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Properties of seashell aggregate concrete: A review

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DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.096

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 Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300

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Review

Properties of seashell aggregate concrete: A review

Uchechi G. Eziefula a,⇑, John C. Ezeh b, Bennett I. Eziefula c
a
School of Engineering Technology, Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo, Imo State, Nigeria
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

h i g h l i g h t s

Concrete with higher seashell ratio has lower physical and mechanical properties.

Ground seashell aggregate can replace up to 20% natural fine aggregate in concrete.

Up to 50% seashell as a partial coarse aggregate can give normal-weight concrete.

Current data on durability of seashell aggregate concrete indicate varied effects.

Sound absorption and thermal insulation studies of seashell concrete are required.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Trends in concrete technology are currently directed towards sourcing alternative sustainable materials
Received 13 July 2018 for concrete in order to minimise over-reliance on natural resources. Many of the substitute materials
Received in revised form 15 October 2018 used for producing green concrete are recycled materials obtained from industrial wastes and
Accepted 15 October 2018
by-products. A promising solution to the challenge of seashell waste management involves utilising
seashells as construction materials in concrete. Experimental investigations have been carried out on
the use of mollusc seashells such as periwinkle shell, mussel shell, oyster shell, cockle shell, crepidula
Keywords:
shell, clam shell and scallop shell as aggregate replacement materials in concrete. The seashells were
Aggregate
Concrete
utilised as partial or total replacement of fine and coarse aggregates in concrete. This paper is a literature
Durability review of seashell aggregate concrete. The paper first presents an overview of the physical, mechanical
Mechanical properties and chemical properties of the seashells. This is followed by a discussion of the physical, mechanical
Physical properties and durability properties of seashell aggregate concrete in fresh and hardened states. Possible
Recycled material applications in the construction industry are also highlighted. Mollusc seashells have similar chemical
Seashell composition with limestone-type aggregates but characteristically contain traces of chloride and
Waste management sulphate salts. Although inclusion of seashell aggregate reduces the physico-mechanical properties of
concrete, utilising some seashells as partial coarse aggregate at up to 50% substitution level can produce
normal-weight concrete for non-structural and low-strength structural functions. The current
understanding of seashell aggregate concrete provides a basis for further research on various aspects
of its behaviour including the sound absorption and thermal insulation properties.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
2. Methods adopted in previous studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
2.1. Preparation and treatment of seashell aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
2.2. Other component materials of seashell aggregate concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
2.3. Mix proportioning and preparation of concrete specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
2.4. Evaluated properties of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
3. Properties of seashells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: uchechi.eziefula@imopoly.net (U.G. Eziefula).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.096
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
288 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300

3.1. Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

3.2. Mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
3.3. Chemical composition and impurities content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4. Physical properties of concrete produced with seashell aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4.1. Workability of fresh concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4.2. Density of fresh and hardened concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5. Mechanical properties of concrete made with seashell aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.2. Splitting tensile strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5.3. Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5.4. Modulus of elasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6. Durability-related properties of seashell aggregate concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6.1. Water transportation properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6.2. Air content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6.3. Shrinkage and weight loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.4. Freeze-thaw resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.5. Other durability-related properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7. Sound absorption and thermal insulation properties of seashell aggregate concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8. Potential applications and directions for future investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
9. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Conflict of interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

1. Introduction for concrete. Many of the substitute materials used in the produc-
tion of green concrete are recycled materials obtained from indus-
Concrete is the second most consumed material in the world. It trial wastes and by-products.
is estimated that each human being uses three tonnes of concrete The aquaculture industry provides food and employment for
per annum (van Oss, 2007 cited in [21]). The global production of humans and therefore plays an important role in the economy of
concrete remarkably increased during the last century and it is nations [38]. Seashells are protective shells of shellfishes and are
expected that the demand for concrete will continue to rise in by-products of the aquaculture industry. A variety of shellfishes
future [29,23,1]. Natural aggregate such as sand, gravel or crushed are consumed as food while the inedible shells are discarded. These
rock is the major constituent of concrete in terms of both volume seashells generally have little or no commercial value and are often
and mass. Since huge amount of concrete is produced annually, it dumped in open fields or landfills, thereby creating unsightly
logically follows that much quantity of natural aggregate is mined appearance and unpleasant smell. Untreated seashell wastes left
for the production of concrete. A conservative estimate of the for a long time can lead to microbial decomposition of salts into
world’s consumption of aggregate exceeds 40 billion tonnes a year, gases such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and amines [54]. In
and between 64 and 75% of the mined aggregate is used for con- locations where large quantities of seashell wastes are generated,
crete [48]. Environmental impact of dredging, excavating and pro- the seashells can cause serious environmental problems. A promis-
cessing natural aggregate such as threat to river ecosystems and ing solution to the challenge of seashell waste management is to
non-reversible land erosion have already been reported (Table 1). use seashells as aggregate in concrete. Because seashells possess
As a result of these environmental concerns, authorities in some desirable properties, attempts have been made in using seashells
parts of the world have imposed restrictions on mining of aggre- as a partial or total substitute for natural aggregate in concrete.
gate through taxation as well as banning of mining on some sites Local residents particularly in coastal regions have used seashells
[23,5]. Environmentalism is a basic principle of sustainable devel- as alternative aggregates for simple concrete structures including
opment which aims at protecting the environment and conserving residential houses, septic tanks, soak-away pits, grave slabs, pave-
the earth’s natural resources. Because of the sustainability issues ment slabs and drainage gutters [6,39,45]. Scientific research on
associated with the production of concrete, current trends are the use of seashells as aggregate replacement materials in concrete
now directed towards finding alternative sustainable materials have been carried out for at least two decades with the aim of
establishing the feasibility of practical applications. Using seashells
Table 1
in construction contributes to the protection of the environment in
Summary of the major consequences of extraction of aggregates. Source: [48]. addition to preservation of natural resources. Costs are also saved
when materials are re-used which range from not having to landfill
Impact on Description
or dispose waste materials and not having to source new materials
Biodiversity Impacts on related ecosystems (e.g. fisheries) [45]. Utilising seashell by-products as recycled materials in con-
Land losses Both inland and coastal through erosion
crete is more economical in cases where the transportation, stor-
Hydrological Change in water flows, flood regulation and marine
function currents age and processing costs involved are more favourable in
Water supply Through lowering of the water table and pollution comparison with conventional aggregates [15].
Infrastructures Damage to bridges, river embankments and coastal Shells of bivalves and gastropods of mollusc shellfishes are the
infrastructures
main seashells used as aggregate in concrete. Worldwide produc-
Climate Directly through transport emissions, indirectly through
cement production tion of molluscs (16 million tonnes) represents about 22% of the
Landscape Coastal erosion, changes in deltaic structures, quarries, total global aquaculture production [20]. Bivalve molluscs are very
pollution of rivers common among marine shellfish species. Around 87% of molluscan
Extreme events Decline of protection against extreme events (flood, aquacultures are bivalve molluscs – 33.0% clams (including ark-
drought, storm surge)
shells and cockles), 31.3% oysters, 12.1% mussels and 10.9% pectens
 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300
Miscellaneous
Freshwater marine molluscs
molluscs 8.9%
1.2%
Abalones, winkles,
conchs
2.8%
Pectens, scallops Clams, cockles,
10.9% arkshells
33.0%
Mussels
12.1%
Oysters
31.3%
Fig. 1. Percentage of worldwide aquaculture production of mollusc shellfishes.
Source: FAO, 2014 cited in [52].
and scallops (Fig. 1). Abalones, winkles and conchs make up around
2.8% of mollusc shellfish production (Fig. 1). Relative abundance of
molluscan seashells in coastal regions around the world indicates
that the seashells are available as aggregate replacement materials
in concrete. Seashells thus have the prospect of becoming impor-
tant secondary aggregate sources for concrete around localities
where seashells are found.
This paper is a literature review of seashell aggregate concrete.
The concrete specimens were manufactured with the following
seashells: periwinkle shell, mussel shell, oyster shell, cockle shell,
crepidula shell, clam shell and scallop shell. The seashells were uti-
lised as partial and total replacement of fine and coarse aggregates
in concrete. The paper first presents an overview of the physical,
mechanical and chemical properties of the seashells which is fol-
lowed by a discussion of the physical, mechanical and durability
properties of seashell aggregate concrete in fresh and hardened
states. Practical implications of the study and directions for future
investigations are provided.
2. Methods adopted in previous studies
2.1. Preparation and treatment of seashell aggregates
Seashell aggregates used in the production of concrete speci-
mens were generally cleaned in order to remove organic matter
and salts (primarily chlorides and sulphates). Nguyen et al. [37]
however noted that they did not follow any cleaning steps to limit
the organic matter and chloride ions content of scallop seashell.
Some authors removed impurities from the seashells without spec-
ifying the method of shell cleaning [4,10]. The most common
cleaning operation involved washing the seashells with water
and air-drying or sun-drying the washed shells. In addition to
washing, handpicking of impurities [47] or removal of dirt and
other organic matter with domestic brushes [49] were carried
out. Some studies subjected the seashells to elevated temperatures
at varying durations in order to dehydrate and disinfect the shells.
Such seashells were oven-dried at 50 °C for 24 h [55], 105 °C for 4 h
[6], 110 °C for 24 h [51,50,9] or 135 °C for 30 min [31]. It is useful to
note that although the heating process kills bacteria in seashells,
energy is expended when oven-drying the shells especially for
longer heating durations. Simpler treatment methods should
289
therefore be explored and assessed in order to reduce the energy
consumption associated with oven-drying [49].
The sizes of seashells used as fine aggregate and coarse aggre-
gate in concrete were also different. Generally, seashells utilised
as fine aggregate were crushed and sieved to sizes below 5 mm.
Yusof et al. [55] used crushed clam seashells passing through
500 lm as partial replacement of fine aggregate. Different types
of crushing device, like, jaw crusher [51,50,33], drum compactor
[10] and hammer [49] were used to grind the seashells. Some sea-
shells utilised as coarse aggregate were either uncrushed or the
particle sizes of the seashell aggregate were not mentioned
[18,19,12,14]. The maximum size of the uncrushed seashell aggre-
gates was usually 25 mm or less [18,4,19,47] while crushed sea-
shell used as coarse aggregate ranged from 10 to 20 mm [32,10].
Nguyen et al. [36,37] used seashell crushed to 2/4 mm size as par-
tial substitute of 2/6.3 mm coarse aggregate in pervious concrete.
Cuadrado-Rica et al. [10] adopted a method of replacing aggregate
with queen scallop shells on the basis of particle packing density
rather than by equivalent size fraction. Hence, they replaced a
combined mixture of 0/4 mm, 4/10 mm and 10/20 mm natural
aggregates with shells crushed to 10 mm size at different substitu-
tion levels.
2.2. Other component materials of seashell aggregate concrete
The binder used in majority of the investigations was ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) which is normally denoted as ‘Type I’ by
ASTM C 150 classification and ‘CEM I’ by European Standards clas-
sification. OPC is the most common cement utilised in general con-
crete construction. Other cement types such as moderate sulphate
resistant Portland cement blended with blast-furnace slag [49] and
Portland cement mixed with 6–20% siliceous fly ash and limestone
(CEM II/A) [31] were also used. These modified Portland cements
are more suitable for concrete structures susceptible to moderate
sulphate attack such as concrete exposed to sulphates in the soil
or in groundwater [34]. The cement grades mentioned in the liter-
ature were 42.5R [31] and 52.5R [36,37,10].
The normal fine aggregates include alluvial quartz sand [36,37],
alluvial silica sand [49], feldspathic crushed sand [10] and river bed
sand [19,44]. The natural coarse aggregates were river stone [6,49],
crushed granite [4,44]; crushed quartzite [10] and crushed
limestone.
Most studies did not add any chemical additives. Nevertheless,
additives such as naphthalene air-entraining water-reducing
admixture [51] and naphthalene sulphonate condensate super-
plasticiser [31] were added in concrete mixes to compensate for
loss of workability. Yang et al. [50] used water reducers, high-
range water reducers, air-entraining agents or various combina-
tions of these admixtures in their study.
2.3. Mix proportioning and preparation of concrete specimens
In the reviewed papers, the constituent materials were batched
by weight although Adewuyi and Adegoke [4] batched by volume.
The fine and coarse natural aggregates were also substituted with
seashell aggregate by weight. The percentage substitution levels of
conventional aggregate with seashell by-products ranged from 5 to
100%. The physical, mechanical and durability properties of con-
crete containing partially or completely replaced aggregate were
compared with those of control concrete (i.e. 0% replacement).
The mix proportions given in Table 2 represent the ratio of cement:
fine aggregate: coarse aggregate by weight. In replacing normal
aggregate with seashell, it is essential to have good values for sea-
shell specific gravity and water absorption in order to accurately
calculate the mix proportions per cubic metre of concrete. If the
actual values of specific gravity and water absorption are
 290
Table 2
Methods of preparation of seashell aggregate concrete reported in the literature.

Reference Type of Type of Percentage of Type of cement w/c ratio Mix proportiona Duration of curing
seashell replacement replacement (days)

U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300
Soneye et al. [47] Periwinkle Coarse and fine 10, 30, 50, 100 – – 1:2:4 3, 7, 28, 56
aggregates
Ekop et al. [12] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 25, 50, 75, 100 OPC 0.55 1:2:4 7, 14, 28
Ettu et al. [14] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 25, 35, 45, 50, 55, 65, OPC 0.65 1:1.5.3, 1:2:3, 1:2.5:3 7, 28
75
Falade et al. [19] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 100 OPC 0.6, 0.8 1:2:2, 1:2.5:2 7, 21, 90
Agbede and Manasseh [6] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 25, 50, 75, 100 OPC 0.5 1:1.5:3 7, 14, 28
Adewuyi and Adegoke [4] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 25, 50, 75, 100 OPC 0.5, 0.6 1:2:4, 1:3:6 3, 7, 14, 21, 28
Falade [18] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100 OPC 0.5, 0.55 1:1.5:3, 1:2:4, 1:3:6, 1:3.5:1, 1:4.5:1 7, 14, 21, 28
Khankhaje et al. [25–26] Cockle Coarse aggregate 25, 50, 75 OPC Type I 0.32 1:0.41:3.93, 1:0.41:3.93, 1:0.41:4.05 7, 28
Muthusamy et al. [33] Cockle Fine aggregate 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 OPC 0.54 1:1.61:2.41 7, 28
Ponnada et al. [44] Cockle Coarse aggregate 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 OPC – – 28
Muthusamy and Sabri [32] Cockle Coarse aggregate 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 OPC Type I 0.5 – 28
Varhen et al. [49] Scallop Fine aggregate 5, 20, 40, 60 Moderate sulphate resisting 0.41, 0.45, 0.55 1:0.82:2.18, 1:1.01:2.20, 1:1.61:2.81 7, 28, 90
Portland cement + blast-furnace slag
Cuadrado-Rica et al. [10] Scallop Mixed aggregate 20, 40, 60 OPC CEM I 52.5R 0.65, 0.67, 0.68, 1:2.21:2.65, 1:1.44:2.16, 1:0.74:1.73, 28, 91
0.70 1:0.16:1.40
Nguyen et al. [37] Scallop Coarse aggregate 20, 40, 60 OPC CEM I 52.5R 0.37 1:0.37:5.23, 1:0.30:4.34 28
Yang et al. [50] Oyster Fine aggregate 10, 20 OPC Type I 0.45 1:1.86:2.62, 1:1.85:2.62, 1:1.72:2.76 7, 14, 28, 56, 91, 180,
365
Yang et al. [51] Oyster Fine aggregate 5, 10, 20 OPC Type I 0.45 1:1.81:2.51, 1:1.81:2.50, 1:1.81:2.49 3, 7, 28
Martinez-Garcia et al. [31] Mussel Coarse and fine 25, 50, 65b CEM II/A-M (V-L) 42.5R 0.50, 0.75 1:3.23:2.14, 1:5.88:3.37 3, 7, 28, 90
aggregates
Nguyen et al. [36] Crepidula Coarse aggregate 20, 40 OPC CEM I 52.5R 0.3 1:0.23:4.7 7, 28
Yusof et al. [55] Clam Fine aggregate 10, 20, 30 Portland cement 0.47 1:1.33:2.70 28
Richardson and Fuller [45] – Coarse and fine 10, 50 OPC CEM I 0.55 1:1.82:2.72 28
aggregates
a
The mix proportion represents the ratio of cement: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate by weight without including any admixtures. Yang et al. [51] applied naphthalene air-entraining water-reducing admixture and Martínez-
García et al. [31] used naphthalene sulphonate condensate superplasticiser.
b
5% and 12.5% replacement rates were used when both fine and coarse aggregate fractions were replaced together.
 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300 291

unknown, accurate values of concrete density cannot be obtained
which might lead to increase in cement consumption when substi-
tuting normal aggregate with seashell.
The lowest water-cement (w/c) ratio recorded in the literature
was 0.3[36] whereas the highest recorded w/c ratio was 0.8 [19].
The common w/c ratios reported ranged from 0.3 to 0.4 for pervi-
ous concrete and 0.45 to 0.7 for normal concrete (Table 2). Some
researchers included additional water to the effective w/c ratio
[36,10,31]. The amount of extra water, which varied according to
the shell content, were added to take account of the moisture con-
tent and water absorption of the seashell aggregates.
The design, preparation and casting of concrete mix containing
seashell aggregate were similar to those of normal concrete mix
design and were achieved according to the specifications of various
standards. Methods of mix design such as the absolute weight
method [6] and Bolomey method [31] were adopted. After casting,
the specimens were generally left for 24 ± ½ h to set before being
removed from the moulds. The demoulded concrete samples were
mostly wet cured for periods ranging from 3 to 365 days. The most
popular durations of curing of seashell aggregate concrete were 7
and 28 days (Table 2). The temperature of curing reported in the
literature varied from 18 to 27 °C.
2.4. Evaluated properties of concrete
Slump of fresh concrete, density of both fresh and hardened
concrete, and different strength properties of hardened seashell
concrete such as compressive strength, splitting tensile strength,
flexural strength and modulus of elasticity were investigated
(Table 3). These physical and mechanical properties were studied
along with some durability properties such as water absorption,
water permeability, air content, freeze-thaw resistance, elevated
temperature resistance, shrinkage, chloride migration, chemical
attack, carbonation, microstructure, abrasion resistance and slip
resistance (Table 4). Various standards for evaluating conventional
concrete especially BSI, Eurocodes and ACI were used to test the
properties of seashell aggregate concrete.
3. Properties of seashells
3.1. Physical properties
Some of the physical properties of seashell aggregate given in
Table 5 depend on the size of the seashells. Finer sizes of seashells
tend to have higher water absorption and specific gravity (particle
density) and lower fineness modulus than the coarser-sized grains
[36,25–26,31]. When compared with normal aggregates, most sea-
shells have similar or slightly lower bulk density and specific grav-
ity. The bulk densities of the cockle shell and some of the values for
periwinkle shell fell within the range for normal weight aggregate
(1280–1920 kg/m3) given in ACI [2]. The bulk density of scallop
shell was slightly below the normal aggregate range, but neverthe-
less, exceeded 1100 kg/m3, the maximum bulk density of most
lightweight aggregates [34,46]. Falade [18] and Agbede and Mana-
sseh [6] reported bulk density of 694 and 515 kg/m3 for periwinkle
shell, respectively.
Mussel shell and periwinkle shell had the highest and lowest
values of specific gravity, respectively. The values of specific grav-
ity of all the seashells were greater than 2, except for oyster shell
where 1.85 was reported by a study. The specific gravity of scallop
shell and mussel shell were within the ACI [2] limit for normal
weight aggregates used in concrete (2.30–2.90). Some of the values
of specific gravity for oyster shell and cockle shell were less than
the expected values for normal weight aggregate. Nevertheless,
the specific gravities of all the seashells were higher than the ACI
(2003) recommended values for lightweight aggregates i.e. ⅓–⅔
of that of normal weight aggregates. Therefore, the seashells can-
not be classified as lightweight aggregates on the basis of specific
gravity, unlike some agro by-products such as oil palm kernel shell
and coconut shell.

Table 3
Physical and strength properties of seashell aggregate concrete reported in the literature.

Reference Slump Fresh density Dry density Compressive strength Split tensile strength Flexural strength Elasticity modulus
p p p
Khankhaje et al. [25]
p p p p p
Martinez-Garcia et al. [31]
p p p p p
Varhen et al. [49]
p p p p
Cuadrado-Rica et al. [10]
p p p
Soneye et al. [47]
p p p
Ekop et al. [12]
p p
Ettu et al. [14]
p p p p p
Nguyen et al. [36]
p p p p p
Nguyen et al. [37]
p p
Muthusamy and Sabri [32]
p p
Falade et al. [19]
p p
Yang et al. [50]
p p p p
Yang et al. [51]
p p p p
Falade [18]

Table 4
Durability-related properties of seashell aggregate concrete reported in the literature.

Reference Shrinkage Water Air/void Carbonation Chloride Freeze- Chemical Elevated Micro- Abrasion Slip
permeability content migration thaw attack temperature structure
p p
Khankhaje et al. [25]
p p p
Martinez-Garcia et al. [31]
p
Varhen et al. [49]
p p p
Cuadrado-Rica et al. [10]
p
Nguyen et al. [36]
p p p p
Nguyen et al. [37]
p
Falade et al. [19]
p p p p p
Yang et al. [50]
p
Yang et al. [51]
292 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300
Table 5
Physical and mechanical properties of mollusc shells. Sources for periwinkle shell: [18,4,6,19,8,16,43]. Sources for cockle shell: [44,25,26]. Sources for oyster shell: [51,50,27,13].
Source for mussel shell: [31]. Sources for scallop shell: [10,49].
Property Periwinkle shell
Shell thickness (mm) – –
Uniformity coefficient 1.14–1.23
Fineness modulus – –
Specific gravity 2.05–2.07
Loose bulk density (kg/m3) 514
Compacted bulk density (kg/m3) 515–1353
Moisture content (%) 1.1–8.32
Water absorption (%) 9.03–12.99
Aggregate impact value (%) 32.5
Aggregate crushing value (%) 59.6
Aggregate abrasion value (%) – 15.8
Los Angeles coefficient (%) 45.73
The water absorption values of crepidula shell were 2.02% and
2.25% for 4/6.3 mm and 2/4 mm sizes, respectively [36]. The water
absorption of crepidula shell and cockle shell are close to those of
most normal weight aggregates i.e. less than 2% [34]. Among the
reviewed seashells, periwinkle shell had the highest water absorp-
tion. Periwinkle and oyster shells exceeded the 8% maximum
absorption value recommended by ACI [2]. From the results of
the moisture content tests, periwinkle shell and scallop shell pos-
sessed the typical values for surface moisture content recom-
mended by ACI [2], although the 8.32% obtained by Falade [18]
was above the normal limit.
3.2. Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of seashells presented in Table 5 are
the aggregate impact value, aggregate crushing value, and aggre-
gate abrasion value which measure the toughness, strength, and
hardness, respectively. From Table 5, cockle shell did not meet
up with the BS requirements for aggregate impact value of aggre-
gates for concrete pavement wearing surface (maximum value of
30%) and other types of concrete (maximum value of 45%). The
aggregate impact value of periwinkle shell met the requirement
for normal non-wearing surface concrete. The crushing values of
cockle shell and periwinkle shell were approximately more than
the recommended value of ACI [3] for normal concrete by 19%
and 30%, respectively. Mussel shell achieved the specification for
Los Angeles coefficient, and shows potential for use in concrete
having good resistance to wear and abrasion (maximum value of
30%), whereas periwinkle shell only satisfied the hardness require-
ment for non-wearing surface concrete (maximum of 50%). The
range of values given by Shetty [46] for some natural aggregates
– aggregate crushing value (12–33%) and aggregate impact value
(10–34%) – signify that natural aggregates are generally stronger
and more shock-resistant than periwinkle shell and cockle shell.
3.3. Chemical composition and impurities content
Molluscan shells are fundamentally formed by biomineralisa-
tion and they contain calcium carbonate with a small amount of
organic matter; most seashells contain 95–97% calcium carbonate
[53,41]. Seashells also contain chloride ions [36,37,31,49] and sul-
phates [31,49]. Organic matter in aggregate interferes with the
cement hydration process, prevents effective aggregate-matrix
bonding and sometimes reduces aggregate durability [34,46]. Salts
in aggregate creates unsightly appearance on the concrete surface
(due to efflorescence) and also affects the setting properties and
ultimate strength of concrete [34,46]. High chloride content in con-
crete is known to accelerate the corrosion of steel reinforcement
while excessive sulphate content triggers expansion of hardened
concrete. Organic matter and chloride ion percentages in untreated
Cockle shell Oyster shell Mussel shell Scallop shell
– – 2–3
– – – –
2.0–6.5 1.9–5.38 4.4–4.57
2.09–2.64 1.85–2.48 2.62–2.73 2.5–2.64
– – – 1015
1408–1420 – – 1224
– – – 0.3
0.1–2.5 2.9–9.2 2.17–4.12 1.88–3.65
52.8 – – –
48.7 – – –
– – –
– – 20 –
seashell aggregates are small but usually exceed the maximum val-
ues permitted for conventional concrete [31,35,49]. The organic
matter and chloride content of mussel shell increases with fineness
of shell crushing [31].
Cleaning and heat treatment of seashells help to minimise the
amount of chlorides, sulphates and organic impurities content in
the shells [37,31]. Washing removes the dirt and salt content of
seashell whereas heating removes the water and kills germs. Scal-
lop shell washed with water, brushed and sun-dried by Varhen
et al. [49] satisfied the ACI 222R chloride ion and sulphate content
requirements for conventional concrete but exceeded the maxi-
mum acceptable limit for total salt content. Heat-treated mussel
shell used by Martinez-Garcia et al. [31] complied with the Spanish
EHE-08 standards for aggregate quality needed in concrete, except
for the visual organic matter, chlorides and total sulphates con-
tents. Although washing and heating improves the quality of sea-
shells, present research findings imply that the probable
inclusion of cleaned seashell aggregates in high performance con-
crete such as reinforced or prestressed concrete is restricted unless
higher levels of cleaning and treatment are applied to the seashells.
The chemical composition of mollusc shells is comparable with
those of natural aggregate such as limestone (Table 6). Just like
most natural aggregates, the major chemical compound in mollusc
shell is calcium oxide. The high calcium oxide content of seashell
suggests that seashell could be an inert material in concrete similar
to limestone. Seashell aggregate only acts as filler in a concrete
matrix and its influence on the cement hydrate is insignificant
[51]. Traces of other oxides are present in mollusc shells including
magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, iron oxide and oxides of a few
other elements. The loss on ignition (LOI) of mollusc seashells gen-
erally ranges from 41–46% by weight, although Ez-zaki et al. [17]
reported 51% for oyster shell. The LOI of seashell is similar to the
numerical values mentioned for limestone [11] and slightly higher
than those of marble [42] and recycled concrete aggregate [7]. Gar-
cia et al. [22] reported the chemical composition of an unidentified
seashell to contain 51.35% calcium oxide and 43.37% LOI.
4. Physical properties of concrete produced with seashell
aggregate
4.1. Workability of fresh concrete
In the research investigations, slump was the major property
employed to assess the workability of seashell aggregate fresh con-
crete. Generally, workability of fresh concrete decreases as the per-
centage replacement of the seashells increases (Table 7). High
replacement levels resulted to very low values of slump. The
reduction in workability was attributed to increase in the specific
surface area [18,4], rough texture and irregular, flaky, elongated
or angular shape of the seashells [6,31] and higher water absorp-
 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300 293

Table 6
Chemical composition of mollusc shells. Source for periwinkle shell: Malu and Bassey cited in [39]. Sources for cockle shell: [28,40,41]. Sources for oyster shell:
[24,51,28,56,27,30,17]. Sources for mussel shell: [24,28]. Source for scallop shell: [49]. Sources for clam shell: [24,28,41].

Chemical compound Weight (%)

Periwinkle shell Cockle shell Oyster shell Mussel shell Scallop shell Clam shell
Calcium oxide 38.4 51.56–54.24 48.0–77.81 53.38–53.70 53.70 53.92–67.70
Silicon dioxide 0.014 0.38–1.60 0.64–13.28 0.20–0.73 0.10 0.39–0.84
Aluminum oxide 0.211 0.17–0.92 0.05–0.64 0.13 0.10 0.14–0.28
Magnesium oxide 18.7 0.02–1.43 0.01–0.94 0.03–0.33 0.18 0.08–0.22
Iron oxide 0.019 0.05–0.06 0.03–0.20 0.03–0.05 0.03 0.02–0.06
Sodium oxide – 0.08–0.37 0.23–0.93 0.44 0.50 0.39
Potassium oxide – 0.03–0.06 0.01–0.51 0.02 0.01 0.03
Sulphur trioxide – 0.13 0.60–1.09 0.34 0.32 0.16
Phosphorus pentoxide – – 0.01–0.18 – – –
Titanium oxide – – 0.02–0.11 – – –
Sulphate – 0.07 0.43 0.11 0.01 0.06
Chloride – 0.01 0.01–2.92 0.02 0.01 0.02
Loss on ignition – 41.84–42.87 42.83–51 42.22–45.61 44.40 42.73–45.16

tion of the seashells in comparison with natural aggregate [51]. The
irregular shapes increase the frictional resistance between the sea-
shell grains, while the water absorption occurs due to existence of
internal voids within the surface of the seashells.
Workability is also influenced by the seashell grain size. Work-
ability of seashell aggregate concrete tends to reduce if the seashell
grains are finer than natural sand and if seashell particle sizes that
are less than 1 mm are included [49]. Using seashell aggregate that
is coarser than natural sand improves the workability of concrete
[10,49]. Workability of oyster shell aggregate concrete decreases
with fineness modulus of oyster shell [51]. Mussel shell used as
coarse aggregate substitution had greater influence on workability
than when used as fine aggregate substitution [31].
When fine aggregate is partially replaced with crushed seashell
in concrete at low substitution levels (5–25%), workability in some
mixtures slightly increase [51,31,49]. This is mainly due to the
shape and particle size of the seashell; the water absorption prop-
erty of the seashells has no effect on the slump if the shell particle
sizes are similar to sand [49].
Increase in the cement content of the mix ratio increased the
workability of periwinkle shell aggregate concrete [4]. Cuadrado-
Rica et al. [10] found that mixes containing scallop shells had
higher cement/aggregate ratio which decreases the workability
but higher air content which increases the fluidity of concrete.
The presence of organic matter in mussel seashell could also
reduce the slump [31]. Pervious concrete made with cockle shell
or scallop shell as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate does
not show much significant reduction in density [37,25].
The use of admixtures to improve concrete workability was not
emphasized in the reviewed papers. Certain admixtures such as
water-reducers and superplasticisers help to improve the worka-
bility of concrete for a given water/cement ratio. It should be noted
that these admixtures are required for producing high performance
concrete exposed to aggressive environment such as seawater and
aggressive soil. Slump of concrete containing oyster shell as a par-
tial fine aggregate substitute improves with addition of naph-
thalene air-entraining water-reducing admixture, but the effect
of the admixture on slump reduces as the shell substitution rate
increases [51].
4.2. Density of fresh and hardened concrete
Important features of seashell aggregate which generally affect
concrete density are water absorption and specific gravity (or par-
ticle density). Water absorbed by aggregate particles causes the
specific gravity of the aggregate particles to be higher than the
apparent specific gravity of oven-dry particles; this higher specific
gravity is relevant to the density of concrete containing lighter-
weight aggregate [34]. The effect of high absorption of water by
a seashell aggregate can be resolved by adding calculated amount
of extra water to the mixing water (based on the effective w/c
ratio) but such a procedure will result to rise in the density of con-
crete [34].
The density of concrete slightly decreases as the aggregate
replacement with seashell aggregate increases (Table 7). This
reduction in density is applicable to concrete in both fresh and
hardened states (Fig. 2). Although the specific gravities of seashells
are similar or slightly lower than those of natural aggregates, the
angular or irregular shape of seashell and the presence of organic
substances creates more entrapped air in the concrete which
reduces the density [10,25,31,49]. As shown in Fig. 2, the density
of 28-day concrete containing up to 50% incorporation of some
coarse seashell aggregates is greater than 2100 kg/m3 and thus
can still be regarded as normal weight concrete [18,4,14].
Martínez-García et al. [31] found that the density of hardened con-
crete exceeded 2000 kg/m3 when fine aggregate is replaced with
crushed mussel shell for up to 100% replacement level. The least
bulk density was observed for 50% fine aggregate substitution
which gave a 10% reduction in comparison with the reference
density.
Decreasing the grain size of seashell increases the density of
pervious concrete [25]. This is probably because finer seashell
grains cause reduced void content in concrete and also have com-
paratively higher specific gravity than coarse shell aggregates.
5. Mechanical properties of concrete made with seashell
aggregate
5.1. Compressive strength
Compressive strength was the main mechanical behaviour
studied in researches on seashell aggregate concrete. The incorpo-
ration of coarse seashell aggregates generally reduces the compres-
sive strength of concrete (Table 7). The influence of seashell
replacement is more pronounced in concrete mixes having high
aggregate/cement ratios. Fig. 2 shows the variation of the 28-day
compressive strength of concrete containing seashell aggregates
with percentage of aggregate replacement. The strength reduction
of concrete is largely attributed to the higher water absorption of
seashell aggregates, elongated or flaky shape of seashells and pres-
ence of organic matter. Also, higher surface area of the seashells
results to less available cement paste for coating, thereby causing
reduction in bond strength. Flaky and elongated shaped aggregates
have poor bond with cement paste and create larger volume of
voids within the concrete matrix which contribute to reduction
of compressive strength.
294 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300

Table 7
Effects of seashell aggregates on selected physico-mechanical properties of control concrete.

Reference Type of Type of Percentage of Changes in Changes in Changes in 28-day Changes in 28-day
seashell replacement replacement slumpa 28-day densitya compressive splitting tensile
strengtha strengtha
Ekop et al. [12] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 25% 28% – 19% –
50% 52% – 37% –
100% 99% – 67% –
Ettu et al. [14] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 25% – 0% to 32% 5% to 14% –
50% – 5% to 36% 12% to 27% –
75% – 14% to 41% 21 to 28% –
Agbede and Manasseh [6] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 25% 13% 8% – –
50% 23% 14% – –
100% 57% 22% – –
Adewuyi and Adegoke [4] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 25% 17% to 27% 11% to 15% 14% to 16% –
50% 44% to 47% 13% to 16% 32% to 38% –
100% 72% to 87% 35% to 40% 65% to 72% –
Falade [18] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 10% 20% to 40% 4% to 6% 9% to 27% –
20% 50% to 90% 12% to 16% 25% to 60% –
30% 67% to 85% 17% to 18% 32% to 48% –
50% 96% 35% 63% –
Soneye et al. [47] Periwinkle Coarse aggregate 10% – – 5% –
30% – – 14% –
50% – – 32% –
Fine aggregate 10% – – 5% –
30% – – 23% –
50% – – 27% –
Khankhaje et al. [25] Cockle Coarse aggregate 25% – +3% to +2% 14% to 20% –
50% – 0% to 2% 18% to 25% –
75% – 0% to 3% 30% to 38% –
Muthusamy and Sabri [32] Cockle Coarse aggregate 10% 20% – 7% –
20% 67% – +17% –
30% 84% – 23% –
Muthusamy et al. [33] Cockle Fine aggregate 10% – – +18% –
20% – – 7% –
25% – – 29% –
Nguyen et al. [37] Scallop Coarse aggregate 20% – +1% to 1% +4% to 1% 7% to 9%
40% – 3% to 4% 13% to 15% 18% to 21%
60% – 6% to 7% 21% to 29% 26% to 28%
Cuadrado-Rica et al. [10] Scallop Mixed aggregate 20% 27% – 10% –
40% 36% – 20% 10%
60% 45% – 27% –
Varhen et al. [49] Scallop Fine aggregate 20% 3% to +8% – 0% to 7% +7% to 8%
40% +10% to +42% – 7% to 8% 8% to 11%
60% 4% to +29% – 3% to 10% 0% to 15%
Yang et al. [51] Oyster Fine aggregate 5% +8% to 45% – +13% to 8% 3% to 5%
10% 29% to 78% – +5% to 15% 7%
20% 90% to 100% – +2% to +1% +10%
Martinez-Garcia et al. [31] Mussel Coarse aggregate 25% 20% to 92% +1% to 0% 17% to 23% 4% to 5%
50% – 1% 46% 18%
Fine aggregate 25% +10% to 8% 4% to 5% 32% to 37% 4% to 28%
50% 10% to 15% 6% to 10% 36% to 68% 4% to 42%
Fine + coarse aggregates 5% +5% to 8% 1% to 3% 8% to 18% +2% to 3%
12.5% +10% to 46% 3% to 5% 27% to 35% 9% to 20%
Nguyen et al. [36] Crepidula Coarse aggregate 20% – 1% to 3% 11% to 15% 16% to 17%
40% – 1% to 5% 8% to 27% 7% to 32%
Yusof et al. [55] Clam Fine aggregate 10% – – +7% –
20% – – +3% –
30% – – +16% –
Richardson and Fuller [45] – Coarse aggregate 10% – – 4% –
50% – – 17% –
Fine aggregate 10% – – 6% –
50% – – 29% –
a
Changes in properties with reference to control concrete: () signifies reduction, (+) signifies increment.

Concrete mixes which contain smaller-sized seashell grains
generally show higher compressive strength [55,25]. This can be
attributed to lower void content and better aggregate-paste bond.
Clam shell powder acting as partial replacement of natural sand in
concrete at 10–30% replacement percentage gives higher compres-
sive strength than the control strength [55]. As shown in Fig. 3,
using crushed fine seashell as a partial replacement of fine aggre-
gate (sand) at 5–20% substitution levels gives higher compressive
strength than conventional concrete in most cases [51,33,49]. Var-
hen et al. [49] attributed the increase in strength of scallop shell
 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300 295

40

Compressive strength (N/mm2)

2400 Cockle shell
Martinez-Garcia et al. (2017) 35 Mussel shell
Varhen et al. (2017)
30 Periwinkle shell
Density (kg/m3)

2300
25 Scallop shell

2200 20
15

2100 10
5
2000 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Replacement of fine aggregate (%) (a) Replacement of coarse aggregate (%)
(a)
45

Compressive strength (N/mm2)

2750 Clam shell
Ettu et al. (2013)
40 Cockle shell
Agbede and Manasseh (2009)
2500 35 Mussel shell
Density (kg/m3)

Adewuyi and Adegoke (2008)

30 Oyster shell
Falade (1995)
2250 25 Perwinkle shell
20 Scallop shell
2000
15
1750 10
5
1500 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Replacement of coarse aggregate (%) (b) Replacement of fine aggregate (%)
(b)
Fig. 3. 28-day compressive strength of concrete containing seashell aggregate at
different levels of replacement. (a) Coarse aggregate replacement. (Sources: Cockle
1950 Khankhaje et al. (2017a) shell – [32]; Mussel shell – [31]; Periwinkle shell – [4]; Scallop shell – [10]). (b) Fine
aggregate replacement. (Sources: Clam shell – [55]; Cockle shell – [33]; Mussel shell
Nguyen et al. (2013a)
1900 – [31]; Oyster shell – [50]; Periwinkle shell – [47]; Scallop shell – [49].)
Density (kg/m3)

Nguyen et al. (2013b)

1850
Splitting tensile strength (N/mm2)

1800 3.5
Crepidula shell (coarse)
3 Mussel shell (coarse)
1750
Scallop shell (coarse)
2.5
1700 Mussel shell (fine)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Oyster shell (fine)
2
(c) Replacement of coarse aggregate (%) Scallop shell (fine)
1.5
Fig. 2. Density of concrete containing seashell aggregate at various levels of
replacement. (a) Fine aggregate replacement for fresh concrete. (b) Coarse
1
aggregate replacement for 28-day concrete. (c) Coarse aggregate replacement for
28-day pervious concrete.
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Replacement of aggregate (%)

concrete at 5% fine aggregate substitution to the absence of parti- Fig. 4. 28-day splitting tensile strength of concrete containing seashell aggregate at
cles smaller than 1 mm size; the coarser and angular fine aggre- different levels of replacement. Sources: Crepidula shell (coarse) – [36]; Mussel
shell (coarse) – [31]; Scallop shell (coarse) – [37]; Mussel shell (fine) – [31]; Oyster
gates helped to improve the interlocking bond of the concrete shell (fine) – [51]; Scallop shell – [49].
matrix.
Compressive strength of seashell aggregate concrete is also
influenced by curing age, cement content and addition of admix-
The reasons for the decrease in the splitting tensile strength are
tures. Compressive strength of seashell aggregate concrete gener-
similar to those reported for the reduction in compressive strength
ally increases with curing age. Increase in the amount of cement
of seashell aggregate concrete. From Fig. 4, however, a slight
was found to increase the compressive strength of seashell con-
increase in 28-day splitting tensile strength can be noticed for con-
crete [4,37]. Yang et al. [51] noticed that concrete containing naph-
crete containing oyster shell and scallop shell as partial fine aggre-
thalene air-entraining water-reducing admixture and up to 20%
gate at up to 20% substitution. Using coarser size fractions of
crushed oyster shell as partial replacement of sand gave lower
crepidula shell aggregate reduces the splitting tensile strength of
compressive strength than mixes where admixtures were not
pervious concrete [36].
added.

5.2. Splitting tensile strength 5.3. Flexural strength

The inclusion of seashell aggregate decreases the splitting ten- The effect of adding seashell aggregate on concrete flexural
sile strength of concrete, similar to compressive strength (Table 7). strength is analogous to those of compressive strength and split-
296 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300
1.8
Flexural strength, ff (N/mm2)
1.6
1.4
1.2
1 20000
0.8
0.6 ff = 0.087fc1.027
0.4 R² = 0.904
0.2
0 0
0 5 10 15
Compressive strength, fc (N/mm2)
Fig. 5. Relationship between flexural strength and compressive strength of
periwinkle shell aggregate concrete. Source: [12].
ting tensile strength; higher ratio of seashell leads to lower flexural
strength. Falade [18] obtained 28-days results ranging from values
less than 1.0 N/mm2 to values slightly above 3.0 N/mm2 using var-
ious mix and replacement ratios. Addition of periwinkle shell has
more influence on the flexural strength of mixtures with higher
aggregate/cement ratios [18]. The 28-day flexural strength of
Pachymelania Aurita periwinkle shell concrete obtained by Ekop
et al. [12] ranged from 2.55 to 0.79 N/mm2 for 0 to 100% replace-
ments, respectively. The lowest flexural/compressive strength ratio
was 7% for 50% replacement, whereas the successive highest flex-
ural/compressive strength ratios were 11% for control concrete
and 10% for the wholly-replaced sample. The relationship between
the flexural strength and compressive strength of periwinkle shell
concrete is illustrated in Fig. 5. Fig. 5 is a model in the form, ff = a
(fc)b where fc is the compressive strength and ff is the flexural
strength. This model is often adopted in the prediction and evalu-
ation of concrete properties from its corresponding compressive
strength.
5.4. Modulus of elasticity
Yang et al. [51,50] and Martinez-Garcia et al. [31] observed a
reduction in the modulus of elasticity of concrete when conven-
tional aggregate is replaced with seashell. Using oyster shell as par-
tial replacement of fine aggregate, the elastic modulus obtained
using the compressive strength suggested by ACI Code is more con-
servative than experimental results [51]. Yang et al. [50] attributed
the reduction of elastic modulus of concrete to the fact that elastic
modulus of oyster shell is lower than that of fine aggregate. The
elastic modulus of concrete containing oyster shell aggregate at
20% substitution rate decreased approximately by 10–15%. For cur-
ing periods lasting up to twelve months, they discovered that the
elastic modulus of concrete increased with curing age, reaching
its peak at six months after which the modulus decreased at one
year. Martinez-Garcia et al. [31] reported that replacement levels
up to 25% aggregate limited the reduction of the elastic modulus
to 25% or less; with replacement rate of 50% or more, the reduction
reached up to 50%. From the results of their study, reduction in
elastic modulus of mussel shell aggregate concrete was more pro-
found for coarse aggregate replacement, both for structural and
non-structural concrete. Fig. 6 shows the relationship between
the modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of concrete
containing different proportions of fine and coarse mussel shell
aggregate.
Modulus of elasticity, Ec (N/mm2)
35000
Coarse aggregate
30000 Fine aggregate
25000 Fine + coarse aggregates
Coarse: Ec = 904.8fc0.985
15000 R² = 0.843
Fine: Ec = 4825fc0.536
10000 R² = 0.903
5000
Fine + coarse: Ec = 4668fc0.523
R² = 0.613
0
10 20 30 40 50
20 Compressive strength, fc (N/mm2)
Fig. 6. Relationship between modulus of elasticity and compressive strength of
mussel shell aggregate concrete. Source: [31].
6. Durability-related properties of seashell aggregate concrete
6.1. Water transportation properties
By increasing the content of coarse seashell aggregates in pervi-
ous concrete, the water permeability of the concrete increases due
to higher porosity of the seashells [36,37,25]. The water permeabil-
ity coefficient rises by increasing the aggregate substitution by
scallop shell [10]. Martínez-García et al. [31] found out that water
permeability decreases with the content of mussel shell aggregate,
especially when coarse mussel shell is used. Yang et al. [50] also
obtained a reduction in the water permeability ratio of concrete
when produced with oyster shell as partial fine aggregate replace-
ment owing to the small particle size of crushed oyster shell.
The water penetration depth of concrete reduces with inclusion
of seashell aggregates [45]. Similar trend was observed by
Martínez-García et al. [31] for water absorption of mussel shell
aggregate concrete. The decreased penetration depth and absorp-
tion was due to the horizontal orientation of the flat-shaped sea-
shells which acts a barrier to water penetration. Conversely, the
substitution of natural aggregates with scallop shells increases
the water penetration depth of concrete [10]. Cuadrado-Rica
et al. [10] noted that the fixed effective water/cement ratio, rather
than the seashell aggregate substitution, was a more significant
influence on the higher water penetration depth.
Nguyen et al. [37] and Cuadrado-Rica et al. [10] noted that
water accessible porosity of concrete containing scallop shells
increases with percentage replacement of aggregate. This was
attributed to higher porosity of scallop seashell in comparison with
natural aggregate and increase in packing degree of mixes contain-
ing seashells.
6.2. Air content
Yang et al. [51] observed an insignificant change in the air con-
tent for oyster shell as partial replacement of fine aggregate up to
20% replacement limit. Addition of naphthalene water-reducing
admixture at 0.3% of unit cement amount significantly increased
the air content at 5% replacement level although the 20% replace-
ment level remained almost the same. Varhen et al. [49] also
reported that inclusion of fine seashell aggregate (scallop shell)
had an unnoticeable effect on air content of concrete, even up to
60% replacement level. They mentioned elimination of organic
matter and removal of finer particle size fractions (less than
1 mm) as the reasons.
On the other hand, some researchers reported that air content
increases with inclusion of seashell aggregate [10,13,25–26].
 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300
Cuadrado-Rica et al. [10] observed that the entrapped air of con-
crete was due to flat and elongated shape of the scallop seashell
and the possible presence of organic matter trapped within the
shells which can have air bubbles. Eo and Yi [13] attributed the
increased air content to the porous nature of the oyster shell aggre-
gate. Khankhaje et al. [26] stated that angular shape of cockle shell
decreases the compactness of the concrete mixture and disturbs
the granular arrangement of compact pervious concrete. Khan-
khaje et al. [25] noted that using smaller sized scallop shell
decreases the void content of pervious concrete in comparison
with coarser shell sizes.
6.3. Shrinkage and weight loss
The increase in drying shrinkage of concrete made with oyster
shell as partial replacement of fine aggregate based on regression
analyses was 7% and 28% at replacement levels of 10% and 20%,
respectively, compared with control concrete [50]. The increased
shrinkage resulted from lower rigidity of oyster shells and influ-
ence of size of fine seashell aggregate. According to Martínez-
García et al. [31], the use of mussel shell as fine aggregate in con-
crete, even in small percentages, increases the weight loss of con-
crete. However, using coarse mussel shell aggregate did not affect
this property; mussel shell gravel concrete had similar weight loss
to control concrete. The increased weight loss is related to higher
water absorption of mussel shell aggregate in comparison with
natural sand [31]. The high water absorption led to addition of
extra water during preparation of concrete, thereby causing evap-
oration of water retained in the pores of the shells over a period of
time.
6.4. Freeze-thaw resistance
Freeze-thaw resistance of seashell aggregate concrete was stud-
ied using number of freezing and thawing cycles [50,37,35]). ASTM
C666 [50] and NF EN 1338 [37] were the standards used in assess-
ing the freeze-thaw durability. Yang et al. [50] noted that even
though the freezing and thawing cycles increase within the 300
cycle limit for oyster shell concrete, the variance rates of the
dynamic elastic modulus and weight of oyster shell concrete
respectively showed smaller and more satisfactory values than
control concrete values. The durability factors (DF) of the oyster
shell concrete specimens (93.3 and 85.4) exceeded that of the con-
trol concrete (82.7). Oyster shell generally improves the freeze-
thaw resistance of concrete because the finer particles of the shells
filled the void spaces in concrete [50]. Conversely, Nguyen et al.
[37,35] reported that the presence of scallop seashell weakens
the resistance of pervious concrete to freezing and thawing. Pres-
ence of organic matter, high content of chloride ions, poor
aggregate-shell interconnection and weaker tensile strength of
concrete were the possible reasons for the poor freeze-thaw resis-
tance of scallop shell concrete [37,35].
6.5. Other durability-related properties
Yang et al. [50] analysed the chemical attack resistance and car-
bonation resistance of oyster shell aggregate concrete for up to 20%
substitution rate of fine aggregate. Concrete specimens were
deposited in 5% sulphuric acid and 2% hydrochloric acid, respec-
tively, to determine the chemical attack resistance. The weight
variance of concrete with age was measured for up to six weeks
and it was seen that the attack on concrete gradually increased
with age. Sulphuric acid attack on concrete surface continuously
occurred with age, whereas hydrochloric acid attack did not show
continuous variation with age because the weight variation
stopped after three weeks. The influence of fine oyster shell aggre-
297
gate on the chemical (acid) attack resistance of concrete is insignif-
icant [50]. For the concrete carbonation characteristics measured
within a five-week period, carbonation depth was found to
increase with time. The oyster shell aggregate concrete gave com-
parable resistance to carbonation attack and the aggregate replace-
ment rate had an insignificant effect on carbonation velocity [50].
Even though oyster shells generally contain chlorides and sul-
phates, the oyster shell aggregate concrete showed remarkable
resistance to chemical and carbonation attacks probably due to
the low replacement level and heat-treatment of the oyster shell
aggregate. Presence of sulphates and chlorides in concrete are
known to negatively affect the chemical durability properties of
hardened concrete by causing efflorescence, expansion and disrup-
tion [34].
Falade et al. [19] investigated the behaviour of periwinkle shell
aggregate concrete at elevated temperatures. The concrete speci-
mens were heated between 50 and 800 °C/h. They reported that
the surface of the periwinkle shell aggregate concrete showed
signs of minor cracking and spalling between 300 and 400 °C.
Major cracks were noticed at 400–600 °C, and smoke was emitted
from the concrete samples between 700 and 800 °C. At 800 °C,
heavy smoke was emitted from the samples and the colour of
the periwinkle shells changed from black to brownish. The bond
characteristics of the concrete matrix decreased as the tempera-
ture increased due to the near-smooth surface texture of the peri-
winkle shells and weakening of shell strength at high temperature.
Periwinkle shell concrete should not be exposed to temperatures
higher than 300 °C.
Cuadrado-Rica et al. [10] measured the chloride migration of
91-day concrete prepared by partially substituting conventional
fine aggregate with scallop shell and the samples were very perme-
able to chloride ions. The chloride diffusion coefficient increased
with replacement level of crushed scallop seashell. Their results
also indicated that the variation of the permeability of chloride
ions along the height of the concrete cylinders was larger in sam-
ples containing scallop shell.
The microstructure of mussel shell concrete observed by
Martínez-García et al. [31] revealed that the coarse mussel shell
aggregates had a horizontal orientation in the concrete matrix.
The mussel shell concrete also possessed high porosity through-
out the concrete mass with apparently uniform distribution.
There was reduced bonding between the mussel shell aggregate
and the cement paste, and this phenomenon was enhanced by
higher content of coarse mussel shell aggregate. This reduced
bonding predominantly occurred in the inner part of the shell
(nacre layer) and was attributed to the presence of chitin which
decreases the tensile strength. In addition, the interfacial transi-
tion zone at the outer part of shell (periostracum layer) showed
some cracks and high presence of pores. The reduced aggregate-
paste bond and high porosity of mussel shell aggregate concrete
affect the properties of concrete especially the mechanical prop-
erties [31].
Nguyen et al. [37] assessed the abrasion resistance and slip
resistance of pervious concrete comprising of scallop shell as a par-
tial coarse aggregate. The highest values of abrasion length were
obtained for the control concrete; pervious concrete for the various
paver types containing scallop shell aggregate at different substitu-
tion rates were more resistant to abrasion than the control pervi-
ous concrete. However, the abrasion length of scallop shell
pervious concrete ranged from 25.41 to 28.93 mm which failed
to achieve the EN 1338 abrasion resistance requirement (i.e. the
measured value should be less than 23 mm). The measured slip
resistance values within the range of 86.27–89.85° indicated that
there is no risk of slip in wet weather; the pervious concrete for
all the replacement percentages therefore possessed good skid
resistance [37].
298 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300
7. Sound absorption and thermal insulation properties of
seashell aggregate concrete
Khankhaje et al. [26] showed that pervious concrete made with
cockle shell aggregate generally has better sound absorption prop-
erties (sound absorption coefficient, noise reduction coefficient,
transmission loss coefficient and sound transmission class) than
control pervious concrete. Pervious concrete made with cockle
shell aggregate had higher noise coefficient (16%) than control per-
vious concrete (9%). Improved sound absorption of cockle shell
concrete was attributed to higher air content as a result of the
heterogeneous structure and angular shape of cockle shell.
There is dearth of literature on thermal insulation properties of
seashell aggregate concrete. Lertwattanaruk et al. [28] observed
that the incorporation of crushed powder seashells (oyster shell,
mussel shell, scallop shell and clam shell) as a partial replacement
material in cement mortar (5–20% by weight of binder) decreases
the thermal conductivity of mortar. High porosity was given as a
reason for the reduced thermal conductivity. Addition of seashell
reduced the thermal conductivity of mortar by 1–45%. The authors
concluded that seashell mortar can provide better thermal insula-
tion in building construction.
8. Potential applications and directions for future
investigations
Using seashell by-products as substitute aggregate in concrete
can improve various properties of concrete. The incorporation of
seashell by-products in concrete will provide environmental bene-
fits in different ways – effective waste management of seashells,
conservation of natural aggregate resources and production of
greener concrete. Utilisation of seashell aggregates will likely pro-
vide economic advantages in construction since seashell by-
products are generated in large quantities and have comparatively
lower commercial value than conventional aggregates. Some of the
practical implications of seashell aggregate concrete in construc-
tion are highlighted below:

Utilising some types of seashells as partial coarse aggregate
replacement at lower substitution rates (below 50%) can pro-
duce normal-weight concrete having acceptable strength prop-
erties. Such seashell concretes generally have compressive
strength values that are greater than 50% of the control strength
and thus can be applied as non-structural plain concrete or low-
strength structural concrete. Up to 20% of natural sand can be
substituted by weight with ground seashells to obtain concrete
possessing satisfactory density and strength.

Reduction in density of concrete owing to the incorporation of
seashell aggregates will be beneficial in special applications
where lower self-weight of concrete is needed and great
strength is not required. The reduced self-weight will invariably
decrease the dead load which is desirable for structural design
of concrete members.

A study on cockle shell aggregate concrete indicates that sea-
shell aggregate concrete has better sound absorption than con-
trol concrete. Improved sound absorption is valuable in
buildings where reduction in noise and echo effects is required.
Possible application of seashell aggregate concrete in road pave-
ments subjected to light traffic volume will depend on the
mechanical properties (especially hardness) of the seashells,
as well as the skid resistance and abrasion resistance of seashell
aggregate concrete.

The utilisation of seashell aggregates in concrete may probably
improve the thermal insulation as a result of decreased thermal
conductivity. This is because seashell aggregate concretes gen-
erally have more porosity and slightly lower bulk density than
normal concrete. Concrete with enhanced thermal insulation
properties is advantageous for buildings in very cold and hot cli-
mates. Improved thermal insulation of the seashell concrete
buildings will control heat gains during hot seasons and heat
losses during cold seasons.

Current research indicates that seashell aggregate has restricted
potential in high performance applications such as prestressed
concrete and concrete exposed to aggressive environment. This
is due to the presence of salts and organic impurities in sea-
shells as well as reduced workability and lower strength of sea-
shell aggregate concrete. Any future application of seashell
aggregates in high performance concrete will likely require
addition of water-reducing or superplasticiser admixtures in
addition to proper cleaning and treatment of the seashells.
Even though seashell aggregate concrete has potential applica-
tions in the construction industry, several important aspects of its
properties need to be further evaluated before it should be practi-
cally utilised. The literature review presented herein points out a
number of gaps in the state of the art. The following recommenda-
tions are hereby made for future investigations:

More research is needed on the different types of seashell
aggregate concrete especially for concrete manufactured with
clam shell, crepidula shell and mussel shell aggregates in order
to firmly characterise and understand their behaviour.

Since seashells are biomaterials whose properties may be influ-
enced by environmental conditions, future research should
specify the specie, storage period and exposure condition of
the seashells. The effects of different cleaning and heat treat-
ment procedures in addition to the influence of specie, storage
age and exposure condition of seashells on various concrete
properties also need to be studied in detail.

Studies should also be conducted to ascertain the types of bac-
teria present in seashells and to also observe if the synergy of
bacteria and cement can produce concrete with specific desir-
able properties. Certain bacteria may be found in seashells
which can help to improve the properties of concrete; also,
ground-based bacteria can be present in stored shell dumps
given a nutrient and oxygen supply [45].

The mechanical properties of various seashell aggregates such
as toughness (aggregate impact value), strength (aggregate
crushing value) and hardness (aggregate abrasion, Deval abra-
sion and Los Angeles abrasion values, etc) should be firmly
identified and classified.

Long-term hardened properties of seashell aggregate concrete
lasting up to 12 months should be investigated. Most of the
existing studies on the mechanical behaviour restricted the
results to 90-day old concrete. There are very few reports on
the flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of seashell aggre-
gate concrete. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there is no
available study on the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) of sea-
shell aggregate concrete.

The influence of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
on the properties of seashell aggregate concrete should be
researched. Some examples of such SCMs include silica fume,
fly ash, rice husk ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag.

The possibility of using seashell aggregate in reinforced con-
crete should be explored. The structural behaviour of reinforced
concrete slabs, beams and columns manufactured with treated
seashells as partial replacement aggregate at different substitu-
tion levels and mix ratios should be studied. The ultimate and
serviceability limit states need to be checked and compared
with conventional reinforced concrete.
 U.G. Eziefula et al. / Construction and Building Materials 192 (2018) 287–300

Although some results are available in the literature on the
durability of seashell aggregate concrete, further investigations
are needed to be carried out on alkali-aggregate reaction, colour
changes, resistance to high temperature, behaviour when sub-
jected to fire, abrasion resistance, slip resistance, carbonation,
chloride ingress, freeze-thaw resistance, cement paste-
aggregate bond, resistance to sea water attack, resistance to
chemical and acid attacks, shrinkage and swelling, weight loss,
water transportation properties and air content. The study of
durability-related behaviour of seashell aggregate concrete is
very important because seashells are generally porous, contain
significant proportions of salts and organic matter and can pos-
sibly contain small amounts of decomposing shellfish flesh.

The sound absorption and thermal insulation properties of con-
crete containing various fine and coarse seashell aggregates
should be investigated.

Research on the odour of seashell aggregate concrete should be
initiated to discover if any resulting odour is healthy and com-
fortable for humans. This is because seashells give off foul smell
mostly due to the presence of organic matter. Any unpleasant
smell from seashell aggregate concrete construction, especially
buildings, can cause discomfort for users.

It is necessary to determine the cost analysis of seashell aggre-
gate concrete for various types of seashell, types of replacement,
percentages of replacement and mix proportions. The obtained
cost analysis should be compared with the cost of producing
conventional concrete.
9. Conclusions
This review paper has discussed the properties of the seashells
and the properties of seashell aggregate concrete in fresh and hard-
ened states. Based on the state-of-the-art review, the following
conclusions can be drawn:

The physical properties of seashell aggregates depend on aggre-
gate size and influence most of the properties of seashell aggre-
gate concrete. Finer sizes of seashell aggregates tend to have
higher water absorption, higher specific gravity, higher particle
density and lower fineness modulus than the coarser-sized
grains. When compared with normal aggregates, most seashells
have similar or slightly lower specific gravity and bulk density.
Seashells generally have higher water absorption than normal
aggregates due to the porous nature and irregular surface and
shape of seashells.

The chemical composition of seashell aggregate is similar to
that of natural limestone-type aggregate. The loss on ignition
of seashells ranges from 41 to 51% and the calcium oxide con-
tent varies from 38 to 77%. The high calcium oxide content of
seashell suggests that seashell could be an inert material in
concrete.

Seashell aggregates generally contain significant amounts of
organic matter, chlorides and sulphates which lower the
strength and durability of seashell aggregate concrete. Cleaning
and heat treatment of seashells help to reduce the quantity of
salts and organic impurities which improve the quality of the
seashells. From the literature review, possible inclusion of
cleaned seashell aggregates in reinforced or prestressed con-
crete is limited unless higher levels of cleaning and treatment
are applied to the seashells.

The workability of seashell aggregate concrete generally
decreases as the percentage of seashells increases. The use of
coarse-sized seashell aggregate improves the workability of
concrete. Most relevant studies did not lay emphasis on the
use of water-reducing admixtures for improving workability
299
which is a prerequisite for producing high performance con-
crete exposed to aggressive environment.

The density of hardened seashell aggregate concrete reduces
with increasing proportion of seashells. For most mix propor-
tions, density of concrete containing less than 50% seashell
aggregate as partial replacement of fine or coarse aggregate is
generally greater than 2100 kg/m3.

The strength properties of concrete containing seashell aggre-
gate as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate generally
decrease with increasing content of seashells, especially at
higher substitution percentages.

The reduction of physical and mechanical properties of seashell
aggregate concrete in comparison with conventional concrete is
generally attributed to the peculiar characteristics of seashell
aggregates. The principal seashell characteristics include the
elongated or flaky shape, higher specific surface area, higher
water absorption and presence of organic impurities.

Up to 20% of natural fine aggregate by weight can be replaced
with ground seashells to obtain normal concrete having ade-
quate density and strength.

Research findings on the durability-related characteristics of
seashell aggregate concrete indicate varied effects. Chloride
migration and shrinkage properties of concrete generally
increase with the addition of seashell aggregates. There are
opposing views on the effect of seashell aggregate on the water
transportation properties, air content and freeze-thaw resis-
tance of concrete. Using oyster shell as partial replacement of
fine aggregate at 20% replacement rate has an insignificant influ-
ence on the carbonation and acid attack resistance of concrete.

Pervious concrete manufactured with cockle shell aggregate has
better sound absorption properties than conventional pervious
concrete.
Conflict of interest
None.
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