Three Day Course 2 B

Archie’s Equation
Saturation Exponent
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Archie’s Equation
• Saturation Exponent
• Archie observed
• Resistivity(Sw) / Resistivity(Sw=100%) = 1 / Sw n
• Analogous to his cementation exponent correlation
• Resistivity(Formation) / Resistivity(Brine) = 1 / φ m
The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4
1
Archie’s Equation
• Archie observed Resistivity(Sw) / Resistivity(Sw=100%) = 1 / Sw n
•Archie’s data. Note that he
was classifying his samples
back in 1952
•Type 1 limestone
•ResRatio = R(Sw)/R(wet)
•Sw from core that was cut with
oil base mud
• Exhibit following
G E Archie: Classification of Carbonate Reservoir Rocks and Petrophysical Considerations, AAPG Bulletin Vol 36 No 2
(1952): 278 - 296
Archie’s Equation
Sw vs RI
100%
n=2
Saturation
10%
1%
1 10 100 1000
Resistivity Index • Similar, but not identical, to
reference graphic at left - following
•Two Decades by Four Decades
exhibit
•Archie Equation for ‘n’=2 displayed in
comparable format for comparison
(1952): 278 - 296
2
Archie’s Equation
Sw vs RI
100%
1.8
Saturation
10%
1%
1 10 100 1000
Resistivity Index • Archie’s limestone data corresponds
to ‘n’ ~ 1.7 => 1.8
•Archie Equation for ‘n’=1.8 displayed in
comparable format for comparison
•REB comments: Many historical data sets are displayed in the ‘format of the day’, and
require a conversion to allow easy comparison to other data sets or routine parameters.
(1952): 278 - 296
Archie’s Equation
•Additional data sets were also available and reviewed

• Leverett’s (of J-Function fame) 1939 Sandstone data
• Cast in terms of conductivity - Leverett’s data suggests that n ~ 2 :
details in following exhibits
M C Leverett: Flow of Oil-Water Mixtures Through Unconsolidated Sands, Petroleum Transactions of the AIME, 132
(1939): 149-171. The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4
3
Archie’s Equation
•Additional data sets were also available and reviewed

• Leverett’s Sandstone data
• Cast in terms of conductivity - Leverett’s data suggests that n ~ 2 :
graphical comparison following exhibit
Sw^(-n) = R(Sw) / R(Sw=1)
n
2
•Spreadsheet calculates both Resistivity R_Indx Sw C_Indx
100.00 10% 0.01
Index and Conductivity Index, associated 20.00 22% 0.05
with specific saturations, assuming 10.00 32% 0.10
5.00 45% 0.20
‘n’=2.0 3.33 55% 0.30
2.50 63% 0.40
•The resulting graphic (following exhibit) 2.00
1.67
71%
77%
0.50
0.60
can then be compared to Leverett’s 1.43 84% 0.70
1.25 89% 0.80
historical results 1.11 95% 0.90
1.00 100% 1.00
Archie’s Equation
• Additional data sets were also reviewed
• Leverett’s Sandstone data
• Cast in terms of conductivity - Leverett’s data suggests that n ~ 2
Leverett's Data
100%
90%
80%
70%
Sa tura tio n
60%
50%
n=2
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Conductivity Ratio
4
Archie’s Equation
• Cementation exponent represents pore system tortuosity in a brine
saturated sample
• Saturation exponent represents tortuosity of the (conductive) brine
phase of a brine-hydrocarbon mix saturated sample
Archie’s Equation
• Saturation exponent represents tortuosity of the brine phase of a brine-
hydrocarbon mix saturated sample
• Wettability will have an obvious influence
• Current flow in an oil wet rock is more tortuous and ‘n’ will be higher
5
Archie’s Equation
• The carbonate reservoirs of the Middle East (and elsewhere) are

characterized by mixed wettabilities
•micropores are water-wet and filled with irreducible water
•macropores contain oil and may be oil wet.
Middle East Well Evaluation Review: No 17, 1996
Archie’s Equation
• The carbonate reservoirs of the Middle East are characterized by mixed

wettabilities - micropores are water-wet and filled with irreducible
water, while macropores contain oil and may be oil wet.
• The microporosity systems often dominate resistivity measurements

from logs, giving apparent saturation calculations which are
inconsistent with production data, e.g. dry oil from a zone with
computed Sw greater than 70%
6
Archie’s Equation
• Experimental evidence indicates that, in the presence of oil and water,
carbonate particles adsorb an organic coating
• Over several million years it is possible for carbonates to change from
being water-wet to being oil-wet
•Conceptual variation of
wettability with water & oil
content, during the development
and exploitation of a carbonate
reservoir
•Oil migration begins to take
place and contacts the larger
pores
Middle East Well Evaluation Review: Number 20, 1997
Archie’s Equation
• Experimental evidence indicates that, in the presence of oil and water,
carbonate particles adsorb an organic coating
• Over several million years it is possible for carbonates to change from
being water-wet to being oil-wet
•Oil migration
continues and
contacts yet
more (smaller)
pores, but does
not penetrate
into the
microporosity
7
Archie’s Equation
•The nature of the porosity above the FWL can control wettability and
saturation
• Microporosity above the FWL typically water-wet
• Macroporosity can be oil-wet
• Mesopores: wettability variable and dependant on oil column
thickness.
• The saturation exponent ‘n’ is a function of wettability and the
saturation found in each porosity type.
• Variations in ‘n’ may thus occur within a carbonate sequence, at least
across the oil–water transition zone
Archie’s Equation
• Soviet Baku Sand - more data
• Published in Russian - 1941
• Published in English - 1948
• No experimental details but
gave early hint that n can be
variable
H Guyod: Electrical Logging Developments in the USSR, World Oil (August 1948): 110-120
8
Archie’s Equation
• Carbonate (Sweeney & Jennings)
• Experimental wettability controlled
by flushing (Lab details n/a)
• Slope (saturation exponent)
greater for oil wet rock, than water
wet rock
• Oil wet data displays a knee
(discussed later)
Carbonate

S A Sweeney and H Y Jennings Jr: The Electrical Resistivity of Preferentially Water-Wet and Preferentially Oil-Wet
Carbonate Rock, Producers Monthly 24, No 7 (May 1960): 29-32
Archie’s Equation
• Carbonate (Sweeney & Jennings)
• Two point formulation of straight line
[y - y(1)]/[y(2) - y(1)] = [x - x(1)]/[x(2) - x(1)]
y = y(1) + [y(2) - y(1)] * [x - x(1)]/[x(2) - x(1)]
y=m*x+b
m = Slope = [y(2) - y(1)] / [x(2) - x(1)]
Remember - take logarithm as necessary
Oil Wet “n” ~ 11

Water Wet “n” ~ 1.6
Carbonate
•REB comments: Note the ratio is less
than Two Decades by One Decade,
hence ‘n’ < 2.
9
Archie’s Equation
• More evidence of n variability
(Keller)
• Lab work verified in the Field
(following exhibit)
• Third Bradford Sand
• Experimental wettability controlled by
flushing (Lab details n/a)
• Water wet: 1.5 < ~ n < ~ 2.3
• Oil wet: 8.9 < ~ n < ~ 11.7
• Knee discussed later
G V Keller: Effect of Wettability on the Electrical Resistivity of Sand, Oil & Gas Journal 51 (January 5, 1953): 62-65
Archie’s Equation
• Measurements performed in the field on fresh cut core (left)
• Field results span range similar to laboratory findings (right)
Keller’s Lab
Field
Data
From preceding exhibit

G V Keller: Effect of Wettability on the Electrical Resistivity of Sand, Oil & Gas Journal 51 (January 5, 1953): 62-65
10
Archie’s Equation
• The Knee?
• Present in oil wet rock for both data sets (but at different saturations) and can bend
in different directions
• Present in water wet rock for one data set (Keller, at right, but not Sweeney’s)
Keller’s Data
Sweeney’s Data
Archie’s Equation
• The Knee?
• Sweeney - Jennings noted that
their water wet samples had large
well-connected pores and
hypothesized that was why no
knee was observed
• They further postulated that the
oil wet data was reflecting a
variation in attributes associated
with particular pore size
populations
Carbonate
Sweeney’s Data
11
Archie’s Equation
• The Knee?
• The n exponent reflects the
attributes of the pore system whose
hydrocarbon-water content is
changing, at a particular saturation
• Different pore systems may
exhibit different behavior, so that
the exponent will change across
the corresponding range of
saturations
Carbonate
Sweeney’s Data
Archie’s Equation
• Sweeney - Jennings noted that their water wet samples had large well-connected
pores and hypothesized that was why no knee was observed
• They further postulated that the oil wet data was reflecting a variation in attributes
associated with particular pore size populations
Not contacted by oil
• Microporosity above the FWL
typically water-wet
• Macroporosity can be oil-wet
• Mesopores: wettability
variable and dependant on oil
column thickness.
• The saturation exponent ‘n’ is
a function of wettability and the
saturation found in each
porosity type.
12
Archie’s Equation Shyb 271 Saturation
Carbonate Saturation Exponent
Exponent
1000
• Modern limestone data n = 3.0
1051 n=1.9
All1052
samples
n=3.0
1054 n=2.6
from similar
113 n=1.8
71 n=1.9
depositional
• All data from same well 69 n=1.5
facies
& depositional facies
100
Resistivity Index
• All data acquired at n = 1.5
same time and analyzed
in same fashion 10
1
0.01 0.1 1
Water Saturation
• All data analyzed (cleaned) in same fashion

(rendered water wet).
• Be aware of Lab Procedures.
Archie’s Equation Shyb 271 Saturation

Carbonate Saturation Exponent
Exponent
• Modern carbonate data 1000 1051 n=1.9

All1052
samples
n=3.0
n = 3.0 1054 n=2.6
•If ‘n’=1.5, an RI of 10 from similar

113 n=1.8
71 n=1.9
depositional
69 n=1.5
corresponds to Sw ~ 21% facies
•If ‘n’=3.0, RI=10 100

Resistivity Index
corresponds to Sw ~ 45%
n = 1.5
•The higher ‘n’ reflects a
more tortuous path, which 10
requires a higher Sw if the
resistivity is to remain the
same
1
0.01 0.1 1
Water Saturation
• All data acquired at same time and cleaned in same

fashion (rendered water wet)
• Indicates there is an additional attribute (beyond
depositional environment and wettability) - following
exhibit
13
Archie’s Equation
• Grain Surface Effects
• Investigated by Diederix after he observed
‘knees’ in some (but not all) of his Rotliegend
Sandstone
• An SEM revealed the ‘knee’ correlated with
the presence of micro-porous clay coating the
grains
• Samples with smooth grains had no ‘knee’
• Diederix theorized that the rough surface
would ‘hold’ water longer, and offer a more
conductive current path (lower n)
The theory is
one of surface
roughness, and
not one of clay
K M Diederix: Anomalous Relationships Between Resistivity Index and conductivity
Water Saturations in the Rotliegend Sandstone (The Netherlands),
Transactions of the SPWLA 23rd Annual Logging Symposium, Corpus
Christi, Texas, July 6-9, 1982, Paper X
Archie’s Equation
• Diederix simulated grain roughness
effects in the lab, with smooth and
rough glass beads
• Both bead packs water wet
• Rough surface beads exhibit ‘knee’
just as the clay-coated sand grains did
``
• Rough grain surface leads to lower
saturation exponent

K M Diederix: Anomalous Relationships Between Resistivity Index and
Water Saturations in the Rotliegend Sandstone (The Netherlands),
Transactions of the SPWLA 23rd Annual Logging Symposium, Corpus
Christi, Texas, July 6-9, 1982, Paper X
14
Archie’s Equation
• Rough surface beads offer a lower resistivity
path for current flow, at low water saturations,
than does a similarly water wet smooth grain
surface
Rough Surface Smooth Surface
The theory is
•Diederix theorized that the rough surface would one of surface
‘hold’ water longer, and offer a more conductive roughness, and
current path (lower n) not one of clay
conductivity
K M Diederix: Anomalous Relationships Between Resistivity Index and Water Saturations in the Rotliegend Sandstone (The
Netherlands), Transactions of the SPWLA 23rd Annual Logging Symposium, Corpus Christi, Texas, July 6-9, 1982, Paper X
Archie’s Equation
• Ben Swanson modeled the relation, putting micro-porosity in a circuit with
intergranular porosity, and produced a conceptual relation
• Discussion follows
• Small pores (as an

approximation to
rough surfaces)
will affect both
electrical current
flow and capillary
pressure curves.
Capillary Pressure Resistivity Index

B F Swanson: Microporosity in Reservoir Rocks - It’s Measurement and Influence on Electrical Resistivity, Transactions of
the SPWLA 26th Annual Logging Symposium, Dallas, June 17-20, 1985, paper H
15
Archie’s Equation
• Small pores will affect both electrical current flow and capillary pressure curves.
• Capillary pressure curve is the composite of the two pore systems
Modeling Results
• Left: Micropores
(rough surface)
begin to contribute
to ‘rock’ response
at ~ 1000 psi, at
which point the
water saturation is
~ 25 %
• Following
Exhibit

Archie’s Equation
• Small pores will affect both electrical current flow and capillary pressure curves.
• Capillary pressure curve is the composite of the two pore systems
Modeling Results
• Left: Micropores
begin to contribute to
‘rock’ response at ~
1000 psi, at which
point the water
saturation is ~ 25 %
• Right: RI ‘bends
over’ as the
micropores (rough
surface) come into
play at ~ 25 su
16
Archie’s Equation
• Swanson’s laboratory data
• Swanson found that the RI - Sw trend consistently changed slope at the saturation
where the capillary pressure curve indicated a transition from intergranular to micro-
porosity
Lab Results - displayed at different scale
• Left: Micropores begin
to contribute to ‘rock’
response at ~ 2000 psi, at
which point the water
saturation is ~ 25 %
• Right: Resistivity Index
‘bends over’ as the
micropores come into
play at ~ 25 su

Archie’s Equation
• Grain surface texture can be reflected in the saturation exponent
• Improper(routine) core drying can artificially destroy an inherent
rough surface, leading to a Laboratory ‘n’ that is too high

P F Worthington, J E Toussaint-Jackson, N Pallat: Effect of Sample Preparation Upon Saturation Exponent in the Magnus
Field, UK North Sea, Transactions of the 10th European Formation Evaluation Symposium, Aberdeen, Scotland, April 22-
25, 1986, paper w
17
Archie’s Equation
• History effects
• Most experimental work simulates
brine drainage - hydrocarbon
charging, of the rock
• Longeron et al flushed water wet
sand (graphic) and carbonate
through multiple cycles, finding the
history effect shown at right
• Associated saturation
calculations would vary by 5 su,
depending upon which slope was
used for ‘n’
D G Longeron, M J Argaud, J-P Feraud: Effect of Oberburden Pressure, Nature, and Microscopic Distribution of the Fluids
on Electrical Properties of Rock Samples, paper SPE 15383, presented at the 61st SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, October 5-8, 1986. The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4
Archie’s Equation
• Summary of Saturation Exponent
• Dependent upon
• Wettability: n increases as rock become oil wet
• Grain surface texture: n decreases as surface becomes rough
• Laboratory cleaning: may render the sample water wet (ie non-
representative of reservoir conditions)
• Core drying: can artificially destroy the inherent rough surface,
leading to a Laboratory ‘n’ that is too high
• Pore size distribution: each distribution can have its own attributes,
and those attributes will control the capillary pressure / resistivity
index as the Sw change encompasses the corresponding pore system
• Displacement history: an additional issue
18
Dad, you’re not gonna like what happens next.....
I NEED A BREAK
OK Jimmy, can
you hang on for
just a little bit
longer …..
19
20
Archie’s Equation
Topical Conference on Low Resistivity Pay in Carbonates

Abu Dhabi, 30th Jan. – 2nd Feb. 2005
Highlights of Discussions
•Low Resistivity Pay (LRP) and Low Contrast Pay (LCP) are closely related
concepts.
•Low Contrast Pay is the more general term and applies when it is difficult to
determine whether a formation will flow oil or water. This may occur because there is
little difference between the resistivity of oil and water bearing intervals, or because
there is little contrast in the resistivity between pay beds and surrounding non-reservoir
rock such as shales. The absolute value of the resistivity in LCP may be moderately
high – particularly when the formation water is very fresh.
•Low Resistivity Pay is the special case of LCP when the absolute value of the
resistivity is also low – below 1-2 Ohm-m as a general rule of thumb. Consequently, it
is most frequently encountered in areas with saline formation waters. In extreme
cases the resistivity may be so low that pay zones are overlooked since the calculated
water saturations are very high – or 100%.
Courtesy Chris Smart (British Petroleum) & Asbjorn Gyllensten (SPWLA Regional Director Europe & Middle East)
Archie’s Equation
•Two end-member types of Low Resistivity Pay may be identified
•Type 1: Pay where the water saturation as calculated from the resistivity (using
normal Archie methods) is incorrect and overestimates the true water saturation of
the formation.
•The issue is then is to find improved methods for calculating the true water
saturation – either by modification of the calculation algorithm used from the
resistivity, or possibly by obtaining saturation data by an alternative and
independent means.
normal methods) is correct, but very high.
•The issue is then to understand why the water is effectively not mobile – and to
develop some means for predicting which rocks will flow dry oil and which will
flow wet – from rocks with the same water saturations.
21
Archie’s Equation
•Type 1. Pay where the water saturation as calculated from the resistivity (using
normal Archie methods) is incorrect and overestimates the true water saturation of the
formation.
•Type 2. Pay where the water saturation as calculated from the resistivity (using
•Frequently, the truth may represent some combination of the two above explanations,
which are best regarded as end-members of a distribution. However, the distinction
remains useful since the diagnosis required depends on which of the two causes is the
more important.
•It was generally agreed that true water saturations of LRP were only rarely less than
50% -- though they may range up to 80% and even higher than this -- in some extreme
cases
Archie’s Equation
•Causes of Low Resistivity Pay (in Carbonates)
•Five distinct causes of LRP were identified. There was a consensus that they could
be ranked in terms of importance and frequency of occurrence. The list below is
ordered from least important to most important:
•Rt incorrectly measured. – Rare - The logging tool gives a misleading value for Rt –
for example as a result of excessive invasion of saline mud filtrate.
•Very few examples of this were presented.
•One example is wipe (back ream) logging with LWD some considerable time
after drilling; when invasion does occasionally exceed the depth of the relatively
shallow LWD resistivity tools.
22
Archie’s Equation
•Conductive Minerals – Rare - This is often the case in LRP clastic reservoirs where
pyrite and other conductive minerals are common.
•Conductive minerals are less commonly found in carbonate reservoirs – and
in carbonate systems are largely confined to non-reservoir (carbonate mud) facies.
Archie’s Equation
•Fractured formations – Sometimes – A formation with a fine grain and largely
water bearing matrix but oil filled fractures can exhibit low resistivity but flow
essentially dry oil.
23
Archie’s Equation
•Layered formations - Often - Formations composed of thin layers of small pore size
rock (micrite etc.) and coarser high permeability rock (grainstone, etc) give a very
misleading resistivity response.
•It is assumed that the capillary pressure is such that oil cannot enter the pores of
the fine grain rock. The ratio between the layers of coarse and fine grain rock
controls the average water saturation – which may vary essentially arbitrarily to
very high values if the coarse grain layers are thin. A standard arithmetic solution
of the expected resistivity of such a formation then shows that a simple Archie
approach will lead to an overestimation of the water saturation – since the
conductive fine grain rock essentially “short circuits” the resistivity measuring
current.
Archie’s Equation
•Dual Porosity Systems - Most Common - It is assumed that the formation contains
pores of greatly varying pore size – and has a bi or even tri-modal distribution on
mercury injection data.
•The entry pressure of the smaller pores is thus such that oil cannot enter
them and they remain water filled. On test oil in the large pores may flow,
while capillary bound water in micropores remains immobile.
24
Archie’s Equation
•Dual Porosity Systems - Most Common - ….. the formation contains pores of greatly
varying pore size – and has a bi or even tri-modal distribution ….. On test oil in the
large pores may flow, while capillary bound water in micropores remains immobile ….
micritized grains containing water may be able to “short circuit” the resistivity
measuring current.
•While this is an attractive concept, no irrefutable evidence was presented
confirming such effects from SCAL data on the core plug-scale. This may be due to
•Limited amount of cores analyzed
•Plug orientation did not favor a “short circuit” along a possible preferred
orientation of micritized grains
•Masked by other effects – wettability
Archie’s Equation
•Five distinct causes of LRP were identified.

•It is worth noting that the three most likely methods all rely on a dual porosity
structure.
•Fractured formations – Sometimes
•Layered formations - Often
•Dual Porosity Systems - Most Common
•In the case of fractured and layered formations, the large pore sizes (fractures being
regarded as of infinite pore size) are physically separate from the smaller pores while
in the case of dual porosity systems the two pore sizes are in intimate juxtaposition.
25
Archie’s Equation
•Proximity to the Free Water Level
•Traditionally the “Transition Zone” is the volume of rock just above the free water
level where water saturations are high as a result of limited oil capillary entry into the
smaller pores. No clear consensus of how to define the upper limit of the
“Transition Zone” could be determined and the term is thus only loosely defined.
•The three main causes of low resistivity pay all rely on limited entry of oil into the
smaller pores.
•Thus it may be expected that higher in the column (above the “Transition Zone”) oil
would gain access to the smaller pores – and both oil saturations and resistivity would
rise. Thus LRP is a “Transition Zone” phenomenon and would not be expected in
identical rock higher in the column.
Archie’s Equation
•Proximity to the Free Water Level
•LRP is a “Transition Zone” phenomenon and would not be expected in identical

rock higher in the column.
•Because of the higher buoyancy pressure as a result of the greater density difference
between gas and water LRP is only rarely encountered in carbonate gas reservoirs.
26
Archie’s Equation
•Possible Solutions for “Type 1” Low Resistivity Pay
the formation.
•Different Archie parameters – The solution to the LRP problem may simply be that
‘a’ or ‘m’ values appropriate to normal reservoir rock are inappropriate in the case of
LRP and a well conceived SCAL program may be a sufficient solution. (See also
section “The phenomenological nature of the Archie equation”.)
Archie’s Equation
the formation.
•A non-Archie resistivity approach may be taken – by, for example, dividing the pore
space into different pore type categories and defining separate resistivity / saturation
relationships for each category.
27
Archie’s Equation
the formation.
•Dielectric measurements have the potential to provide non-Archie estimates of
saturation – but are subject to similar concerns to those of the NMR (following
exhibit) about the possible extent of invasion.
Archie’s Equation

the formation.
•NMR may be used to define the pore structure and so provide input into a non-
Archie resistivity method.
•NMR may be used to make a direct measure of the formation fluids. For this to
be quantitative, a means of demonstrating that invasion has not occurred or for
accurately correcting for it must be found.
•Given that in LRP formations the oil generally resides in the largest pores and
is thus highly fugitive, invasion may be expected to render this technique invalid
in many cases. Nonetheless, flushed zone measurements such as NMR and
dielectric can be useful for evidence of oil, a signal to look further.
•Exhibit following for qualifications
28
Archie’s Equation
•Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

•Pore size distribution may be derived from NMR T2 in the case of single wetting
phase and very shallow invasion.
•Mixed wettability and/or the presence of two phases i.e. remaining oil and mud
filtrate (in an invaded zone) or residual oil and water in a flushed zone disturbs the
determination of pore size distribution.
•The NMR responds to pore size, not pore throat size, which controls permeability. In
carbonates, there is a limited relationship between pore size and pore throat size,
permeability prediction from NMR is therefore difficult.
•Efforts to derive fluid saturations from NMR require calibration with lab NMR. It
is important to take into account the effects of temperature and salinity on the NMR
measurements. Laboratory NMR experiments should therefore be conducted at
reservoir conditions.
Archie’s Equation

the formation.
•If the LRP flows essentially dry oil then the water must be largely immobile.
Consequently, a core carefully cut using OBM may be expected to maintain the
formation water saturation. The Dean Stark technique then may be employed to directly
measure the water saturation.
29
Archie’s Equation

the formation.
•Pulsed neutron logs may provide a non-Archie method of water saturation
evaluation – either in open hole if invasion problems can be overcome – or in cased
hole after completing the well. (But see section on filtrate dissipation in LRP
formations.)
Archie’s Equation

the formation.
•If (and only if) layering is the cause of LRP then a vertical resistivity
measurement – such as is provided by some recently introduced vector resistivity tools
– has the potential to more accurately quantify the hydrocarbon saturation.
•Layering will cause a strong anisotropy between the horizontal and vertical
resistivity that can be readily detected.
30
Archie’s Equation

normal methods) is correct, but very high. The issue is then to understand why the
water is effectively not mobile
•Model (lab measurements) the formation taking proper account of relative
permeability effects.
•Formations with multi-modal pore size distributions frequently show remarkably
low water relative permeabilities up to surprisingly high water saturations
Archie’s Equation
Possible Solutions for “Type 2” Low Resistivity Pay
normal methods) is correct, but very high. The issue is then to understand why the
water is effectively not mobile
•If oil is the mobile phase then a careful look at the shallow resistivity reading will
show invasion – exactly as for normal pay.
•The separation between the different resistivity depth readings will be less than
normal because of the low volume of mobile oil and the effect may be further
masked by uncertainty in the effective salinity of the invaded zone. This salinity
will be some unknown average of the mud and formation water salinities.
•If care is taken to use mud of the same salinity as the formation water this
latter effect may be removed and it is easier to get a clear mobile oil signature
from the shallow resistivity curve.
31
Archie’s Equation
•Pulsed neutron logs may provide a non-Archie method of water saturation evaluation
– either in open hole if invasion problems can be overcome – or in cased hole after
completing the well.
•Mud Filtrate Dissipation in LRP Formations
•While drilling, water from the mud filtrate usually enters the formation, and changes
the salinity of the water trapped in even the smallest pores – since there are no
capillary effects to hinder its entry into them – even if this entry is only diffusive.
•Once the casing has been run any filtrate that has displaced oil may slump away and
the oil return until the formation has returned to its equilibrium saturation as defined by
the saturation height function.
•However once slumping is complete there is no longer any fast mechanism for the
salinity of the water trapped in the smallest pores to return to that of the formation.
Remember that once oil has returned to the major pore network it will greatly reduce
the water relative permeability – and diffusion rate is a strong function of relative
permeability. The consequence is that mud filtrate may be effectively trapped in the
smallest pores with only a very slow diffusive means of dissipation.
Archie’s Equation
•Pulsed neutron logs may provide a non-Archie method of water saturation evaluation
– either in open hole if invasion problems can be overcome – or in cased hole after
completing the well.
•Mud Filtrate Dissipation in LRP Formations
•LRP reservoirs may have the potential for having unusually long filtrate dissipation
times – and indeed examples were presented of filtrate still being present twenty
years after drilling.
•In order to use PNL logs in cased hole as a non-Archie means of quantifying
the water saturation in LRP it is thus necessary to find a method to
demonstrate that the filtrate has effectively dissipated. No reliable methods of
doing this were presented.
•Pulsed neutron CO logging is a means around this if saturations have returned to
equilibrium, while salinity remains affected.
32
Archie’s Equation
• Cross-check Every Way Possible
• Archie Equation against the following
• Rwa, Rxoa and invasion profiles
• Capillary Pressure
• SCAL
• Oil-base Core Sw
• Pulsed Neutron Logs
• NMR (with lab calibration)
• Carbon-Oxygen Logs
• Dielectric Logs
• Others??
Dad, I’m wearin’ the boots and I think

we need a break
Review Archie ‘n’ Exponent Exercise
and
TAKE A BREAK
33
34
Pickett Plot
Bob Hope
May 29, 1903 - July 27, 2003
© 2005 Robert E Ballay, LLC
ON TURNING 80 "That's the time of your life when
even your birthday suit needs pressing."
ON TURNING 90 "You know you're getting old

when the candles cost more than the cake."
ON TURNING 100 " I don't feel old. In fact I don't

feel anything until noon. Then it's time for my
nap."
ON GIVING UP HIS EARLY CAREER, BOXING "I

ruined my hands in the ring . The referee kept
stepping on them."
ON GOLF "Golf is my profession. Show business is just to pay the green
fees."
ON HIS EARLY FAILURES " I would not have had anything to eat if it
wasn't for the stuff the audience threw at me."
Pickett Plot
•Points of constant water saturation will plot on a straight line with slope related
to cementation exponent “m”
•Saturation exponent “n” determines the separation of the Sw=constant grids
•Rw @ FT can be deduced from graphic
•The same technique can be applied to the flushed zones, using flushed-zone
measurements
Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)
•G R Pickett "A Review of 1.00
Current Techniques for
Determination of Water
Saturation from Logs," paper
SPE 1446, presented at the
Porosity
SPE Rocky Mountain 0.10

Regional Meeting, Denver,
Colorado, USA, May 23-24, Sw=1.00
Sw=0.5
1966; SPE Journal of
Sw=0.3
Petroleum Technology Sw=0.15
(November 1966): 1425- 0.01
1435. 0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
35
Pickett Plot Summary
•The Pickett Plot display can be combined with variety of other reservoir
characterization tools, thereby enhancing its utility and in effect allowing Double
Duty
•Roberto Aguilera , Incorporating capillary pressure, pore throat aperture radii, height above free-
water table, and Winland r35 values on Pickett plots. AAPG Bulletin, v. 86, no. 4 (April 2002),
pp. 605–624
•Roberto Aguilera, Integration of geology, petrophysics, and reservoir engineering for
characterization of carbonate reservoirs through Pickett plots. AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, no. 4 (April
2004), pp. 433–446
Pickett Plot Summary Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)

“m” Variations 1.00
•Exponent ‘m’ is related to the slope

of the porosity - resistivity trend,
Porosity
0.10
regardless of saturation
Sw=1.00
•An increased ‘m’ represents a Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
more tortuous pore geometry path Sw=0.15
with constant Sw lines shifting in the 0.01

higher resistivity direction, and vice 0.01 0.10 1.00
Resistivity
10.00 100.00
versa
•The axis intercept for Sw = 100 % 1.00
remains the same since Rw @ FT ~
0.02 has been held constant
Porosity
0.10
Sw=1.00
Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
36
“n” Variations 1.00
•Exponent ‘n’ is related to the

Resistivity Index, and the attributes
Porosity
which affect it (wettability, grain 0.10
surface roughness) Sw=1.00

Sw=0.5
•An increased ‘n’ represents a more Sw=0.3

Sw=0.15
tortuous conductive phase (in the 0.01
presence of a non-conductive 0.01 0.10 1.00
Resistivity
10.00 100.00
hydrocarbon phase) path (increased

separation between lines of constant Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.5)
1.00
saturation) and vice versa
•The axis intercept for Sw = 100%
remains the same since Rw @ FT ~
0.02 has been held constant Porosity 0.10
Sw=1.00
Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity

Bulk Volume Water
•Grids of constant BVW values can be displayed on the Pickett Plot

•BVW=Constant, for a specific Rock Type, will generally identify water-free
production
BVW = Constant
1.00 1.00
BVW=0.015
0.80
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.60
Porosity
Sw
0.10 Sw=1.00
0.40 Increasing Grain Size Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.10
0.20 BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 0.01
Porosity 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00 1000.00
Resistivity
Grids below the Sw = 100 % line are for

visual reference only
37
Bulk Volume Water 1.00
•Grids of constant BVW values can be

displayed on the Pickett Plot
•BVW=Constant grids have an Archie
Porosity
Exponent dependence 0.10 Sw=1.00
Sw=0.5
•The Archie exponents may, or may not, Sw=0.3
Sw=0.10
also change as one moves from one ‘rock BVW=0.015
type’ to the another. BVW=0.03

BVW=0.10
Intercrystalline
•If ‘m’ changes, then the various Sw lines 0.01
would also shift 0.10 1.00 10.00
Resistivity
100.00 1000.00
BVW = Constant Pickett Plot (m=2.5/n=2.0)

1.00
1.00
BVW=0.015
0.80
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.60
Sw
Porosity
0.40 Increasing Grain Size 0.10 Sw=1.00
Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.10
0.20
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03 Increased pore geometry
BVW=0.10
0.00 tortuosity
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 0.01
Porosity 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00 1000.00
Resistivity
Bulk Volume Water 1.00
•Grids of constant BVW values can be

•BVW=Constant, for a specific Rock Type,
Porosity
will generally identify water-free production 0.10 Sw=1.00

Sw=0.5
•The Archie exponents may, or may not, also Sw=0.3
Sw=0.10
change as one moves from one ‘rock type’ to BVW=0.015
the another. If ‘m’ changes, then the various BVW=0.03

BVW=0.10
Sw lines would also shift
0.01
0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00 1000.00
Resistivity
BVW = Constant
1.00 •Grids of constant BVW values can be
BVW=0.015
0.80 •BVW=Constant, for a specific Rock Type,
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10 will generally identify water-free
0.60
production
Sw
0.40 Increasing Grain Size •The BVW concept is often a Key Element
of NMR interpretation - more later
0.20
0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000
Porosity
38
Permeability Variations
•Locally appropriate permeability relations can be super-imposed on the Pickett Plot
•At a specific porosity, increases in Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)

resistivity infer increased permeability 1.00
(lower Swi => better rock quality)
•At a specific resistivity, lower Sw=1.00
porosities infer lower perms, and Sw=0.5
higher Swi Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
•Perm estimate is only valid far above Perm=0.1
Porosity
Perm=1.0
the transition zone 0.10
Perm=10
Perm=100
•Linear extrapolation to left of Sw=100
% line is for visual reference only
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
Pickett Plot
•Be aware than in some locales, the horizontal and vertical axes are reversed and the
display is still known as a Pickett Plot. No information or utility is lost in the translation, but one
must re-orient their interpretation of the axes
1.00
Porosity
0.10
Sw=1.00
Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
39
Pickett Plot
•Based upon log-log crossplot within context of Archie’s relation
Sw ^ n = Rw / [ (φ ^ m) * Rt ]
Log [Sw ^ n ] = Log { Rw / [ (φ ^ m) * Rt ] }
n*Log(Sw) = Log(Rw) - m*Log(φ) - Log(Rt)
m*Log(φ) = Log(Rw) - n*Log(Sw) - Log(Rt)
•In the simple case of Sw = 1.00, Log(Sw) = 0
m*Log(φ) = Log(Rw) - Log(Rt)
•A log-log plot of φ and Rt will be linear with a slope related to ‘m’ and an
intercept related to Rw @ FT
Pickett Plot

•A log-log plot of φ and Rt will be linear with a slope related to ‘m’ and an
intercept related to Rw @ FT

•Slope = Rise / Run ~ 1/2 1.00
by counting the grids on 4 decades
the graphic => m ~ 2.0

•Rw @ FT ~ 0.02 per
Porosity
Resistivity as Porosity => 0.10 2 decades
100 %
Sw=1.00
Rw @ FT ~ 0.02
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
In some locales, the Resistivity is on the vertical axis
40
Pickett Plot
•A log-log plot of φ and Rt will be linear with a slope related to ‘m’ and an intercept related to
Rw @ FT
•Be aware that systematic 1.00
vertical variations in the 4 decades
‘m’ exponent can

‘coalesce’ to create an
‘apparent’ trend line Porosity
0.10 2 decades
(slope) that is in fact not
representative of any single
Sw=1.00
trend in the well - following
exhibit Rw @ FT ~ 0.02
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
In some locales, the Resistivity is on the vertical axis
Pickett Plot
Sw(m=2.0) .GT. 1.00
Sw(m=2.0) ~ 1.00
Sw(m=2.0) .GT. 1.00

Sw(m=2.0) ~ 1.00
Limestone
•With Rw @ FT known, one is able to calculate an inferred ‘m’ exponent, whose

variation is generally consistent with independently described core facies (in this
example)
•Were the entire vertical section to be ‘Pickett Plotted’ these variations could be
‘merged’ into a single exponent value - example follows
R E Ballay, Multi-dimensional Petrophysics, Aramco Journal of Technology, Winter 2000 - 2001
41
Pickett Plot
All Rock is Limestone
•Multi-well Pickett Plot (note
display has resistivity on the vertical
axes per the Local Convention)
•‘m’ calculated, below the Free Water
Level, based upon known Reservoir
Water Salinity
•Systematic vertical variations known to
be present in the inferred ‘m’ per earlier
exhibit
•Be aware that systematic vertical
variations in the ‘m’ exponent can •All trends extrapolate
to correct Rw
‘coalesce’ to create an ‘apparent’ •‘m’ = 1.57
trend line (slope) on the Pickett Plot •‘m’ = 2.06
•‘m’ = 2.47
that is in fact not representative of any •‘m’ = 2.67
single trend in the well but which might
be appropriate as an ‘average’ estimate
•The ‘fanning out’ of the distribution,
away from Rw, is a hint of this problem
•Histogram illustration follows
Pickett Plot
•Multi-well histogram of the inferred 3 Wells (color coded)

‘m’ for a single (core described) Single Core Described Depositional Facies
depositional facies All Rock is Limestone
•‘m’ calculated, below the Free Water

Level, based upon known Reservoir
Water Salinity
•Multiple “m” values observed even
though the core described
depositional facies is the same for all
data
•Be aware that systematic vertical
variations in the ‘m’ exponent can
‘coalesce’ to create an ‘apparent’ trend
line (slope) on the Pickett Plot that is in
fact not representative of any single
trend in the well
42
Pickett Plot
3 Wells (color coded)
Single Core Described Depositional Facies
All Rock is Limestone
•Multi-well histogram of the
inferred ‘m’ for a single (core
described) depositional facies
•Multiple values observed even
though the core described
depositional facies is the same for
all data
Rock-Fabric/Petrophysical Classification of Carbonate

Pore Space for Reservoir Characterization
Jerry Lucia
AAPG Bulletin, V. 79, No. 9 (September 1995), P. 1275–1300
To determine the relationships between rock fabric and petrophysical parameters, one must
define and classify pore space as it exists today in terms of petrophysical properties
Pickett Plot Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)

1.00
•Exponent ‘m’ is related to the slope of
the porosity - resistivity trend, regardless
of saturation
Porosity
0.10
m*Log(φ) = Sw=1.00
Log(Rw) - n*Log(Sw) - Log(Rt) Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
•An increased ‘m’ represents a 0.01
more tortuous pore geometry path 0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
(constant Sw lines shift in the higher
resistivity direction) and vice versa Pickett Plot (m=1.8/n=2.0)
•The axis intercept for Sw = 100 % 1.00
remains the same since Rw @ FT ~ 0.02

has been held constant
Porosity
0.10
Sw=1.00
Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
43
1.00
•Exponent ‘n’ is related to the Resistivity
Index, and the attributes which affect it
(wettability, grain surface roughness)
Porosity
0.10
m*Log(φ) = Sw=1.00
Log(Rw) - n*Log(Sw) - Log(Rt) Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
•An increased ‘n’ represents a more 0.01
tortuous conductive phase path 0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
(increased separation between lines of
constant saturation) and vice versa Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.2)
1.00
•The axis intercept for Sw = 100%
remains the same since Rw @ FT ~ 0.02
has been held constant
Porosity
0.10
Sw=1.00
Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
Pickett Plot Shyb 271 Saturation

Saturation Exponent
Carbonate Exponent
•Be aware that ‘n’ can vary 1000 1051 n=1.9
within a single core n = 3.0 All samples

1052 n=3.0
1054 n=2.6from
113 n=1.8
similar7169facies
n=1.9
described depositional facies n=1.5
•Modern carbonate lab data

100
Resistivity Index
•All data from same well &

depositional facies n = 1.5
•All data cleaned in same

fashion (rendered water wet) 10
•Depositional facies may not

uniquely characterize the
saturation exponent - there are
several physical phenomena 1
that can cause this deviation 0.01 0.1 1
Water Saturation
44
Pickett Plot
•Reservoir performance is often evaluated in terms of the Bulk Volume Water
BVW = Sw * φ
•Contour lines of constant bulk volume water may often be used as cut-off boundaries for
water-free production
•Permeability estimates may also be possible in favorable situations
•In the Log-Log world (such as used in a Pickett Plot), these BVW trends are straight lines
BVW = Constant
•The appropriate BVW
1.00
reference line will typically Increasing Grain Size
depend upon ‘rock type’ with
large grain material assuming
lower Sw, at a specific porosity,
Porosity
than the smaller grain rock 0.10
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00
Sw
Pickett Plot
BVW = Sw * φ
•Contour lines of constant bulk volume water may be used as cut-off boundaries
•Permeability estimates may also be possible in favorable situations
•We also find these BVW trend lines displayed in a linear, not logarithmic, format
•The appropriate BVW reference line BVW = Constant

will typically depend upon ‘rock type’ 1.00
with large grain material assuming
BVW=0.015
lower Sw, at a specific porosity, than 0.80
BVW=0.03
the smaller grain rock BVW=0.10
0.60
•The graphic may have Porosity
Sw
along the vertical axis, or Sw - both 0.40 Increasing Grain Size

orientations are to be found and one
must be careful to note the axes 0.20
orientations used in a specific locale
0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000
Porosity
45
Pickett Plot

BVW = Sw * φ
•We also find these BVW trend lines displayed in a linear, not logarithmic, format.
•Archie included one of these graphics in an early paper, noting the possibility of
an average relation between connate water and porosity, for different types of
limestone
BVW = Constant
1.00
Increasing Grain Size
P o ro sity
0.10
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00
Sw
G E Archie: Classification of Carbonate Reservoir Rocks and

Petrophysical Considerations, AAPG Bulletin Vol 36 No 2
(1952): 278 - 296
Pickett Plot

BVW = Sw * φ
•Archie included one of these graphics in an early paper, noting the possibility of an
average relation between connate water and porosity, for different types of limestone
•Although it’s common to work with φ

and Sw cut-offs separately, the
combination adds an important,
additional dimension to the evaluation
•BVW=Constant, for a specific Rock Type,
will generally identify water-free production
•The BVW concept is often a Key
Element of NMR interpretation -
following exhibits
G E Archie: Classification of Carbonate Reservoir Rocks and

Petrophysical Considerations, AAPG Bulletin Vol 36 No 2
(1952): 278 - 296
46
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
• Free-fluid index, or bound water fraction, is determined by applying a cutoff to the
T2 relaxation curve
• Values above the cutoff indicate large pores potentially capable of producing, and
values below indicate small pores containing fluid that is trapped by capillary
pressure
• Cutoff can be determined by measuring the T2 distribution on water-saturated cores
before and after they had been centrifuged
• This particular
graphic refers to
sandstone but the
principle (not the
actual cutoff value,
however) is similar
for carbonate
Schlumberger Oil Field

Review - Autumn 1995

• The amplitude of the various spin echo signals in a CPMG echo train decays with a
characteristic decay time, T2, that is related to petrophysical properties
• After a period of several T2, no further refocusing is possible
• The CPMG pulse sequence is halted and the protons return to their equilibrium
direction parallel to B0 - following exhibit
• Illustrative NMR
application of BVW
• Details in NMR
module
Courtesy of Halliburton
47
•The decay of a spin-echo train is a function of the amount and distribution of
hydrogen present in fluids and is measured by recording the decrease in amplitude of
the spin echoes over time.
•The discrete points in this figure represent the raw data, and the solid curve is a fit to
that data.
• Mathematical inversion converts

the spin-echo decay data to a T2
distribution.
•This (lower) distribution is the

"most likely" distribution of T2
values that produce the recorded
echo train (upper).
•Exhibit following
48
• With proper calibration area under the T2-distribution curve is equal to the porosity
• Distribution of that area correlates to pore-size when the rock is 100% water-
saturated
• When hydrocarbons are present, the T2 distribution will be altered depending on the
hydrocarbon type, viscosity, and saturation.

• Free-fluid index, or bound water fraction, is determined by applying a cutoff to the
T2 relaxation curve
• Values above the cutoff indicate large pores potentially capable of producing, and
values below indicate small pores containing fluid that is trapped by capillary
pressure
• Cutoff can be determined by measuring the T2 distribution on water-saturated cores
before and after they had been centrifuged
• This particular
graphic refers to
sandstone but the
principle (not the
actual cutoff value,
however) is similar
for carbonate
Schlumberger Oil Field

Review - Autumn 1995
49
Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance
• Carbonate
• Operator concerned about
coning from interval below
X405 where conventional log
analysis gave Sw ~ 100 %
• NMR log shows low T2
distribution values over this
interval (track 4) indicative of
small pores
• Larger pores are indicated
above X405 ft by higher T2
distributions
• Free-fluid index cutoff of 100
msec indicated the deeper
interval was ~ Swirr
• Perforations then shot down
to x395
Schlumberger Oil Field Review - Autumn 1995
Irreducible Saturation BVW = Constant

1.00
•Sw, far above the transition zone, is BVW=0.015
often referred to as irreducible water 0.80
BVW=0.03
saturation and denoted as Swi BVW=0.10
0.60
Sw
•BVW, far above the transition zone,

is often referred to as irreducible bulk 0.40 Increasing Grain Size
water volume, and denoted as BVWi
0.20
•The term irreducible can be mis-
leading 0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000
Porosity
Irreducible water saturation: The lowest water saturation, Swi, that can be achieved in a
core plug by displacing the water by oil or gas. The state is usually achieved by flowing oil or
gas through a water-saturated sample, or spinning it in a centrifuge to displace the water with oil
or gas. The term is somewhat imprecise because the irreducible water saturation is
dependent on the final drive pressure (when flowing oil or gas) or the maximum speed of
rotation (in a centrifuge). The related term connate water saturation is the lowest water
saturation found in situ.
Courtesy of Schlumberger
50
1.00
BVW=0.03
0.60
Sw
0.20
leading 0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000
Porosity
Traditionally, the zone above the transitional zone is referred to as the irreducible zone
because little or no water is produced. Experiments reveal that water saturations lower than
those encountered in the irreducible zone can be obtained in the laboratory, provided that a
sufficiently large difference in phase pressures is applied and sufficient experimental time is
available. In fact, a water saturation close to zero can be obtained if a sufficiently high
capillary pressure is applied and if the water phase remains continuous to provide an escape path
for the water phase.
Another slightly different definition
Jens K. Larsen, Ida L. Fabricius, Interpretation of Water Saturation Above the Transitional Zone in Chalk Reservoirs,
SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering Issue Volume 7, Number 2, April 2004

1.00
BVW=0.03
0.60
Sw

0.20
leading 0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000
Porosity
Irreducible water saturation: the term used to describe the water saturation at which all the
water is adsorbed on the grains in a rock, or is held in the capillaries by capillary pressure. At
irreducible water saturation, water will not move, and the relative permeability to water
equals zero.
Swir in terms of relative permeability
University of Oklahoma: www.edge.ou.edu/well-log-interpretation
51
1.00
BVW=0.03
0.60
Sw
0.20
leading 0.00
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000
Porosity
Working Definition of Irreducible

•Swi: All the water is adsorbed on the grains in a rock, or is held in the capillaries by capillary
pressure and does not flow when the interval is opened to production.
•BVWi: The bulk volume water, Sw * φ, corresponding to water free production
•Experiments reveal that water saturations lower than those encountered in the irreducible
zone can be obtained in the laboratory
Pickett Plot Courtesy of F. Jerry Lucia
• Jerry Lucia also demonstrated the

dependence of saturation upon porosity
and rock-fabric class with capillary
pressure curves
• Reservoir height of 150 m ~ mercury
capillary pressure of ~ 650 psia. Note that the
correlation is developed for capillary Porosity (%)
pressures well above the transition zone
BVW = Constant
1.00
P oro sity
0.10
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00
Sw
52
Pickett Plot
•Bill Guy (KGS) identified field-

specific BVW’s based on his
experience in Kansas.
•Lansing and Kansas City oolitic
porosity has lower BVW than
does the intergranular porosity
•Chat macroporosity has lower
BVW than does chat
microporosity
http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Gemini/Help/PfEFFER/Pf
effer-theory4.html#bvw_pickett
Pickett Plot
•BVW=Constant values in Texas

carbonates, displayed as a cumulative
frequency of values reported per Pore
Type, illustrate variations that can be
expected from one pore geometry to
the next.
•Vuggy porosity tends to have lower
BVW than does inter-crystalline /
granular
Cumulative frequency plots of irreducible bulk

volume water for reservoirs by pore type.
http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Gemini/Help/PfEFFER/Pfeffer-theory4.html#bvw_pickett
53
Pickett Plot
•BVW=Constant values in Texas

carbonates, displayed as a
cumulative frequency of values
reported per Field, illustrate
variations that can be expected
from one field to the next.
Cumulative frequency plots of irreducible bulk

volume water for reservoirs by Texas carbonate
formation.
John Doveton Comments

•As to LKC oolitic porosity having a lower BVW than intergranular porosity, I will
leave Bill Guy to answer that one, although the probable answer will be the bigger the
pores, the smaller the BVWi.
•This was first pointed out by Buckles, a petroleum engineer who worked for Imperial
Oil in Calgary, so that BVW's were often known as Buckles' numbers. Buckles
published data for a variety of Canadian reservoirs and contrasted low BVWi’s in
Devonian reefs with higher BVWi’s in clastics. He explained the phenomenon in
terms of internal surface area which, of course, is a function of pore size.
•The Ellenburger and Austin Chalk data are taken from a book on Texas reservoir data.
•The vugs and interparticle porosity data are taken from reservoirs in an appendix of a
book by Chilingar et al (1972).
•Wherever possible, I plot up reservoir and rock-type data, so that I don't have to
make generalizations
54
• Cutoffs can (should) be tailored to particular reservoirs
• Thamama Group - ADNOC’s Mubarraz field offshore Abu Dhabi
• Conventional log interpretation showed water saturation of 10 to 60%
• Some zones produced no water
• Permeability varied widely even though porosity remained almost constant
• Laboratory measurements performed

• Laboratory measurements performed
• Cores showed micro - φ holding large volume of capillary bound water
• Free-fluid porosity found by centrifuging water-saturated cores
• NMR could identify non-water-producing micro pores using a T2 cutoff of 190
msec
• Permeable grainstone facies could be distinguished from lower-permeability
packstones / mudstones with a cutoff of 225 msec
• Cutoffs can (should) be tailored to particular reservoirs
55
• Bound water data can be acquired at faster logging speeds
• Where φ Sw from conventional logs exceeds BVirr(NMR), water will likely be
produced
• Where φ Sw (conventional logs) ~ Bvirr(NMR) water-free production can be
expected, regardless of the actual value of the saturation
This particular example is

clastic, but the principle (not the
cutoff value, however) applies to
carbonates
Middle East Well Evaluation Review:

Number 20, 1997
Public Domain Data Base
John Doveton Comments

•Wherever possible, I plot up
reservoir and rock-type data, so that I
don't have to make generalizations
•One of John’s resources is the Toris
database, for which he offers a
Course
56
Public Domain Data Base
Gene:
As requested.
The TORIS Database is the public version of the Oil data and is available on the
NETL web-site at
http://www.netl.doe.gov/scngo/index.html (select reference shelf-then software).
Thanks
Maria C. Vargas, Division Director

Petroleum Systems Analysis & Planning
National Energy Technology Laboratory
Strategic Center for Natural Gas & Oil
Pittsburgh, PA
Sandstone vs. carbonate petroleum reservoirs: A global perspective on porosity-depth

and porosity-permeability relationships. S. N. Ehrenberg and P. H. Nadeau, AAPG
Bulletin, v. 89, no. 4 (April 2005)
Pickett Plot
BVW = Sw * φ
•Contour lines of constant bulk volume water may be used as cut-off boundaries for water-
free production
BVW = Constant
•In the Log-Log world of the Pickett Plot, 1.00

these BVW trends are straight lines
•Posting BVW = Constant grids, on
the Pickett Plot, would allow ‘double
duty’ of the graphic
Sw
0.10
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00
Porosity
57
Pickett Plot
•At a specific value of BWV, the Archie equation (as used in the Pickett Plot) becomes
m*Log(φ) = Log(Rw) - n*Log(Sw) - Log(Rt)
m*Log(φ) = Log(Rw) - n*Log(BVW/φ) - Log(Rt)
(m - n)*Log(φ) = Log(Rw) - n*Log(BVW) - Log(Rt)
•In the case of m = n, the porosity term [ (m - n)*Log(φ) ] drops out leaving
Log(Rt) = Log(Rw) - n*Log(BVW) = Constant
Pickett Plot
•BVW = Constant grids Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)
are vertical 1.00
•BVW lines below Sw =

100 % line are a
mathematical extrapolation Sw=1.00
Porosity
(for visual reference) and 0.10 Sw=0.5
not physically realistic Sw=0.3

Sw=0.15
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
58
Pickett Plot
• Value of BVW = Phi * Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)
Sw = Cnstnt corresponds 1.00
to extrapolation over to
the vertical axis, from the
Sw = 1.0 grid
Porosity
Sw=1.00 BVW=0.1
•BVW lines below Sw = 100 0.10 Sw=0.5
% line are a mathematical Sw=0.3
extrapolation (for visual Sw=0.15
reference) and not physically BVW=0.015

BVW=0.03
realistic
BVW=0.10 BVW=0.03
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
Pickett Plot
•BVW = Constant grids are Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)

vertical 1.00
•Different grain sizes /

rock types will trend
along different BVW
Sw=1.00 BVW=0.1
Porosity
grids 0.10 Sw=0.5

Sw=0.3
•BVW lines below Sw = 100
Sw=0.15
% line are a mathematical BVW=0.015
extrapolation (for visual BVW=0.03
reference) and not physically BVW=0.10 BVW=0.03
realistic 0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
59
Pickett Plot

vertical 1.00
•Different grain sizes /
rock types will trend
along different grids
Sw=1.00
Porosity
•BVW lines below Sw = 100 0.10 Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
% line are a mathematical
Sw=0.15
extrapolation (for visual BVW=0.015
reference) and not physically BVW=0.03
realistic BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
Pickett Plot

vertical 1.00
•Different grain sizes / rock

types will trend along
different grids
Sw=1.00
Porosity
•The Archie exponents 0.10 Sw=0.5

may, or may not, also Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
change as one moves BVW=0.015
from one ‘rock type’ to BVW=0.03
the another BVW=0.10 Increasing Grain Size
0.01
•If ‘m’ changes, then the 0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
various Sw lines would
also shift
60
Pickett Plot BVW = Constant
1.00
Conventional BVW
Sw
0.10
•BVW = Constant grids are
related in the two displays per BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
graphic at right BVW=0.10
0.01
•Different grain sizes / rock 0.01 0.10 1.00
Porosity
types will trend along different
grids Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)
1.00
•BVW lines below Sw = 100 %
are a mathematical extrapolation Sw<0.15
(for visual reference) and not
physically realistic Sw=1.00
Porosity
0.10 Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
BVW posted to BVW=0.015
Pickett Plot BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
Pickett Plot
•In the case of m > n, the lines of constant BVW slope to the left

1.00
•BVW lines below Sw = 100

% are a mathematical
Porosity
Sw=1.00
extrapolation (for visual 0.10 Sw=0.5
reference) and not physically Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
realistic
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
61
1.00
m=2.0 / n=2.0
vs
Porosity
Sw=1.00
0.10 Sw=0.5
m=2.5 / n=2.0 Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
•‘m’ relates to pore system tortuosity, BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
and as ‘m’ increases, the resistivity BVW=0.10
of a specific porosity at Sw = 100 % 0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
also increases Resistivity
•BVW lines below Sw = 100 % are a Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)

1.00
mathematical extrapolation (for visual
reference) and not physically realistic
•Exhibit following for Black Dots
Porosity Sw=1.00
0.10 Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity

1.00
•m=2.0 / n=2.0 vs m=2.5 / n=2.0

•‘m’ relates to pore system tortuosity,
Porosity
Sw=1.00
and as ‘m’ increases, the resistivity of 0.10 Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
a specific porosity at Sw = 100 % also Sw=0.15
increases BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
•‘n’ relates to the tortuosity of the 0.01
conductive phase and as Sw 0.01 0.10 1.00
Resistivity
10.00 100.00
decreases the associated rise in

resistivity of a specific porosity Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)
1.00
pushes the trend towards higher
resistivity, relative to the case of ‘m’
= ‘n’.
Sw=1.00
Porosity
•BVW lines below Sw = 100 % are a 0.10 Sw=0.5
mathematical extrapolation (for visual Sw=0.3

Sw=0.15
reference) and not physically realistic BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
62
Pickett Plot
•In the case of m < n, the lines of constant BVW slope to the right

1.00
BVW lines below Sw =

100 % are a mathematical
extrapolation (for visual
reference) and not
Porosity Sw=1.00
physically realistic 0.10
Sw=0.5
Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity

1.00
m=2.0 / n=2.0
vs
Porosity
Sw=1.00
0.10
Sw=0.5
m=2.0 / n=2.5 Sw=0.3
Sw=0.15
•‘m’ is the same in both graphics BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
•‘n’ relates to the tortuosity of the 0.01
BVW=0.10
conductive phase and as Sw 0.01 0.10 1.00

Resistivity
10.00 100.00
decreases the associated rise in

resistivity of a specific porosity is Pickett Plot (m=2.0/n=2.0)
1.00
greater than what would have
occurred at a lower ‘n’ value.
•BVW lines below Sw = 100 % are a
Sw=1.00
Porosity
mathematical extrapolation (for 0.10 Sw=0.5
visual reference) and not physically Sw=0.3

Sw=0.15
realistic BVW=0.015
BVW=0.03
BVW=0.10
0.01
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Resistivity
63
•Points of constant water saturation will plot on a straight line with slope related to
cementation exponent “m”
measurements
•Exponent ‘m’ is related to the slope of the porosity - resistivity trend, regardless of
saturation
•An increased ‘m’ represents a more tortuous pore geometry path with constant
Sw lines shifting in the higher resistivity direction, and vice versa
•The vertical axis intercept for Sw = 100 % remains the same so long as Rw @ FT
is constant
•Points of constant water saturation will plot on a straight line with slope related to
cementation exponent “m”
measurements
•Exponent ‘n’ is related to the Resistivity Index, and the attributes which affect it
(wettability, grain surface roughness)
•An increased ‘n’ represents a more tortuous conductive phase (in the presence of
a non-conductive phase) path (increased separation between lines of constant
saturation) and vice versa
•The vertical axis intercept for Sw = 100% remains the same so long as Rw @ FT
is constant
64
characterization tools, thereby enhancing its utility and in effect allowing Double Duty
•BVW=Constant, for a specific Rock Type, will often identify water-free
production
•This concept is a routine, and important part of, many NMR analyses
produced

carbonates

Num be r 20 1997

•Locally appropriate permeability relations can be super-imposed on the Pickett Plot
•In addition to facilitating Double Duty for the graphics, these concepts increase our Basic
Understanding of the Underlying Relationships in correlations that are often viewed and
used individually
65
•In using the Pickett Plot, one must be aware that systematic vertical variations in the
‘m’ exponent can ‘coalesce’ to create an ‘apparent’ trend line (slope) that is in fact not
representative of any single trend in the well (but which might be suitable as an
‘average’ value estimate
•In using the Pickett Plot, one must be aware that a single core-described depositional
facies can correspond to a variety of cementation and saturation exponents, bringing to
mind Jerry Lucia’s directive: To determine the relationships between rock fabric and
petrophysical parameters, one must define and classify pore space as it exists today in
terms of petrophysical properties
Pickett Plot
•It’s a pleasure to acknowledge Roberto Aguilera’s detailed Review and Comment of
this module.
•The original impetus for development of the module was his published applications of
the Pickett Plot, which illustrates what the combination of graphical pattern recognition
and an inquiring mind can achieve without (not to minimize the value of) high powered
software interpretations.
•I appreciate John Doveton (and the Kansas Geological Survey) allowing me to
include the BVWi graphics, which nicely illustrate the role that pore geometry is
playing in this attribute.
•The Kansas Geological Survey maintains a very nice web site that discusses many of
the issues included herein (plus others - check this www site out, it’s good)
http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Gemini/Help/PfEFFER/Pfeffer-theory.html
• An over-view of the Gemini project is included in your Manual
• Ross Crain also offers an excellent on-line resource
http://www.spec2000.net/index.htm
66
Better move on Dad, or I’ll
have to cart ‘em out
Review Supplemental Pickett
Plot Material As Time And
Interest Permit
67
68
The Non-Archie Toolbox
•What is non-Archie
behavior?
•What is responsible for this
behavior?
•What alternative methods
are available to circumvent
this problem?

•Non-Archie behavior
•Saturation exponent n varies drastically depending on water saturation
•Frequently observed in rocks exhibiting oil wettability and / or irregular rock
morphology
•Oil wettability and irregular pore Saturation Exponent Effects (m=2)
morphology may cause opposite effects on 100.0
the electrical resistivity of rocks
Archie Behavior
R(T) / R(0)
10.0
•R(0) / R(w) = 1 / Φ m
•R(T) / R(0) = 1 / Sw n
n=1.75
•‘n’ is constant across n=2.00
n=2.25
range of saturations
1.0
0.10 1.00
Sw
E. Toumelin and C. Torres-Verdín, SPWLA 46th Annual Logging Symposium, June 26-29, 2005
Influence of Oil Saturation and Wettability on Rock Resistivity Measurements: A Uniform Pore-Scale Approach
69
•Frequently observed in rocks exhibiting
•oil wettability
• Current flow in an oil wet rock is more tortuous and ‘n’ will be higher
The Tec hnic al Revie w : Volume 36 Number 4

•Resistivity Ratio / Sw relationship non - linear on a log-log scale
•Generally becomes more evident as water saturation decreases
•Clay effects, in general (not discussed here)
Saturation Exponent Effects (m=2)
•Rough surface (Diederix)
100.0
•Electrical short circuits
Archie Behavior
R(T) / R(0)
10.0
•R(0) / R(w) = 1 / Φ m
•R(T) / R(0) = 1 / Sw n
n=1.75
•Resistivity Ratio is constant n=2.00
n=2.25
(‘n’ is constant) across range
1.0
of saturations 0.10 1.00
Sw
Guo Tao, Wenzheng Yue, Baoton Li , & Chaoliang Fang. SPE 88535-PA, 2006
Electrical Transport Properties of Fluid-Saturated Porous Rocks by 2D Lattice Gas Automata
70
•Resistivity Ratio / Sw relationship non- linear on a log-log scale
•Diederix (rough surface)
Archie’s Equation
• Rough surface beads offer a lower resistivity
path for current flow, at low water saturations,
than does a similarly water wet smooth grain
surface
The theory is
one of surface
roughness, and
The Technical Review : Volume 36 Num ber 4 not one of clay
K M Diederix: Anom alous Relationships Between Re sistivity I ndex and
Water Sa turations in the Rotliege nd Sa ndstone (The Netherlands),
conductivity
Transac tions of the SPWLA 23rd Annual Logging Symposium , C orpus
Christi, Texas, July 6-9, 1982, P ape r X

•While the Archie equation has had tremendous success, there are limitations in
carbonates
•Archie alluded to these limitations when he
published the equation in 1942
•One of the critical assumptions is that the
measure current moves uniformly through
the formation
•The presence of water-filled micro-pores
in close proximity to the larger
hydrocarbon-filled pores may short-circuit
the resistivity measure currents
•This causes the oil saturation to be under-
estimated
Estimating Sw with a volume measur eme nt
R. G rif fiths, A. Carnegie , A. Gyllensten, M. T . Ribeir o, A. Prasodjo, an d Y. Sallam. World Oil, Oct obe r 2006
71
•One of the assumptions in the

use of Archie’s equation is that
the measure current moves
uniformly through the formation
Estimating Sw with a volume measurement.

R. Griffiths, A. Carnegie, A. Gyllensten, M. T. Ribeiro, A. Prasodjo, and Y. Sallam. World Oil, October 2006
•What alternative methods are available to circumvent this problem?

•Pulsed Neutron Log
•Dielectric Log
•Carbon / Oxygen Log
•Borehole Gravity Meter
72

•Key carbonate issues are
•Coupling between interparticle / intercrystalline and micro-
porosity
•Vugs may respond with Bulk Relaxation, and not Surface
Relaxation
•Carbonate surface relaxation is significantly slower than
sandstone relaxation
•Carbonate NMR will be discussed in some detail

•Basically a measure of the amount of chlorine present
•Tool suitability determined by bulk volume of chlorine present
•Will be discussed briefly, later, with an application
• PNL most accurate in high porosity, salty brine filled formation
• Curves Define Boundary for S w Accuracy of 10 Saturation Units
• Curve A : V clay = 0 % / Φ known to within + / - 1 pu
• Curve B : Vclay = 20 % / Φ known to within + / - 1 pu
• Accuracy improves above curve / deteriorates below curve
Brine Salinit y
Cap ture X-S ctn
73

•Dielectric Log
•High frequency electromagnetic measurement for which water molecules behave
very different than does hydrocarbon, as a result of water’s electric dipole
•The dipole arises due to the asymmetric charge distribution in the water molecule
and gives rise to a surface tension
• Even though the total charge on the molecule is
zero, the nature of chemical bonds is such that the
positive and negative charges do not completely
overlap
• Molecules with mirror symmetry, such as oxygen
and nitrogen, have no permanent dipole moment
•Will be discussed briefly, later, with an application

• Reviewed briefly here
• Pulsed Neutron Log : Thermal

neutron captured by nucleus and
gamma ray emitted.
• Carbon / Oxygen Log : Fast neutron
strikes nucleus and is not captured, but
excites the nucleus which then releases
a gamma ray
74

•Relative concentrations of carbon and oxygen atoms are measured
•Historical tools were large (may require tubing to be pulled) and
slow to run (~ 20 ft / hour)
•Modern tools are smaller and can be run without killing the well or
pulling the production tubing
•Modern tools can compensate for borehole fluid composition

•Tool’s far detector response
when immersed in tanks of oil
and water.
•Oil (carbon) / water (oxygen) are
distinguished per the presence /
absence of their corresponding
peaks.
75

• The graphic at right is the tool spectra

for commonly identified elements.
•The presence of carbon and oxygen in
the rock (carbonates) and in the cement
can mean that formation corrections are
required in order to properly calculate
saturation.

•Expected range of tool responses for 43

pu limestone formation, in an 8 1/2 in
borehole with 7 in. casing.
•All data should fall within the box.
•W-W: water in borehole, water in form
•O-W: oil in borehole, water in form
•O-O: oil in borehole, oil in form
•W-O: water in borehole, oil in form
76

• Measures the Acceleration of Gravity
• Station measurement
• Typically 10 => 50 feet separation
• 5 => 10 minutes at each station
• Subtract two adjacent measurements to find average interval density
• Bulk density resolution better than 0.01 g/cm3 for 10’ station separation
• Precise Depth Control is Crucial
• Shuttle sonde will improve depth control
• Enables the gravity sensor to be moved within the tool. The depth increment
error is reduced to +/- 1 mm over the 2.5-meter range of motion
• Repeat measurements will reduce uncertainty
• If depth increment small, gravity readings repeated a minimum of 3 times
Courtesy of EDCON

Borehole Gravity Meter
• Measurement Uncertainty
• 10 foot station - 1 inch depth placement
• Density accuracy ~ 0.01 gm / cc
• Precise Depth
Control is Crucial
Courtesy of EDCON
77

Borehole Gravity Meter
• Measurement Uncertainty
• Tool repeatability ~ 3 micro-gals
• Ten foot station, bulk density accuracy ~ 0.01 gm / cc
• Multiple
measurements
will reduce
uncertainty
Courtesy of EDCON

• Sensitive spring balance which measures changes in weight of a proof mass due
to changes in gravity
•Tool must be precisely leveled for each recording and maintained at a
constant temperature close to 126° C
• Wellbore deviation (historically) not greater than 14 degrees
• Spring balance temperature (elasticity) held at 126 C
• Dewar flask used for high temperature environments
•A useful and practical rule of thumb for BHGM remote sensing applications is
that a remote body with sufficient density contrast can be detected by the BHGM
no farther from the well bore than one => two times the height of the body.
•A channel sand 20 feet thick would be detectable no more than 40 feet away
Courtesy of EDCON
78

•Amoco had an entire department devoted to borehole gravity logging using their
own equipment. During the late 1970s and early 1980s they logged several hundred
wells, primarily for exploration purposes. Their greatest success has been in the
Michigan reefs where borehole gravity is credited to have “made producers out
of otherwise dry holes” (Rasmussen, 1975).
Rasmussen, N.F., 1975, The successful use of the borehole gravity meter in
Northern Michigan: The Log Analyst, Sept.-Oct. 1975, p. 3-10.
•REB adds: Shell was also using the BHGM on the Michigan pinnacle reefs,
in the late 1970’s.
•Seismic would ‘place’ the well location. If no reef was encountered the
BHGM would be run, to determine if a reef was nearby. If reef was
nearby, dip meter would be run to ‘point the direction to kick’.
David A. Chapin and Ethan H. Mann, The bold new world of borehole gravimetry. SEG 1999 Expanded Abstracts

•Salt is another common target for borehole gravity exploration. Because salt has
such a large density contrast and is imaged poorly by seismic methods, borehole
gravity can be used reliably for remote detection of salt.
•Phillips published the use of BHGM to help solve an offshore salt overhang
problem (DeSantis and Harrison, 1997).
DeSantis, J.E., and Harrison, H.L., 1997, Comparison and results of a borehole
gravity survey with core and log data through an allochthonous salt sheet in
Ship Shoal South Additions, Offshore Louisiana: Abs. AAPG Annual Meeting,
Dallas, p. A27
79

•There are also borehole gravity applications for production monitoring.
•Shell has been especially active in this area, using borehole gravity for time-
lapse reservoir monitoring of the Natih Field in Oman (van Popta et al.,
1990) and in the Rabi Kounga Field in Gabon. Shell even designed a special
reservoir monitoring well for the borehole gravity tool in this field (Alixant
and Mann, 1995).
von Popta, J.V., Heywood, J.M.T., Adams, S.J., and Bostock, D.R., 1990, Use of
borehole gravimetry for reservoir characterisation and fluid saturation
monitoring: SPE 20896, Exp. Abs. Form SPE Europec 90 Conf.: The Hague, p.
151-160.

•Arco has also been active in the realm of reservoir monitoring using gravity,
particularly for their North Slope, Alaska fields (eg. Brady et al., 1993; Hare et al.,
1999).
Brady, J.L., Wolcott, D.S., and Aiken, C.L.V., 1993, Gravity Methods: Useful
techniques for reservoir surveillance: SPE 26095, Western regional conf.,
Anchorage, p. 645-658.
Hare, J.L., Ferguson, J.F., Aiken, C.L.V., and Brady, J.L., 1999, The 4-D
microgravity method for waterflood surveillance: A model study for the Prudhoe
Bay reservoir, Alaska: Geophysics, v. 64, p. 78-87.
80

•Illustrative application
•Nearby structure
• Haynesville Limestone, East Texas
• Reefal mounds rising several hundred feet into the Bossier shale above the
top of the regional Haynesville Limestone
• Reef, not encountered by wellbore
• Surveys run in wells which did not intersect targeted porosity
• Detection achieved by comparing ρb (BHGM) and ρb (Wireline)

• In flat uniform geology, ρb (BHGM) = ρb (Wireline)
• Off-setting reef will result in differences
Courtesy of EDCON

• Detection achieved by comparing ρb (BHGM) and ρb (Wireline)
• In flat uniform geology, ρb (BHGM) = ρb (Wireline)
• Off-setting reef will result in differences
• Well ~ 50 feet to the left of tight reef
Bossier Shale
Red BHGM
density is higher
than the blue
wireline density
because the reef
has a higher
density than the
shale. Haynesville
Limestone
Courtesy of EDCON Generic Results
81

•Also useful in evaluating remaining oil saturation, “away” from the well-bore
(ie sees beyond a water cone). The following is an actual Log-Inject-Log job
• Run Borehole Gravity Meter, then initiate LIL per following
• Three pre-perf PNLs
• Perforations shot with a very slight over-balance
•Three post-perf, pre-injection PNLs (characterize effect of the perforations
and slight amount of associated over-balance invasion)
• Inject formation salinity brine and log PNL every 30 minutes, till three
passes overlay
• Inject relatively fresh brine and log PNL every 30 minutes, till three passes
overlay
• Inject formation salinity brine ('close the loop' and verify no additional oil
was moved) and log PNL every 30 minutes, till three passes overlay
• 42 PNL passes were required
With contributions from Mike Donovan - Chevron

(ie sees beyond a water cone).
•Reservoir
•Perforations
•Original oil-water contact
•Water level after production
82

• Run Borehole Gravity Meter, then initiate Log-Inject-Log per following
PNL Log-Inject-Log
•Average Σ across zone of Average Σ across zone of interest,
• Actual log-inject-log PNL data
interest, as a function of LIL on a single logging pass
• Average Σ across zone of interest, on a
activity (injected brine single logging pass, along vertical axis
salinity, time, PHL Run #) • Logging Pass on horizontal axis
• Passes -3, -2, -1 are PrePerf
•PNL characterizes
• Passes 1, 2, 3 are PostPerf, Pre Injection
remaining mobile
• Initially injected brine matches formation
hydrocarbon at time of brine - characterizes mobile
logging, and immobile oil, hydrocarbon - discussion following
exhibit
near the wellbore
• Followed by fresh brine to establish
immobile hydrocarbon
• Followed by formation brine salinity to
‘close the loop’
Logging pass

•Reservoir
•Perforations
•Original oil-water contact
•Water level after production
•PNL will provide near-wellbore
saturations and BHGM will give
‘deep reading’ saturations
•Identification of the base of mobile
oil, and associated volumes, will be
compared to produced volumes
83
Look to the right Dad, do
you see what I see?
Look Closer, Dad
84
Closer !!
That’s right - better move on before you lose more of them!
85
86
The Fresh Water Challenge
SPE TIG: Formation Evaluation General
Andy Mills
•If the 'fresh' water has some low level of salinity such as 5000 ppm NaCl eq,
laterologs will discriminate between oil and water, although the quantification of Sw
may be pessimistic if the water within the oil column is more saline than the underlying
fresh water.
•If the water has no salinity, a carbon/oxygen tool can be used, but you'd need
relatively high porosity (preferably 20 + pu), and you may have problems in open hole
with filtrate invasion given the shallow depth of investigation of these tools.
•If you've cased the well and allowed sufficient time for filtrate dissemination,
these tools may be more definitive.
•If the oil is light or gassy, then a careful examination of the density - neutron, played
back on the correct lithology scales may reveal a light hydrocarbon effect.
•You'd like fairly high porosity (20 + pu) to use this technique.
•In my experience, fresh water flushing can lead to biodegradation of the overlying
oil which loses the light ends and becomes heavier.
http://www.spe.org/ (Technical_Interest_Group)

Andy Mills
•Dielectric tools such as Schlumberger's EPT (or deeper reading DPT) can be very
effective. They calculate water filled porosity based on the high dielectric constant of
water, and comparison with density - neutron porosity will reveal a porosity deficit in
the hydrocarbon intervals.
•More recently, NMR tools have been used to discriminate fluid types in the reservoir.
This involves working with your logging vendor to ensure correct acquisition
parameters are used.
•Formation tester data may be the most definitive of all.
•Pressure profiles may reveal fluid type if gradients are well defined and oil vs
water densities are sufficiently different.
•Samples should be used to define PVT properties, and gradients constructed from
these data fitted to the pretest data. Eventually, you may need to rely on days of
sampling each reservoir to definitively identify each fluid type within each
reservoir.
87
Andy Mills
•One last tool which should not be overlooked is the humble sidewall coring tool,
percussion or rotary. Fluorescence shows can be very revealing.
•From the point of quantitative evaluation, I'd strongly recommend cutting some core
and running ample capillary pressure tests to integrate with your calculated saturations.
Regards, Andy
ExxonMobil Exploration Company Victoria, Australia
Email: andrew.a.mills@exxonmobil.com

Andy Mills
•Gene, for your info, here is an example paper written by several of my colleagues, on
the application of evaluation techniques to account for the fresh water wedge in Bass
Strait. It doesn't deal with all of the options but is a good paper to introduce people to
the problem of identifying and then quantifying hydrocarbons. The paper was published
in the APEA journal in 1986.
•Freshwater Influx in the Gippsland Basin: Impact on Formation Evaluation,
Hydrocarbon Volumes and Hydrocarbon Migration. K Kuttan, J B Kulla and R G
Neumann, Esso Australia.
88
Andy Brickell
•Andy Mills' response is admirably clear and complete. He only omits once piece of
data that I have found invaluable in evaluating fresh-water pays, and that is the mud gas
chromatography. In the few examples I've worked, the mud gas was arguably the best
indicator of pay.
Andy Brickell

Dan Moos
•Another analysis which can be applied but requires careful processing of acoustic
data, is to take advantage of the fact that most hydrocarbons are much more
compressible than water under similar conditions, and use Vp and Vs data.
•The rock physics is complicated, but an early simple approach by Williams of
Mobil which he called "ALHI" of plotting Vp/Vs against ∆ Ts gave a pretty good
discriminator.
•HC saturation is revealed by an increase in ∆ Ts and a decrease in Vp/Vs for the
same porosity.
•I'm oversimplifying here, of course; I would be happy to provide more
information, or, wait for others in the forum to comment. More sophisticated
analyses can provide estimates of saturation if the fluid properties at in situ
conditions are known (HC and water compressibilities are sensitive to gas
saturation, temperature and pressure).
Regards,
Dan
89
Andy Brickell
•Further to Dan Moos' post on using sonic logs to identify hydrocarbon zones, another
good method for this was proposed by Brie et al, SPE 30595, "Shear sonic
interpretation in gas-bearing sands".
•In favourable conditions the method can be used to estimate invaded zone
hydrocarbon saturation.
•It works best for high porosity gas zones but I have had good results in high
porosity oil zones where the oil was relatively heavy.
Dad ! It’s time for 15 minutes of R & R
90
91
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1)
On the wall of the Mess Hall at one Marine Corp base: This food must be
good, 10,000 flies can’t be wrong
© 2004 Robert E Ballay, LLC
During a job interview: Am I correct you are not allowed by law to ask
me if I have a prison record?
Live every day like it’s your last, ‘cause one day you’re gonna be right:
Ray Charles
A dead end is just a good place to turn around: Naomi Judd.
Company safety slogan: Drive like you work, Slow.
While watching the gorillas at the zoo, several suddenly charged the
enclosure fence, scattering all the crowd except for one elderly man.
When I asked how he had maintained his composure, he answered ‘ I
used to drive a school bus’.

• Hydrogen
• The simplest element, containing a single proton in its nucleus
• Normal hydrogen is 1
1 H
• Deuterium hydrogen is 21H
• Tritium hydrogen is 31H
• The hydrogen molecule consists of two bound hydrogen atoms (H2),

and exhibits different thermodynamic properties depending on the
relative spins of the two protons
92
• The proton is very small, but does have a finite size, manifested as
‘spin’ or ‘angular momentum’.
• If the proton were a point particle, there would be no ‘lever arm’
and hence no ‘angular momentum’. There is in fact a measurable
‘spin’ or angular momentum, that is quantized.
• The spinning proton is akin to an electric current, and in a similar
manner produces a magnetic moment.

• Interestingly, the (neutral) neutron also exhibits a magnetic moment,
reflecting the fact that while the net charge is zero, there is an internal
non-uniformity.
• The proton’s magnetic moment is 1.4106 * 10-26 A m2
• The units of magnetic moment are ampere * meter2
• The neutron’s magnetic moment is -9.6624 * 10-27 A m2, smaller than
that of the proton and directed opposite to its spin
93
• When an ensemble of magnetic moments are placed in a magnetic
field, they will seek to orient themselves to be parallel to that field so as
to minimize their potential energies.
• If those magnetic moments are exposed to, and absorb, an amount of
energy equal to the difference between the minimum and maximum
energies, their spins may flip: they would now be pointing in the
opposite direction to the magnetic field.

• If those magnetic moments are exposed to, and absorb, an amount of
energy equal to the difference between the minimum and maximum
energies, their spins may flip: they would now be pointing in the
opposite direction to the magnetic field.
• In general, the various nuclei will quickly revert to the lower energy
state, at which they are stable
• This process of spin orientation is at the heart of nuclear magnetic
resonance imaging
94
• Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging
• Orient the spins in the target (patient, formation, etc) to be parallel with
a strong magnetic field.
• Flip the spins with a pulse of electromagnetic energy of the correct
frequency.
• Listen for the electromagnetic response signal that is emitted when
those same spins relax back to their original (lower energy) state
• MRI of the human head

demonstrates two important MRI
characteristics
• The signals used to create each
image come from a well-defined
location, typically a thin slice or
cross section of the target
• Only fluids (such as in blood
vessels, body cavities, and soft
tissues) are visible, while solids
The light areas represent tissues that have
(such as bone) produce a signal high fluid content (for example, brain
that typically decays too fast to matter) while the dark areas represent
be recorded tissues that have low fluid content (bone).
95
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging Logging (MRIL®) introduced by
NUMAR - 1991
• Turns the medical - laboratory NMR inside-out
• Rather than placing the target at the center of the instrument, the
instrument is placed in a wellbore at the center of the target
• MRIL contains permanent magnet which produces a magnetic field
that magnetizes formation materials
• Antenna surrounds this magnet and transmits into the formation
bursts of radio-frequency energy (oscillating magnetic field)
• Between pulses the antenna listens for a decaying "echo" signal from
those hydrogen protons that are in resonance with the field from the
permanent magnet

• Linear relation exists between proton resonance frequency and
strength of permanent magnetic field
• Frequency of the transmitted and received energy can be tuned to
investigate cylindrical regions at different diameters
• Allows MRI instruments to image narrow slices of either a human
patient or a rock formation
• Wellbore NMR can ‘tune out’ the borehole - mud cake and focus on
the formation
96
•Be aware that there are a variety of oilfield tool configurations and
operational sequences.
In (CMR) logging applications B0 is The MRIL-Prime tool can be operated

perpendicular to the borehole axis: at nine separate frequencies acquiring
Schlumberger Oil Field Review - independent information from multiple
Autumn 1995 concentric cylinders: Halliburton

Wellbore
• First align protons with

permanent magnet (B0)
• In this CMR-referenced example,
B0
B0 is perpendicular to the
borehole
• Typical magnet strength ~ 550
gauss, in the measurement region,
which is ~ 1000 times larger than
the Earth’s magnetic field
• Alignment may take a few
seconds
97
Wellbore
• Next tip the aligned protons

with an oscillating magnetic
field, B1, perpendicular to the
B0
direction of B0.
• B1 oscillates at Lamour
B1
frequency, which for hydrogen
nuclei in a field of 550 gauss is
about 2.3 MHz.
• Spin tip angle controlled by the
strength of B1 and the length of
application time
• 90° spin tip requires B1 field ~
4 gauss applied for ~ 16 µ sec
• The tipped protons precess in the plane perpendicular to B0, similar

to a gyroscope in a gravitational field
• Initially all the protons precess in unison and generate a small
magnetic field at the Lamour frequency which is detected by the
antenna
• Since B0 is not perfectly homogeneous the individual protons precess
at slightly different frequencies and gradually lose synchronization
(dephase)
• The decaying signal is called free induction decay (FID)
98

• The decay time is called T2* with the asterisk indicating that the decay
is not a property of the formation
• T2* is comparable to the span of the tipping pulse, ~ a few tens of
microseconds

Wellbore
• The tipped protons precess in

the plane perpendicular to B0
• Since B0 is not perfectly B0
homogeneous the individual
protons precess at slightly different B1
frequencies and gradually lose
synchronization (dephase)
• The decaying signal is called free
induction decay (FID)
• The decay time is called T2*
with the asterisk indicating that the
decay is not a property of the
formation
99
• The dephasing caused by the inhomogeneity of B0 is reversible.

•The hydrogen protons, each precessing at slightly different
frequencies, can be refocused
• Refocusing accomplished with 180° pulse of same strength as original
(B1) 90° pulse, but applied twice as long
• As the protons rephase, they generate a signal in the antenna; spin
echo
• As the protons rephase, they generate a signal in the antenna; spin

echo
• The spin echo decays, but 180° pulses are repeatedly applied, possibly
several hundred times in a single NMR measurement
• These 180° pulses are usually applied in an evenly spaced train
• The entire pulse sequence - 90° pulse followed by a long series of 180°
pulses - is called a CPMG sequence after its inventors Carr, Purcell,
Meiboom and Gill
100
• Emmanuel Toumelin, University of Texas, adds the following details

• The duration of the 180 ° pulse is not exactly twice that of a 90°
pulse. Martin Hurlimann (from SDR) showed from quantum
considerations that the signal is optimized when this time ratio is
around Sqrt(2).
• The 180 ° pulses are made along a (y) direction which is
perpendicular to the 90 ° pulse (x direction) - both directions
forming the plane perpendicular to the B0 / z direction
• Carl Edwards, Baker Atlas comments: The above 90 ° and 180 °
‘orientations’ may be thought of as defining signal (wave) phase and
not geometry
• Emmanuel Toumelin, University of Texas, adds the following details

•The 180 pulses are made along a (y) direction which is
perpendicular to the 90 pulse (x direction) - both directions forming
the plane perpendicular to the B0 / z direction.
• If the 180 pulses are applied in the same direction as the 90 pulse,
it's just a Carr-Purcell sequence where refocusing creates
alternatively + / - echoes.
• If 180 pulses are applied in the y direction, it's the CPMG
sequence and refocusing creates a signal with constant sign (that
was the contribution of Meiboom and Gill).
• Rotation about B0 (z) is at the Lamour frequency
101
Wellbore
• The dephasing caused by

inhomogeneity of B0 is reversible
• Refocusing accomplished with
180° pulse of same strength as
original (B1) 90° pulse, but
applied twice as long 180
• The spin echo decays, but 180° B0

pulses are repeatedly applied
B1
180
•The entire pulse sequence, a 90°
pulse followed by a long series of
180° pulses, is called a CPMG
sequence
•Imagine runners lined up at the start of a race. They are started by a 90° pulse (1).
•After several laps, the runners are spread around the track (2, 3).
•Then the starter fires a second pulse of 180° (4) and the runners turn round and head
back to the starting line (5) .
102
•The fastest runners have the farthest distance to travel and all of them will arrive at the
same time if they return at the same rate (6a).
•With any variation in speed, the runners arrive back at slightly different times (6b).
Like the example of the runners, the process of spin reversal is repeated hundreds of
times during an NMR measurement. Each time the echo amplitude is less and the
decay rate gives the T2 relaxation time.
• The tipped protons precess in the plane perpendicular to B0

• Since B0 is not perfectly homogeneous the individual protons dephase
• The decay time is called T2* with the asterisk indicating that the
decay is not a property of the formation
• The dephasing caused by inhomogeneity of B0 is reversible
• As the protons rephase, they generate a signal; spin echo
• The spin echo decays, but 180° pulses are repeatedly applied
• The amplitude of the various spin echos in a CPMG echo train decay
with a characteristic decay time, T2, that is related to petrophysical
properties
103
•The free induction
decay is not a
property of the
formation
•The amplitude
decay of the various
spin echo signals is
related to
petrophysical
properties

T2*
T2
• The free induction decay time

T2* is not a property of the
formation
• The dephasing caused by
T2
inhomogeneity of B0 is reversible
• As the protons rephase, they
generate a signal in the antenna;
spin echo
• The spin echo decays, but 180°
pulses are repeatedly applied
• The amplitude of the various spin Schlumberger Oil Field Review - Autumn 1995
echo signals in a CPMG echo train

decay with a characteristic decay
time, T2, that is related to T2
petrophysical properties T2*
104
• The amplitude of the various spin echo signals in a CPMG echo train
decay with a characteristic decay time, T2, that is related to
petrophysical properties
• T2 is known as the transverse relaxation time because dephasing
occurs in the plane transverse to the static field B0
• After a period of several T2, no further refocusing is possible
• The CPMG pulse sequence is halted and the protons return to
their equilibrium direction parallel to B0
• The CPMG pulse sequence is halted and the protons return to their
equilibrium direction parallel to B0
• Re-alignment with B0 occurs with a time constant T1, and is known as
longitudinal relaxation
• The next spin-tipping measurement is not started until the protons have
returned to their equilibrium position in the constant B0 field.
• While T2* results from imperfection in magnetic field B0, T1 and T2
both arise from molecular processes
105
Proton alignment with strong permanent The aligned protons are then ‘tipped’ 90° by
magnet is first step in NMR measurement, a magnetic pulse oscillating at the resonance
leaving the protons to precess around an axis or Larmor frequency.
parallel to the B0 direction (perpendicular to
the borehole axis in case of CMR)
•Laboratory measurements work with both longitudinal (T1) and transverse (T2)
relaxation times, while T2 was the historically reported value in the wellbore. Both
are directly related to pore size.

• Laboratory measurements work with both longitudinal (T1) and
transverse (T2) relaxation times, while T2 was historically measured in
the wellbore. Both are directly related to pore size.
• Gene speculates on why: T2 decay takes place faster, and is therefore
more accommodative of wellbore logging constraints. Additionally, in
the case of carbonates with a large range of pore sizes, and slow surface
relaxivity, there is less ‘mixing’ of pore size signals in the rock response
(more on this later).
106
• Longitudinal relaxation (T1) is dependant upon two effects
• Surface relaxation
• Bulk relaxation
Schlumberger Oil Field Glossary

• Fluid molecules hit grain surfaces as result of Brownian motion
• Protons transfer nuclear spin energy to the grain surface allowing
realignment with the static magnetic field, B0
• In most rocks, grain-surface relaxation has the most influence on T1
and T2
107
• Bulk relaxation
• Refers to the relaxation time of fluid in large container
• Depends strongly on the rate of proton movement and is affected by
temperature and viscosity
• Can be dominant relaxation mechanism in extremely large pores or
when two or more fluids (wetting and non-wetting) occupy the pore
space of the rock
• Bulk fluid decay times, measured by Gigi Zhang and Songhua Chen
(Baker Atlas) in the lab at ambient temperature and pressure using a
CPMG sequence and no applied magnetic field gradient
Fluid T1b T2b

Tap Water(68 F) 2.5 sec 2.2 sec
1.2 cP Oil 674 m-sec 547 m-sec
5 cP Oil 322 m-sec 201 m-sec
• At a very simple (bulk) level, these attributes would describe the

associated NMR measurements.
• In formation evaluation, there are additional considerations
Gigi Zhang and Songhua Chen, Baker Atlas
108
• Molecular diffusion in magnetic field gradients
• Gradients in the static magnetic field and molecular motion lead to
dephasing and T2 relaxation
• T1 relaxation is not affected since it does not involve re-phasing
• B0 field gradient has two possible sources
• Configuration of the logging tool magnet
• Magnetic susceptibility contrast between grain materials and pore
fluids in porous rocks
• Minimizing the CPMG echo spacing will reduce the contribution of
diffusion to T2
• May even be negligible

• The CPMG pulse corrects for loss of energy (ie relaxation) due to the
free induction decay
• Since B0 is not perfectly homogeneous the individual protons precess at slightly
different frequencies and gradually lose synchronization (dephase)
• The decay time is called T2* with the asterisk indicating that the decay is not a
property of the formation
• There are then three mechanisms for T2 relaxation

• Bulk relaxation
• Diffusion relaxation
• T2 is the harmonic average (inverse sum) of each component for each
fluid
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
109
• T2 is the harmonic average of each component for each fluid
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
• The inverse relation means the smallest of the three types of relaxation
times (quickest decay rate) is the most important in determining the
final T2 for each fluid
• There is not one single value of T2 for a rock but rather a wide
distribution of values lying between fractions of a millisecond and
several seconds
• It is this distribution of T2 values that is the principal output of an

NMR T2 log

1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
•Fluid molecules hit grain surfaces as result of Brownian motion
• Protons can be irreversibly dephased — contributing to transverse
relaxation, T2.
and T2
110
and T2
• Emmanuel Toumelin, University of Texas, adds: When several fluids
are present, both their bulk relaxation contrast (and also diffusion
contrasts for diffusion and 2D NMR) and the wettability state of the rock
are very important too

and T2
• Pore size plays an important role in surface relaxation. The speed of
relaxation depends on how frequently protons can collide with the
surface and this depends on the surface-to-volume ratio (S/V)
• Surfaces are not equally effective in relaxing hydrogen protons
• Sandstones are about three times more efficient in relaxing pore
water than carbonates
• Rocks with high iron content, or other magnetic minerals, have
shorter NMR relaxation times
111
• In
most rocks, grain-surface relaxation has the most influence on T1
and T2
• Sandstones are about three times more efficient in relaxing pore water
than carbonates
• Emmanuel Toumelin, University of Texas, adds: In my experience,
some carbonates are up to ten times less efficient at surface relaxivity
than are sandstones.
Faster Slower
Decay Decay
The precessing protons move about the pore space colliding with other protons and
with the grain surfaces. Grain surface relaxation is (usually) the most important
process affecting T1 and T2 relaxation times.
112
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
• The speed of relaxation depends on how frequently protons collide
with the surface and this reflects surface-to-volume ratio (S / V)
• Collisions are less frequent in large pores - they have a small S / V
• Relaxation times are relatively long
• Small pores have a large S / V
• Short relaxation times

• The speed of relaxation depends on how frequently protons collide with
the surface and this reflects surface-to-volume ratio (S / V)
• For a single pore, the nuclear spin magnetization decays exponentially
as a function of time, with time constant Ti
1 / T2 = ρ2 S/V and 1 / T1 = ρ1 S/V
• Small pores have a large S / V and short relaxation times
113
• For a single pore, the nuclear spin magnetization decays exponentially
as a function of time, with time constant Ti
1 / T2 = ρ2 S/V and 1 / T1 = ρ1 S/V
• Rocks have a distribution of pore sizes, each with its own value of S/V
• The total magnetization is the sum of the signals from each pore
• The sum of the volumes of all the pores is the fluid volume of the
rock—the porosity
• The total signal is then proportional to porosity
• The overall decay is the sum of the individual decays, reflecting pore
size distribution

• Bulk relaxation
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
• Bulk relaxation refers to the relaxation time of fluid in large container
• The fluid is not influenced by surface or diffusion relaxation
mechanisms.
• Can be dominant relaxation mechanism in extremely large pores or
when two or more fluids occupy the pore space of the rock
114
• Bulk relaxation
• Loss of coherent energy as protons interact with one another in bulk
fluids.
•Hydrogen protons in highly

viscous fluids are less mobile
and tend to relax quickly
T2 distributions for two oils of

different viscosities (additional
details n/a). T2 shifted
downwards as viscosity
increases. See exhibit following.

• Bulk relaxation
• When the hydrogen nuclei of the non-wetting fluid (oil) are prevented
from contacting the grain surfaces of the (water wet) rock, the
dominant relaxation mechanism will be bulk relaxation
• The bulk relaxation of oil is dependent on its viscosity
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td

Mean T2 versus viscosity
for bulk oil at room
temperature
Graphic Courtesy of Schlumberger
115
• Bulk relaxation
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
• Bulk relaxation correction required when mud filtrate contains ions
of chromium, manganese, iron, nickel or other paramagnetic ions
• Correction can be determined at well site, with mud filtrate sample

• Water in a test tube has a long T2 relaxation time: 3700 m-sec at 40°C
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
• Vuggy carbonate T2 might approach this value but water in smaller
pores will have much shorter T2
116
• Vuggy carbonate T2 might approach 3700 m-sec, and possibly ‘not be
seen’ in the tool response
• Data acquisition / interpretation parameters might also limit what the
tools ‘sees’
• Compare φ(NMR) with
φ(alternative), such as routine
porosity tools or core, as a
QC technique

• Molecular diffusion in magnetic field gradients
dephasing and T2 relaxation
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
• T1 relaxation is not affected since it does not utilize ‘re-phasing’
diffusion to T2
117
• In a perfectly uniform external magnetic field relaxation is due to interactions of the
proton spins with other magnetic moments in their surroundings (eg, other protons,
paramagnetic ions on pore surfaces). This causes a decrease in the number of precessing
spins, and thus a decrease in the signal. This is actually the desired quantity, or true T2
• If the external magnetic field is not

perfectly uniform, there appears another
important phenomenon: dephasing.
• Since the precession frequency is
proportional to the external field, the
spins all precess at somewhat different T2*
frequencies, and eventually become out

of phase with each other, causing a T2
decrease in the observed signal. This

phenomenon is, in fact, responsible for
T2*
Courtesy of Charles Flaum - Schlumberger

• The non-uniformity in the field can arise from two sources: the external field can
itself be non-uniform, as is typical in logging tools, since they are "inside-out"
geometry.
•In laboratory equipment,
great care is taken to
reduce this non-
uniformity to minimum. In
logging tools, where this is
not possible, the dephasing
causes a very rapid signal
decay, giving rise to a very T2*
short T2* - in fact it is not
measurable in a typical
logging tool as it is T2
smothered by the residual

energy of the spin rotation
rf pulse. In a uniform
field, you can get T2 and
T2* to be very close.
118
• The non-uniformity in the field can arise from two sources …...
• Additionally, in a typical
material sample, there are
local magnetic susceptibility
variations (such as between
grains and fluids in pores),
causing local field
inhomogeneities, giving rise
to a dephasing on a smaller T2*
scale
T2

• In a typical material sample, there are local magnetic susceptibility variations (such as
between grains and fluids in pores), causing local field inhomogeneities, giving rise to
a dephasing on a smaller scale
• At a first approximation, these local

enhancements of the applied magnetic field
gradient will appear at the near vicinity of
the grain surface.
•As a consequence, small pores or throats T2*
where the enhancement is higher might look

even smaller (or even disappear) from the T2
NMR reading if you interpret them without

taking care of the internal fields.
Courtesy of Emmanuel Toumelin U of Texas
119
• There is one additional complication in a non-uniform field - an additional
phenomenon causing dephasing - molecular diffusion. It has very little effect on the
apparent T2*, as the diffusion is a relatively slow process, and spins moving in the non-
uniform field do not experience large field changes during the T2* decay. However, the
spins can experience a significant field change during the time between the 180
pulses.
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
• This means that the re-phasing occurs
in a slightly different field than
dephasing, so the reversal of dephasing
is no longer perfect. There is then an
additional decay observed in the spin T2*
echo measurement
T2

• With proper calibration the area under the T2-distribution curve is
equal to the porosity
• Distribution of that area correlates to pore-size when the rock is 100%
water-saturated
• When hydrocarbons are present, the T2 distribution will be altered
depending on the hydrocarbon type, viscosity, and saturation.
120
Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance
•Lithology-independent porosity.
Below X935 ft, the lithology is
limestone with some
dolomitization (track 1), while
above is dolomite. Phi(Rhob/Dol)
•Two porosity curves (track 2) are
derived from density
measurements : one assumes a Phi(NMR)
limestone lithology and the other
dolomite.
•See exhibit following for
comments
Mineral Independent
Porosity
Phi(Rhob/LS)
Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance
•NMR porosity overlays the
density limestone porosity in
limestone regions and
overlays dolomite porosity
in dolomite regions Phi(Rhob/Dol)
• Comparison of φ(NMR)
with φ(Alternative) provides
a valuable QC benchmark Dol
Phi(NMR)
Mineral Independent
Porosity Phi(Rhob/LS)
LS
121
• The NMR measurement provides a lithology independent porosity
• But, be aware of potential fluid effects
• Tar and viscous oils relax more quickly than light oil or water
T2

• Be aware of potential fluid effects
• NMR Hydrogen Index of heavy crude less than 1
• The number of mobile
protons is smaller in viscous
oil than in water
122
Following text is excerpted from the
referenced article (MEWE - below)
The presence of heavy crudes, with

hydrogen index less than 1, influences
the measurement. The number of mobile
protons is smaller in viscous oil than in
water and these may not contact the grain
surfaces in a water-wet sediment.
Bolding is Gene. Note that adjective

‘mobile’. Although the text and graphic
might appear to be a generic Hydrogen Hydrogen index of crude oils as a function of
Index (ie applicable to Neutron Log their API gravity.
also), it is in fact an NMR-specific
Hydrogen Index.

• HI is the number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume divided by the
number of hydrogen atoms per unit volume of pure water at surface
conditions
• The HI of unusually heavy crude can vary from 1
Be aware that the generic description of the Hydrogen Index can be found on
Service Company WWW sites, within the context of NMR discussions, and
possibly not bring out the differing NMR and Neutron response in heavy
hydrocarbons.
123
• It may be that long hydrocarbon chains within the tar cause it to
behave almost like a solid
• Dramatically shortening
the T2 response
• Tar may appear as a
reduction in NMR porosity
Oilfield Review: Summer 1997

• In gas zones, the NMR, like the neutron porosity, may read low
• Two effects
• Low hydrogen concentration in the gas
• Insufficient polarization of the gas due to its long T1 relaxation
time
• Gas has relatively high mobility compared with oil and water
• Spinning protons in gas have a much larger diffusion-in-gradient
effect
• In Heavy Oil, however, the NMR and Neutron responses differ
• NMR vs Neutron porosity - exhibits following
Oilfield Review: Summer 1997
124
Hydrogen Index (α) of the Neutron Log
Courtesy Carl Edwards, Baker Atlas
ρ h (gm/cc)
R. GAYMARD and A. POUPON. RESPONSE OF NEUTRON AND FORMATION DENSITY LOGS IN

HYDROCARBON BEARING FORMATIONS. THE LOG ANALYST, SEPTEMBER - OCTOBER, 1968
•HI of the
Neutron Log
•Left, and below,
per gm/cc
Neutron Log Hydrogen Index
1.25
1.00
0.75
HI
In order to best illustrate the issue, we want to display

0.50 the Neutron Log HI in terms of API
gravity (since the NMR HI, preceding, is in terms of API). The first step is to code the Porosity
Log Response into Excel, relative to gm/cc for QC 0.25 purposes (ie compare the historical graphic
and the Excel display) and then use Excel to convert gm/cc to API Gravity - Exhibit following
0.00
0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
HC Density (g/cc)

125
•API Gravity is a measure of specific gravity per the American Petroleum Institute,
graduated in degrees on a hydrometer which was designed so that most values would
fall between 10 and 70 API gravity degrees.
•The arbitrary formula used to obtain this effect is:
API Gravity = (141.5 / SG at 60 ° F) - 131.5
•Sixty degrees Fahrenheit is used as the normal value for measurements and tables are
published give adjustments for temperature. (See ASTM D1298)
•A heavy oil with a specific gravity of 1.0 (the density of pure water) would have an
API Gravity of:
(141.5 / 1.0) - 131.5 = 10.0 degrees API.
•Light crude oil is defined as having an API gravity higher than 31.1°
•Medium oil is defined as having an API gravity between 22.3° and 31.1°
•Heavy oil is defined as having an API gravity below 22.3°
Hydrogen Index of the Neutron Log

Courtesy Carl Edwards, Baker Atlas
Hydrocarbon Attributes
g/cc API Composite
Density Gravity H_I
0.20 576 0.45
0.25 435 0.53
0.30 340 0.60
0.35 273 0.66
0.40 222 0.72
0.45 183 0.77
0.50 152 0.82
0.55 126 0.86
0.60 104 0.91
0.65 86 0.95
0.70 71 1.00
0.75 57 1.04
0.80 45 1.09
0.85 35 1.15
0.90 26 1.22
0.95 17 1.29
1.00 10 1.37
HI(Neutron Log) drops below 1 at a densities less than 0.70 gm/cc : API = 70

126
Hydrogen
Index of the
Neutron Log in
gm/cc and API
1.50
1.25
1.00
HI
0.75
0.50
HI(Neutron Log) is greater than
1 for densities greater than 0.70 0.25
gm/cc - API = 70, which means

that there should not be a 0.00
10 20 30 40 50
‘Neutron Log porosity deficit’ for API Gravity
API < 70
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
HI
0.50
0.25
0.00
10 20 30 40 50
API Gravity
Neutron Hydrogen Index of crude oils as a NMR Hydrogen Index of crude oils as
function of their API gravity. a function of their API gravity.
Note the different behavior at low API gravity / high specific gravity
Following exhibit illustrates the consequences
R. GAYMARD and A. POUPON. RESPONSE OF
NEUTRON AND FORMATION DENSITY LOGS IN
HYDROCARBON BEARING FORMATIONS. THE LOG Middle East Well Evaluation Review: Number 20,
ANALYST, SEPTEMBER - OCTOBER, 1968 1997
127
Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance
•Evaluation of gas, oil and tar

zones. The density-derived
porosity (red) and neutron
porosity (black) logs are shown
in Track 3.
•The CMR porosity deficit log
(blue shading) computed from
the difference between density
porosity and the CMR porosity is
shown in Track 4.
•See exhibit following
Oil Field Review - August 2000
Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance
•A tar flag (black) in Track 2 is

derived by comparing the
density-neutron porosity (Track
3) and the CMR porosity (Track
4).
•The gas flag (red) in Track 2 is
computed by comparing the
CMR and density-neutron
porosities.
•See following exhibit
128
• φ(Rhob) > φ(CNL)
• φ(Rhob) > φ(NMR)
• Both CNL & NMR low
• Interpreted as gas
• φ(Rhob) ~ φ(CNL)
• φ(Rhob) > φ(NMR)
• Only NMR is low
• Interpreted as tar
It’s time to make a move, Dad!

Review NMR Exercise & Then We’ll Wrap Things Up
129
130
Summary
• Fracture porosity has an effect opposite to vuggy porosity
• 1 < ~ m < ~ 3 (and more) depending upon porosity type
Φiso
Phi(Total) ~ 20 pu
Phi(Frac) ~ 10 pu
m ~ 1.35 - 1.40
Note that interparticle

porosity limit for ‘m’, Φfr
in this graphic, is 2.0
• Φ = total porosity
• Φfr = fracture porosity
• Φiso = isolated (vugs - molds) porosity
• m = Archie cementation exponent
• m > 2 => more tortuous and vice versa
Courtesy of Schlumberger
Summary
•Rock Types 1, 2 and 3 were combined into a single Group.
•Porosities > 5 pu exhibit‘m’ ~ 2.0
•Although the combination is reasonable for characterization of electrical behavior, it
is not necessarily appropriate for other descriptors (porosity-permeability relation,
capillary pressure curves, etc)
•‘a’ : Rock Types 1 and 2 correspond to

intergranular grainstone; limestone and
dolostone
•‘b’ : Rock Type 3 is sucrosic dolostone
with intercrystalline porosity
Cementation Exponents in ME Carbonate Reservoirs. J W Focke and D Munn, SPE Formation Evaluation, June 1987
131
Summary
•Rock Types 1, 2 and 3 with Φ < 5 pu have ‘m’ < 2.0
•Contrary to the expectation that low porosity infers a well-cemented and tortuous path
•‘a’ : Rock Types 1 and 2 correspond to

intergranular grainstone; limestone and
dolostone
•‘b’ : Rock Type 3 is sucrosic dolostone
with intercrystalline porosity
•Authors checked for fractures (natural and induced) as an m-lowering mechanism but
did not find any evidence
•Authors note that low ‘m’ in low porosity Arabian Gulf Rock has been reported
elsewhere
•Authors note that the equation for low porosity carbonate ‘m’ that appears in
Service Company Charts does not appear to be generally applicable
Summary
•Both Porosity and Formation Factor are affected by over-burden pressure
•Rocks with intergranular / intercrystalline porosity have a relatively small Formation
Factor pressure dependence, with most of the variation taking place within the first
200 psi of pressure increase
•The Formation Factor in the moldic rock is not only larger than that of
intergranular / intercrystalline rock at ambient pressure, but increases continuously
as pressure is increased
•The increase in FF continues even beyond the pressures at which the porosity
ceases to (noticeably) decline
132
Summary
•Available research suggests that the electrical response is a relatively strong function
of pore shape
•Spherical (oomoldic) pores contribute relatively little to the electrical
conductivity, as compared to oblate pores, even when connected one to the next
and filled with brine
•The pressure dependence of porosity / formation factor / ‘m’ exponent is interpreted
as meaning that the pressure increase is continuously closing the micropores (thought
to be oblate in shape) which are between the grains / crystals.
•The micropores are only a small portion of the total porosity and hence the effect
of pressure on porosity is small, but the effect on FF (electrical conductivity) is
large
•This behavior illustrates the over-riding importance of rock matrix / pore shape on
the net rock resistivity response
Summary
•Six models for calculating the cementation exponent from acoustic and resistivity
data are reviewed.
•A generalized dual-porosity model for estimating cementation exponents is
developed from a review of the six models. This model can be used for calculating
cementation exponents of carbonate rocks containing both separate and touching
vugs.
•We propose a generalized dual-porosity model that can be used to calculate variable
cementation exponents for carbonates with heterogeneous vuggy pores.
•The constant av may be used to characterize the connectivity of different types of
vuggy pores:
•an av greater than 100 for separate-vug dominated carbonates,
•an av less than 20 for touching-vug-dominated carbonates,
•and an av of 1 for well-connected planar fractures.
•When multiple vuggy pore types are present, a characteristic value for av must be
determined.
Comparison of Empirical Models for Calculating the Vuggy Porosity and Cementation Exponent of Carbonates from Log
Responses. Fred P. Wang and F. Jerry Lucia
133
Summary
• Saturation Exponent
• Dependent upon
• Wettability: n increases as rock become oil wet
• Grain surface texture: n decreases as surface becomes rough
• Laboratory cleaning: may render the sample water wet (ie non-representative of
reservoir conditions)
• Core drying: can artificially destroy the inherent rough surface, leading to a
Laboratory ‘n’ that is too high
• Pore size distribution: each distribution can have its own attributes, and those
attributes will control the capillary pressure / resistivity index as the Sw change
encompasses the corresponding pore system
• Displacement history: an additional issue
Summary
•Low Resistivity Pay (LRP) and Low Contrast Pay (LCP) are closely related
concepts.
•Low Contrast Pay: difficult to determine whether a formation will flow oil or
water.
•This may occur because there is little difference between the resistivity of oil and
water bearing intervals, or because there is little contrast in the resistivity between
pay beds and surrounding non-reservoir rock such as shales.
•The absolute value of the resistivity in LCP may be moderately high –
particularly when the formation water is very fresh.
•Low Resistivity Pay: special case of LCP when the absolute value of the resistivity
is also low – below 1-2 Ohm-m as a general rule of thumb.
•Most frequently encountered in areas with saline formation waters. In extreme
cases the resistivity may be so low that pay zones are overlooked since the
calculated water saturations are very high – or 100%.
134
Summary
normal Archie methods) is incorrect and overestimates the true water saturation of the
formation.
•The issue is then to find improved methods for calculating the true water
saturation – either by modification of the calculation algorithm used from the
resistivity, or by an alternative and independent means.
•The issue is then to understand why the water is effectively not mobile – and to
develop some means for predicting which rocks will flow dry oil and which will
flow wet – from rocks with the same water saturations.
•Frequently, the truth may represent some combination of the two above
explanations, which are best regarded as end-members of a distribution.
Summary
•Five distinct causes of LRP were identified
•The three most likely methods – all rely on a dual porosity structure
•In the case of fractured and layered formations, the large pore sizes (fractures being
regarded as of infinite pore size) are physically separate from the smaller pores while in
the case of dual porosity systems the two pore sizes are in intimate juxtaposition.
135
Summary
•Points of constant water saturation will appear on a Pickett Plot as straight lines with
slope related to cementation exponent “m”
measurements
Summary
characterization tools, thereby enhancing its utility and in effect allowing Double Duty
•BVW=Constant, for a specific Rock Type, will often identify water-free
production
•The BVW concept is a routine, and important part of, many NMR analyses
produced

carbonates

Num be r 20 1997
136
Summary
•Frequently observed in rocks exhibiting oil wettability and / or irregular rock
morphology
•Oil wettability and irregular pore Saturation Exponent Effects (m=2)
morphology may cause opposite effects on 100.0
the electrical resistivity of rocks
Archie Behavior
R(T) / R(0)
10.0
•R(0) / R(w) = 1 / Φ m
•R(T) / R(0) = 1 / Sw n
n=1.75
•‘n’ is constant across n=2.00
n=2.25
range of saturations
1.0
0.10 1.00
Sw
Summary
•Resistivity Ratio / Sw relationship non-linear on a log-log scale
•One of the assumptions in the

use of Archie’s equation is that
the measure current moves
uniformly through the formation
Estimating Sw with a volume measurement.

R. Griffiths, A. Carnegie, A. Gyllensten, M. T. Ribeiro, A. Prasodjo, and Y. Sallam. World Oil, October 2006
137
Summary
•What non-Archie methods are available?

•Dielectric Log
Summary
•The Fresh Water Challenge
•Density - neutron separation
•Laterologs
•Formation tester
•Sidewall coring tool and fluorescence
•Capillary pressure measurements on core
•Mud log gas chromatography
•Acoustic data : Vp & Vs
•Carbon/oxygen tool
•Dielectric log
•Freshwater Influx in the Gippsland Basin: Impact on Formation
Evaluation, Hydrocarbon Volumes and Hydrocarbon Migration. K
Kuttan, J B Kulla and R G Neumann, Esso Australia.
138
Summary
• Longitudinal relaxation (T1) is dependant upon two effects
• Bulk relaxation
Schlumberger Oil Field Glossary
Summary
• Fluid molecules hit grain surfaces as result of Brownian motion
• Protons transfer nuclear spin energy to the grain surface allowing
realignment with the static magnetic field, B0
• In most rocks, grain-surface relaxation is the most important
influence on T1 and T2
139
Summary
• Bulk relaxation
• Bulk relaxation refers to the relaxation time of fluid in large container
• Can be dominant relaxation mechanism in extremely large pores
or when two or more fluids (wetting and non-wetting) occupy the
pore space of the rock
Summary
• Sandstones are about three (or even ten) times more efficient in
relaxing pore water than carbonates
140
Summary
dephasing and (an additional issue in) T2 relaxation
• T1 relaxation is not affected
diffusion to T2
Summary
• The CPMG pulse corrects for loss of energy (ie relaxation) due to the
free induction decay
• Since B0 is not perfectly homogeneous the individual protons precess at slightly
different frequencies and gradually lose synchronization (dephase)
• The decay time is called T2* with the asterisk indicating that the decay is not a
property of the formation
• There are then three mechanisms for T2 relaxation

• Bulk relaxation
• Diffusion relaxation
• T2 is the harmonic average (inverse sum) of each component for each
fluid
1/T2 = 1/Ts + 1/Tb + 1/Td
141
Summary
• Interpretation of NMR relaxation in sandstones is based on two
important limits
•magnetization relaxation in each pore is controlled by surface
relaxivity
•relaxation in each pore is fairly independent of others
• In carbonates, especially in grainstones and packstones, these
assumptions fail
• Significant diffusion of magnetic moments between inter- and
intra-granular pore space, whose characteristic sizes may vary by an
order of magnitude or more, causes a merging of the respective T2
• Direct link between T2 and pore size is thus lost
T. S. Ramakrishnan, et al, A Model-Based Interpretation Methodology for Evaluating Carbonate Reservoirs, 2001 SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana, 30 September– 3 October 2001.
Summary
• Your conclusion - it will often not be possible with either T1 or T2

logging to correctly identify a bi-modal porosity distribution of micro-
and vuggy-porosity rock, due to the pore size coupling. – is absolutely
valid
142
Review and Feedback - Day 2
• Is the pace ok / too slow / too fast?
• Which topic was most interesting / useful?
• Are there any changes you would suggest in course content / delivery?
• I am interested in your observations and thoughts!
New Zealand
143

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Archie’s Equation

• Analogous to his cementation exponent correlation

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

•Additional data sets were also available and reviewed

•Additional data sets were also available and reviewed

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

• The carbonate reservoirs of the Middle East (and elsewhere) are

Middle East Well Evaluation Review: No 17, 1996

• The carbonate reservoirs of the Middle East are characterized by mixed

• The microporosity systems often dominate resistivity measurements

Middle East Well Evaluation Review: No 17, 1996

Middle East Well Evaluation Review: Number 20, 1997

Middle East Well Evaluation Review: Number 20, 1997

Middle East Well Evaluation Review: Number 20, 1997

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

Oil Wet “n” ~ 11

From preceding exhibit

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

Middle East Well Evaluation Review: Number 20, 1997

• All data analyzed (cleaned) in same fashion

Archie’s Equation Shyb 271 Saturation

• Modern carbonate data 1000 1051 n=1.9

•If ‘n’=1.5, an RI of 10 from similar

corresponds to Sw ~ 21% facies

•If ‘n’=3.0, RI=10 100

• All data acquired at same time and cleaned in same

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

Rough Surface Smooth Surface

• Small pores (as an

Capillary Pressure Resistivity Index

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

Rough Surface Smooth Surface

The Technical Review : Volume 36 Number 4

Topical Conference on Low Resistivity Pay in Carbonates

•Two end-member types of Low Resistivity Pay may be identified

•Two end-member types of Low Resistivity Pay may be identified

•Causes of Low Resistivity Pay (in Carbonates)

•Causes of Low Resistivity Pay (in Carbonates)

•Causes of Low Resistivity Pay (in Carbonates)

•Causes of Low Resistivity Pay (in Carbonates)

•Causes of Low Resistivity Pay (in Carbonates)

•Causes of Low Resistivity Pay (in Carbonates)

•Causes of Low Resistivity Pay (in Carbonates)

•Five distinct causes of LRP were identified.

•Proximity to the Free Water Level

•Proximity to the Free Water Level

•LRP is a “Transition Zone” phenomenon and would not be expected in identical

•Possible Solutions for “Type 1” Low Resistivity Pay

•Possible Solutions for “Type 1” Low Resistivity Pay

•Possible Solutions for “Type 1” Low Resistivity Pay

•Possible Solutions for “Type 1” Low Resistivity Pay

•Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

•Possible Solutions for “Type 1” Low Resistivity Pay

•Possible Solutions for “Type 1” Low Resistivity Pay

•Possible Solutions for “Type 1” Low Resistivity Pay

•Possible Solutions for “Type 2” Low Resistivity Pay

Possible Solutions for “Type 2” Low Resistivity Pay

Dad, I’m wearin’ the boots and I think

ON TURNING 90 "You know you're getting old

ON TURNING 100 " I don't feel old. In fact I don't

ON GIVING UP HIS EARLY CAREER, BOXING "I

nLog(Sw) = Log(Rw) - mLog(φ) - Log(Rt)

mLog(φ) = Log(Rw) - nLog(Sw) - Log(Rt)