The project adventured by us is the one that can be used for both Petrol and

water , we have entered to this project. We have done the project to simple in

construction by low expenses.

This is one of the advantageous project conserving the cost and low fuel cost.

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use our

limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning,

purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that

the project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and

industries.

We are proud that we are able to increase efficiency and complete the work

successfully. The WATER FUEL ENGINE WITH POWER GENERATION is

working with satisfactory conditions. We are able to understand the difficulties in

maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We have done to our ability and skill

making maximum use of available facilities. In conclusion remarks of our project

work, let us add a few more lines about our impression project work. Thus we have

developed an “WATER FUEL ENGINE WITH POWER GENERATION” which

helps to know how to achieve low fuel cost to run the vehicle.

68
PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE MODEL

69
 REFERENCES
Dempsey, J. "Module 9: Acts, Codes, Regulations and Guidelines." Energy
Technology Training Center College of the Desert, 2001.
Greenhalgh, D.A.; Haq, M.Z.; Lockett, R.D.; Sheppard, C.G.W.; Wooley, R.
"Wrinkling and Curvature of Laminar and Turbulent Premixed Flames." Combustion
and Flame. 2002, pp. 131, 1-15.
Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw Hill,1988.
[4]. Eickhoff, H. "Analysis of Turbulent Burning Velocity." Combustion and Flame,
2002, pp. 128, 347-350. [5].
Keller, J.; Lutz, A. Hydrogen Fueled Engines in Hybrid Vehicles. SAE,2001
[6]. Buchner, H.; Kulsheimer, J. "Combustion Dynamics of Turbulent Swirling
Flames." Combustion and Flame. 2002, pp. 131, 70-84.
[7]. Heffel, J.; Kabat, D.; Natkin, R.; Stockhausen, W.; Tang, X. Ford P2000
Hydrogen Engine Dynamometer Development. SAE, 2002.
[8]. Hiruma, M.; Nakajima, Y.; Shudo, T.; Takagi, Y.; Yamane, K. Research and
Development of a Hydrogen-Fueled Engine for Hybrid Electric Vehicles.SAE, 2001.
[9]. Cheng, R.K.; Shepard, I.G. "The Burning Rate of Premixed Flames in Moderate
and Intense Turbulence." Combustion and Flame, 2001, pp. 127, 2066 - 2075.
[10]. Drake, M.C.; Fansler, T.D.; Roberts, W.L.; Xiong, Y. "Investigation of Pre-
Mixed Flame-Kernel/Vortex Interactions via High-Speed Imaging." Combustion and
Flame, 2001, pp. 126, 1827-1844.
[11]. Armfield, J.S.; Domingo, N.; Green, J.B.; Storey, J.M.E.; Wagner, R.M.
Experimental Evaluation of SI Engine Operation Supplemented by Hydrogen Rich
Gas From a Compact Plasma Boosted Reformer. SAE, 2000.
[12]. Kababt, Daniel M.; Natkin, Robert J.; Stockhausen, William F. Ford P2000
Hydrogen Engine Design and Vehicle Development Program. SAE, 2002.
[13]. Thaller, M.; Council. "Air and Space Propulsion." California Hydrogen
Business Council, 2003, p. 7.
[14]. Woolsey, J. "Hydrogen and National Security." California Hydrogen Business
Council, 2003, p. 8.
[15]. Heffel, J. "Latest Advances in Hydrogen: How Terrorism Has Accelerated Fuel
Cells and Renewable Energy." California Hydrogen Business Council, 2003.
[16]. Gorman, J. "Creating Hydrogen." California Hydrogen Business Council, 2003.
[17]. Failey, P. "Hydrogen Storage." California Hydrogen Business Council, 2003, p.
3.

70
 [18]. Shmidt, D. "Hydrogen Vehicles." California Hydrogen Business Council,
2003,p. 4.
[19]. Matheson Gas Products, Pamphlet: How to Use Your Lecture Bottle, 100M7/72
[20]. Matheson Gas Products, Pamphlet: How to Open and Close Cylinders of
Corrosive Gases, 1974
[21]. Matheson Gas Products, Pamphlet: Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in the
Laboratory, 1961
[22]. Compressed Gas Association, Inc., Pamphlet C-6: Standards for Visual
Inspection of Compressed Gas Cylinders, 1984
[23]. Compressed Gas Association, Inc., Pamphlet P-1: Safe Handling of Compressed
Gases, 1991
[24]. Compressed Gas Association, Inc., Pamphlet C-7: Precautionary Labeling and
Marking of Compressed Gas Cylinders, 1992
[25]. Compressed Gas Association, Inc., Pamphlet S-1.1: Pressure Relief Device
Standards Part 1 -Cylinders for Compressed Gases, 1989
[26]. Compressed Gas Association, Inc., Pamphlet V-9: Standard for Compressed
Gas Cylinder Valves, 1991
[27]. Compressed Gas Association, Inc., Pamphlet G-1: Acetylene, 1990

71