Operating systems

An operating system (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides
common services for computer programs. The operating system is an essential component of the system
software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to function

Single- and multi-tasking

A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking operating system allows more
than one program to be running in concurrency. This is achieved by time-sharing, dividing the available processor
time between multiple processes which are each interrupted repeatedly in time-slices by a task scheduling
subsystem of the operating system

Batch operating system

The users of batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an
off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar
needs are batched together and run as a group.

Distributed operating System

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Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real time application and multiple users. Data
processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly to perform each job most efficiently.

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Network operating System

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Network Operating System runs on a server and provides server the capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to
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allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN).
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Real Time operating System
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Real time system is defines as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and respond
to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. Real time processing is always on line whereas on line system
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need not be real time. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as response time. So in this method response time is very less as compared to the online
processing.
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GUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics and icons and is commonly
navigated by using a computer mouse.
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Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer processor

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Need for interrupts

An interrupt is a signal from a device attached to a computer or from a program within the computer that causes
the main program that operates the computer (the operating system) to stop and figure out what to do next.
Almost all personal (or larger) computers today are interrupt-driven

The use of interrupts is widespread in any computer system. Any device e.g. a printer or a keyboard can use an
interrupt to signal that it needs the attention of the processor.

The interrupts are handled by a program called, interrupt service routine (ISR). An operating system usually has
some code that is called an interrupt handler. The interrupt handler prioritizes the interrupts and saves them in
a queue if more than one is waiting to be handled. The operating system has another little program, sometimes
called a scheduler that figures out which program to give control to next.

In general, there are hardware interrupts and software interrupts. A hardware interrupt occurs, for example,
when an I/O operation is completed such as reading some data into the computer from a tape drive. For example,
pressing a key on the keyboard or moving the mouse triggers hardware interrupts that cause the processor to
read the keystroke or mouse position.

A software interrupt occurs when an application program terminates or requests certain services from the
operating system. For example, if the processor's arithmetic logic unit is commanded to divide a number by zero,

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this impossible demand will cause a divide-by-zero exception, perhaps causing the computer to abandon the
calculation or display an error message.

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Timer interrupt

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Generated by an internal clock indicating that the processor must attend to time critical activities
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High level language

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Compiler
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A compiler takes a whole program written in a high-level language and translates into an
equivalent program in machine code. Once this is done, the machine code version can be
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loaded into the machine and run without any further help as it is complete in itself. The
high-level language version of the program is usually called the source code and the
resulting machine code program is called the object code. The relationship between them is
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shown in the following Figure

Source Code Object Code

COMPILER
(High-Level Language) (Machine Language)

Advantages of compiler

 The final object (.exe) file can easily be distributed to many users.
 Once the .exe file is produced, users do not need the compiler software
 Users have no sight of the original source code so no risk of code being changed.

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Disadvantages of compiler

 The final object file can only be produced when all error in source code have been
located and fixed
 The compilation process uses a lot of computer resources
 During compilation the memory should contain compiler software along with source
and object code.

Interpreter

Computer language processor that translates a program line-by-line (statement-by-

statement) and carries out the specified actions in sequence. Each instruction is executed
before the next instruction is identified.

Advantage of interpreter
 The programmer can run the program at any time before all the code has been
written.
 Debugging is generally easy and faster using an interpreter.

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Disadvantages

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 Execution of a program is slow compared to compiled program because original
program has to be translated every time it is executed
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The interpreter software has to be present in memory every time an attempt is made
to run the program.
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Low level programming
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A machine language or an assembly language. Low-level languages are closer to

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the hardware than are high-level programming languages, which are closer to human
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languages.
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Assembly language
An assembly language is a low-level programming language for a computer, or other
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programmable device. Each assembly language is specific to particular computer

architecture, in contrast to most high-level programming languages, which are
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generally portable across multiple architectures, but require interpreting or compiling.

Assembly language is converted into executable machine code by a utility program referred
to as an assembler; the conversion process is referred to as assembly, or assembling the
code. Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine instruction
or operation e.g.

Label Function Address Comments

LDA X Load the accumulator with the value of X

ADD Y Add the value of Y to the accumulator

STA Z Store the result in Z

STOP Stop the program

X: 20 Value of X = 20

Y: 35 Value of Y = 35

Z: Location for result

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Machine language

Machine code, also known as machine language, is the elemental language of computers,
comprising a long sequence of binary digital zeros and ones (bits).

Machine language VS Assembly language

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