4.

Reservoir Engineering of Coalbed Methane Reservoirs

Coal Seams as Natural Gas Reservoirs

Pore Structures
Gas Storage
Gas Transport
Material Balance Equations
Decline Curves
Well testing
Reservoir Simulation
KEY STEPS IN COALIFACTION PROCESS
COAL SEAMS AS NATURAL GAS RESERVOIRS
•Methane trapped, or occluded in coal seams is a virtually untapped source of clean , sulfur-
free, pipeline quality energy that today constitutes an economically viable exploration and
development objective.
•The production of gas from coal seams can be accomplished by drilling and completing
either vertical or horizontal boreholes, utilizing essentially conventional technology. It should
also be noted that enhanced recovery of methane by injection of other gases is also a viable
technique.
•Most of the wells drilled for coal degasification require reservoir stimulation, usually, through
casing perforations, employing various combinations of hydraulic fracturing, such as sand-
water, or sand-gel, or sand-foam, in order to increase permeability to gas.
•Coalbed methane is high in heating value generally between approximately 900 and 1,050
Btu/scf (it should be noted that gas produced from the in situ combustion of coal is low in
heat content, typically in the ranhe of 150 to 300 Btu/scf.
•Volume-for-volume, high-rank coals are capable of storing several times (up to 8-10
times) as much as gas as are porous sandstone reservoirs under similar conditions of pressure
due to the extremely high internal surface areas of coal – as high as 307m2/g or 1,5000,000
ft2/lb.
•Based on some well-documented production hsitories, it appears that typical coalbed methane
wells will be long-lived (20-40 years).
•Coal seams are both sources and reservoirs that is formed as a by-product of coalifaction, which
is defined as the process by which vegetal material evolves from peat to lignite to sub-bituminous,
bituminous, and anthracite coal
 COAL SEAMS AS NATURAL GAS RESERVOIRS

•Not all of the methane generated during the coalification process migrates, or is expelled, out of
coal seams. Coal has the capacity to retain, store or absorb/adsorb methane in varying amounts.
•It is important to note that lower-rank coals – those below medium-volatile bituminuous rank – are
characterized by having storage capacity beyond that of generation.
•Expulsion of methane from the micropore structure takes place at the point at which generation
exceeds storage capacity under conditions of constant temperature and pressure.

0.03 m3 (1 ft3) of sandstone having 15% porosity and 75 % gas saturation at a depth of 2,500 ft can hold 8.4 scf of gas

The same volume lower rank coal will hold 3 to 4 times more gas (30 scf)

•Preliminary worldwide CBM resources are estimated to range between 5,800 and 24,215 Tcf.
The largest potential resources, which also have the largest degree of uncertainty, are in the
former Soviet Union with 4,000 to 16,116 Tcf. North America’s resources range between 951 to
4,383 Tcf, whereas South America and Europe range from 15 to 32 Tcf and 161 and 269 Tcf,
respectively. Africa ranges between 27 and 55 Tcf; the Middle East has no CBM resources.
CBM resources of the Asia Pacific region, which includes The People’s Republic of China,
ranges from 646 to 3,360 Tcf.
 PORE STRUCTURES OF COALBED METHANE RESERVOIRS

The molecular representation of a bituminous coal Visualization of CO2 adsorption at capacity

The molecular representation of a bituminous coal

with 66 water molecules added

Source: Narkiewicz, M. R. and Mathews, J. P., Visualization of carbon dioxide sequestration issues within
coal using a molecular representation of Pocahontas No. 3 coal, 12th International Conference on
Coal Science and Technology, 2005, October 9-14, Okinawa, Japan.
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

100% -- Helium 5.08 A

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Micropore Volume (%)

61% -- Carbon Dioxide 5.7 A

46% Methane 6.1 A

5 5.25 5.75 6.25 6.75 7.35 7.75 8.25 8.75 9.25 9.75
Micropore Entrance Size (A)

The volume of porosity that is accessible to different sorbate sizes

Source: Narkiewicz, M. R. and Mathews, J. P., Visualization of carbon dioxide sequestration issues within
coal using a molecular representation of Pocahontas No. 3 coal, 12th International Conference on
Coal Science and Technology, 2005, October 9-14, Okinawa, Japan.
DUAL POROSITY NATURE OF
THE PORE STRUCTURE AND
ITS IDEALIZATION
COMPARISON OF GAS-IN-PLACE FOR A COAL SEAM AND
A CONVENTIONAL GAS SAND
 GAS AND WATER STORAGE

•Gas is stored in conventional sand reservoirs as free gas in the interconnected porosity between
sand grains. The amount of gas in the reservoir is a function of pressure, temperature, and
gas porosity.

•Gas can be contained in a coal seam in two ways. It can be free gas within the cleat system
(joints and fractures) or it can be present as an adsorbed layer on the internal surfaces of the
coal. The coal matrix contains a very fine micropore structure (5-10 A) which has a very high
storage capacity for methane. Methane molecules physically attach (adsorb) to the micropore
walls. because the bulk porosity of the coal cleat system is small (<5%) and the initial free gas
saturation in the cleat system is typically low (<10%), the majority (>90%) of the gas in place in
coals is adsorbed in the coal matrix.

•Water is stored in coals in two ways: as bound water in the coal matrix, and as free water in
the coal cleat system. The bound water in coals is formed as by product of the coalification
process. This water is not mobile and has not been shown to significantly effect methane
recovery characteristics of coal. The free water contained in the cleat system is mobile at high
water saturations (>40%). Many blanket coal deposits are active aquifer systems and are,
therefore, 100% saturated with water in the cleat system. Coals that are not aquifers may have
initial water saturations less than 100%. The minimum mobile water saturation of the coal cleat
system is determined by capillary pressure characteristics of the coal
 GAS TRANSPORT IN COAL SEAMS
The transport of methane through coal seams is considered a two-stage process. With water production and
corresponding pressure decline gas is desorbed from the micropore walls and migrates through the
interconnected micropores to the cleat. The gas is then transported, along with brine, through the cleat to the
drainage wells. Thus, the cleat acts both as a sink to the micropore system and as a conduit to the wells.

DESORPTION DIFFUSION CONVECTION

 SORPTION MODEL−Langmuir’s Theory

•The major portion of the gas stored in coal exists as a physically adsorbed, liquid-like molecular
monolayer on the walls of the micropores.

•With fluid withdrawal, the pressure in the cleat declines and gas begins to desorb from the interior surfaces
of the micropore structure.

•If it is assumed that the desorption rate at these surfaces is sufficiently rapid (so that equilibrium is maintained
between the free and adsorbed gas phases), then, the methane concentration on walls is governed only by the
equilibrium sorption isotherm.

•For most coals, isotherms based on Langmuir's theory for simple, single-layer sorption adequately describe the
processes occurring at these surfaces
.
•Langmuir’s theory is based on the premise that molecule-molecule collisions are inelastic (that is, gas
molecules behave like hard spheres), while molecule-surface collisions are elastic.

•Thus, if a free gas molecule is traveling towards a coal surface strikes and adsorbed gas molecule, it will
immediately ricochet away from the surface. If, however, it strikes the surface, the elastic nature of the collision
causes the molecule to stick to the surface for a certain time period. In this theory, it is the “residence time”
which is the principle cause of adsorption.
 SORPTION MODEL−Langmuir’s Theory
•From the kinetic theory of gases, the rate at which gas molecules strike a coal surface is proportional to:
(1) Free gas pressure, pg
(2) The fraction of the surface not already covered by gas molecules, (1-Ω).
•The rate of adsorption, therefore, can be written as:
q = K1 pg (1-Ω)
•The rate of gas desorption is proportional to the fraction of the surface covered with adsorbed molecules:
q = K2Ω
•At equilibrium, the rate of adsorption must equal the rate of desorption, so that:
K1 pg (1-Ω) = K2Ω

Ω = (K1pg)/(K2 + K1pg)
•The fraction of the surface covered by molecules at any time is equal to the adsorbed methane concentration
divided by the total sorptive capacity of the surface (concentration at infinite pressure). Then, at equilibrium
conditions, the adsorbed methane concentration is the equilibrium concentration, that is:
Ω = VE(pg)/VL
•Equating the two definitions of Ω and rearranging yields
VE(pg) = (VLpg)/(pL+ pg)
where:
pL(psia) = K2/K1

•When pL>>pg , then pL + pg ≈ pL. The Langmuir equation collapses to VE(pg) = (VLpg)/(pL)
which is Henry’s Law.
 SORPTION ISOTHERM

The adsorbed capacity of a coal seam varies non-linearly as a function of pressure. This
relationship is best described using a Langmuir isotherm.

VL p g VL = Langmuir volume constant, SCF/ft3

VE =
pL + p g p L = Langmuir pressure constant, psia

p g = gas phase pressure, psia

VE = equilibrium adsorption capacity, SCF/ft3
TYPICAL LANGMUIR SORPTION ISOTHERMS
VE HENRY’S ISOTHERM

V E = V Hp g
LANGMUIR’S ISOTHERM
VL p g
VE =
pL + p g
P FREUNDLICHS ISOTHERM

VE = V f p gn
DIFFUSION PROCESS IN MICROPORES

•If a pore channel has a diameter which is much larger than the mean free path of the gas
molecules, then the gas flow by Poiseuille flow (forced flow) if it is subjected to a total pressure
gradient. If the same system is subjected to a partial pressure gradient (concentration gradient)
bulk diffusion becomes the principal transport mechanism. In the presence of an adsorbed layer,
two dimensional surface diffusion has to be considered.

•If the diameter of the pore channel is small compared to the mean free path, then the gas will
flow by Knudsen diffusion (molecular streaming) if it is subjected to either a total or partial
pressure gradient.

•Experimental results indicate that in order for Poiseuille flow to significantly contribute to gas
transport, the average capillary diameter must be greater than 20 μm.

•The critical value of pore diameter quoted above is four orders of magnitude greater than the
average diameter of the micropores in coal. It has, therefore, been concluded that the first stage
in the transport of methane, flow through the micropores, is essentially a diffusion process.

•The diffusion of gas through the micropores can be the results of three distinct mechanisms
which may act individually or simultaneously. These mechanisms are:
Bulk Diffusiontttmolecule-molecule interactions dominate
Knudsen diffusiontttmolecule-surface interactions dominate
2D surface diffusion of the adsorbed gas layer
IN TIGHT FORMATIONS TWO FLOW
FIELDS CONTROL THE GAS FLOW
DYNAMICS :

POTENTIAL FIELD p1 p2
MACROSCOPIC - DARCIAN FLOW ρ1 ρ2

ρ1 = ρ2 p1 < p2

p1 p2
CONCENTRATION FIELD
ρ1 ρ2
RANDOM MOLECULAR - FICKIAN FLOW

ρ1 < ρ2 p1 < p2
IS MULTIMECHANISTIC FLOW IMPORTANT ?

In double-porosity, single-permeability
systems, multimechanistic flow dominates
when 10-5 md < k < 10-1 md

DIFFUSION DARCIAN
FLOW FLOW
DOMINATES DOMINATES
EQUILIBRIUM SORPTION MODELS:
Gas adsorbed is only a function of pressure in
the cleat network
Gas desorption is instantaneous
Generally predicts optimistic results

NON-EQUILIBRIUM SORPTION MODELS:

Free and adsorbed gas compositions are identical,

selective adsorption and desorption do not occur
Gas transport in the micropores is a diffusion process
Surface desorption is instantaneous
PSEUDO-STEADY STATE
Similar to Warren and Root Approach
Relatively small computational work
Good for long term predictions

dVi = − 1 [ − ( )]
Vi VE p
dt λ
UNSTEADY STATE
Most rigorous models (de Swaan’s approach)
Require additional computational work
Good for all situations including short term
DARCIAN FLOW IN THE CLEAT SYSTEM

FACE
CLEAT

BUTT CLEAT
MACROPORE TRANSPORT EQUATIONS
MICROPORE TRANSPORT EQUATION
VOLUMETRIC GAS IN PLACE CALCULATIONS
The equation given below is the volumetric gas in-place equation for coalbed methane
reservoirs. This equation includes the appropriate terms for estimating the free gas
in the macropore structure of the coal as well as the adsorbed gas in the coal matrix. It is
assumed that the gas dissolved in the water is negligible, and therefore, is not included in
the equation.
EXAMPLE: Volumetric
calculation of gas-in-place

This example calculates the

gas-in-place for a well with three
target completion coal seams.
One can note that the adsorbed gas
comprises more than 95% of the
total gas–in-place.
MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATIONS FOR COALBED RESERVOIRS
(after King, 1993)
Material balance equations for estimating gas-in-place for coalbed methane reservoirs have
been derived from conventional material balance equations by adding terms to account for
desorption phenomena.

ITERATIVE PROCEDURE
1. Assume a value of Vb2
2. Calculate the average water
saturation for at least two
producing times.
3. Calculate z* for each producing
time.
4. Plot p/z* versus Gp.
5. Determine the slope of the p/z* plot.
6. From the slope of the p/z* plot,
calculate the reservoir bulk volume.
7. Return to Step 2, and using the new
value of Vb2 continue until you
achieve convergence.
EXAMPLE: Estimating Reservoir Volume
from Material Balance
CALCULATION OF RECOVERY FACTOR (1) Recovery factor from
isotherm.

(2) Recovery factor by analogy.

(3) Recovery factor by simulation.

 DECLINE CURVE ANALYSIS

•The techniques that can be used to estimate coalbed methane production are:
Volumetric calculations
Production decline analysis techniques
Reservoir simulation
•Using decline curve analysis techniques for coalbed methane wells is complicated by the fact that it
may take several months to several years for the well to exhibit a “declining” producing trend.
•Well spacing, permeability, producing conditions, and the diffusion and desorption characteristics of the
coall all significantly affect the shape of the production profile of coalbed methane wells.
•Numerical simulation studies indicate that the decline period starts when the average rate of desorption
in the reservoir falls under the total production rate from the field.
•Therefore, the declining production trends tend to be best developed in wells that are part of large
patterns of many producing wells in which each well is bounded by interference with offset producing
wells.
•it is generally accepted that for decline curve techniques to be applicable for forecasting production for
coalbed methane wells, criteria given below must be met:
Decreasing gas and water rates
Consistent slope in gas rates for at least six months
Length of life must be greater than 22 months
Bounded wells and well spacing
TESTING COALBED METHANE WELLS

•When a well test is run on a coalbed methane well, the properties derived from the well represent the
average properties of the interconnected cleat and fracture networks in the region of the reservoir
contacted during the test.
•Well tests run on coalbed methane wells when the cleat system is water saturated can generally be
analyzed using conventional well test analysis techniques.
Well tests run on coalbed methane wells when the cleat system is unsaturated must be analyzed by
history matching the test data using a coalbed methane well simulator.
 BEHAVIOR OF COALBED METHANE DUAL POROSITY RESERVOIRS

•Undersaturated coalbed methane reservoirs – Undersaturation is the condition when the gas content
of the matrix isless than the gas storage capacity.

•Saturated coalbed methane reservoirs – A saturated coal reservoir is one in which the coal matrix
contains the maximum amount of sorbed gas possible at reservoir conditions present.

•There are differences between coalbed methane dual porosity reservoir behavior and the classic dual
porosity gas reservoir behavior; these are:
in coal reservoirs, matrix fluid storage is by sorption rather than compression
in coal reservoirs, matrix fluid mass transfer is by diffusion rather than darcy flow
in coal reservoirs, transition from fracture system to matrix system domination is
characterized by transition from single to multiphase flow rather than
continued single-phase flow

•There are certain semi-analytical procedures that are developed to measure in situ not only the transport
characteristics of coalbed reservoirs but the storage characteristics as well. In this way more accurate
measurements of sorption characteristics such as Langmuir volume and pressure constants, and sorption
time constant will be possible.
SELECTING A PROPER WELL TEST TECHNIQUE

Selecting a proper test is most influenced by the type of well completion and the reservoir pressure,
permeability, and produced fluid type. Figue=re
TESTING IN MULTI-LAYERED RESERVOIRS
To provide an accurate way to determine gas rates from individual coal seams in a multiple seam well
“zone isolation packer” method can be used
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION OFCOALBED METHANE RESERVOIRS

•Numerical reservoir simulation is a powerful analysis tool to determine the relationships

among coalbed methane reservoir properties, operating procedures and gas production.
•With the help of reservoir simulators we are able to obtain solutions generated from formal
representation of complex phenomena such as gas desorption and diffusion in coal.
Simulation methodology can be a cost-effective way of assessing the sensitivity of well
performance to uncertainties in measured data.
 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF A RESERVOIR

Cells Core Logs

GR ρr
L1
(a) Geologic model L2 (c) Simplified simulation model
L3

(b) Detailed simulation model (d) Material balance model

 Numerical reservoir simulation and classical reservoir engineeri ng
engineering
approaches

Numerical reservoir simulation equations

Material
balance equation

The Muskat Method for

solution gas drive reservoirs

Pressure transient analysis

Buckley & Leverett analysis

Decline curve analysis

 Analytical models vs. Numerical models

Differential equation Differential equations

• Physical process • Physical processes
• System geometry • System geometries
• System properties • System properties

+ +

Flow regime
Flow regimes
• Steady state
and
• Unsteady state
flow mechanics
• Pseudo-steady state

+
+
Boundary conditions
• Infinite Any combination of
• No flow boundary conditions
• Constant pressure

Analytical solution Numerical solution

 Reservoir simulation offers many incentives to the reservoir
management engineer

Economics Other Incentives

„ Scoping studies „ Integration of data and
„ New field development physics
plans „ Credibility and reliability
„ Reservoir deliverability z Unbiased calculations
studies z Third party (partners and
„ Alternative development government)
plans „ Performance monitoring
z Operating strategies z Well test analysis
z Recovery processes z Decline curve analysis
„ Decision analysis „ Education
z Parametric studies
z Research efforts
z Training tool
„ Non-elective studies
 Uncertainty of reservoir simulation

q
Model results
Band of uncertainty

Time
Need a good “checks and balances” to reduce
the size of the uncertainty band.
 Sources
Sourcesof ofuncertainty
uncertainty
in
insimulation
simulation

Data quantity
and quality Geology Scale up Mathematical
 Simulation cycle
Data
acquisition

Updates History matching

Performance
studies
 SYNERGY IN SIMULATION

Reservoir
Characterization

Historical Well
Simulation
prediction / injection productivity
Data
rate data data

Mechanical data
Surface & subsurface
DESIRED FEATURES FOR COALBED METHANE SIMULATORS
DATA NEEDED TO CONDUCT A SIMULATION STUDY
 HISTORY MATCHING

Process of modifying model parameters in order to match historical reservoir performance.

Goals to capture

„ The reservoir geometry

„ Rock and fluid properties
„ The flow mechanics of the reservoir

Automatic Manual
history matching history matching

„ Statistical analysis „ Uses an educated trial

with optimization and error process
HISTORY MATCHING

Potentially the most time consuming part of a simulation study.

History matching
steps
Parameters used to
Formulate a plan determine a history
Ø match
Adjust production data
Ø • Reservoir pressure
Adjust pressure data • Gas and water flow rates
Ø • Gas-water ratios
Match pressures
Ø
Match saturations

Key to success is not to forget the need to

maintain physical and geologic reasonableness.
HISTORY MATCHING PARAMETERS IN COALBED RESERVOIRS
SENSITIVITY OF SIMULATED RATES AND WELL PRESSURE
 HISTORY MATCHING

The first step is pressure matching

Primary influence factors Secondary influence factors

„ Spatial kA (conductance) „ Temporal Vp (pore volume)

⎛ kr ⎞ cT (total compres.)
⎜ ⎟ (total mobility)
⎝ μ B⎠ T
 HISTORY MATCHING

Pressure matching process

Input well production

histories and run
the simulator

Check magnitude and Not OK Adjust

shape of P vs. time Vp (aquifer, gas, oil)
(ΔP/Δt) and cT globally
OK
Use isobaric maps to
check pressure Not OK Adjust
kh
gradients
regionally
(ΔP/Δx)
OK
Use well plots to check
individual well Not OK Adjust
pressure kh and Vp
(ΔP/Δx and ΔP/Δt) locally

OK
Go to saturation match
 HISTORY MATCHING

The second step is saturation matching.

Primary influence factors Secondary influence factors

„ Temporal Vp (pore volume)

„ Spatial kA (conductance)

cT (total compres.)
⎛ kr ⎞
⎜ ⎟ (total mobility)
⎝ μ B⎠ T
 HISTORY MATCHING

Saturation matching process

From
pressure match
Input well oil
production histories
and run the simulator

Check magnitude and

shape of field Not OK Adjust interblock kT
GOR’s/water cuts vs. globally
time
OK
Use field cut/GOR maps to Adjust interblock kr, kh (will
check advance of flood
Not OK affect P-match), Vp (will
front affect P-match) regionally
OK
Use well plots to check Not OK
individual cuts/GOR’s Adjust well kr locally

OK
Check pressure match
Not OK Re-do pressure match
OK
FINISH
 PREDICTING PERFORMANCE

Overall objective is to predict reservoir performance under various operating conditions.

Designing a prediction study:

Setting the objectives Checking the inventory

• Required level of details • Field and laboratory data
• Alternative production schemes • Key supporting personnel
• Reservoir management strategies • Computational resources
• Process economics

Design criteria
• Key identifiable events
• Simulation approach
• Length of the study
 PREDICTING PERFORMANCE

It is not a sequential process--we should, in fact, conduct simulation runs and

analysis simultaneously.

Three-level approach to parameter selection:

LEVEL
LEVEL1:
1:Process
Processselection
selection

LEVEL
LEVEL2:
2:Operational
Operationalparameters
parameters

LEVEL
LEVEL3:
3:Process
Processoptimization
optimization
 PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF A COALBED RESERVOIR

Primary objectives:
• How are the fluids moving in the reservoir?
• What is the optimum production rate?
• How can it be achieved?
• How can we accelerate the desorption rate
• What is the optimum well spacing?
• Can the well completion methods be improved?
• When will artificial lift be needed?
• What kind of artificial lift should be used?
• What is the current recovery mechanism?
• How can it be improved?
• Are enhanced recovery methods needed?
• What kind of injection facilities are needed?
• What size should they be?
COMPARISON OF PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Volumetric Calculations:
•Advantages
•requires little data
•quick and easy
•Disadvantages
•limited historical perspective
•localized analysis
•no “scientific” basis Decline Curves:
•Advantages
•easy to apply
•widely used in industry
•use actual production trends
•Disadvantages
•need 2+ years of production
•hard to apply to offsets and stepouts
•no”scientific” basis
Reservoir simulation:
•Advantages
•account for CBM characteristics
•apply in most situations
•account for project variabilities
•Disadvantages
•data intensive
•uncertainty about the accuracy of the results
•time consuming