BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

VOLUME TWO
METRIC EDITION I

•
 I
)

[ By tho "me J thO,

BUILDING CONSTr UCTION
/ Volumes One, Two1 and Three

~~;~~1:~
JOINERY

By J. K. McKAY

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Volume Four

•
W. B. McKay
M.Sc.Tech., M.I.Struct.E.
BUILDING
Former registered architect and CONSTRUCTION
chartered structural engineer and Head
of the Department of Building and
VOLUME TWO
Structural Engineering in the
Manchester University Institute FOURTH EDITION (METRIC)
of Science and Technology. By J. K. McKay. B.A .• B.Sc.Tech., A.R.I.B.A .. C.Eng., M.I.Struct.E., F.F.B.

With drawings by the authors

o
Orient Longman
•
ORIENT LONGMAN LIMITED

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Fourth edition © Longman Group Limited 1970

OLBN 0002120038
Rrst published in India 1985
Reprinted 1988. 1991, 1993, 1994,1995

Published in India by arrangement with

Longman Group Ltd" London

For sale in India. Nepal, Bhutan, The Maldive Islands.

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 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
IN this edition the various units have been converted to metric terms.
In the third edition, due to the replacement of the model Dyc-Laws by the Building Regulations, the
chapters dealing with fireplace construct ion and drainage, in addition to being extended, WCfC rewritten and
brought up to date. The corresponding drawings were modified or renewed entirely and a fresh one of a
septic tank included.
The opportunity has been taken once more to revise parts of the text and figures .
•
j. K. McK.

•
 I
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
VOLUME'S II and III ar~ dt:vott:d to thost parts of Building Construction which are regarded as suitable for
a second-year course. Brickwork, drainage. masonry and mild steel roof trusses are dealt with in Vol. II (this
volume), carpentry, joinery and roof coverings in Vol. Ill.
One of the aims of the author has been to treat the subject sl:fficie"ntly comprehensi"cly in order to meet,
as far as possible, the individual requirements of both students and lecturers concerned with the examinations
of the Royal Institute of British Architects and allied professional bodies, and for National Certificates
and Diplomas in Building. A wide syllabus has therefore been adopted to meet a variety of needs. It is not
intended that the whole syllabus should be covered by one class in one session, but rather that most classes
should be able to select those parts of the syllabus that apply specially to them. The syllabus adopted has been
divided into eight parts, and these appear as headings of the respective chapters of both volumes.
Materials have been treated at some length. Much of the description in smaller type is intended
for the more advanced students and for reference purposes.
Because of the relatively large size of many of the dra ..... ings it has been possible to include associated
details for convenient reference. Thus, for example, Fig. 51 incorporates complete details of the small steel
roof truss. Again, the several openings showing the stone dressing in Fig. 42 are detailed in Fig. 43 on the
opposite page. It is hoped that the arrangement of the details in the full-page drawings especially will be
of assistance to students preparing homework sheets and testimonies of study. A Homework PrOgramme
appears on p. 137. This is suggestive only-, to be departed from according to the requirements and capacity
of the students. Its purpose is not the production of sheets identical in detail and composition.
The author wishes to express his appreciation to several colleagues for their valuable criticisms and
suggestions during the preparation of this volume, and particularly to Mr V. C. Barnes, A.R .tB.A., Mr
D. A. G. Reid, B.Sc., A.M .l.C.E., and l\lr A. V. Wilson, M.Sc.Tech., M .I.Struct.E. His thanks are also due
the Controller, H.M . Stationery Office, for kindly allowing the inclusion of extracts from several British
Standard Specifications, many more of which have betn consulted . Acknowledgement has been made in the
text to several firms who have readily supplied information on building materials and processes of manufacture.

JANUARY 19+4 W. B. McK.

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 CONTENTS
(:HAPTER PAGE

l. BRICKWORK

Materials, including Bricks, Lime, Cement, Mortars and Concrete-Squint Junctions-Squint Quoins-Piers-
Cavity Wans-Circular Work-Raking Bond$-R~ inforced Brickwork- Special Bonds- Arches-Damp Proofing
of Basements--Open Areas-Stepped Foundations- Concrete Floor Construction-Decorated Brickwork"--Fire-
places, Flues, Chimney Breasts and stacks-Setting Out.

II. DRAINAGE 74
Surface Water and Subsoil Drainage- Sewage Disposal-Septic Tanks- Drain Pipes and Traps-Setting Out and
Excavation of Drain Trenches- Construction of Ora'ns-Drainage Schemes- Intercepting and Inspection ChambeI1-
Ventilation- T esting-Internal Soil and Waste Pipework

Ill. MASONRY 94
Formation and classification of Stones-Granites- Sandstones-Limestones- Marbles-Slates- Defects-T;sts-
Q'-Iarryin.o: and Mining-Machine Dressing-Dre$si ngs to Door and Window Opcnings-Comices-Steps and
Stairs.

IV. MILO STEEL ROOF TRUSSES '3 0

Bolts and Rive ts- Details of Roof Trusses suitable for 6 m, 9 m and '2 m Spans.

HOMEWORK PROGRAMME '37

INDEX

vii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
NO. NO .
PACE PAGE

.
OF FIG.
, 0' FIC.

, ,,...
Sketches of Brick Moulding Machinery ,0. Septic Tank 75
,. Brick Mould used in the Hand Moulding Process Eanhenware Drain PIIH'S and Traps
,. Brick Kilns Cast Iron Dram Pipes and Traps
77
'0
,. Tunnel Kiln
" 33· Setting Out and Con$lruction of Drains . 8,
s· Spe<:iai Bricks. ,8 J<. Drainage Scheme and Details of Intercepting Chamber. 87
6. Lime Kiln '9 35· Inspection Chamber 90
Diagram of Lime Hydraling Plant ,6. Sanitary Fitting1l
7·
8. Diagram of Cement Works .," 37· Map showing Disposiuon of Building Stones
9'

'"
T"sling Apparatus for Cement, etc. ,8. D iagrams sho,... ing Typical Structures of Building Stone!
9·
". Squint JunctI ons in English and Flemish Bonds
JJ
37 )9. Apparatus for Fm"l Action Teu
'"
"'9
".
u.
".
Acute and Obtuse Squint Quoins m EnglIsh and Flemish Bonds ;8
Squint and Octag.:.nal PitTS.
14. Cavity Wall$
)9
4 1 ,43
...,.
<0. Masonry Machines
Stone Dressings to SemicirculBr-headed D oor Openings
Stone Dr~sings to Square-headed Door Openings
'"
"5
,,8
, S· Circular Work
, 6. Reinforced Brickwork .,
<S <J. Stone Mouldings at Door Openmgs
H· Slone Dressings to Wmdow Openings
"9
'"
'7 Raking Bonds ,8 <S. Details of Masonry at Window Openings
,6. Window with Stone Dressings, including Consoles '"
18., Special Bonds.
'9. Brick Arches (Semicircular with Orders, Circular, etc.).
SO
53 .,. Cornices
m

'"uS
00. Damp Proofing of Basements 57 ,8. Stone Steps, Thresholds
'L Dry Area 58 <9. Stone Open Well Staircase "7
u. Stepp~ Foundations for Sloping Sites 59 So. Reinforced Concrete and Marble StaIrcase .,8
".
,..
Con<:retc Floor ConstructIOn, Concrete Mixer
De<::or"ed Brickwork '"
6,
SL Mild Sted Roof Truss suitable for 6 m Sp~n
5~· Mild Sleel Roof Truss suiu.bl~ for 9 m Span
'"'H
2$,26, 27, ~8. Fireplaees, Flues, Ch1mney Breasts and Slacks 6,-69 53· Mild Sled Roof Truss suitable for 12 m Span '35
'9· Setting OUI
.~olt;
"
UNLESS INDICATED OTHERWISE ALL DIMENSIO NS ON THE F IGURES ARE G IVEN IN MILLIMETRES

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

BRICKWORK
SyllabI/I.-Extended description of the manufacture and characteristics of bricks, cements and limes ; lime and cement mortars; concrete. Squint quoins and
junctions in English and Flemish bonds; piers; cavity walls; circular work; reinforced brickwork; rakin,g bonds; garde?, cross, Dutch, bnck-on_edge ~nd
facmg bonds, recessed, elliptIcal, pomted and rere arches Damp proofing of basements; dry areas. Stepped foundations. Concrete floor constructIOn.
Decorated brickwork. Fireplaces, flues, chImney breasts and stacks; buildmg regulatiom. Setting out.

MATERtAlSl
A BRIEF description of certain building materials is given in Vol. I. These will
now be considered in greater detail.
BRICKS
Bricks are chiefly made from clay and shale, and are moulded either by
hand or machinery, The principal elements of clay suitable for brick-making
are alumina and silica. Alumina renders the clay plastic, and thus facilitates
the moulding process; if incorrectly proportioned it will cause the bricks to
crack, twist and shrink excessively when being burnt. The silica may be
combined with the alumina or it may be free in the form of sand; if combined,
it has a tendency to produce shrinking and warping, but if free it counteracts
this tendency and assists in the production of hard, durable and uniformly
shaped bricks; brittle bricks will result if the sand content is excessive.
Brick clays may also contain varying proportions of limestone, iron, magnesia,
salts such as magnesium sulphate, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate and
calcium sulphate, in addition to organic matter and water.
Limestone or chalk has the effect of reducing shrinkage and acting as a
tlux during the burning process, causing melting and binding of the mass. It
influences the colour of bricks. The limestone should be present only in a
fine state of division (the size of the particles not exceeding" pin-heads "),
otherwise the pieces of quicklime (see p. 20) will slake and expand if the bricks
abS()rb moisture. Such expansion will cracK-or shatter the bricks. Fine grind-
ing of the clay wili prevent damage from this cause. An excess of chalk will
produce mis-shaped bricks when being burnt.
Iron oxides and magnesia also influence the colour of bricks (see p. 12). Salts
I Conside ration of much of this d escription of materials can be d efe rred until the
• Third Year of the Course. II il given he re in somewhat extended <ldail for the purpose of
reference.
may cause efflorescence (see p. 13). Organic matter, if in excessive quantity,
may contain compounds which discolour plaster. C~rtain salts, particularly
magnesium, may cause the bricks to decay.
Suitable clays for brick-making include" reds," "marls,"" gaults,"" loams,"
"Knotts" and" plastics."
Red Clays are foun<l in many parts of the country an<l are extensively used for
producing high·class bricks. As is implied, thc colour of these bricks is red in various
sha<les, dep ending upon the proportion of iron oxi<le present .. Red bricks which arc
particularly noteworthy are those from Berkshire , Durham, Hampshire, Lancashire,
Leicester, Yorkshire anJ the vicinity of Peterborou~h.
Marly or Lipty or Calcareous Clays have a large chalk or limestonc content
and arc commonly.used. Sand is sometimes add ed to such clays to prevent the bricks
fusing during the burning process. Marly clays are converted into maim by the
addition of chalk in correct proportion. In producing maIm. the clay and chalk arc
separately reduced to a slurry or slip in wash mills. The clay " 'ash millis a cylindrical
tank in which harrows of vertical metal teeth, attached to horizontal arms, are rotated
to churn up the contents. The mill is Slopped at intervals to allow Stones and large r
grains of sand to settle to the bottom, leaving the liquid with the clay in suspension.
The chalk is washed in a similar mill, but a spiked roller instead of the harrows is
used to break up the lumps to a fine state of division. The washed clay and chalk
are now mixed together in exact proportions and passe<l through a screen to a tmsh_
bank or shallow settling tank where the surplus water is run off, kaving the maIm.
Marl and maim bricks are almost white in colour. The approximate analysis of
marl includes JJ per cent. sil Lca, 10 pe r cent. alumina, JO per cent. chalk and 5 per
cent. oxide of iron. Well-knDwn white bricks are obtainable from Cambridgeshire,
Lincolnshire an<l Suffolk.
Gault Clays are h eavy, tough and of a bluish colour, but with suffic ient chalk
content to render th e bricks a pale yellow or white colour when burnt. Bricks, called
gaults, made from such clays are often perforated (see p. 19) or have a lar~e froR
to reduce the weight; they are ve ry satisfactory for general building purposes.
Loamy or Mild Clays r.ave a high silica content, and the addition of a flu!.:,
such as chalk, is often n~cessalY. Shrinkage of these clays during burning is relatively
small, and they produce bricks of e xcellent quality. Compared with maris, a loamy
clay may consist of approximate ly 6S per cent. silica, 27 per cent. alumina, 0'5 pe r
cent. chalk and t pe r cent. iron.
Knotts Clay is found in deep seams in the n eighbourhood of Peterborough,
and as it contains a relatively large proPQrtion of finely distributed combu$tiblematter,
an economy in fuel for burning results. Fletton bricks (see p. 10) are produced from
2
this clay in enormous quantities. The approximate composition is So per cent.
BRICKWORK
silica, IS per cent. alumina, !O per cent. lime, 7 per cent. iron, 5 per cent. carbonaceous
matter, together with water and traces of ma,l!;nesia, potash and soda.
Plastic or strong Clays are composed chie fly of silica and alumina in combina-
tion, and chalk of a creamy consistency must be added to prevent distortion and
excessive shrinkage in drying and burning. London day, from which the well-known
London stock bricks are made (see p. I ,), is of this class.
Clay Shales, quarried in Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire particularly,
produce excellent bricks. Shale is a hard, laminated ,rock which is reduced to a
plastic mass suitahle for brick-making by weathering and the addition of water (see
next column). It is found, often in the same quarry, with a \'aryin~ content of oxides of
iron, etc., and the careful blending of these shales produces bricks, used for faced work,
of different shades. A typical shale may contain rou~hly 60 per cent. silica, 25 percent.
alumina, 0·6 per ccnt. chalk, 7 per cent. oxides of iron, 2 per cent. magnesia and
traces of alkalis (potash and soda), organic matter and water.
Fireclay is qunrr-ied in Lanca. hire, Durham, Northumberl~nd, Ynrk"hiTf',
Staffordshire and other parts of the country. It contains a lar~e proportion of silica
(varying from 50 to 70 per cen!.) and little, if anv, lime and iron. Bricks f)lade from
such clay are hi~hly resistant to high tempe ratu~e and are therefore suitable for the
lining of furnaces and fireplaces.
MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
The various methods of production are determined very largely by the
nature of the clay or shale, and may be divided into the (a) semi-dry or
semi-plas.tic process, (b) stiff-plastic process and the (c) plastic process.
(a) Semi-dry or Semi-plastic Process.- Thc clay or shale is comparatively
dry. It is ground to a fine powder by heavy rollers, passed through a screen,
mixed to a uniform consistency, pressed and re-pressed in rJiloulds by very
powerful machinery (see p. 3) and burnt. Sometimes the screened material
is damped by sprayed water. Because of the dryness of the material the bricks
are taken direct from the moulding machine to the kiln, the usual intermediate
drying stage being omitted. The process is relatively cheap. This process is
adopted for the production of Flettons, owing to the suitability of the Knotts
clay.
(h) Stiff-plastic Process.- This process, which is being adopted to an
increasing extent, is similar to the ahove, except that the water content of the
material is increased and therefore less powerful machinery is required to mould
the bricks (see p. 3). A separate drying plant is not always necessary. The
process is usually applied to hard, dry clays, ~uch as maris, and certain shales;
it may also be applied to wetter clays, provided they have been partially dried
before being crushed.
(c) Plastic Proces.\".- The day suitable for this process contains a large
proportion of moistu-re, and is used for making wire-cut and hand-made bricks
(see pp. 3 and 4). The bricks must be carefully dried before being burnt.
The various processes of (I) preparation of the clay or shale, (2) moulding,
(3) drying and (4) burning are briefly described in Vol. I.
I. Preparation.- The top soil, or overburden or callow, is first removed.
Clay is dug by hand or by mechanical excavators (see Chap_ I, Vol. IV), which
consist of a ,jib having- a bucket with sted claws attached. The bucket is
,pressed 'against the base of the quarry face, and as it ascends the claws remove
[
°the clay which passes into the bucket; the jib i~ swung round until the bucket
is o\"er a wagon which receives the clay discharged from it. Shale is usually
loosened by blasting and then filled into wagons either by hane. or by means
of an excavating machine.
Wpatherinx.-ln the absence of crushing machinery, certain clays are subjected
in winter 10 exposu're to the weather. This is usual in small works where moulding
md subsequent operations are only carried out durinl-( the sprinl-( and summer months
and the clay is dug in the autumn. The excavated clay is spread "vcr the I-(mund for
a slight depth (not more than 610 mm) to allow the action of the frost to hreak down
the clay into minute particles. Stones, roots, etc., are removed, wh:lst at least once
during the winter the clay is turned over to increase the exposure and improve its
workabilitv.
•
There are several methods of conveying the clay or shale from the quarry
or pit. One form consists of an " endless wire rope" to which the bogies or
wagons are attached; the moving rope drags the fun wagons (which run on
rails) up the incline to the mill as the empty wagons descend and return to the
pit. Alternatively a motor tractor may be used to haul the wagons.
Cleaning.-Some days require to be "deaned." Stones, coarse vegetable
matter, etc., may be removed either by hand picking, or the clay may be passed
through a wash mill.
Biending.- Clay or shale used for making common bricks is usually taken
as quarried direct to the crushing machinery. That for the more expensive
bricks, especially multi-coloured facings (see p. 13), of~en requires the material
fr<!m different strata to be mixed together as required. This important operation,
known as blending, includes the removal of any undesirahle material. The
selection of the various clays or shales is made at the quarry-face and the blending
is ptrformed by one or more mechanical mixers, in conjunction with the grinding
or crushing machine.
Reductian.- The machinery for reducing the clay or shale to a fine condition
depends a good deal upon the character of the material. Thus, an edge-running
mill is suitable for hard, dry clays which have been previously crushed by a
stone breaker, whereas crushing rall$ are effectively employed for plastic clays.
One form of stone breaker Or disintegrator consists of a rapidly rotating shaft
from which hammers are hung to break up the material to a coarse ;lowder.
There arc three types of edge. runners or grindi/lf.! ",ills, i.e. (I) dry or revo/vin;:
pans, (2) u:el pans and (3) pan ",ills . A. dry pan consists of two heavy metal rollers
which rotale in a re\'olvin~ pan having a perforated base; the latter may be 3 m
in diameter and the size of the perforations varies from 1·6 to 13 mm; water is added
to the clay or shale as required during the grinding operation, and the crushed mate.rial
passes through the hase to a pit or is conveyed by a belt to the moulding machme.
A wet pan or chaur mill has two rotating rollers or mnneM which revolve in a fixed
pan, the base of which is;n the form of a grating having (; to 19 mm slots through which
the crushed mat~rial is forced; the material is softened by water which is sprayed
over it. A pan mil! or lempainx ",ill consists of a pair of runneM and a solid revolving
pan which receives a measured charge of clay and a definite amount of water ; grindin~
proceeds for about twenty minutes before lhe Jllate,.i~1 i~ removed. A P".I{ mill may
be used in lieu of a pan mill, and consists of a vertical metal cylinder in which curnd
 BRICKS
knilH allach,'utaa rOlnllnll ~h,,(t churn up [he day and forer II uo\\n",.rds thrOURh
'h,' out!'-! at ,h .. baM'
(;n.. llLnj.( rolls arc USI',j for r,.,Juclnj.( days of h'Jo:h plasticlI)'. The rolls, dri". ...
1'1 spe,'d "hlch '-ane, f.om ~o [0 ,flo or mo~ 100\·0IUlio...I per monuU:,lre on parrs,
and arc &Iroolol metal cylmtl"r. pl~c .. d honmnlally. SIde by side." ilh a space be'''"..,n;
Ih~, are from .. ~O 10 'll~ mm dlam"ln and f>()() to 91!i mm IOOIl The clay is fcd
b,'IIH'O'''' Ihe rot~n from I hop!)t."r h"cu ,00"" ,h.'m. Th .. surfac" of ,h.. rollo may be
sIT,noth or Ihel' may be ",Ih". toothed, sp,k('u, corrUllated, rl<"., "hen they arc called
H,MI,IS. Th" rolh mu)' conSIst onl~' of" smilie pllr, Or there rna ... be IWO p~"n" llh on ..
fl31r ahc'H 'h,' olhO:I. The space ix:'''ccn a sm,l{h! paIr should nOi bt Ius than I) mm
,t 1''''' Id"d "uh a doubl~ palrof rolls, the upp"r p.,r ar" k,bbl"n spactt:! up \0 so mm
dPUI, ;'nu Ih., )',.,,,r paIr of !.lTlooth rolls arc closdy spaced to a minimum of 0:& mm.
Th ~,hhkrs l:t1p and !:Tush th" dav sullie,,,ntl)" for fin., r.,duct"," b\· 'hc 10lH'r TOlls
In-m "hll'h II pUS"s m Ihm ~h""IS: . ,
Sael"lIl1'/{.- Clay or "hale after being ground is generally passed through a
screen tu ensure that only nne, wtll graded material is passed forward for
mouldlnp;. The coarse material retained on the sieve i~ returned for further
grlndin~,
IJt.airlng. As is implied. de·airing means extracting air, and is a proces~
\\hich has been recently introduced into this country and applied to certain
days and shales prior to the moulding- operation. During the grinding and
pug-gtng processes aITis introduced bet\.lecn the fine particles. This entrapped
air redUl.:es the plasticity of th" clay, pren~ntin,e: the mass from becoming
thoroughl) homogeneous, and causing defects such a~ blisters, laminations and
cracks (sec p. 14). The removal of th" .,ir therefore increases the workability
of the da~ and prClents the dCleiopml,nt of these defects. A de-airing machine
simply l:Qllsists of a chamber to \.Ihich a ,'acuum pump is connected. The
fine particles of day or shalt: arc forced into the chamber and the air is extracled
as the material proceeds to the moulding machine.
D"-DIrJOg hal bet'n PU[]CU13rJV successful In conno-cllon \11th the manufacture of
\I ,re·cut hncks (ke b<:lo" I. "h.,n, ,h" compl.. t.. plan! may COnSI&\ of a pug mill or
an 01<1('" ",,,ch,,,.· ,,"h a Jhndd",~ pln/,·, a dc·alTtn~ chamber, and 3 sccond augn
- "hlch con,·~ys th., clay from the chamb..r IInu forcu ,I through rh,' tI,,· to thc "1,,,-
CUllin\-( machme. An aUlln mach,o., 15 a honzonla1 pul' mIll" IIh • po"erful m.,tal
5C..," or "orm Inst"atl of the shafl ""h blad.,s. Th.. .,,,trudcd clay as ]I leaves th.,
d,t' IS m Ih" lorm of II com,nuous band havln~ smoolh .urbcel and sharp, "ell
.-l .. fin .. .-l Ar ...".
Grog, ..... hich is burnt waste bricks or burnl clay ground to a powder, is
somelimes added to the ra .... day in the mill to reduce shrinka~e of the bricks
during the drying and hurning processes.
2. :\-1ouldjng.~ The prepared clay or shale is machine-moulded by either
the (a) .... ire-cut or (6) pressure processes, or 1\ may be moulded by hand.
(a) ~h1"l'-cut Process.- The clay or shale, in the form of a continuous plaslie
band or column, is propelled from the pug mill or auger O\er oiled rollers to Ihe
cultmg tab/e. The exit, called the die or mouthpiece, is lubricated with water,
• steam or oil to reduce friction and ensure uniform mO\'emem of the column
and IS approximately 2'1-7 mm by ,88 mm; th,s size is variable, depending upo~
~--------------------------------------------..................................................------------~
3
the shrinkage of the material, which may be 6'4 to 8·S mm ptr 100 mm and
..... hich occurs during the drying and burning processes.
The usual typt of cutting table consists of a frame containing several
wires at a distance apart equal to the Ihickness of the bricks plus the shrinkage
allo ..... ance, and is sho" n in thl' sketch A, Fig. c Thes., wires are kept taut
by means of screws. As the end of the column reaches the stop, the frame
automalically mOl'es forward and the wires cut the column transversely into
brick slabs; Ihese are pushed [or\l'ard, placed on barro .....s and wheeled 10 the
drying floor. In another type of cllttin,e: table the frame is fixed and Ihe column,
which has been cut to length, is pushed forward pasl the wires. The frame in
another type rotates and the wires di\'ide the column by a downward cut. In
one of the IUe!>t machines two columns are extruded, and two cutting tables
can produce 5 500 wire-cuts daily. As the 'column leaves the die a small roller
under it impresses tht trade mark of the firm on the clay at brick thickness
cenlres.
(b) Pr~nurt PrIKt'ss.- The prepared clay is automatically fed into rectangular
melal die-boxes or moulds \.Ihich are the size of a brick plus shrinkage allowance.
Two of many machines used for this purpose are shown diagrammatically Oil
8 and c, Fig. t. The horizontal rotary table of machine 8 conlains a number of
moulds which 3re brought in turn under the plunger; the latter charges the
moulds with day and consolidates it under ,e:reat pressure; as the table rotates
the pressed brick slabs are automatically pushed upwards dear of the moulds
and remo\'ed. In the press c the cia\' in the mould or die-box is consolidated
as the plunger descends. Some bri~ks are passed through two presses, the
second press producing a better shape and further consolidation. After con-
solidation the slab is removed either by an upward movement of the base or
by the dropping of the sides, which in one type of mould are hinged at Ihe bouom
and collapse outwards.
At on~ work~, referred to on pia, Ihe clay. after bemJ{ ground and screened,
paS5~S on to a mo\]nJ{ 51.,.,1 b.,lt \lhleh tra,·erses. hUll'" kiln and fe"ds th., mouldm([
machine" hich prcu~~ four brIcks at a tlmc and >s caplbJe of mouldm([ ::z 600 bricks
per hour. Th,s milchm., travels on rail •• nd IS brought opposIte Ihe empty chambers
"flh" kIln In lutn And InfO "h,ch Ih", moulded bticl.s ate pUled d,t<"ci .
\\'ire-cut bricks for facings are often rt-prtntd to consolidate them and render
their arrises sharp and square. Both types of presses, Hand c, are suitable for
this purpose, that at B having moulds with collapsible sides which become vertical
as each box comes under thc plunger. Spraying oil over the bricks facilitates
their remo\a1.
/land-mQuldlng Pr{>ctssts.~Although bricks can be made more cheaply
and much more quickly whcn machine-made, hand-moulding is far from being
an obsolele process. Hand-moulded facings have a rich texture, beautiful
colouring and durability. Purpose-made bricks which depart from standard
sizes, and clay blocks of special shapts to meet specific requirements, are hand-
I
4 BRICKWORK SKETCHES o F
8 It. I C K
moulded. Except in certain districts, comparatively few common or sf()(:k l bricks
MOULDING MAC H N E It. Y
are now moulded by hand.
The clay or shale is prepared by any of the methods described on pp. 2 and 3. COLl.IMN OF ClAY EXT""'ED "<OM ~E
In addition, souring or ageing the clay is sometimes resorted to. This merely
consists of storing the plastic clay, for a period varying from one day to several
weeks, in one or more cool chambers to ensure a uniform distribution of the
water throughout the mass and the decomposition of any organic matter.
This results in an increase in thc plasticity and workability of the paste,
and assists in preventing the development of crach, hlisters and other
defects.
There are two methods of shaping hricks hy hand, namely, (a) sand-moulding
and (b) slop-moulding.
(a) Sand-moulding.- The wood-mould, shaped as shown at A, Fig. z, has
neither top nor bottom and is usually lined with brass or iron; its internal
dimensions are those of the finished brick plus allowance for shrinkage (19 to CUTTING TABLE USED IN THE WIRE -CUT PROCESS
25 mm). This is called an upen-muuld or stuck-mould, as distinct from a box-muuld
which has a fixed bottom and is used for special bricks.
The moulding operations are done on a wood bench or . moulding stool, lilT PULlEY
which is about I·R m long by 0·6 m wide hy 0·9 m high. A" stock" of clay
of the correCt consistency, Hattcned un top, and a heap of sand are placed
conveniently to hand on Or "t:ar tu the bench. The moulder sprinkles sand on a
portion of the tahle and the inside face~ of the mould (hence the name applied to
the process) to prevent adhesion and facilitate the subsequent removal of the
clay!\lah. Meanwhile an assistant (known as the" clot-moulder ") cuts a portion
of clay from thc stock and kneads it into a rectangular" clot " which is about
one-quarter larger than the mould. The moulder takes the clot, throws it into
the mould and completely fills it by pressing thc clay down with hi~ fingers.
The edge of a strike (a wood straight-edge which i~ dipped in water) is drawn
across Ihe top to remove the superHuous clay and level the surface of the slab.
Finally, the moulder lifts the mould, and with a twist of the hand turns t:1e
slab on to a flat piece of wood called a pall,,! board. The slab i~ removed by a
boy to the Hoor of the drying shed.
These brick-; are often moulded on a piece of .wood cal1ed a rtockboard,
which is nailed to the top of the bench. It ha~ a raised centre or kick. T~e
kick and stockboard arc covered with brass as shown at B, Fig. 2. Four metal
pegs are driven into the table, one at each corner of the stockhaard, and the
mould is placed upon them as shown. The thickness of the brick is regulated
according to the extent to which the pegs are dri\·en. The kick forms the
characteristic frag in the bricks.
Approximately I 000 bricks per day can be moulded by this method hy a
moulder and assistants.
Ornamental hricks and those of special shapes are sometimes moulded from II.OTAJt.y PI\.ESS
I Stock" is a teml which originally denoted hand-made bricks m{)uld~d nn a stock_
"
BELT - DJt.lVEN PRESS •
board (see Fig. l ). It is now loosel y appl ied and gennali y indicates comm on Wlre-clIt,.
USE 0 IN THE PRESSUJt.E PROCESS
HOT TO SCALE
FIGURE I
 BRICKS
& ~ I C ~ M0 U l D USE 0 I N THE
HAN 0 M0 U l 0 N G P ~ 0 C E S S
s,
W IT H
ION O f
5TO(1\ "11o""o
L 0
i •
.k 'it!
wire-cut and pressed green bricks which are used instead of clots to fill the
moulds.
(b) Siop-mouldin/.!. - This me!hoci ;s now rarely cmploy~d. The clay used in
this method is more plastic than that used for sand-mouldiol{. Sand is sprinkled on
the prepared ponion of the table or stockboard. The mould, entirely of wood, is
dipped inlO a Irou/<h of."3ra (provided on the b •.>nch) and filled with a clot as above
d ..scribed. As the hrich ar~ not sufficiently :;;tifflo permit of their immediate removal
on a pallel, the full moulds ate laken to the dry in/< floor anJ there turned out.
3- Drying.- With exception of common bricks made by the semi-dry
process (sct;: p. 2) and certain pressed bricks moulded by the stiff-plastic process
(p. 2), bricks must be dried hefore being placed in the kiln. This applies
particularly to those made hy the plastic process (p . 2), where the water content
may exceed 25 per cent. Drying is effected by (a) artificial and (b) natural
means.
(a) Artificial J)ryi71g.~ The chief heating mediums are steam, direct heat
from fires, and waste heat from kilns and ·boilers. The dryers include the (i)
hot floor, (ii) shed , (iii) chamber and (iv) tunnel typeS.
(i) Hot Floor System. - This is commonly employed for drying plastic
(wire-cut) bricks. The floor is usually that of the building in which the bricks
are moulded and should be adjacent to the kilns. It consists of either steel
plates or concrete slabs which cover conduits in which tbe steam pipes are laid.
The steam is controlled by valvt:s in order that the temperature may be
regulated to suit the bricks. The steam may be generated from the boiler
which provides the power for the crushers, grinding mills, etc,
When direct he~t from coal or cuk .. firn il th .. medium, a numbn of long /tu ..s
ar .. eonstrucl.. d imm..uiately under Ih .. floor. Th .. flu~'S an: .. boUI 450 mm squar..
and arc paralld to each oth~r al aboul a'S m e .. ntn'5, Each flue is slij.:htly inclined
upwards from a fireplace at one end, and th c upper ends are connO'cted to a lrans"erse
flue which delivers into .. chimney.
5
If ..... aste heat from the kilns is used, Ihe Aues under Ihe dryin!( Aoor are arranged
as lasl described, except thaI Iheir lower ends are connected by a trans"erse Au~
which is connected to the kilns. The flow of "aSl'S from Ihe kilns is controlled bv a
fan at on.. "nd of the upper trans,'e"e flue.
The bricks from thc moulding machine or bench are preferably placed on
end on the hot floor, with a space between each, when the heat gradually dries
them from the bottom upwards. If tht: bricks are not stiff enough to permit
of this, they are placed on bed on the floor, The time taken to dry bricks varies.
Some bricks may be taken on barrows direct to the kiln after being left on the
hot floor for one day only, whilst others may require fi\'e days hefore they are
I fit for removal to the kiln,
(ii) SIu'd Or Room Dryns. - A shed is ~ .') to !z m wide single sfOrey build in>:
containing rocks. A rack is approxim~te!y 0·6 m wide and has len of mOre shelves of
narrow battens upon each of which a row of moulded bricks is " finRer-sp~ced "
on edge. The shed is heated by steam pipes, stov... Of a hot Aoor. Drving is COm_
para!iv.,)y slow and som.. what irregular.
Someiimes Ihe space ahove a continuous kiln (Sl't' p. 6) is partly uliliz<,d t" store
bricks "hich ate dried bv heal from the kiln.
{iii) Chomb~r Dry~rs_'-A shed is Ji"ideJ into se"eral chambers, each about I'll m
wide, 2 '') m high and of variab le lenglh, with a door al each end. The bricks are
placed, with a space hel\\'('en each, on loose narrow shch-es or on cars. One Iype of Car
consists of a ho~de {,,-hieh runs on a track} having a metal frame or rack which supports
luose pallet boards Ihat arc about '-2 m long EHch board is loaded with a row of ten
or mOre bricks as they arc mouJd.:-d and pl~e"d on edge wilh a spac.:- b~lwcen . Anolh('r
type consists of a bO,Rie On the base of which is stacked slool pol/~IS. The hiller arc
narrow wood shelves, wilh 200 mm high enJ supports, for rec~i\'ing the Illouldl'd
hrieks which are p13ced on cdge. When rack _cars arc us('d, each drying chamber h",.
10nRitudinaJ bearers fi.xed to the side walls for their ('ntire length and at about 300 mm
inten'"ls; these supporl the loaded paliN hoards as Ihey are remo"cd from th .. cats.
SlOol pallets are stachd one ~bo\'l' the OthlT in eaeh (·hamber. Loadl'J Cars rna,' Iw
wheel"d inlp the chanbers in which they remain until the bricks are Jry. T he h""t
must be applied ve ry gradually, olh .. r",i ... thl' bricks will warp and ctad.
In Some' dT)'HS the bricks ar .. graJually healed in a saturated almospheT .. until
they r~ach a temp .. rature of about 32" C. The humidity is then reduc .. d by th ..
admission of dry air, anJ Ihe tempna!ure is increased as requ ired. This grcatl}
minimi~s dama,Re to the bricks.
{iv) TIm»..! Dryer<. -This type of dryer res.:-mbles the lunnel kiln shown in Fig. -+
and Jescribcd on pp. 10 amI I I . As the loaded cars {ra"",se Ihe tunnel, which is
ahout 30 m 10nR, hOI air {steam or waSle ~ascs} enters a! the unloading end, and the
currei'll i5 caused 10 Aow towards the loading end br means of a fan. The rate of
dry in" varies, bUI generally a car of dried bricks is remov~d and one of Rre~'n hricks
is added ewry hour. The tunnel dryer may be opHaled intermittently like a chamber
dryer, it b"ing filled with loaded cars of green b ricks and the whole of them beinJ<:
removed afl'" the Jrying operation has hecn completed.
(h) Natural Drying,- Whilst artificial means of drying is now generally
adopted, bricks must be dried naturally if heat is not available. Natural drying
is m;ual where clamp-burning (see p. IJ) is resorted to and in yards where the
output is small . A well ventilated shed may be used, in which the bricks are
stacked on racks and dried by the circulation of un-heated air.
Alternatively they are hack-dried, A hack is simply a long double row of
green bricks which are stacked to a maximum height of approximately 900 mm
depending upon the softness of the bricks-.
6 BRICKWORK
The hack-ground is le~1 and well drained. There i l I .pace of a bout ::t::tS mm
between each I"n~ or blade of bricks forming I hick; 'he brich I r t placed on edge at
I) mm intervals to a height of from five 10 eight coynes, the britlel in one (:()urse
hridlring the 5~cel betwo:cn those in the cou~ below, One course, which may be
60 m or mon in length, is comp~eled first to allow Ihe bricks 10 stiffen before the next
course i. l.id. The hacks are spaced aliboul 2"7 m apart Ind should run in I nOMh.
south direction $0 that both sides will be exposed 10 the sun. The hanam COYTW is
placed on planks or hollow rt'(:tangular tiles or SO mm 'blf~k layers of .and. breeze, tIC.
As a temporary prole<;:tion the '''P of each hack is covued with I senes o( portable
liahl wood" caps" which II"<: about 1·8 m lonR with slopinll sides in the form of. roof.
The .ides 'n" .1$0 protected by hurdles or screens called loo-hoards; these are ahour
t·8 m long and 0'9 m high. This temporary protection is removed during favourable
weather, but the hacks should be covered immediately when necessary, otherwise
much dama.'!:e to the bricks may be caused. The bricks are "inrlpd when half dry,
j.t'., they are set dia!!"onally, with a So mm space between each and with alternate
courses reversed.
Aa bricks containing moistur~ are readily damaged by frosr, haek-dryin,ll: can orrly
he cnried out during the six months of the year, from April to Scptemhcr inclusi,·c.
The process is extremely slow, the bricks takin.'!: from three to six wel'ks to dry,
dependin.'!: upon the weather and the natUT<: of the clay.
-t. Burning.- This is the final process in brick manufacture. Permanent
kilns are chiefly used for burning bricks, although clamp-burning (see p. II)
is Mill adopted in certain parts of the country. Kilns may be classified into
(a) intermittent, (b) continuous and (c) tunnel.
(a) InttTmittent, or Periodic or Single Kilns.- These are permanent structures
and may be divided into (i) down-draught, (ii) horizontal draught and (iii)
up-draught kilns, according to the direction of the fire.
(i) DOW1I-draught Kiln.-This is the most efficient form of intermittent ki:n,
and it is the only type adopted to any extent in this country. Even in works
having large outputs, it is not unusual to find that the common bricks and certain
facings are burnt in a continuous kiln (see next column), whilst best class sand
facings and blue bricks are burnt in a down-draught kiln, as the heat which
influences the colour can be controlled better in the latter.
The section of a down-draught kiln is shown at T, Fig. 3. That adopted for
bricks is usually rectangular, although circular kilns for ware goods (see
Chapter Two) are common. The capacity varies from 20000 to 40 000 hricls.
The rectangular chamber has four walls and an arched top which incorporates a
heat-insulating ring L"UlIlpuseal uf })Uruu:,; l>rick:,; (pru"'a..,ly maue of a fUSlIil earth
known as kieulguhr); this reduces the amount of heat transmitted through
the structure and thus effects a saving in fuel. The kiln is lined with fire-
bricks. Fireboxes are formed at intervals, and a special feature is the continuous
screen wall, called a flash-wall or bag-wall, constructed parallel to and about
230 mm from the inside of each long wall. The heat from the fuel (which is
usually small coal called slack) thus passes upwards to the arch, which deflects
it down through the openly stacked green bricks (see p. 7), the gases escaping
through perforations in the Roor to a horizontal flue connected to a tall chimney.
The screen walls are perforated at inte rvals near the bottom to allow sufficient
heat to pass direct to the lower portion of the Slack during the drying process.
An opening or wicket is provided at one end through which the kiln is filled
and emptied. This is bricked up with a temporary wall after the green bricks
have been set, and the outside of this wall is luted with clay.
Gln....J. bricks and certain red br,cks (in add,tion to terra-cotta, etc.) must nol be
exposed to the dir~ct flam.es from the fires, otherwise they would be damaged. by the
gases, dust, etc. Such hncks are heated in mujJft' "if"s. This type of kiln consists of
an outer rectan!!"ular chamber and an inner compartment. A simple form has a
fireplace at one end or the chamber and a horizontal main flue, extending the full
length, at the floor level. Cross " 'alks at intervals In. arched over this flue and these
~upport Ihe inner shell.comprisinl( firebrick bottom, sides, top and one end. There
IS a space between the ",.ner shell and outer structure so that hot gases from the fire
can completely traverse ,t before escapinJ;l through openinRs in the outer roof into
an upper horizontal flue extend in" the full lenRth. The bricks are stacked in the
inner compartment and the open end is built-up and daubed with clay. Thus, these
bricks are heated entirely hy the heat transmitted throu!!"h and radiated from the
firebrick shell.
Sometime. six or more down-draullht chambers are constructed to form what is
known as a umi_continuOI'z kil". This type provides for the waste heat from one
chamber bcin)( utilized to dry and heat thc bricks in others. Thus, after chambers
I and 2 have been loaded an"d the fire in No. t li~hted, the heat not required passes
throu.o:h hole~.1n the ~~~ of No. , ~hambe" IIlvII)(" nue .lo~" upel1il1l{ (cul1lrolh,,j
by a damper) m the d,v'.,on wall and over a flash waH into No.2 chamber, where it
circulates round the Rreen bricks hefore entering the main flue to the chimney. The
fire in chamber 2 is maintained, chamber 3 is loaded and the bricks in the latter are
gradually heated by thc waste Rues from No. z Each chamber is progressively
heated in this manner until the final one is relched. An economy in fuel thus results.
(iil Horizontal Draullht or Nt"TI.J(ostlt' "iln.-Comparatively few of these are now
in operation, it having been Rfldual1y repllced by the continuous type of kiln. It is
a rectangular building with an ITched top, Ind is approximately 4'S m wide and not
mOn. than 9 m long. The fireplaces lTe arranw:ed al One cn~, togelher with a perforated
flash-wall, and a chimney is provided at the opposite end. The gases traverse
horizontally and pass into the chimney It the floor 1c'·el. A wicket in one or both
long walls i5 formed to permit of loadin)( and unloadin.l(.
(iii) Up.Jra""hr Or Scotch or S(l)rt' Ki/".- This is the most primitive form and is
now almost obsolete. It is rectan,ll:ular on plan, having three permanent brick walls
and a temporary end wall; there i. no roof. the top being open. The size is roughly
7'6 m by 4'9 m by 3 m high. Fire.openin,ll:s ITc provided at interYils in the side
walls at the ,ll:round levcl. Coal fires ue gradually applied after the kiln has been
~~~d~~~ at:~y;;:~"r;h:n~r~~fl a::e dd~t:dt~i:~ ~11~~el;I~~;.ert:o,;i~~e~l~r~r~::! ~~i~~
tainL.J for two or three days, af~er which they Irc damped down and \;,e bricks are
allowed to cool. The h"at is irreRul1T and consequently then. is a large proportion
of o"cr_burnt bricks at the bonom and under~fired at the top.
Intermittent kilns are not economical, as the walls have to be heated up at
each setting of the kiln, and this results in a heavy fuel consumption.
(b) Continuous Kilns. - This type, evolved from the intermittent and semi-
continuous kilns, is most suitable for large and regular outputs. It is so called
because the operations are uninterrupted, each chamber in turn being loaded,
dried, burnt, cooled and emptied, and the waste heat is utilized to dry and
pre-heat the green bricks. The kiln is thus economical in fuel consumption.
The structure consists of walls of ordinary brickwork, lined with firebricks
jointed with refractory cement, the top is generally arched and lined with
purpose-made firebricks, and the floor is usually constructed of hard bricks
bedded on sand or concrete. The kiln is divided into compartments or
 BRICKS
chambers. The divisions may be temporary (see c, Fig. 3) or permanent (see
M). The number of compartments varies; twelve is considered to be a
minimum, fourteen and sixteen are common, whilst the largest kiln in this
country (see p. 10) has 224 chambers. The length of a chamber is usually from
3'7 to 'f9 m, the width varies from 2'7 10 3 m, and the height to the crown
rarely exceeds 2'7 m. Best results are obtained if the total length of the
chambers is not less than 60 m to permit of the efficient control of the various
operations. Each chamber has an opening (known as a wickd or door gap) in the
external wall for loading or "setting" and emptying or" drawing" the bricks;
it has. a flue, controlled by a damper, to <..""Onvey the u~ed gases to the mllin Aue
and thence to the chimney. In a more modern kiln, and especially those used for
producing facing bricks, each chamber is connected to a hot-air flue (see p. 8).
Small coal or slack is commonly used as fueL This is fed through fud-holes
situated in the top of the kiln, and these are preferably of fireclay blocks covered
with movable metal airtight caps. The capacity of a chamber varies; :he
smallest will hold about 8 000 brich, whilst a very large chamber will accom-
modate 40000 or more bricks. It is customary for one chamber to he drawn
and one to be filled daily, The rest of the kiln is divided into (I) drying, (2)
pre-heating, (3) firing and (4) cooling zones (see u, Fig. 3).
(I) Drying or Steaming or Water-smoking ZQne.- A brick, e\'en after he:ng
treated in a dryer, has a comparatively large water content which often exceeds
one-sixth of its dry weight. The process of eliminating this water is an important
one, for, if not carried out gradually, the bricks will crack and their strength be
considerably reduced by the formation of steam within the small voids or pores
of the material. The bricks in the drying chambers of the kiln are gradually
heated to a temperature of 120° C. hy the admission of hot air from the pre-
heating chambers. This hot air should be free from gases, such as ~ulphur
dioxide, otherwise the bricks will be discoloured by a deposition on their
exposed surfaces of a film called scum or kiln-white (see p. 14). The wasle
heat from the firing chambers should not be used for drying purposes in kilns
in which facings are produced, as tbis contains gases which cause discoloration
(see p, 8). Large volumes of steam are produced during the drying process,
and for the production of good coloured bricks this steam must be rapidly
removed through flues (see p. 14) to avoid mnol'n~~tjon on the hrjck~. The
length of the drying zone depends on the length of the chambers and the draught
created by the chimney, but in a fourteen chamber kiln the zone usually com-
prises two chambers, and three will be required in a ~ixteen chamber kiln (see
u, Fig. 3).
(2) Pre-heating Zone. - The bricks in this zone arc gradually brought to
a dark-red heat (600° C.), during which the chemically combined water is ~el
free and removed, and then the burning is carefully controlled until the
temperature is increased to approximately 9500 C. During the latter stage Ihe
iron and other compounds are oxidized and the colour of thc bricks is influenced;
the burning must therefore not be hurried, otherwise the bricks will be dis-
7
coloured and hearting (see p. 13) will result. The length of the pre-heating
zone is usually equivalent to four chambers (see u, Fig. 3).
(]) Firing 7.olle.-The bricks are vitrified during the final heating which
takes place in this zone in which the maximum temperature may reach 1 100° C.I
The number of chambers in full-firing zone is two and three in a fourteen
and sixteen chamber kiln respectively (see u). Coal is added through the feed-
holes every quarter of an hour, and fuelling of the kiln is confined to them,
the chambers in the drying and pre-lu:ating ;:ones having been heated by waste
heat from the cooling ;:one. The stoking is generally done by hand, although
the employmt>nt of automatic fceders which discharge the required quantity
of coal at regular intervals is increasing. The durability of the bricks depends
upon the firing of the kiln at this stage; .excessive temperature will cause the
bricks to lose their shape, and under-burning will reduce their strength.
(4) Cooling Zone.- This usually consists of four chambers, as shown at u,
although in the larger kilns the length of the zone is increased and the risk of
damage, such as cracking, is correspondingly reduced. The temperature of the
bricks in the unloading chamber, which adjoins the cooling zone, should be
sufficiently low to enable them to be handled comfortably.
Setting.- There arc several uifferent arran~Crllents of setting the green bricks
in a kiln, much depending upon the sl1ffne~ of the bricks and the type of kiln. One
fonn is to stack them on edge in a series of !HJlls or TO""S 225 mm thick, alternatel)' as
headers and stretchers and about 19 mm aput. Another arrangement, suitable for a
continuous k,ln, is shown In the seCllon at A, Fill. J. This sho". three courses of
bricks (heau<,.-s) on edRe, " finj(er·space "(about '9 mm) apart. A (ouf'Se of sl'etchers
is placed upon thes,·, follo"ed by ahernale uouhle courses of hcaders and single
courses of stretchers. Vertical flues, called fin.rolumlls, arc fonned in the stack under
the feed -holes. These <'"<tend from tOp to Mllom, an, about '25 mm square and
51.'T"" as oomhust,on spaces and for Uhd.
The following is a description of some continuous kilns, including the
:\Iancbester, Zigzag, Hoffman and lIab13 kilns.
Manchester Kiln 2 (see A, Band c, Fig. 3). ~ That shown is a simple form
of the :\hnchester kiln, and is suitable for the hurning of common bricks. s
It consists of two long compartments, separ,lIed by a longitudinal wall, and
whilst it has no permanent division walls, it is divided into chambers by paper
"partitions" (see p. 8), and it is thercfClTc r~lIf'rl Jl fOHrteen chamber kiln.
Each ch:lmber accommodates 8 000 bricks, and as one chamber of burnt bricks
is empticd per day, the weekly output is approximately 50000 bricks, which is
considered to be the minimum for a continuous kiln. Whilst a smoke flue,
controlled by a damper, can be provided for each chamber, the plan shows
_C
that one damper sen'es chambt:rs [ aod 14, and similarly another damper is
'This varies; thus, for Flenon hncks thc rna~'mum .
temperature ma\' not exceed
• By courtesy of Mcssr~ Uun, f"IClhcrington & Co., Accrinl(ton. This is the smalleST
and simplest type of ContinuouS k,ln huil! by Ihis firm.
> The Maochester kiln, oncorpora[,nM a hOT air Hue, is used for the production off3con~
br,cks.
8 BRICKWORK
common to both chambers 7 and 8; this is in order to simplify the kiln. The
chamber flues are connected to two main flues which lead to a chimney 12 m
high and 1-2 m internal diameter) conveniently near.
To fire this kiln for the fint time, six or seven chambers are sel with green bricks
and each section is separated by being papered off. Thin brown paper, obtained in
rolls, is usually used for this purpose, and this is pasted over (liquid clay. called slip,
being used as an adhesive) the l.i.st completed end face of slacked bricks. The wickets
in rhesfO chambe,.", z to 7 inclusive, are bricked up with temporary walls, and II small
fireplace is prepared in each. A temporary brick wal!, shown at H on plan c, ;s built,
and this is prepared with four fireplaces. Fires are lit In these fireplaces and the heat
is steadily applied to the bricks in chamber 2. The damper controlling this section
is open to allow the steam and gases to escape. When the temporary wall at H gets
too hot to the hand, the paper partition separating chambers 2 and 3 will have burnt
away. No.2 damper is then closed and NO.3 damper is opened, thus allowing the
heat to pass through chamber 2 to chamber 3, and hence into the main flue to the
chimney. This is repeated until three or four chambers are red hot. Coal is then
passed through the feed-holes and down the 125 mm square fire columns (see p. 7).
Meanwhile further chambers will have been set with green bricks until all of the
chambers, excepting NO.1, are filled. Thc open fires in the temporary wall at Hand
those in the wickets are maintained until a sufficient body of heat has been built up
to light and support combustion of coal fed from the top. The open fires are then
stopped in rotation, chamber I is set and papered over as d escribed above, and the
bricks in chamber 2 are removed. The kiln is now prepared for nonnal workinj(,
when on e chambe r is emptied and another is filled daily.
After the whole of the chambers have been fired, the following is a normal
daily schedule for this kiln, assuming that the direction of the fire is clockwise
as shown by the arrow, and that chamber 3 is being unloaded :-
Chamber Bricks Chamber Bricks
Temperature Temperature
, Drying 25° C. Heating
its travel, it pre-heats the bricks in chambers 10, II, 12 and 13, and dries and
steams those in chambers 14 and'l before escaping down the branch flue No. I.
This being a continuous process the operations are maintained in this
sequence, but are advanced by one chamber daily. Thus, on the following day
chamber 3 is filled and chamber 4 is emptied.
As the whole of the waste heat is utilized to dry the bricks in this kiln, and
as that from the firing chambers may cause discoloration (see p. 14), it follows
that the kiln is best suited fot the manufacture of common bricks, for which
purpose it is most economical. The provision of hot air flues (see below) is
necessary for the production of good-coloured bricks.
During the slack periods, when the output from half the kiln would be sufficient to
meet the demand, it may be used intennittently as follows: Four smaJi fireplaces
arc constructed in the external end wall of chamber I, the two openin~ between
chambers I and 14 and 7 and 8 are built up temporarily, and the chambers I to 7
inclusive are filled with gre<:n bricks. Fires in the end fireplaces are maintained until
there is sufficient heat to fire coal Ced through the feed holes. Top feeding of the
chambers is continued until the bricks are throughly burnt, when the half kiln is
emptied and re-set.
Zigsag Kiln (see ], K, Land M, Fig. 3).-This is one type of Zigsag kiln' which
is divided by permanent walls into fourteen chambers. The fire is drawn in a zigsag
direction owmg to the position of the openings in the diVIsion walls being staggered,
causing it to tra\,erse each chamber diagonally.
Each chamber has a transverse dotvncast flue under the floor which is connected
to the main or smoke flue and controlled by a damper from outside. There is, in
addition, a hot air flue _immediately over the main flue anu extending the full length of
the ktln. When reqUlred, each chamber is connected to this hot air flue by raiSIng
the damper controlled from the top of the kiln (sec K and dampers I, I{, 2, etc.,
at M). As mentioned on pp. 7 and I{, hot gases from the firing chambers must
not be used to dry bricks if scumming is to be avoided, and only hot gases from the
CQ{)linlf chambers should be admitted for this purpose. Hence the necessity for this
hot air flue In addillon to the downcast flue and hot flue dampers, each chamber
has a third or main flue damper immediately over the crown of the smoh flue and
controlled from Ihe top of the kiln (sec K and dampers 10, 5, g, etc., at M). These,
together with the downcast flue dampers, are opened wholly or partially as requi,-ed

, (min.)
'0

" Heating I 700° C. in the drying chambers for the rapid removal of the steam.
Th e process is continuous, at lcast one chamber being loaded and One unloaded
3
Bein.'!: set
Bein.'!:
Cool
Cool or Cold "'3 Heating
Heating I "
1200 C. daily. The daily schedule of the op~ra.tions varies according to the nature of the
drawn Drying 120° C . day, quality of bricks, draught (velocity of Ihe air created by the chimney Or fan),
'4 lenJ,(th of fire cir;:uit, etc.
4 CoolinJ,( (max.)
,
5 Cooling I 50° C. The Zig-sag is exceptionally efficient for the following reasons: (I) (t can be

7
Cooling
Coolin.'!: I "
I 000" C . WIckets 2 and 3 are open, remainder
arc built up.
dT<:clivdy colllrvlku; (;:) it I>IOU""'" urick, "r fir., ljuality, comparalively free
from und eSIrable d,scoloratIOn and olhc,- imperfections enumerated on pp. 13 and '4;
8 Firing I 000° C. Damper I is open, rest are dosed. and (3) the fuel consumption is relatively low.

, Firing
(max.)
700° C.
(min.)
Paper partition pasted 00 bricks
stacked m chamber , 00 face
.adjoining chamber 2.
Habla Kiln.~This has several features which resemble the 7.igzag kiln. Th~
plan is similar in that the /raC(' holes (openings in the partitions) arc staggered, causing
the fire to take a zigzag course, but th ese partitions, instead of being permanent
as in the Zigzag kiln, consist of dried bricks (without mortar) and are therdore
temponry. .
For the production of common bricks the kiln has not a permanent top, and it
The cold air entering wickets 2 and 3, whilst cooling the bricks, gradually is therefore classified as of th~" archless" type. After the loading chamber has been
increases in temperature, especia\!y when it traverses those in chamber 7 which set, it is covered with either two courses of bricks laid close togethe,- with a layer of
sand or ashes on top, or concrete slabs with metal trays containing kieselguhr, a highly
had been subjected to the maximum temperature the previous day. This porous earth whIch serves as a heat Insulating material. The kiln is fired by pulverized
~upplies the primary heat to burn the coal, which is fed in small quantities every
fifteen minutes from the top of chambers 8 and 9. As the hot air proceeds on 1 From d etails supplied by Messrs John Jones & Sons, Buckley, Chester.
 •

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I I

DOWN -DRAUGHT
KILN
10 BRICKWORK
T u N N E L
A
CM TAACK FOI( euoo 1'-1<:115 -_,
P A I\. T P LAN
B INSPECTION PIT
S E C T I ON
SCALE I" "4 I J .1", '0 -0'
FIGURE 4
coal passed throu!{h f~d - holes provided in the temporary top. It has main and hot
air flues. An arched pennanen! top is best if facings are to be produced.
The Habla kiln, like the ZigZ3J.: kiln shown in Fig. 3, has a long len!,:th of trave!,
which facilitates the control of operations, and it is relatively cheap to construct.
Hoffman Kiln.- This is prohably the best known kiln of the continuous type.
The ori.:inal kiln was circular on plan, th e chambers (separated oy paper partitions)
being placed round a central tall chimney. This kiln has been improved. and a plan
of the later type of Hoffman kiln is shown in the line diagram at U, Fig. 3. The
numb.'r of cham bus varies, but the largest of this type, us"d for th" burning of
Flenon bricks, has no less than 224 chambers.' In addition to the main flue which
takes th~ products of combustion from each ehamb" r, it has a central hot air flue
to ,,-hich are connected hranch Aues from the chambHs, so that hot air from the <:ooling
chambers may proJ!:ressi'-ely be admitted to dry the bricks. Each chamber is furthu
prm'ided with a Aue in the top to allow the steam to escap e during- the prelirninarv
drying nperation. One chamher is filled and another is emptied daily, as described
on p, 8. Common bricks, tOJ!:ether with a proportion of seieeud facings, arc produced
in this kiln.
, Th is kiln is at the works of Messrs Th e Marston Valley Brick Co. Ltd. Irs length
'" , 000 m , Each ch~mber has a capacity of 33 000 bricks. Fourteen chambers are
subj~cted at th~ Same time to the maximum temperature with fifteen chambers bCT"een
each. Hence it is e",uivalent to fourteen .6-chamber kilns and the tI;eekly output is
approximatd} 3l- million brids.
K L N
~ C
," " ,
SEC T ON 'E E'
(c) 1'un,,~1 Kilns.'-This kiln, shown in Fig, 4, is a brick structur~ which ,s
traversed by cars or trucks upon "hich the bricks are stack~d. The kiln may be from
go to 137 m long, its internal width varies from I'S!O ,-8 m, and its ht:iJ!:ht 10 the
crown of the arch is approximately 3 m. The kiln has three zones, i.e., pre-heating,
firing and cooli ng:, thus for a <,Ic m kiln these are approximately 39 m, 30 m ~nd
21 m long respecti"ely The firirlg zone and part of the coolinK zone are lined ,,-,th
firebrick, and ,he walls of the fonner are constructed with a 230 rnrn thick la"er of
insulating material bet"-een the lining and the outer brickwork; .this ;nsulatHln
protects the latter and conser,'eS the heat. A meta) door is pro"ided at each ~nd
of the kiln.
The mNal cars are 3 III lonl{, and their VaSeS are protected _by three .or four
<:ourses of firehTlcks In a ",d,n" adjacent to til<" kiln each car ,s loaded," th,,·e
stacks with a space between each; three seatin"s. each thrc·e courses hich of fire-
bricks covered with a fireclay slab, are provided on the bas~ to recei"e the: bricks
The approximate number of Z[5 mm bricks which a car will hold is 2 000. The kiln
and tracks for loadin" and unloadin" the cars are under co,"er.
Rows of feed -holes are provided at intef\'als in the roof of the firin!/, zone, the
distance between each row belh!/ equal to that het"een the stacks of bricks The
fuel ,s cru"h ~ d coal, and this is ftd from hoppers which arc placed Over mechani",']
feeders fixed immediately Over the f""d-holes. Thus the coal dust is fired immedi"tl"iy
, By courtesy of Mcssu; Gibbons Bros. Ltd., DUdley.
 BRICKS
it enters the kiln and tho larger particles continue to burn as they pass do"n the ~paces
between the stacks to the base The aIr for comhustlon, dr~"n Ul throuuh the 01(
hy means of a fan, is p:e-heated as it passes through the coo!in/< zone, and the tem_
perature, whIch lllcre.ases as the draUl.':ht of .alr pr0ceeds through the firlllj.( zone. IS
I(radua!ly reduced as It tra,'erses over the bncks III the pre_hcatlll.l( zone. The. com-
hustion is so complele th~t !ittle smoke escapes al the fan outlel, and a chlmn~y
~tack. is the:efore not ".,qUlred. At the exit end of the coolJ';'JI zone a "erl,cal air
Hue ,s prOV Ided which is connected to a horizontal Au~ that IS continued ""er the
arch of the coolinl< zom, along each side of the fiTing zone (see H) and Over the pre-
heatmg ~one arch to a fan whIch delwers the hot a,r to the br'ck dTicr. Scumming
of the bricks IS aVOIded hy the pronslOn of a number of wa ste gas flues at the fro ru
end of the pre- heating zone which are connected to a COmmon flue controlled by an
extraction fan to withera" the gases. A sand seal is provided at e ach side of the
kiln throughout its length; these consist of metal channels containing sand th rou~h
which passes the lo"<.:r edges of the metal platcs fi xed at the sides of th~ cars. The
seals prevetlt loss of draught and protect the wheels and axles of the cars.
The cars are caused to travel on a track for the full length of the kiln by mea~s
"f a powerful hydraulic ram. The mOvement is int~,rmitt ~ nt, the cars heing pushed
forward at reJlular intervals to the e.xtent of one-thIrd the l~nJlth of th~ car or the
equivalent of a stack ani one space. T~is distance is rnaintamed unif?rm!y su ~s to
ensure that the spaces (called uJmbu;/IO" chambers) be\wc("n the bnck stacks are
immediately under the f~~d -holes. As these spaces extend the full width and height
of the stacks, a umform t~mperature thruughout ,s ~nsured and thIS reSults 10 the
hricks hein" uniformly burnt. It takes frum Iwu to three mlOutes to movc Ihe load,
and the interval betwee:! each 1l1O"ement "aries from thirty to fifty minutes according
to the output required_ The Tate of Iravel varies, but for a 90 m kiln, the time t~ken
beh,cen a car ,entermg and leavlJ~g the k Ji n is approxImately three days and the
"eekly output I~ about 1(,0000 bncks. The work 109 of Ihe ktln IS very fleXible as
il ~"" h~ reaJil) ,peeJtd up 0 1 ~lu"eJ Ju"" '" uc~a~lOlI J"!lldlJd~ hy reJ.(uh""g Ihe
rate uf tr~vel and the amount of coal supplied by the mechanical feeders. As each
car of finished bricks emerges from the kiln, another car of green bricks entus the
charginl< end.
The advantage claimed for the tunnel kiln arc: (I) The bricks arc evenly burnt,
and it is therefore patticularly suited fur the production of first -cia", facings; (2)
the output is re!,:ular and only a small percenta!':e of bricks are dama)(ed in the pnlcess;
h) lr)\,· maintenance costs; ({) flexibility of "orklllg; and (S) on account ofth~
complete combust,on wh'ch results, there IS no smoke nUisance and the condlt.'o.%
of employment are improved, as Ihe kll~ IS not entered to lOHd.anJ u~l()ad t.h~ hTlch.
The dlsadvant3)(e ()f this type of kIln are: (I) The relatively h'gh 100t,al cost,
and (2) th~ additional cost of providinjo[ power for the rum, fans, etc
Temperat\U'C1 Control in Kilns. - The temperature in kilns in which first-class
facings arc produced is sometimes controlled by the use of either S~f!Or (Q"rs or a
pyrome/rr. . . .
Segat cones ~re small L_shaped pIeces made from specml days, hav10g a flat
base with a vert,cal le~, and are tested to bend at certam temperatu res, Thus, a
" No. 0"22 cone" will bend (i ,e., the leg wiH jo[radually collapse until the top touches
the base) when subjected to a temperature of 600° C., whilst a "No. 10 cone" wiH
do likewise at I ]000 C. Generally three cones of the desired" temperature re-
sistance" are placed in different parts of the kiln, and 10 positIOns in which they
will be seen through spy_holes in the walls. Firing ceases when the reqUlr·! d
temperature in the kiln has been reached, i.ndicated by t~e bending of the .cones.
Electric pyrometHs are usually used m l<3s -fired kIlns . Such conSists of. an
electrical conductor (rontaining a coil of platinum wound round a strip of mica)
which is exposed to the heat. This is connected by leads to an electrical syst~m
which automatically records temperature movement on a chart, and the rate of fin:'lg
in the kilns is reJ(ulated according to the readings.
Clamps,-A clamp simI?ly consists of a large mass of green bricks stacked,
with several intermediate layers of breeze (cinders) as described below, upon a
I I
foundation of old bricks. It has neither walls nor roof. Clamp-burning preceded
kiln- burning, and it is ~till adopted in certain parts of the country, particularly
in Kent and Essex, where I.lJlldon sloc/IS are made. Clamps are also occasionally
used at works to provide temporary additicnal means of burning when the
output of the permanent kilns is insutlicient to meet heavy demands. T he
bricks are not uniformly burnt, and \\'hilst a large proportion is satisfactory,
those on the outside arc underburnt, and tl1llsC ncar the live holes (see below)
and in the heart of the kiln are mis-shapen and cracked owing to the excessive
heat.
A clHmp is ~onstructed in the following manner: The ground, which should he
well drained, is paved with a l ay~r of "Id hri~ks, rlac"d on edge. The size of thi~
pavinl! is fmm 12 to '-5 m square althouJ.:il this varies. The p2vinJ.( is slightly
dished, rISIng ~Iightly from th" centre to th~ edg,'s, to pre""nt the <tacked hncks
when h~ing hurnt from falling out"ard~. Tht clamp is built ,,·ith ~ series of J-brick
thick walls (c"ll~d ",'cks), and thc construnion may he commenced cnher (a) at One
end or (b) do"n the middle. ,
(a) End Cla",,.,i"I<.-The end wall, kno\\n as the ",.,nititl, ext<:nds the full width
of the clamp. It is about I'~ m th,ck at the hase, ,md is formed "lIh a. vertical
face internallv nnd a battl"T~d face extern~ny The hottom ~"ursc consists of "Id
burnt bricks hid s~intkd (Jiagon~lly) nn edg" "ith 50 mm spaces hetwcen. The
second dourse is also formed of hurnt bricks la,d on edj..(~, hut these are spaccd as
stretchers. Breeze and coal slack is placed in the sp~ces between the bricks, and the
top is covcTed with a 1 ., 0 or 175 mm layer of brec>;,·. The tirst course of green bricks
;< I~;d ~< he~dcr< on t"p uf thi. bycr, the hrich being pb""J on cd"" and closcly
spaced. This is covered with a 100 mm laver of hrene, followed by the second
COurSe of raw hricks (stretchers) placed on edj..(e, with a slight space bctween each.
This COurse is j..(i\'en a 50 mm co,"ering of breeze. The remainder of the wall is
formed of alternate COurseS of headers and st:etchers of raw bricks, placed on edge,
slightly spaced and with a thin sprinkling of breeze between each course. Thc number
o f courses of gr"en bricks is approximately thirty A 7S to '50 mm layer of breeze is
spread over the top course of raw bricks, ~nd this is cov,>red by a course of old bricks,
clusely set on edge. wilh the joints luted with clay
The rest of the clamp is constructed with a series of parallel ] - brick thick walls
or" necks," extendinj..( its full width, until the opposite end is reached, when an
" upright" is built similar to the first with an external batter. Th.:se ne<:ks are
formed exactly like the uprights, having alternate header and stretcher courses of
green hricks on a douhle course of old bricks at the base, layers of hreeze and a daubed
hard hrick finish. The breeze layers are continuous, and the bricks are so arranged
that a stretcher course in one neck is opposite header courses in adjacent necks.
In the middle of each end neck a continuous horizontal flue (called a live holt-)
i~ f"rlllcd between th~ double course of burnt bricks forming the base. It is formed
hy !l'a,ing a 2 t 5 mm wide space whilst constructing the base. Similar flues (which are
21., mm higb) are constructed along the centre of every seventh or eighth neck. Dry
hrushwood is placed in these flues and this is covered by the '50 mm layer of breeze,
(b) Jl.liddl" Clampi"I(. - in this systemlhe upright is constructed down the centre
to the full extent of the clamp. It is bU!lt 10 a similar manner to the end uprights
deSCribed above, execpt that ,t has a batter on each face , and a 215 mm by lIS mm
horizontal flue is formed in the middle of the base for its entire length. The n«ks
are formed on either side of the upright and with faces parallel to the batter. Three
transverse horizuntal flues (on » ;n the centre .and one at about 2'1 m from each end)
are fonned in the base whilst tne n~cks ar~ being huilt, and these are conne<:tcd to the
central live hole. These cross flues are fined with brushwood.
It is usual 10 construct a wall of old hricks on each face of the damp and extending
the fun height. This is 215 mm thick at the base and 75 mm at the top. These walls
are daubed over with day, except where holes have been left for the admission of air.
The damp is firw by lighting the brushwood in the flues. Gradually the breeze
12 BRICKWORK
be.'lins to burn, ~nd the fire passes upwanls until the whule clamp is burning. London COLOUR OF BRICKS
stocks and most of th(.' bricks burnt by this primitive method are made of clay to
which sifted brccxc has been added; alternate layers of clay, breeze and washed chalk There is a wide range of colours of bricks, such as white, grey, brown, red,
are stacked and allowed to wcather (see p. 2); this -is suhs"qucntly mixed and the purple, blue and black, with intermediate shades. Bricks of varying shades,
breeze thoroughly incorporated. Such.bricks therefore contain fuel, and the clamp
continues 10 burn for two and a half to .,x "eeks until this breeze has been consumed. callcd multi-coloured, have within recent years been in big demand for faced
Little attention is nceded "hils! Ih..: clamp is burninJ<. If the fire is proceeding too work. Some bricks are uniform in colour, whilst others are mottled or irregularly
quickly, the .air holes arc Slopped to reduce the draught. Protection is sometimes
shaded. The colour is influenced by; «(.I) Chemical constitution of the clay,
afforded by boarded screens fixed on Ih.., windward sides.
(b) temperature during burning, (c) atmospheric condition of kiln, (d) sand-
moulding, and (e) staining.
Sizes of Bricks.-Brick dimensions. are specified in B.S. 3921 where the
nominal sizes are given as follows ;-
(a) Chemical Constitution of Clay or Shale.-lron oxides affect the colour
considerably. Thus, clays which produce white bricks have little or no iron present,
whilst blue bricks contain at least 7 per cent. oxi~ of iron. Careful blending of the
Length (mm) Width (mm) Deplh' (mm) clays and shales (see p. 2) is responsible for the production of many ~autifully
coloured bricks, and such colours are permanent.
21 5 102 '5 6, (bi Temperature during Burning.-Light coloured bricks are often the result
of th~ temperature of the gases in the kiln being too low, Or the duration of the
maximum teonperature being too short, whilst, at the other end of the scale, Stafford-
shire blue bricks require a temperature which may reach I 200° C.
The brick length of 215 mm plus the usual 10 mm vertical joint thus gives an (c) Atmospheric Condition of Kiln.-Certain white bricks can only be pro-
effective unit length of 225 mm. duced if they are protected in the kiln from smoke, whilst dark brown and purple
coloured bTicks arc made by creating a smoky atmosphere in the kiln (see below).
Samples of 24 bricks arc used to ascertain if a consignment satisfies the
(d) Sand-moulding.-Sand-moulded hand-made bricks (see p. 4) and pressed
dimensional standard. The method of sampling is given below. In testing the bricks which have sand sprinkled over their oiled surfaces whilst being moulded are
sizes place a sample of 24 bricks in contact on a level surface and then measure richly coloured during the burning process. The nature of the sand used for this
purpose depends upon that of the clay or shale, and a good deal of experimental
the ovcrali dimension by means of a steel tape. According to the B.S. this work with different coloured sands is often necessary before the desired colour of
should be within the following limits ; - the facing bricks is obtained.
(e) Staining.-Surface colours may ~ obtained by adding certain metallic
oxides (such as manganese for browns. chromium for pinks, antimony for yellows,
copper for greens, cobalt for blues, cobalt and manganese for blacks, etc.) which are
Dimens;ons of a Sample Of:24 Bricks crushed very finely and added to the sand sprinkled on the bricks prior to burning.
Sometimes water is added to the oxides and brushed On the surfaces. Such colours,
Length (mm) Width (mm) Depth (mm) unlike druse produced by blending (sec above), are rarely permanent.
White bricks contain not more than a trace of iron and generally a large proportion
160 of lime.
5 160± 75 2 460 ± 43 15 6O {
30 Cream bricks contain traces of iron and a small proportion of chalk.
Gre)' bricks are either commons which have been discoloured by scumming
(see p. 14) or facing, such as silver-greys, which have been stained on the surface.
Sampling.-Twenty-four bricks are taken from every consignment of 30 000 Buff bricks contain less than 2 per cent. of iron oxide.
bricks or part thereof.. These samples are stored in a dry place not in contact YeilQft, bricks contain magnesia or sulphur (when clamp-burnt).
R~d bricks contain at least 3 per cent. of iron oxidc.
with the ground. They are taken at random (a) preferably when the bricks are BTOlt'n and purple bricks may have a similar iron contcnt to reds, but the difference
in motion (such as loading or unloading), or (b) from a stack. in the colour is due to smoking and special firing.
Biu~ bricks contain 7 to 10 per cent. of iron oxide. A blue surface colour is also
In method (a) the bricks arc taken at random from each of a number of con-
obtained by pouring coal-tar in the fireboxcs of the down_draught kiln (or that of
venient positions. Sampling by method (b) entails the removal of part of the top the firing chamber of a continuous kiln) just beforc the burning process has been
of two courses of the stack so as to open a trench. The samples are then taken completed. This produces a dense smoky atmosphere. The damper is partially
closed. This is repeated three times at twenty_minute interv,lis, when the dampoer
from the third or fourth courses below the top. is dosed and the chamber is left sealed for at least forty-ei/l:ht houTS. If salt is mixed
If a sample complies with the dimensional tests, the whole batch from which with the tar the exposcd surfa«s of the stacked bricks will be glazed. Purplc bricks
it is taken shall be deemed to comply. If the sample is below standard then the may be proouced in a similar manner.
Blark bricks contain a simflar amount of iron to the blue clay, in addition to certain
whole batch is deemed not to comply. manganese oxides. The iron, etc., content is rcsponsible' for the colour produced
when thc bricks are burnt. Black colouris also produced as described for blues, ex«pt
I In earlier B.S. lII'lothertype of brick was mentioned as being nominally So mm deep. that zinc and not tar is applicG to thc fires, and twenty-four hours' sealing of the
This is no longer spoecified in the latest B.S., although bricks ofthis/depth are still availabl c. cham~r is usually sufficient.
 BRICKS
Jl,1,,/ti.(010Ilud Br;(lrs.-Thr divrrsr nmgr of colours of thrse bricks is "ery
largel~' due [0 (b) and (l}-see p. 12; thr bricks 3rr generally produced in a do .... n·
draujlh[ kIln (p. 6). as thr temperature and smokin/( Ire best controlled in this [ype.
The bricks are care'ully stacked on Md [0 aVOId damagr, and so arranl!:ed that one end
and Ont fact of each is exposed. The kiln is fired as already deSCribed un[llthr bricks
have becn subjected 10 the maximum temperature for a suffiCient period, whIch variu
~r('".d.np '" ,h .. n~'''T<· "f th~ r.I~y ". ~h~l,. A .",f,,,·i..g afmOrl'lr~., is then produced
m the kiln by rl'stnc[mg the admission of aIT to the kiln and heavily charll.njl II wllh
sm"ke Thus thl' 'jue is partially dosed by lowennjl the damper. and dense smoke
IS cau~ by charj(.nj( the fireboxl'S "'!th coal. Immed.ately the smoke has abated.
more fuel is added to produce a dense smoky condition and, after these opentions
have been repeated over a period of approximately ten hours, the finboxes and flue
arc dosed for about four hours The Hue is then opened and the bricks are allowed
tn cool Many variations in colour Can be obtained in this manntr. much depending
upon the sk.1l of the operator.
TEXTURE OF BRICKS
There is considerable variation in the texture (or surface finish) of bricks.
Thus, machine· made commons and certain facings have smooth faces, whilst
hand· made facings cannot be equalled for the richness of their texture; many
mach!llc-made bricks are characterized by roughened surfaces which have been
purposely cxaggerated. The pleasing texture of hand-made bricks is produced
during the moulding operation, the hand-pressing of the clay or shale into the
mould and the sand from the sides of the mould, which is stamped into the
material, giving an irregular creasing or unevenness to the side and end surfaces.
The fine colouring of 2 mass of brickwork constructed of such bricks, particularly
after tt has \\ealhered for some time, is enhanced by the light and shade effect
produced by the uneven surfaces. Such bricks are expensive, and therefore
attempts have been made to imitate this texture and apply it to mC<'hanically
made bricks. Some of these attempts have been quite successful, even if the
resulting texture is of ~ess quality (chiefly because of the uniformity which results
when the depressions or roughness are similar on every brick) than that of
hand-made bricks.
Tht follOWIng are some of the means which are adopted to produce a me.::hanieal
texture ; -
Wire·cut bricks are given a TOughened appearance on three faces by 8 framc
containing a horizontal 8m! two ,"ertical wires which is fixed about 15 mm in front of
the mouthpiece of the auger (see p. 3). The horizontal WITI' is stretched across and
Just sllllhtly bclow thc to;:> of the opening. and the d.stanee bctween the two taut
vertical wires is slightly less than the width of the die. These WlTes cut the band of
clay as it is e"trudd from the machine. leaving roughtntd surfaces on the top ilnd
sides.
Rustication may also be obtained by plates containing fine projeclinll wires, one
plate bemg fixed above and tWO at the sides of the clay column &S it issues from
the mouthp.ece. The points of these wires slightly penetrate It varying depths the
movmg clay band and scratch the surfaces. Felt covered rollers partly smooth the
eKcessive roughness as the column procceds to the cuning table
Hand or mechanical mppfi"g is resorted to as an alternative. Th.s consists of
scrubbing or dabbir.g th~ top and sides of the clay band with brushet having metal
bristles. Some of the irregularities are smoothed down by rollers.
A ruuic effect csn also be produced by Jomi-hlastlng SpeCIally .elected sand ;5
forced by comprHKd aIr through the noz:de of a pipe on to the top and SIdes of the
13
extrudoo day. This produces small depressions on the surface. Rustic pressed
bricks can be treated in this mlnner.
Pressed bricks can be rusticated by using a mould or metal press-box having
hinged s.des. Relief (raised) patterns are engraved on the internal surfaces of these
sides. Probably the mO'lI effective design IS that rescmbling Ihe bark of a :ree. The
collapsible sides are n~S$ary to permit of the removal of the brick after tbe plunger
has impreued the palt~rn on on .. Or mOre f"e". "5 .. consolidates the day. The
appearance of a wall is made mOTC effective if bricks of scveral sele.::ted textures are
built at random during its construction.
Roujlh sand·faced bricks, when wire-cut, are made by *prinkling sand (specially
select~d) through a sandinR ·machine on to the day band 8$ it is being extruded.
The sand is then passed in by tOp and side rollers.
Pressed sand·faced bricks are made by sanding the internal faces of the mould
before being charged. Hand·made bricks are sand·faced during the normal process
(see p. 4).
DEFECTS IN BRICKS
The following are the principal defects to which bricks are subjected :-
Black Core or Hearting.-This is fairly common in bricks made of red clays
(p. I) which have been heated too rapidly in the kiln, causing the surface to
vitrify and the interior to remain black.
Bloating or Swelling.-This is attributed to the presence in the clay of
an excess of carbonaceous matter and to bad burning.
Burring or Clinkl'Ting.-Clamp-burnt bricks, usually adjacent to the flues,
which have been fused together by excessive: heat are called burrs or clinkl'T!.
Such are only suitable for br~aking up for coarse aggregate (see p, 28).
Chuffs or Shuffs,-These are badly cracked and mis-shapen bricks produced
by rain falling on them when hot. They are u~less.
Crazing is a defect common in glazed bricks (see p. 16) characterized by fine
cracks. These are due to the glaze and tne body (clay) not expanding and
shrinking to the same extent.
Crozzling.-Excessive heating in the kiln may produce mis-shapen bricks
known as crozzus. If not tOO badly shaped they may be used for brickwork
below ground level, otherwise they are only suitable for aggregates.
Effiorescence.-Bricks made from clay containing a relatively large proportion
of soluble salts, particularly calcium sulphate, are liable to become discoloured
by the formation of a whitish deposit. Whilst this efflorescence or salting is
particularly common to new brickwork, it may also form on the faces of old
external walls which are subjected to excessive dampness. It is formed as
follows: The salts are dissolved when water is absorbed, and as the bricks
become dry the salt solution is brought to the surface by capillarity, ev~poration
takes place and the salts remain on the face. In mild cases the efflorescence
gradually disappears as the briclrwork is subjected to alternate wet and dry
periods, the rain r~movin~ the dtposit until the salts are gradually eliminated,
If the bricks contain a high percentage of salts the efflorescence may persist
over a long period, and where dampness is caused from defective rain-water
pipes or the omission of a damp proof course, the unsightly appearance may
continue until the defect or omission has been remedied. Crystallization of the
 BRICKWORK
salts may not occur on the outer surface of the bricks during evaporation but
may take place just below the surface. This is called cryPto-flOT~RnlCt! and
may result in the bursting off of the outer skin.
Portland cement mortar and certain lime mortars may cause effiorcscence
and affect the brickwork; soluble salts present in the soil, such as chlorides
and nitrates, may also produce this condition when the ground water is
absorbed.
Grizzling.- Common bricks, though of good shape, which are underburnt
(indicated by a light colour and a dull sound when struck), and therefore weak,
are called grizzles; only suitable for inferior internal partition walls when little
strength is required.
Iron Spots.- These are surface dark spots, due to the presence of iron sulphide
in the clay, which render the bricks unsuitahle for facings.
Laminations are generally caused by the air in the voids between the particles
of clay not being eliminated in the grinding, pugging, etc., processes, and
producing. the formation of thin laminre on the faces of bricks which may scale
off on exposure to the weather (see " de~airing," p. 3)·
Lime Nodules.-Bricks cOEtaining pieces of limestone left uncrushed in the
clay during its preparation are quite unsuited for external walls or internal walls
which are to be plastered, as the lime- will expand when water is absorbed,
causing cracking or disintegration (see p. I).
Scumming or Kiln-white.- This is an unsightly discoloration of bricks,
particularly those containing lime and iron sulp~ide, which have been fired
in a continuous kiln. Several causes contrihute to this condition, but it is
chiefly due to the hot gases from the firing chambers (which contain wlphur)
coming in contact wilh the damp bricks in the early drying chambers, and
producing a thin brownish-white or grey film (usually sulphate uf lime) on the
surface. Such bricks are only silitable for commons. Scum is prevented if
provision is made for the escape of steam in the drying zone of the kiln (p. 7)
and if clean hot air is only used to dry the bricks. Barium carbonate powder
or barium hydroxide is sometimes mixed with the clay before moulding to
prevent scum formation. The carbonate in a fine powder form may be added
to the clay betore it enters the auger or pug mill, or, a-,; i-,; usual, it may
be mixed with water and the solution thoroughly incorporated ~ith the
clay.
Distortion may be produced hy over burning. Badly worn auger mouth-
pieces and press moulds wi!! cause the bricks to be badly shaped. Cracking
may be caused by drying and cooling the bricks too quickly in the kiln. Careless
handling of green bricks during manufacture will cause damage. Chipped,
cracked and broken bricks, especially if underburnt, are common results of
improper handling in course of transit.
Terms which are gradually falling into disuse include place bricks (similar
to grizzles, see above) and shippers (sound but imperfectly shaped bricks used
as ships' ballast).
CHARACTERISTics OF BRICKS
These have been referred to in Chap. I, Vol. I. Goud uricks ~hould be •
thoroughly burnt, as most wel!-hurnt bricks are durable and capable of
withstanding relatively heavy loads. As adequate firing in the kiln tends to
eliminate any soluble salts in bricks, it follows that hard-fired bricks are relatively
free from defects such as effiorescen(;e and crypto-florescence (see adjacent
column). Conversely, underburnl bricks (usual!y denoted by an abnormal light
colour and a dull sound when struck together) are comparatively soft, easily
broken, are neither durable nor pressure-resistant (see p. 15), and are liable to
defects produced hy salts.
Good bricks should be free from the defects enumerated above and, if used
as facings, should conform to one or other of the colours and textures mentioned
on pp. 12 and l3. •
Permeability,-Bricks for external use must be capable of preventing
rain-water from passing through them to the inside of walls of reasonable
thickness. In this connection the practice of specifying the maximum amount
of water a brick shall absorb (usually" one-seventh of its own weight of water
after twenty-four hours' immersion ") is not now considered desirable, for it
does not follow that a brick is impermeable if it has a relatively small absorption .
Much depends upon the character of the pores.
Some pores are continuous from face to fac~, and therefore rain-waler readih'
passes through them to the inside, whilst oth" r pores Or cavitl"s are not interconnecl~d
but are entirely enclos"d by material, and do not affect permeablhty. A close-pored
brick will freely absorb water which will not readily "vaporate. But a brick which is
more open-pored will absorb less moisture, which will evaporate more easily because
of th~ increas"d air circulation; it follows that such a brick (provided any connected
pores are not too large as to allow the water to be blown through them) is more
successful in preventing dampness on the inside.'
Furthu, it is difficult to lay certain d~nse and smooth-faced bricks owing to their
lack of " suction,"' which prevents a ready adherence of the mortar. This lack of
adhesion causes narrOW fissures to appear between the bricks and the mortar joints.
Th e result is that water penelTates through these cracks, and much dampness in
solid brick walls is due . to this course. even though the brick! may be impermeable
(!ee p. 42). Hence, bricks should be porous to a certain extent, the pore; being neither
too fine nor too open, to permit stron" adhesion of the mortar. InCidentally, even
il the joints ~rr wr ll fill .. cl w,tO mortar. espeCIally If It IS a ",ch mix (see p. 2<;), fine
hair-like cracks may devdop, when the mortar shrinks on drying, through which
water will readily pass to the inside.
Permeability Test.-A simple apparatus used for measuring the ~ate of absorption
of water consists of a flat pyramIdally shaped brass cover whIch 's fitted over the
brick (or oto" r) specimen, which is usuaHy 100 mm square; a short length of vertical
Idass tubing, with its lower end fixed to the cove r, is fitted to a fine bored glass tube
(having a scale behind it) which is fixed horizontally at 200 nun above the TOp surface
of the specimen; a rubber pipe from a glass cylinder ccntaining water is connected
to the vertical tube ; the vertical faces of the spe<.:imen are waxed and thus mad"
, Briefly the distinction betwee.1'absorption. p"rmeability and porosity is as follows
Absorption is the property of allowing wat"" to enter a materiaL
Permeability is the property of allowing water to pass through a materiaL
Porosity is the proiX'rtion of void space in a mat"rial.
 BRICKS
impell'Tleable. Water from the cylinder is admitted to occupy the space betwee n th e
top of the specimen and the under side of the co\'er and to fill both ve rtical and
hori.zomal tubes; the water lS :hen shut off. As the wate r passes throuJ!:h the
specimen, it flows along the horizontal tube; this rate of flow is obtained by obser\in~
the ~nd (or meniseo.ls) of the ..... ater and measurin~ from 61' scale the distance this
travels in a ""'e n time. The 200 mm head of water ~ives a pre s'sure in eXceSS of that
caused by a "1'1)' stronl-: force of wind against a wall down which rain is pourinJ!:
(see also p. 108).
Strength.- lt is only necessary to specify the strength of- bricks when they
arc required for the construction of walls, piers etc., which have to support
heavy concentrated loads, The reason for this is that the compressive strength
of brickwork constructed of relatively inferior bricks will be Q!Jite adequate to
resist the normal weight which it will be required to support. Thus, whilst
the brickwork at the ground level of a two-storied hOllse will not usually be
subjectec to a greater load than 134 kN Jm 2 , it would be a very poor brick
which had a crushing strength of less than 6435 kN /m 2 • The average crushing
strength of bricks serves as an approximate index only of tbe compressive strength
of brickwork, as much depends upon workmanship, height in relation to
thicknes~, etc. A rough approximation of the strength of brickwork built in
cement mortar (I ; 3) and good hydraulic lime mortar (t ; 3) is respectively
one-third and one-fifth that of the individual bricks.
The crushin g strength of bricks is determined in a compression machine such as
that ,hown at E. Fig. () (see p. 3~ ) A brick is usually teHed on bed and placed in
the mach,"e between two pl~ces of plywood, any frogs be"inJ.( filled flush with cement
mortor. Th~ compressi"e strength varies enormously bet,,·e<."n batches from the
same kiln and ~\'en of mdividual bricks from the same bl;rning. As an illustration
of th,S, lests carried out in the BuildinJ!: Laborato!), of the Manchester Unive rsity
Institutc of Science and Technology on six bricks obtain~d hom a kiln at th~ same
timc showed the crushin!,: strength to va!)' between 10 MN /m' and 16·6 Mf' im'.
This variation is partly due to the diffuent position of the bricks in the kiln. It is
h""~lI<" of this variation that at least six (preferably twelve) specimens of a brick
shou:d be tested and the mean figure taken.
This variation is also shown by the followinJ.( figures in brackets which indicat e
the approximate crushing stren"ths of specim en wire -cut pressed and hand-made
bricks (six of each type) from well known and reputable manufacture": Wire,cut
commons and facings (IZ'4 to )4'4 MN/m' j, pressed corrunons and facinl-:s ('7'2 to
.. "3 Mi\ .'m') and hand-made facinJ!:s ('3·8 to 34'4 MN lm'). EnQ;meerinQ; bricks
(see p. 17) have crushing strengths va!)'ing from 55 to IZ~ MN /m'.
Frost Action.- External walls constructed of porous underburnt bricks
are particularly vulner::ble to damage by the action of frost. Such damage
is due to the absorbed water expanding (to about one-eleventh of its volume)
as it freezes and exerting pressure on the pore walls which the comparatively
soft material is unable to resist . Disintegration thus results, and when this
is repeated during severe winters, disfigurement due to pitting and cracking of
the surface and damaged arrises may become very pronounced. Brickwork of
poor quality bricks with overhand struck joints (see Chap, I, VoL I), that below
the ground level, and copings are particularly subject to damage by frost. It
does not affect brickwork of sound, hard-burnt bricks.
'S
FroJ/ Rrsillaour Tnt, -A simple, but effective. apparatus in which bricks and other
buildinJ.( mat erials may be tcsted for frost resistance is shown in FiJ.(. J() and described
on p .• 10. This test can also be carried OUI in a watertight. metal container which
is partly filled with a freeZIng mIxture consIsting of l parts ICC and 1 part cOlnmon
salt. Th e brick to he testL...:i, after tx. mJ!: immersed in wat~r for twenty_four hours,
;$ wrapped in a p;ece of doth, tOlally immersed in the mixture, th~ lid i, shut and the
conta'iner is placd in a box so that it is encased by a 7., mm thickn~ss of cork. sawdust
or similar insulatinlo: material. After b einlo: hozen at _10 V C. for ,"ij(ht-cen hours the
specimen is remo\"ed, thawed br runninlo: water, unwrapp\"u ami ~xamlned. The
freezing and thawing cycle is repcated for at !cast ten times Certam bricks, well
known for their durable quahties. aTe not affected ~\"en if subjected to rany freez ings.
whilst others, only suitable for interna l work , ,,·ill show suious disintegration after
ten freezing>;. This apparatus does not )(ive such )(ood results as that 111ustrat~d in
Fi)(, J(), as the immersion of the specimens in the freezinJ.( mixture appc~rs to iml'TO\'C
th"i~ reo;ohnce to frost action on 3ccount of .heir IITlpTelln~t;on with ,~I,
A J.(ood test. 'Jut one which docs not Kive immediate results. cOn5i"s of digl-:inK
a hole and placi"l( in it Iwo hricks on end, one aoo\"e thc other, with lh~ uppn hrick
half exposed, These are left for a year. In a ' normal winter succe",,,'c fro<ts \\'ill
cause a poor brick to crack across at ground level, whilst the lower one rna\" sho"
signs of Aakinj.(. Sound bricks will not be affected.
EjJlorna"a TeJl. - A brick is partIally immersed on end in a dish of distilled \.\"at~r.
and the water absorbed is e\"aporateel from its upper surfaces. Anv s~lts haule to
form efflorescence are brought to the surface by the water In its l'assa~,· through the
brick.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
Bricks may bc classified according to (I) quality and (2) usage.
I. Classification according to Quality.-Bricks from a kiln are divided
into three classes, namely; (a) firsts, which arc best and arc selected by hand:
(b) seconds, which are selected bricks but are not e4ual to "firsts" on account
of some imperfection in regard to colour or shapt· or hoth; (cl Ihirds, which
are the remainder of the kiln, the best being only suitable for interior work.
2. Classification according to Usage,-A conveniently btOad division'
of bricks is in accordance with their suitability for (a) interior :"Iurpo~e~, (h)
exterior purposes, (e) pressure-resisting purposes and (d) fire-resist"'l; purposcs,
(a) Bricks for Interior Purposes.-Common bricks arc invariably specified
for internal wal!s, as neither strength, durability nor appearance arc important.
If the walls are to be plastered it is essential (especially if the bricks have a laT~e
suction capacity) that the walls shall be copiously watered bcfore the first coat is
applied, othe ......·ise an excessivc amount of ,",'ater will be absorbed from the plaSiH
and this may cause failure , It is also important that the bricks shall not contain nodul~s
of lime (see. pp. , and '4), as th e w'"'ter applied to walls prior 10 plastcrinR will bc
absorhed, causir,g the lime 10 slake and the resultant expansion to crack or splinter
the bricks.
It is essential that. certain brick partition wal!s, particularly those on upper
floors, shall be as light as possible, and perforated or hollow bricks or blocks
(see u, v, wand Y, Fig. 5) arc suitable for this purpose.
Sometimes facing bricks, and ~ot commons, are required for internal wal!s,
such as those for churches, corridors, class-rooms, etc, Light-coloured bricks,
such as " silver-greys" (p. 12) and sand-lime bricks (p . 17) are used for such
purposes on account of their satisfactory light-reflecting qualities, White, etc.,
 ·6 BRICKWORK
glazed bricks (see nen column) are also used for internal walls of dairies,
factories, lavatories, etc.
(9 ) Bricks/or f:xteriQr Purpous.- The essential requirements of facing bricks
are durability, cotour, texture and freedom from defects. Colour and texture
are nOI important if the walls are to be rough-casted or plastered, good quality
commons being sufficient for this purpose. They should have sufficient suction
capacity to ensure the thorough adhesion of the morlar (see p. (4). The crushing
strength is not material unle ...... heavy loads ha\'c to be supported, as any durable
brick will safely ~upport the load which has to be normally resisted. Bricks
to be used below the horizontal damp proof Course should be carefully selected,
as these are subjected to the greatest frost action (p. '5), and absorption of
certain ~alts from the soil may cause deterioration if the bricks are not durable.
(c) Bricks for Pressurf~rtsi$/i"g PurpQus.- These are required for the
cOnstruction of piers, large-spanned arches, etc., where large stresses have to
he resisted. Strength is therefore the chief requirement, and engineering bricks
(p. [7) which are very strong and hard burnt are most suited for this purpose.
(d) Bricks for Fiu-resisling Purposes.- Those best suited to resist high
temperatures, as for lining furnaces, chimney stacks, boilers, etc., are fireclay,
silica, ganister, hauxite and magnesite bricks (see below).
The following is a summary of several types of bricks which have not been
already described :-
Firebricks.-T~se are capa ble of rUlSunll lery hijlh temperaturn and arc used
for linlnjl fireplac"s, tall cblmn"ys, furnace s, 10[35 retort s, "tc. They arc made from
(a) firo:day, (6) silica rocks and (r) silica rncks 10000"lher wllh Kiln",..,.
(a) Firufa}' Brickt,- Fireclays Or refraCI(>ry clays ne assoc ialed '11th coalfit'lds,
-.nd <lr" usually obtained h~' mining as d,sl,ncl from quarrvlng. They are found m
many pariS of Ihe country, The clay contains from ~5 to 7~ per Ctnt. sihca and
Z2 to 35 p"r cent. alumina
The fireclay is crushed and findy ground. GrOll (fint'l y t(round burnt fireclay)
,s "hcn mixed wilh tnt' m alenal 10 reduce shnnkaRC. Tht mlKture is Ih,·n soured 10
iner";,~,, ,ts "orkahility (p. 4), mould"d ( prcssed ), dried and hard burnl for aboul
se,,'n .Jays. The muimum lemperalure for firmg firsl-class bricks should nOt be
I,'ss than. soo" C. The bricks are of a Cream or buff colour.
(h) Silica B,icks.-These contain 9S to 97 per cenl . nf s ilica and I to a per cent.
limt. The rock IS crushed by heavy rollen, then J;Cround In a pan n11111n wh,ch Ihe
lime is added in correct prop.lrtion and In liquid fonn; the lime acts as a bindlnjl
mAterial. Powerf"l pr~~~e~ are UM:U lu JIIuul.J Ihe uTicks and Ihe burnmJ;C takes place
in kilns of t'ither the down_draught, chamber (sumlat to the ~illzajl) or tunnel Iype.
Good siliac bricks should resist 3 minimum lemperaturc of. 300" C . They arc vny
brittle. Well-known silica bricks are produced in South Wales (from Ihe Dinas
rock, quarried near Swansea) and they are particularly s uited for the linin~ of
metallurgical furnace~ and coke ovens
(t) Canister BrirRs.- Ganister is a dark-coloured sandstone contpininJ;C up to
.0 per cent. of clay It is quarried In this country (Shdfield bein~ an important
ctntre), Wales and Scotland. Their manufacture IS similH 10 thpt of silica hricks
They Ire very refractory, as they are capahk of withstanding n I"mperat\u" lIf I 800·
C . , and llTe ther"fore particularly suited for limng furnaces, etc.
Bau.J(ite Bricks (made from an aluminous earth importcd from Fr~n~e).
Magnesite Bricks and Chromile Bricks (both also made from imported mate rial)
a rt' otht r hijl:hly refractory products. They art used for Jininlt special furnaces, such
U 11«1 and blast furnaces and cement kilns, and are ~eneTlilly gas-fired.
Rubbers or Cutters are soft red (chiefly), white or buff coloured brick. , consisting
l .
of washed loamy day containing a large proportion of sand, and are u.sually hand-made
in a box·mould (p. ,.l and baked (not burnt ) In I kiln. The colour is unifonn
throughout, and owinll to tht'ir sonneS! and fine-gramed texture they are easily cut,
rubbt'd and Clr\"ed. They arc u~ed prine,pally for iaUjl:ed arches, dccoTlited quoins
and jambs.
Glazed Briclts.- F,rcclays or shalu are beat for produ.cing glazed bricks. As
,hey 3T., usu .. lIy reqUlTed.o be bu,I, wllh ,o,nh ,lOI " ...eedmg 3 mm IhlCk, they must
be lrue to shape. with fine stTlll)l:ht &rrises. They are therefore carefully pressed
and somet'mes re·pressed, ,,·;th the arrises hand-trimmed with a strike. Glazed
hricks are impervious and are oft"o kinds, namely: (. halt-glazed and (:.I) enamelled.
I. Salt·glaud Briclls are usually produced in I down-draughl kiln.' Salt is
thrown on the the fires of the kiln after the bricks ha,·e reached a temperature of about
I zoo~ C. The heat vaporizes the ult and eausts it to combme with the clay to fonn
a vitreous or IIlassy surface which cannot scale off. Usually two, and not mOre than
three, charges of salt are applied at about twenty-m,nute intervals when Ihe bricks
have reached Iht required temperature, a shovelful of salt bemg thrown On to each
fire. The colour of Ihe glated surfaces ls a brown of various shades. Such bricks
are used for internal dadoes, lavBlories, basements, areas, large brick sewers, inspection
chambers, elc.
•
2. Enamfll"d Bricll$. - These are now obtainabl. in a large variety of colours.
There arc two methods of producing these, namely: (a) dry-dripped and (b) wet_
dripped.
(al Dr)'·dipP<'d Proau.- These enamelled bricks He called biJ(uit -IUar~ . They are
moulded, dried, burnt to a temperature of approximately I 200· C. (this is called biscuit.
burning), cooled, prepared for glazm/it, coloured, glazed and re-burnl. The colouring,
Io[lazinJ( and preparation (call ed bodJ·i"",) are done on a be nch in a shed. At least three
wssel, containing liquid or slur,y of varying consistency ar" placed on the bench. The
first vessel contains the sfip or f "lfoiH or bed}" and i, a miKture of china day (which 15
shghtly plastic and found m Cornwall, Devon and Dorsel), crushed burnt tlmts,
ball clay (more plast,e than chlnl clay ), et c., and waler. The second tub comalns a
similar m'Klur~ wllh the addition o f metalli C o K,de, (such as those stated on p. 12)
10 Ri'·e the requ,red colour The li quid m tht Ihird vessel is called the glatt, .and
th, s " a m,xture of china clly, {elspar (a s il,cate of alum,na with varying proportIOns
of sodium.. polassium, etc.), whitmjl a nd waler, . The proponions .of the ingredients
vary .conslderably. More than one tub eontammg wlounn g bod,es are somellmes
reqUITed to R,ve the dt's ired co lour, the Ingredients and proportions being detennmed
as a resull of expenence and uhaust,v e letts. Tl:e bncks.are first washed, one
Slretcher or one header face (or bolh) bt'1n.Q: hand-brushed wllh water. Each hrick
is Ihen sepaTlitely treattd, tht "" ..hed face{s) bemg hand-dipped into the slip, then
into the colourinR solutIon and finall y mto Ihc gla~e. After the ed.'leS have been
trimmed with a wire brush to remove the surplus jllaze, the bncks are ,·ery carefully
Slacked In the kiln and burnl to fuse the glaze. Thus, these bricks are subjected 10
two separale hurnlngs. Coal and ~as are the fucls " ' CC, gas kilns beln/it most successful
for this dass of bricks.
(b) W",_dipp, d P,,,u,,.- The .l,p, colouring $ol .. <1on and ),:hze are applied dircc!
to the bricks ImmedIately afler Ihey have been moulded and dned. They are afler-
wards very carefully burnt. Wh,]ulhis is a cheaper method than (a), only one hurninll
being required, the results are not so I(ood and there is a large proport'.on damaged
durinl( the handhng operations. Such bricks H" only su,table for mfenor work.
Glazed bncks especially b,scu,t_ware, are used for first-class faced work as re-
quired for factori~s, dairies, certain shops, abattoirs, wrridors , dadoes of classrooms,
lavatories, areas, wells of larlle buildings, external faCings. etc. The surfaces Can
readily be washed do"n, and white glazed bricks arc partICu13rly effect,ve In areas of
buildinRS and in places where the max,mum reflected light is reqUired.
PerCOTated BTicks.- PeYorated bneks, such as is shown at l', Filo[. 5. arc made
by the w're_cul proce ss (p. 3r. the small holes ofvarymjl diameter (9 to 20 mm) beinjl
formed as the clay column is eKtruded through t~.e mouthpiece m which sh.ort
horizontal bars are fixed. The lidvantages cla'med for these bricks are : A sa\"lng
, Tunnel kilns are also Ultd for this purposc.
 BRICKS
in day re.u\tl, the drying and burning processes are facili"tecl, resulting in ... reduction
of fuel, [hay a." light 10 handle (the perforations reducinl! the weight by about one_
fifth) and t'O{'caus~ of this comparat",,, lightness the cost of carriage is reduced.
~everal forms of pedorated bricks are used In "mfoned brre/moorll (see p. H)'
Additional mortn may be reqlli~d for the Oed joints, espeCIally If the holes .re Inge.
Air Bricks.~[f of standnd Size, Ih" Jo:reen bricks are machine made In the usual
manner (pressed or ,,"re-cut). alh"rv.',se they are hand-made In a box-IT.Quld (p. 4).
Each slab IS then perforated thus: A templel of thin Zinc, the size and Ihape of the
bed and pcrfor~led II required, is pla~d on tOp of the slab (which usually has an
oiled surface) laid on bed, fine sand is dusted over it, the templet IS removed, lu'in~
a liJ;:ht-coloured pantrn of sandy squares on the surface. These ~en'e a, a Itulde
fnr rhe moulder whn I~kes a hollow sted wol, square in section and h.ving sharp
cuttln~ cdl.!('s, and prfSSCS II IhrouJ;:h the slab at ~3ch S4 uarc of the patt~rn. Th~
tool IS '\lthdr>\\n. ~nd the clay within is removed by pasSIng a solid meul rod down
It. The ~l·Ctlon is SImilar to 1,;, FiR_ 3'1, Vul. I. Cheapf r air bricks, havinll thin
perfordl('d pands. are stamp~d by a press.
Hollow, Cellular or Cavity Bricks (see v and w, Fig. 5).-The cellular type
ha~ 19 tu Z, mm tlHc< "walls" OT" skins" WIth two or more" wehs" or" dil-
phragm~." Th~.,- arc hl:ht and arc therefore suitable forlartitions: Iheir caVIties also
n'<luee heat IransmlSSlon. They are machIne presse , the plunger, haVing solid
mN.l cord. formin.'!: Ibe ('nitieS as they descend. These bricks are sometimes glazed
and arc oflen made of fireday.
V Bricks (sec A to 1;', Fig_ ~).-De"elnped by the BUlldmJ( Research Station
these prod lICe d wall w."lich is "4Ulva!cnt to a ~75 mm cavity wall (ste p. 39) Out wh,ch
I~ only ~ 1.'> lOrn wide The hrick (A') Iflcorporat~s a " cavity" bridged by four thin
dIaphragms whICh do not ImpaIr the ",cather resistance of the w·~II. The perfontions
amount to about So per ccn'. of th~ ".,lume of the brick and so I(I"e good thermal
Iflsulation. Th~ zl5 mm cavity ",all produced by thes~ bricks can be built about
30 per cent. f3StH the the normal 275 mill cavity wall.
On~ \' brick corrt'Spond~ Ifl \'olum~ 10 lwO standard bricks and weighs about
3-9 kg in comparison with the weIght of one standard brick of 3'~ kg it can be
casily IIfled by the Imdlayer because the t"o outer larg" perforations fonn convenient
handholes.
In layinj{ V hricks mortar i~ spread along the t"O outer parts of the hed Over
the area of the small ;lerforalions; the bricks are Ihus laid on tWO UP'lfDU strips
of mortar, care belfllo! :aken tu prevent mortar from enterinJ( the centre handholes.
ThIS d",ded mortar jOint is b<>st made by using a speCIal tray, alternatIvely I ballen
7~ mm wide and ,6 mm thick ;s placed along the cemre of the wall the mortar being
~pread Clther side oflhe ballen. When the bricks are beddcd on the strips ,ome ofth~
mortar is pr~s"cd Into the small perforatIons to give w str()ng kcy and l'roduce lhe
nonnal 10 mm thick bed jam!.
A spec".l perfol">lted brick (D') is used WIth the V hrlcils at jambs and quoins as
shown at C' and u'. The concrek strip foundation (Il') need only be 430 mm wide
(instead of about 5tomm for a 275 mm cavity wall). On this and up tod.p.c. l~vel
215 mm standard bricks Me used for the wall; at thts level one cours~ of spht V
bricks. the brick beinl( split and dIaphragms removcd. is laid which allows the placing
of the stepped d.p.c,
Hollow Blocks (liee Y, FiJ(. 5).-These are used in the construction of partitions.
Somewhal ~,,"ildJ 111<J~ks arc employed in the constrUCt,on of hre-reSISlml!" Hoors.'
They arc usually made of fireelays or shales by the wIre-cut pro<:ess (po 3). The
shap<:: of the blocks depends upon the special provision made m the mouthpIece of
the aUller, and there are se"eral patent deVIces for form",,,, the hollo"·s. One of the
SImplest consists of a stronJ( thm metal frame whieh projects into the die from the
front ami two solid horizontal metal corCl or bars which are secured to it. As the
clay is pushed through the die. the Cares produce two VOIds in the extruded column.
At the same time any ~roo"es 10 the sides are formed by projecting ribs of the SIdes
of thc d,e. The e~truded column is passed to the cuumJ( table, the frame being
pi"oted !O cauS<" the wires to cut It into the required len~th5 by a downward movement,
I Detailed in Vol. IV.
17
Some hollow blocks Ire solid-ended. One device filled in the die to produce
such blocks consists of a square shuner (the size of the cross_section of the void)
which is fitted to the top and caused to descend and rise automatic~lly It required
internl.. When the shutter .s down it occupies. central posllion in the die, and
thi s produces the hollow portion of the column IS it proceeds. When the !hutter
rises clear of the die, the section of the movinl{ clay band IS sohd. Thus I column is
produced which is hg1iow, hiving solid partitions at intervals, the thickness of the
latler being equal to twice the finished thickness of an end. The column is then cut It
the table, the wires bein@ drawn centrally down through these solid portions.
Drylnj{ and burning complete the process.
Pavings Ire very hard -weari ng brlckl used, as implied, for paving ro.ds and
paths. They Ire sometimes salt-glazed, each with one face roughened or chequered
to ",crease the foothold. They are laid on edge on a concrete bed with a 13 mm bed
joint of cement and sand (I : 2) and the vertical joints, 2. mm thick, are grouted with
cement and Sind (1:11). These bricks Ire now o,;ery nrely used.
En,ineering Bricks.-These are e~ception.lIy strong .nd durable, and Ire
used for piers, bridges. sewtTs and simil.r engineering purposes. Those most note·
worthy are Accringtons (prened), Southwatcrs (pressed and wire-cuts), blue Stafford_
shires (wire-cut~ and h~nrl--nade) and Hun1ikerl (m"de of crushed flint .nd lime).
Sand-Lime Bricks.- These are of the Same size as ordinary day bricks aad are
made of. mixture of sand, lime and water which is pressed into moulds and hardened.
Their colour IS grey or a dLl! white, Dlthough oxide pigments may be .dded to give
other colours. The sand should be de.n and weI! {[raded, and the normal proportion
used varies from 92 10 95 per cent. of the dry milt. The 5 10 8 per cent. ollime which
IS m1xed with the sand may be of any class, provided it can be thoroughly well slaked.
It mUSt be properly burnt fsee p. 19) u overburnt lime does not readIly slake .nd
underburnt lime has a high calcium carbonate content which is valueless. The slaking
or hydration must be complcte before the mi~ture is pressed.
There are three stages In their production, n.mely: (a) mixing, (b) pressing and
(c) h.rdening.
(I) Mixill,lf.-The burnt lime (quicklime) is finely ground in a bill mill (p. ~'1)
and passed throu/{h a sieve to dimin~te coarse_grained p.rlldes. . ThIS is mixed
with and in the correct proportIon in an edRC-rUnner (p. z) and slightly more than
the required amount of water added to slake the lime. Thc mixture is passed to a
hopper Or silo and left for a variable period (Renerilly twenty-four hours) to ensure
through hydrallon.
(b) P,tssing.-The rotary table type of press (p. 3) is ~eneTilly used, I mezsu,ed
quantIty of the mater.. 1 bebg fed, prened into a slab and removed. The pressure
vanes with the water conten! and mun be sufficient to enable thl! bricks to be handled
WIthout damage.
(cl Ha,dnlirrg 0, Autodat'I"I(.-A " kIln" in whIch the bricks are harden~d is a
"7 to ""1 m diameter steel cylinder, varying from 9 to 21 m long, and IS c.lled an
auIOc/Dvt. The pressed bricks are stacked on cars (similar to those used in tunnel
kiln s. see p. 10). each truck taking up 10 I 500 bricils. The loaded cars Ire TU:l into
the autoclave. the tight-fitting doors are closed, steam is admitted and the pressure
j{nJdu.lly increued. The ma~imum lIUm pressure varies with the len.'!:th of time .1
which It is studlly maintl,"~d, the J.:reater the pressure the shorter the tIme of auto_
d.ving; thus. if a steady pressure of 827 kN/m l i~ ~I"'plied. the period vHie~ from
eIght to twelve hours, whilst this time may be halved if the pressure is increa.ed to
I 380 kNJm'. After steaming for the required period the supply of steam ;s shut oft'
and the bricks .llowed to cool by openinJ( I \'lIve. The loaded cars are then rerr.oved.
Sand-lime bricks are of unifonn colour, texture, size .nd shape, with SQuare
arflses. Their fine texture rendeTt them suitable for carvinll, and 'figures carved
i" lUI< on the brickwork have su~enful!y relieved the somewhat monotonous
appearance of brge unifonnly coloured surface •.
Although these bricils h.ve not been su bjected to prolonged teall, it is considered
that those of beSt quality cempare favounbly with good quality common bricks IS
regards compre"ion strength . nd dur.bility. They are only moderatel resistant
to frost action and are therefore not suitable for brickwork below groun in water-
logged sites. They have bee:'! used luccessfully IS. cheap lubstitute fot white glued
bricks in wells of buildin,. and similar po&iti()U where mallimum liaht il required.
 BRICKWORK
Cement and Concrete Bricka.-Portland cement is used to a relatively small
extent In the makinJt of bricks. Sand IS , fine lif[regate ;. added to the cement in S PEe A l c ~ s
varying proportIons, I .. ,table mlxes ~mg [ put cement to 6 to 8 parts Ilnded sand.
The mate .. als are ", .. II mlud in I machine,juSllufficumt water ~ing added 10 ensure
adheSl01'l. Th., mixlun: IS then pressed In moulds or In I rotary table machine.
removed and dried slo" Iy for at lnst a fortnight (preferably I month) before b.-In)!:
us.-d. The bricks are covered '" Ilk damp doth$ during the maturing perio~ . Rapid·
hardenm" cement (p. 14) in lieu of ordinary Portland ermrnl txpcditcs Ihe letflng
penod .
Concrete Bloch of various liles and m,xu are abo made. th .. 'Ji:lI:rCII::uu being
sind, broken brick, broken Slone, IIra\'el coh bree1.e, etc. (see p. ~8).
Cement and concrete bricks 0. bloch have nOI become popular m this country,
chiefly on account bf their dull, unintereilinl/ appearance. ahhoul/h corwrete slabs
are often emp loyed in the construction of internal partition •. (Chap. I. Vol. III).
Breeze Slabs of "anous sizes (usually 50 to 7S mm thick) and conS,Sllnll of I part
cement 10 (> or 8 pariS powdert"d br«zc hl\'e bee n uten$lvely used. (or plrtlflons
In p<.>s"iu"~ ... here load~ have nol to be suppoTiod (p_ '5 ). Thue are ("au.n ",nod
moul ds Cavity walls (p. 39) are sometimes constructed of breeze slabs wh,,;h arc
approxImately 900 mm by 300 mm by 6S mm thick, placed on ed~e bct"'een r("-
mforced concretc pillars.

Special Shaped Bricks.-A selection of sp«ial shaped bricks, most of which

are standard, is shown in Fig. 5. They an: kept in stock by the larger brick
manufacturers, and are chiefly made by machinery (pressed or wire.-cut). This
rt:sults in a reduction in cost, as non-standard bricks can only be -p,urposely made
by hand in moulds which ha\-e to be constructed to the specified requirements.
The increased a\'ailability of standard spe~ials has also resulted in a saving of
timt: of the bricklayt:. which was formerly occupied in cutting the bricks to shape. C 0 N , PISlOl
Squint Bricks (sec A, B, C and D, Fig. 5).- These are used in the con-
struction of acute and obtuse squint quoins (see p. 36).
Bullnose Bricks. - A double bullnose brick is shown at Q. Fig. 2, Vol. I.
It is difficult to cut neatly a mitre at the intersection between two bullnose
arrises; special nlurns containing mitres are therefore useful. That at ~:, Fig. 5
shows an internal return ; similar right and left handed returns on bed, edge and
end are also available. An external return is shown at F. A ltoP is required to
provide a satisfactory finish when a bullnose edge is continued by a square arris,
as at the base of a pier or jamb; a double stop IS shown at G; single stops are
also made. That shown at H, sometimes called a cownou, is suitable for copings
and jambs of 102'5 mm walls.
Dog-leg or Angle Bricks (see J).-These are also used at squint quoins,
p:,in,cul:arly of ca\'ity w~l1~ (see F. Fig. II).
Birdsmouth Bricks (see K, Fig. 5).- These may be used at alternate
II cou rses of internal squint quoins or for decorated serrated courses.
Circular Bricks (see stretcher L and header M).- These are used for
circula r work as in the construction of bay windows (see Figs. '5 and 29), apsed
ends, staIrcase weBs and tall chimneys. These are referred to on p. 44.
Coping Bricks.- A few standard shapes art: shown at N, 0 and P. Bullnose
bncks are used fur the same purpose.
II Pistol Bricks (see Q).-These ate used for forming circular or coved
angles between walls or between a wall and a floor.
"MI r.~C'-E' FOUNDATiON

fiGURE
JAM!

5
OUOIN

I
 LIM E
Plinth Bricks.-These arc referred to in Chap. I, Vol. I. A dogleg in-
ternal angle plinth is shown at R, Fig 5 and a stop is shown al s. Right and
left handed plinth internal returns, like the bullnose brick E, and external angles
are also obtainable from stock.
Keyed or Nicked Bricks.-The type shown at T, manufactured by the
London Brick Co. Ltd., has dovetailed grooves formed .on one stretcher and
one header face for the purpose of providing a mechanical bond with either
plaster or roughcast which may be applied to the brickwork. They are obtainable
as commons, as shown, or as cellulars (see v).
Perforated Bricks (see u and B').- These have small holes 10 to 16 mm in
diameter) formed throughout their thickness, the object of which is to reduce
their weight (pp. IS and 16).
Hollow Bricks.- These are made of clay formed with one or more cavities
which reduce their weight some 25 per cent. and increase insulation against
heat and moisture (see p. 17)' The cellular type v, made by the above firm,
has three cells separated by tapered webs; these cells are open to one bed and
ex.tend to WIthin about b mm from that opposite. The" Webcel," type w,
manufactured by the Marston Valley Brick Co. Ltd., has a single void, shaped
as shown. These bricks are laid with their solid beds uppermost and are par-
ticularly effective in the construction of partition walls.
Hollow Blocks.- One of several types of walling blocks is shown at y.
The thickness varies from 13 to 2! 5 mm. Some have only two cells, whilst another
type having a central web has.ten cells. They are used for partitions; the fluted
sides and beds provide a good key for the plaster, and the cells reduce the trans-
mission of sound and heat, besides decreasing their weight (p. Ii).
Glass Bricks (see x).- There are two types, i.e., solid cast blocks of glass
and hollow glass blocks, the latter being made in two halves before being joined
and hermetically scaled. They arc not capable of resisting heavy loads, but
they can be built into panels to any practical height, and are being used to form
semi-transparent wa!1s and partitions to steel framed buildings, etc. (see Chap. I,
Vol. III). The bric:<s are bedded and jointed with lime mortar like day bricks,
they are not usually bonded, the vertical joints being continuous. The mortar
recommended consists of I part lime, I part Portland cement and 4 parts sand.
Panels exceeding 1·8 m in width should be reinforced with hoop iron or expanded
metal (see p. 44) at every third to fifth course; vertiCal rod reinforcement is
necessary if the panels exceed 6 m in width. Provision must also be made for
expansion aI the sides and tops of panels. The bricks are made in various sizes
and patterns, Ihe largest size being 240 mm by 240 mm by 80 mm,
LIM E
Manufacture.- Lime is produced by burning chalk or limestones in a kiln.
There are tWO types of kiln, i.e., (I) intermittent and (2) continuous,
1. lntnmittent Kiln.- This is the simplest form of kiln and is one which is
19
L M E K L N
FIGURE 6
in use in many parts of the Country. That shown in Fig. 6 is one of several
kilns in which lime used extensively in the North of England is produced. The
kiln is situated at the siee of a cutting (often the face of the quarry); the four
walls are tapered and are lined wim firebrick; it is open at the top. A loosely
built rough arch of pieces of the unburnt limestone is formed at the bottom,
and this supports alternate 450 mm thick layers of limestone and 230 mm thick
layers of fuel (25 to 40 m:n coke nuts). Both the limestone and coke are charged
into the kiln from side-tipping tubs which operate on a track on each side and at
the top of the kiln, A coal fire is started in the fireplace below the arch and it
gradually extends to the layers of fuel clnd limestone until the whole mass is
brought to a bright red heat (900° C.). The period of burning is 2bo~t four
days. The burnt lime is then removed through the eyes, after which the kiln
is again charged. The cover provided by the arched portion at the front of
the kiln affords an adequate protection to the freshly burnt lime as it is withdrawn,
and the top is generally protected by an open roof. The capacity of this kiln
is about 20320 kg of limestone and 8 128 kg of coke.
Lime produced in this manner is used for mortar.
Sometimes Ihis form of kiln is charged wholly with pieces of limestone, and the
fire is maintained at the bottom for a few days until the whole of the limestone
or chalk has been thoroughly burot. Thill is commonly known as aflare hilll and
produces a white lime, free from discoloration and especially suitable for plastering.
2. Continuous Ki/ll.-The simplest form of continuous kiln is the draw
or tunnel kiln. This is a brick structure, firebrick lined, in the form of an inverted
truncated cone, about 4'9 m higR, 2'4 m diameter at the top and 1'2 m diameter
at the base, having a fireplace with grating at the bottom. It is charged with
alternate layers of limestone and coal or coke. The process is continuous, the
burnt lime being withdrawn at the b;ue, and raw limestone and fuel added at
20
the top. Some tunnel kilns have the lower half below ground, from the draw
hole at the base of which is an inclined shaft or tunneL Such are known as
sunk draw or tunnel kilns.
Another form of continuous kiln consists of a steel cylindrical shaft, firebrick
lined, some IS m high and 2'5 m diameter, with several furnaces at the base, and
so designed that only the hot gases come into contact with the limestone. Such
kilns are economical in fuel consumption, and the lime which is withdrawn
at suitable intervals is free from discoloration.
The Hoffman kiln, described on p. 10, is another form of continuous kiln
used for burning lime and is suitable for the production of large supplies. The
following is a brief description of such a kiln which has been in continuous
use since the end of the nineteenth century'.
BRICKWORK
important property, as the hardness of certain lime mortars is depmdent upon it.
The chemical action which takes place on carbonation is represented by the
equation Ca(OH)! +CO, "" CaCO, +H,O (which is evaporated).
The slaking of hydraulic limes is referred to on page 21.
Classification.- The composition of various limestones differs considerably,
an#'thJ:ts there are a number of different kinds of limes each having characteristic
pro~ties which influence the purposes for which they are used. This is one
of several classifications' of lime: (I) Pure, Fat, White or Rich; (z) Lean,
Poor, CIty Chalk or Stone; (3) Hydraulic or Blue Lias; and (4) Magnesian.
The schedule below shows an approximate analysis of a typical specimen of each
of these varieties.
1. Pure, Fat, Whiu or Rich Lime contains less than 5 per cent. of impurities

It has twtnty-eight firtbriek lintd chambers, tach having a wicket and a damper such as silica and alumina (in form of clay). In the analysis the specimen
controlled lIue which is connected to the main horizontal lIue leading to a central is shown consisting almost entirely of calcium oxide. It slakes rapidly, evolves
dlimney stack. The kiln has no pennanent panltions. much heat, and exp;.nds from two or three times its original bulk during
Two sections of the kiln, each of ten chambtrs, are drying, burnini! and coolin~
at the $lme lime, and there is a gap of four chambers hetwetn each sectIon to permIt the process, has a high degree of plasticity (hence the name" fat "), is slow
of . tacking. unloading and the curying oul of repairs. A party of men is consUntly setting and very slow in hardening. This stiffening up can only occur when
removing the cool burnt lime from tht front of cadi section, whilst another gang is the lime is in contact with the air (see preceding column). Whilst pure lime,
stacking Ihe limestone at the baek of each seellon. Like tht brick kitn of this type,
the sequence of operations is advanced by a chambtr each day. and thus. as thtre which is white in colour, is extensively used for plastering, it is not so suitable
are two sections, the eq.uivalent to two chambel"$ is being unloaded and two loaded for lime mortar on account of its slow-hardening characteristic and lack of
daily. The limestone ,I ataeked, with horizonlal flues par. llel to the length of the strength (unless gauged with cement, see p. 27).
kiln fonned al the base, Ind vertical lIues formtd under tht feed-holtl provided at
the top. COil slack is the ruel used. and this IS fed to Ihe lme wh.ich il being l ub-
jeeted to the maximum temperature. The wickets to the drying and burning chambers
are sealed with half-brick thick walls daubed over with grouted lime. and the face of Pure Lean Hydraulic Magntsian
Ihe last stacked chamber in each section is covered wilh brown papu to exclude
draught from the open wickets in front. Lightly burnt lime suitable for building Calcium (CaO)
purposes (monan and plnters) i, obtained at nonnal temperatures of I 100" to Magnes.um oxid~ (M~) ,.,
93'0 8z'0
,·6 ,.,
67'0 57'22
38 '3 8
,., 6·,
, 200 C. in the firing chambel"$, but proximity 10 the lIues and longer helting periods Silica (SiO.)
..,.,,
0
17'5 2"9
produce a proponion of more solidly burnt lime suitable for the preparation of caustic
~a. Whilst unloading the burnt limt, it is hand_picktd, selected and graded, the
Alumina (Al,O,)
Iron oxide (FeIO I ) ,I ,·6
,., ,.,
3·' T' 0'69
0·68
lightly burnt being white in oolour and the hard-fired o ~ ove~burnt being dark Carbon dioxide. water, etc. 6·, 0·84
coloured.
100'0 100'0 100'0 100'00
Slaking, Setting and Hardening of Lime.-Pure limestone or chalk is
composed of carbonate of lime (CaCO,). When this is heated in a kiln it yields
calcium oxide (CaD) or quicklime and carbon dioxide (COt) which is driven off. 2. Lean, POOT, Grey Chalk or StOlle Lime contains more than 5 per cent.
When the quicklime is slaked by the addition of water heat is evolved, and of clayey impurities and is therefore less pure than fat lime. In the above
the lime expands and falls to powder. If just sufficient water is added to accom- analysis the impurities of silica, alumina and iron oxide amount to over II per
plish this action, the powder is dry and is called hydrated lime (see p. ZI). This cent. The characteristics are somewhat similar to those of fat lime, but on
slaked or hydrated lime is calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)t), the action of slaking account of its impurities it slakes less rapidly (resulting in a diminution of heat
being expressed by the equation CaD + Hp = Ca(OH)2' If more water is added and volume) and its iron content is responsible for its grey colour. Like
to the slaked lime it does not chemically combine with the lime but reduces fal lime, it sets and hardens slowly. It is used for both plaster and lime
it to a paste known as lime putty. mortar.
On lime putty being exposed to the atmosphere, it begins to set and 3. Hydraulic or Blue Lias Lime.-This class of lime is capable of setting
gradually hardens to form carbonate of lime as the water evaporates and carbon I The latest classification a-;peara in the British Standard Specifications for Building
dioxide is absorbed from the air. This is known as "carbonation," and is an Limes, No. 890-1940, which divides quicklime into two classes, i.e.. Class A- Lime for
plastering fini.hing OOlt, coarse stuff and buildine monar, and Cia.. B-Lime for coarse
1 At the Bw<ton Limeworkl of Meu l"I Imperia] Chemical Industries Ltd. . tuff and building monat only. It aivC$ particulal"l of several tests.
 LI M E
and hardening when not in contact with air and even if submerged in water,
~,ence the name. Hydraulic lime is therefore unlike both pure and lean limes
which, as already stated, will only stiffen when the water is evaporated from the
putty and carbonation takes place as the CO~ is absorbed from the air.
Limestones from which hydraulic limes are prepared contain varying pro-
portions of silica and alumina (in the form of clay), in addition to the calcium
oxide (see analysis). The day and iron oxide play an important part in the
setting and hardening of such limes. Quicklime is formed when the carbon
dioxide is driven off the calcium carbonate as the limestone is burnt in the kiln.
This quicklime, having a strong affinity for the day, combines with it to form
silicates and aluminates of lime.
Slaking.-If water is added to this burnt product after it has been finely
ground the mass begins to set and harden as the water combines with the various
products. As this action is not dependent upon the presence of carbon dioxide,
the hardening will continue even when air is absent. The setting and hardening
are therefore similar to the behaviour of Portland cement, the composition of
which it closely resembl~mpare the above analysis of hydraulic lime ·with
that of Portland cement on p. 23.
These limes have been subdivided into (a) feebly hydraulic, (b) moderately
hydraulic and (e) eminently hydraulic, according to the percentage of silica
and alumina present.
(a) Feebly Hydraulic Lime.-This contains less than IS per cent. of silica
and alumina. The rate of slaking is slow (varying from five to sil(ty minutes) and
the expansion on slaking is small. It produces a good mortar.
(b) Moderately Hydraulic Lime.-The silica and alumina content varies
from IS to 25 per cent. Slaking is very slow and the expansion is small. It
makes an excellent mortar, is stronger than feebly hydraulic lime and is suitable
for good-class brickwork and masonry.
(c) Eminently or Very HydraulU Lime.-This contains from 25 to 30 per
cent. of the important constituents of silica and alumina, and its chemical
composition is very similar to that of ordinary Portland cement (see p. 23).
It is also known as blue LiM lime, as it is found in the Lias formation which
extends throughout part of Yorkshire and the Midlands. This lime is similar
to, but stronger than, the moderately hydraulic variety. It must be very finely
ground and must be screened before use to diminate coar:ie umdaked panicles.
It closely resembles Portland cement (p. 22) and is used for similar purposes.
4. Magnenan or Dolomitic Lime.-The rocks from which such limes are
produced are known as magnesian limestones or dolomites, as they contain up
to 45 per cent. magnesium ox.ide. 1 The latter hu similar characteristics to
calcium oxide although it slakes much more slowly. This is an excellent
lime and is generally used in the localities in which the magnesian limestones
are found.
I The B.S. 8~1940 ahltel that a lime which conhlim more than 5 per cent. of
mllgntlium oJ:ide ,hall be termed I magnesian lime.
21
Air Slaldnl.-The burnt lime should be slaked as soon as possible after
it arrives on the site, otherwise moisture and carbon diox.ide from the atmos-
phere will, in course of time, reduce the lime to a powder, i.e., it will become
air slaked. This is undesirable, for, carbonation having taken place, the particles
of carbonate of lime are incapable of setting, and thus adulterate any mortar
with which they may be mixed. Hence the necessity of using only" freshly
burnt" lime.
Hydrated Lime.- As explained on p. 20, hydrated lime is that produced
when just sufficient water is added to the burnt limestone to satisfy the chemical
action of slaking, and is in a dry powder form. The slaking process must be
thorough, as any unslaked particl~ may cause considerable damage.
In addition to ordinary quicklime, certain lime manufacturen now supply
lime in hydrated form. There is an increasing demand for this dry hydrated
lime on account of the saving of time and labour resulting to the builder or
plasterer. This lime is hydrated by a special plant at the lime-works and is
supplied in bags, ready for use, in [he form of a dry, fine powder. This procesS
must be carefully controlled and the amount of water added must be just sufficient
for the purpose, as an inadequate supply would result in some of the lime being
unslaked, whilst an el(cess of water would produce pb.stic lime or putty.
At the Buxlon works referred to on p. ::to, hydrtted lime, ailed" Limbux," i.
produced by the plant shown diagrammatially in FIg. ,. The burnt lime from the
kiln ;s fed into the crusher A. Ind reduced in size from ~S nun down, elevsted to the
hopper a and passed into the hydrator c. The [atter consists of six steel tubee, each
,60 nun diameter and )., m long. A carefully cei'lIllted supply of wlter required
to .Iake the lime e nte~ the hydrat..,c It 0, the sttlm i'enerated from the slaked lime
o I A G ~ A M 0 F LIM E
H Y 0 ~ A TIN G p l ANT
1M IlW<T IIMl IS CRUlHKI ...t ...... tlJ'VA.lIl) ro TlIl 1tOIft~ ..,,, ~D
_ LWN. ..., 11 IS _ W I ) ALOItIO. ""*
"YO THl K>1>UolCM. 'C'. A. llWlAlIl) ~y Qf ""'Tlil.IN"TIU ...t"ll" I SlMU
-...rID IIfIlI IS _ " _ 0 TO _
V:lw.......,.. ... _ l l 1"HI I.UI .,," VI""""'" THl _ tNfT _ I I M I _
.,.. _ _ (Ot,II.Jtl ....TTtJ.. T!tI - . ~mo:; .... CtcrtJ Qf UMl " - . !
-.us..,. 10 _ IOT1'Ca '" _
.....,....,.,.O~"..... n.OI"l AAI _ " "
1"111 NtYfmoo,~. AU. 1>M UGMT _ T I D LWIl IS IXl"UICTII) rI",,* ,......,."
WMN 10_ oaDNf 'M' to IIWCI ro _ tuoIllJ.'J" _ " ISJro/lOfI\A"nCI\U.V
M _ .... IT'l.QOI$ono_ ......T_""""NG~ ... THlmICMICI
(10. 11M! 'M' q.-va,"TltI .... iI. MIl""'" flo! TIll ....... ( .....ttD rI THI " ' " ' _
AUDIO> THINI. TOnc.<I'IlIIJ ... T.... OO 1"HI _ 1M. _~""
11(W Of UIIOI....". lO ·TIIl IOTTl:lM '" TNI _vu.- '" _-..cftD.
.....
J
•
FIGURE 7
22 BRICKWORK
rising 10 heat the waler. The lime ;s pushed forward by m~lns of an augu and
traverses the hydrator as indicated by the UTO,,",. It is now In the fonn of a powder
and proceeds to the separator E, where the fan F separates the fine hght powdered
hydrated lime hom Ihc heavier coarser maCler. The I.tter, consistmg of clots of
hydrated lime and small nodules of unslaked lime. ralls 10 the bottom and the clots
are broken up bv the pulverizer c. Any unslaked partIcles of l,me, D«au~ of their
denSIty, fall 10 the bottom of Ih" pu]v"rlzer and are rejected. The hydrated hme
extracted by the ran is bluwn 10 the cyclone .. and hence 10 tbe hunker J. The gn:ater
part of the circulating air is returned by the pIpe L 10 the ~paralor system. The
,ncreased air pressure in the bunker which is trl:ated by the fan IS relieved by a tube
"hlch is tenninated by a canvas S1eve called the" stoclungs "",. Thl$ allows the
a,r 10 escape, any of the fine powder drawn up wllh it bemg retained and returned
10 Ihe bunker by periodically striking the canvas on the outside. Finally, the hydrated
I1me in the bunker, like Portland cement (see below), flows into paper bags and is auto-
matically weighed. The usual size of bag contains 15 kg, but 100 and 100 kg hags Can
be obtained if required.
CEMENT
There are two groups of cement, i.t., natural and artificial, but whilst the
latter is one of the most important building materials, comparatively little
natural cement is now produced. Natural cement is made frofT! nodules con-
sisting of lime (approximately 40 per cent.), clay (50 per cent.) and oxides of
iron, etc. (10 per cent.); these lumps are burnt and crushed to a powder, which
is a brown colour due to the iron content. Roman (produced near London)
and Medina cements (Isle of Wight) are both quick-setting natural cements.
The artificial cement group includes:
, (i) Normal or ordinary.
(ii) Rapid-hardening,
(iii) White and coloured.
(a) Portland Cement
(iv) Blast-furnace.
(b) Super-sulphate Cement.
(c) High Alumina Cement.
l
(v) Waterproof.
(vi) Sulphate-resisting,
(a) (i) Normal or Ordinary Portland Cement.-Chalk or limestone
and clay are the raw materials from which this cement is manufactured
(Chap. I, VoL I).
The cement works are generally situated near deposits of these raw materials.
A brief description of the manufacture and a diagram of a cement works are
given in Fig. 8. The processes include: (I) Excavation and preparation of the
materials; (2) mixing and grinding; (3) burning; and (4) grinding.
I. Excavation and Preparation.-The chalk is won from the limestone quarry by
blastmg. Gelignite charges are tamped in 150 mm diameter holes drilled at about
4.6 m intervals and at a distance of 4.6 m from the face (see sketch). On instantane_
ously firing these charges, huge masses of the limestone, amounting to several Ihousand
kg. and vary.ing in size from small fragments 10 large blocks, are dislodged. This
loose stone IS discharged into wagons from I mechamcal navvy (p. 2) and hauled
to the jaw trush" into which it is tipped and reduced by IWO powerful metal jaws
to a maximum size of zoo mm cubes. The crushed stone pllses on to a moving belt
and il conveyed to the CQne (Tush" which reduce. it down to 20 mm maximum. This
is delivered by a belt conveyer to the limestone silo.
The clay is excavaled by mechanically dragging a scrape.-Ouckrt over Ihe clay
field; thi, is tlpptd mto a "ash mill (p. t). and the washed clay, called sfip, con taming
about 60 per cent. of water. is pumped through metal pipes to the sfip sto.age tanlf.
2. M,xing and G"nd,ng.-The chalk from thc silo and the clay slip from the
tank enter the "'rl g.",d'"R mIll at A in the correct proport10nS (approximately 78 per
cent. chalk and II percent. clay). This IS a cylindrical mill 11-3 m long by 2 to 1·6 m
diameter, having a chromIum steel lining and divided inlo three compartments by two
slotted diaphragms. About 3a per cent. of the mill is occupied by steel balls gTllded
in diameter from 100 to 75 mm 10 the first compartment. 64 to)8 mm in the m,ddle
compartment and zs mm in the lUI compartment. The mill is caused to rotate at
about 10 revs. per min .• and as it rolates, Ihe abrasive actIon of the balls as they strike
against each other and against the metalcasing grind the material as it comes belween
them. Finc grindIng and thorou(lh mlldng reduce Ihe matenals to a creamy con-
sistency. called ,furr)', the bulk of which, after leaving the mill, passes through a
fine sieve (havtnl( a 0·09 rum mesh); that which fails 10 pass through the SIeve is
returned to the mill and re·ground.
After screening, the slurry is conveyed to the open slurr)' lank, which is 20 m to
diameter and 4·5 m deep, where II is kept agitated by compressed air delivered throul{h
perforated pipes at the bottom of the tank. The slurry, now a unifonn mixture,
is then pumped to the upper or feed end of the kiln.
3. B,m,ing.-The kiln is of the rotary type. It is a steel cylinder lined with
firebrick, about 90 m long and 3 m diameter, sli!!h!ly inclined and mounted on
rollers; it revolves slowly al about I rev. per min. The fu el is dry pulverized coal.
The raw coal is tIpped from the railway trucks at c. elevated 10 the rutu wal Silo,
passed to the coof mifi where it is findy ground and also dried by hot air conveyed
from the kiln by pipe D. elevated to the pu/veriud cool hopper and blown in at the
lower or firing end of the kiln-see arrows. The temperature in the lower or burning
zone is very intense (a white heal of approximately 1 538 0 C.) and gradually decreases
to 2)2-260 0 C. at the top end, where the gases escape up the chimney stack. Thus
the cold slurry. which is fed aUlomallcally and continuously, is first dried in the
upper zone, and durtntl its paSSlge down the kiln is heated and finally partially fused
into clinker. The chllk constituent, 8$ it is heated. is conv<:rted into Quicklime by
the liberation of COl and when subjecled 10 th" higher temperature the lime and
clay chemically unite to fonn hard balls (] 10 19 mm in size) of Portland cement,
called clinlfn. which is dirk brown 10 black in colour.
This clinker, which is white hot, is cooled as it passes from the kiln al the lower
end into drums or cylinders· called coof"s. There are twdve of these coolers, I·a m
in diameter and at least 6 m long. parallel to and attached to the outside of the
kiln. A draught of cold air is passed through the cylinders as the clinker gradually
gravitates towards and emerges from Ihe lower end on 10 a belt conveyor which
delivers it to the C/i ..lfn Jto~age bin or shed.
4. Gri ..ding.-Clinku is fed into the dinker hopper by means of an overhead
travelling crane grab ~ Ihe latter i5 also used 10 mix the coarse witR the finer dinker.
From the hopper the clinker passes to the combi!1alion gri!1dinl! mill, ball mill or
dry mill; this is of the ume sill' and is similar to the wet mill, it b"ing divided
into three compartments which contain graded sleel balls. These grind the clinker
to a powder whiCh is so fine that at least 90 per cent. of it must pass through a sieve
of wire cloth having 8 mesh of 0·09 mm square size (see below).
A small quantity, from I to 3 p"r cent., of gypsum (calcium sulphate) is added at
B from the gypsum hopper which adjoins the clinker hopper. This tends to lengthen
the setting time of the cement to suit practical conditions.
The ground cement as it emerges from the dry mill is forced by compressed air
up a pipe to silos or bins, each 6 m in diameter and about 21 m high. and having
a capacity of I·S Mg.
Packing.-The· cement from the silos is elevated to a hopper from which it flows
to the paclfing machinr. The cement was formerly packed into jute bags, but strong
paper-valved bags of 50 kg capacity are now chiefly used. Each hag i8 placed by
hand on the delivery nozzle of the machine, the cement is automatically weighed as it
flows into it. Ind the filled Ind sealed big is discharged and either stacked or placed
direct into lorries or trucks. One machine can fill I 200 bags per hour.
 CEMENT
Te£ljng . ~The manufacture is closely controlled at each stage, and samples
of the clay slip and chalk before they enter the wet mill, slurry after leaving the
mill, clinker after leaving the kiln, and cement at the packing machl9c are taken
for,aboratory examination.
The cement during and after manufacture is tested in accordance with the
British Standard Specification for Ordinary Portland and Rapid-hardening
Portland Cements, No. 12 1 , This specification includes the following tests with
which Ponland cement must comply: (a) Fineness, (b) chemical composition,
(c) strength, (d) setting time and (e) soundness .:-
(a) Filttllen.-This is estimated by sieving for fifteen minutes a sample (about
0"11 kg) of the cement on a No. " 170" (0'09 mm mesh) British Standard sieve, when
the residue for ordinary Portland cement shall not exc~ .0 per cent. As a general
rule the finer the cement the more rapId the strcnj!:th de\'e!opment of the concrete.
(b) Chnmcal Comj>asirlo".-This dause in Ihe specification limits the proportion
of lime to the silica, alumina and iron oxide, and the ratio of the percentage of Iron
oxide to that of alumina. It also specifies the mAximum percentage of insoluble
residue (I per cent.), magnesia (4 per cent.) and sulphur (2. 75 per cent.), in addition
to limiting the loss on igmtion to 3 per cent.
The following may be considered a. an approximate analysis of a typical Portland
cement : -
PerCent.
Lime 6,
Silica
Alumina
Iron oxide
,
'3
,,
3 One type of tensile testinr machine is shown at!" Fig. 9. Thll has a pair of Jaws
Magnesia
Sulphuric anhydride
Soda and potash
I'ubli~hcd by the Bntilh Standard. Inl1.lution, 28 Vietroria Sit",.!, 1.nndon. S.W.I.
23
The whole of the lime should combme with the SIlica and alumina. Any excess
called fru limt, may produce unsoundness (see p. 24). A deficiency of lime may
produce a weak cement.
The presence of iron is responsible for the grey colour of cement (re.sembhnQ:
that of Portland stone). If excessi\'e, Ihe iron oxide increases the difficulty of Q:rind-
ing the dinker. .
Excessive quantities of magnesia and sulphur compounds cause unsoundness.
An excessive quantity of soda and potash may cause efflorescence in the cement,
and these alkalis should therefore be kept to a minimum.
(c) S/¥t"Klh.-The specification requires that cement shall pass tests to determine
its strength in lension or compression.
Tl'nsil,. Srrurgrh Tt"st.-The cement has to be mixed with sand 10 form a mortar
composed of part I (by weighl) cement Bnd 3 pans of Leighton Buzurd sand (I very
clean, white and well graded sand obtamed from Bedfordshire) to wh,ch a specified
amount of water is added. The morlar is form~d in a bran mould of the shape
shown al 11, Fig. 9, Ihe cross-sectional area at the" waist" of the briquette being
6'45 em". The mould IS carefully fi!l~d by consolidating the mortar wilh a standard
Sled spatula (knife) until it is flusn witn the top; the mould i. reversed and the
broad blade of the spatula is used to pat the mortlr until .... ater is brougnt to the
surface, afler which the surface is smoothed over and brought flush with the top of
the mould by a trowel. The briquette is stored in a damp atmosphere and kept for
twenty-four houn at a temperature of 14 to <70 C., wnen it is removed from the
mould, submerged in clean waler and lefl untLi requIred for tC$ling.
!t is requi red that t .... elve briquettes shall be prepared and stored in Ihis manner,
and that six of these shall be tested at three days afler moulding, followed by the
remaining six at seven days. The average minimum tensile breaking strenglh of
ordinary Portland cement shin be 2'1 MN/m' at three days and ~'6 MN/m' at seven
days afler moulding.
of standard size and shape in which the bnquetle is placed. The lower Jaw IS fixed
Ind the upper jaw is suspended at K to a system of leven consisting of lever R, pivoted
on a knife-edge at J, and cOl"llilect~d by II rod (having knife-edges at Land M) to lever
Q, pivoted at N. A bucket is suspended at p to re«ive the load in the form of 'hot
(lead pellets) fed from the container.
The tening is carried OUI iJl. the following manner: A briquette is placed in the
jaws. the ,,,indle T is lifted to release the Shol, which passes in a ateady nream Ihrouah
 BRICKWORK
a valve down the nozzle of the contliner into the bueket. This load is tralUmitted
to the briquette through the syatem of levers and ultimately uuses it to break aeron
at the wain. Immediately this oe<:urs the fiow of shol i. automatically stopped ••
the bucket raU. on the pedestal below, depressing arm So which in tum causes the
spindle 10 drop and close the valve of the container. The bucket containing the ahot
is placed on lOme scales and weighed. A direct reading of the buaking load in
kilograms is obtained from the scalu, as they are calibnted in accordance with the
ratio of the levers after the weight of the empty bucket has been allowed for. AI this
breaking load is applied on 6"4S em' of the briquet\e, the breaking stress can be
found.
A line diagram of th" lever syitem of the apparatus is .hown at c. The ratio of
the length. J'K' and J'I.: in the lower le ... er is as I : 5 and that of M'N' and N'P' i, ..
I : 10. Henee the magnifying ratio il 50, i.t., the stress on the briquette is 50 times
as large as the load in the bucltet. Thus, if the ...... eight of the shot in the bucket when
the briquette fails is 3 kg the load aetingon ML equals 3 X 10 -3 0 kg multiplied by 5
•
equals 150 kg. This is the breaking load, and from it can be derived the heWing
stress.
Compuuivt Strtngth Telt.-If required by the pun:huet the abo ... e tensile "re"
test may be substituted by a compres.i"'e strength test. The latter is applied to 70
'O;Ir 75 mm cubes of a I : 3 mix, the mixing and compacting by ... ibration in a machine
being spedfied. Three cubes are telted in. compr«$ion machine (see p. 32) at three
days after moulding, and the a ...erage minimum compreui... e strength (calculated
from the crushing load) for ordinary Ponland cement ,hall be 10.7 N/mm'. Three
cubes are similarly tested at seven dlYs, when the ....erage minimum compressi ...e
strength .hall be 17·2 N lmm' (see Table IV, p. 34).
(d) Stlti'll Timt.-When cement and water are mixed to fonn a paste, the mus
remains pl..tic for a short while. The water combine. chemically with the grains
of cement to form hydrates. Thi. is known as hydrQtio~. As this proceeds, the
plasticity gradually disappea" and the cement stiffens or sttl. Thecementing material
between the particles of cement increases in amount, cauting the mass to gain in
strength and Iw,d~eu, and this h.rdness increases for some coruide"ble time after
it has set.
The specification refers to " initial set" and "finalaet." Reprding the former,
it is essential that the cement shaU set slowly at fi"t to allow tlflle for the mixing
and pladng in position of the concrete, and to ensure thorough adhesion between
• djacent batches of concrete. Ie i. equally imponant that the concrete shall harden
quickly after its initial set in order that it may be loaded IS soon IS possible and (in
the case of reinforced concrete) permit of the early removal of any formwork or
shuttering (temporary timbering) which may be supporting it.
According to the specification, the initial setting time for normal setting cement
shall be not leu than thirty minutes and the final settina time not more than ten
houn. If a quiclt_setting cement (see next column) i. required, the initial settina time
i5 reduced to not less than five minutes, and the final setting time to not more than
thirty minutes. The Vicat apparatus, shov.n at 0, Fia. 9, is used to determine the
initial Ind final setting times of cement. A brass cylindrical mould, spproximately
75 mm dil. and 38 mm deep, is placed upon a metal pille and filled to the top with
neat cement to which sufficient wlter hIS been added to make it plastic. The filled
mould i, pl'ced on the base as Ifldic.ted by broken lines. The initial set is measured
by means of a needle having a flat end, I mrn square, which is screwed to the bottom
of the rod in place of the final setti ng needle shown. The pin is withdrswn and the
rod il lowered until it touches the lIlllooth surface of the cement, when it i. quickly
releued and allowed to penetrate the cement. This il repeated at interval. on
different part, of the specimen until the needle fails to pien:e it completely. The
time which has elapsed between the addition of the Wiler and thi. partial ptnetnotion
of the needle i. called the initial tetting time and, IS already stated, must not be leu
than thirty minutes for nonnal setting cement (or fi ... e minutes for quick-setting
cement). The final tetting time ia detennined in a similar manner, the initial settina
needle being replaced by the final setting needle shown. The latter, of the ..me
shape and section I I the former needle, has a metal fitting attached at the end; the
base of the fitting has a raised rim which is about 0'5 mm above the end of the
~ntral needle. The cement i. consid<:red to be finally set when, on a gentle applic.-
tlon of the needle, the central Alt POint makes In impression on it but the raised
rim faib to do 10. This finll tetting time must not exceed ten ho~" for normal-
setting cement or thirty minutes for quick-setting cement.
(e) Sou~d~tJl.-Unsound cement has a tendency towards exceui ... e expansion.
Sound cement is relatively free from this tendency Ind its volume remains constant.
MOlt serious defects in cement products are clused by expansion which takes place
during setting and may continue for some considerable time. Thus, reinforced
concrete made of unsound cement may crack Ind disintegrate to such an u:tent as
to permit the entrance of moi8ture and cause corrosion of the exposed steel. The
soundness test which appea" in the standard specification is therefore very important.
This loundnen or expansion test is carried out in the Le Chatdier apparatus
illustrated at F, Fig. 9. This il I. brass split cylindrical mould having an indicator
attached on each side of the split. The mould, resting on a glass plate and hdd
together with the split edgt3 touching, is completely filled with neat cement gauged
with just sufficient _ter to make it plsstic, and co ... ered with another glau pille
which is held down by I. Imall weight. It is at once immersed in water (temperature
0
14·4 to 17"8 C.) and left for twenty-four hours. It is taken out, the distance w
between the indicators is measured, the weighted mould is again imrne"ed and then
boiled for thue hours. The mould is removed and, after cooling, the distance
between the points is again mel8ured. The difference between the two measurements
indicates the expansion of the cement and shall not exceed 10 mm.
Good cements will show little (not more than I mm) if Iny expansion. The
expansion of poor cementl ia often due to the presence of excess gypsum Ind other
sulphate,. The boiling water accelerates the reaction and resulta1lt expansion.
A simple but effective test (not mentioned in the speeificu.tion) is the hot-/Kll
test. Water is added to neat cement and thoroughly mixed to a plastic condition.
This i. worked to the shape of a ball, placed on a piece of glass which is tapped on
the bench until the cement Aattens out to the shape of I disc about 75 mm in dia-
meter. a little more than 6 mm thick at the centre and tapering to a knife_edge at the
circumfeunce. The surface is then smoothed o ... er .with a knife. After being
co ...ered o ... er with a damp cloth •.nd allowed to harden for twenty.four hOUri, the pat
is boiled in water for four or five hOUlS. If the cement is unsound, radial cracking
(especially at the edges) and diatonion will appear, due to expansion; the edges may
curl up and surface Raking may Ippear. A pst of sound cement will rem.in unaltered
after this trnlment, slthough fine .hrinkage cracks may appear .
The cold-/Klt te$t is similar to the above, except that the pat is not boiled but
simply immersed in cold-water for twenty-four hours before examination.
(a) (ii) Rapid-hardening or High-early-strength Portland Cement.-
This is true Portland cement, and, as its name implies, its chief characteristic
is the comparative rapidity with which it gains in strength in the early stages of
hydration (see Table IV, p. 34).
B.S. 12, already referred to, applies to this cement. Whilst the residue
of ordinary cement on a I70 sieve shall not exceed 10 per cent. (see p. 23), that
of rapid-hardening cement shall not exceed S per cent. The ultimate tensile
stress shall be not less than 2·07 Nfmm l after one day and )'1 NJmm l after
three days. The compressive strength shall be not less than I I N fmm after one
'
day and 24'1 Nfmm2 after three days. The initial setting time shall be not
less than five minutes and the final setting time shall be not more than thirty
minutes. These requ'tremenu should be compared with those stated in respect
to ordinary Portland cement.
Rapid-hardening cement can be usefully employed in cold weather, as it
is less liable than ordinary cement to damage from frost. It is preferred to
 CEMENT
ordinary cement in the construction of concrete roads, as it can take traffic
within a few days, whereas concrete composed of ordinary cement should be
left for twenty-eight days before roads are opened to heavy traffic. This advan-
tage also applies to reinforced concrete floors, etc., made of rapid-hardening
cement, as the lapse of time before the removal of the temporary timbering
(formwork) and the application of loads is considerably reduced. The cost of
rapid-hardening ce:ment is slightly more: than that of ordinary Portland cement.
" Ferrocrete .. and" Vitocrete" are some of the well-known brands of rapid-
hardening cement.
(12) (iii) White Portland Cement.-The chemical composition and charac-
teristics of white Portland cement are similar to those of ordinary Portland
cement, except that the latter is of a grey colour. The colour of white cement
is due to the raw materials used and the special precautions taken in its pro-
duction. The materials are pure limestone and china (white) clay, the iron
oxide content (which imparts the grey colour to ordinary Portland cement)
being less than 1 per cent. The: cement must not come into contact with iron
or steel during its manufacture, the kiln is lined with special fireclay blocks,
and oil is generally the fuel used. Aggregates used with white cement should
be light coloured (see p. 28). White cement is more expensive than ordinary
cement. It is in increasing demand for external rough-casting of walls, pointing
of brickwork and masonry, and in the manufacture of reconstructed (artificial)
stone and tiles. Well· known brands include" Atlas" and" Snowcrete."
Coloured Cement.-Cement, used for special purposes such as for plastering
walls and in the manufacture of reconstructed stone and tiles, is now obtainable
in a variety of colours. Pigments, such as black oxide of iron and manganese
black (to produce a black colour), re:d oxide of iron (producinR red), brown
oxide of iron (producing brown), chromic oxide (producing green), etc., are
thoroughly incorporated with the cement in a dry condition by machinery.
Coloured cement can be obtained ready for use from the manufacturers, or the
cement and pigments can be mixed on the job.
(12) (iv) Portland Blast-furnace Cement.-This is a mixture of ordinary
Portland cement and blast-furnace slag. The latter is a product of the blast
furnace in which iron ore is smelted as a preliminary in the manufacture of
cast iron, steel, etc. Normally this slag is an impurity which is run into ladles
and conveyed to the slag tip. When, however, it is used in the production of
cement, the slag as it issues from the furnace is cooled by a stream of water
which reduces it to a honeycombed, granulated condition. The slag is removed,
dried and mixed with ordinary cement clinker and passed to a ball mill (see
p. 22) for thorough incorporation and fine grinding. Not every slag is suitable
for this purpose. The quality of this cement must comply with the British
Standard Specification for Portland-Blastfurnace Cement, No. 146. The
proportion of slag must not exceed 65 per cent., and that of Portland cement
clinker must not be less than 35 per cent. (see p. a8).
(0) (v) Waterproof Cement.- This amtains a waterproofing agent, and
'5
concrete made with it is less permeable to water than that made with normal P.C.
(0) (vi) Sulphate-resisting Cemeot.-Sulphate bearing clays attack
normal P.C. and this cement offers some resistance to the action.
(b) Super..sulphate Cement is similar to (12) (vi) above, offering greater
resistance to attack, used for concreting in contaminated ground.
(c) High Aluminia or Alummous Cemeot.--{BS 915). This is made
frum a mixture of limelitone and Laux.ite (aluminium are) which is fired in a
hot air blast in a furnace with coal. The heat liquefies the materials and the
resulting cement is tapped off, eventually being ground extremely finely. The
cement is much darker in colour than Portland cement. An approximate per-
centage analysis is: Lime 39, Silica 7, Alumina 39. Iron oxide 13, Magnesia, etc, a.
Its chief characteristics are: Rapid-~ardening, great strength, large amount
of heat generated during the setting and hardening process, and its resistance
to acids. Concrete composed of this cement develops a compressive strength
of at least 34'4 N/mml at the age of one day and 49 N/mml at the age of seven
days (see Table IV, p. 34)' It is unaffected by frost on account of the heat
which it generates. Because of these qualities, high alumna cement can be
usefully employed when formwork is required to be removed with the minimum
delay, for concreting ground flOOr! on certain soils containing sulphates
which may attack ordinary Portland cement concrete and for work requiring
great strength, and when work must he done during low temperatures. The
W /C ratio (see p. 31) should nOT exceed 0.4 and the strength of HAC cement
concrete is affected adversdy if the heat generated during hardening is not
dissipated Thus, formwork encasing concrete should be removed as soon as
:>racticablc. Its usc is not advocated for mass concrete exceeding 450 mm thick
~nkS$ it can be dep~ited in thin layers, preferably 300 mIT' thick, and the
dissipation ofthe evolved heat permitted. AnOlher disadvantage of high alumina
cement is its relatively high cost. It must not be mixed with or brought into
contact with Portland cement, as a reduction in the strength of the former with
result. One well-known brand is "Ciment Fondu"
During 1974 certain failures occurred in stnlctural members made from
HAC concrete due to the fact that "Conversion" occurs witi1this cement. The
term conversion is used to describe physical changes arising d'uring hydration
which make the concrete porous. Hence HAC must not be used 10 buildings
subject to excessive condensation or water penetration.
MORTARS
Mortar is composed of aif aggregate, such as sand, and a matrix or binding
material of lime or cement or both (see p. ~, Vol. I).
Sand in mortar (I) reduces shrinkage and without it cracks would develop,
(a) assists in the hardening of pure lime! especially (p. ao) by allowing the
26 BRICKWORK
penetration of air which provides CO' for the development of carbonization
(p. 20) and (3) reduces its cost, as sand is much cheaper than lime or cement.
To give the best results sand should be well graded and must be clean.
Grading of Sand.-A suitably graded sand consists of particles varying in
size from coarse to fine, with the smaller particles packing into the voids between
the larger. A coarse sand is one the bulk of which is retained on a No. 52 British
Standard Sieve (0'302 mm square mesh). If most of the particles of a sample pass
through this sieve, the sand is classified as a fin;e one. Coarse sand produces
what is known as a harsh mortar. Sand containing a large proportion of very
fine particles, such as dust or silt, is not suitable, as an excessive amount of
water is required to make the mortar workable, and this reduces its strength
and increases shrinkage. It is therefore recommended that, for mortar, not
more than 3 per cent. of sand should pass a No. 100 standard sieve (0.152 mm
square mesh). To the experienced, the relative coarseness and fineness of a
consignment of sand can be gauged approximately by its appearance and by
rubbing some of it between the thumb and forefinger.
The strength of mortar (and concrete, see p. 28) is decreased if the particles
of sand are of uniform size, owing to the presence of a large proportion of pore
spaces. Tests have shown that the shape of the particles is not very important.
Cleanliness of Sand is most essential. Adhesion between the binding material
and the sand is only possible if the particles of the latter are clean; the
presence of dirt, especially if finely distributed to such an extent as to surround
each small particle, interferes with the setting and reduces the strength of mortars
and concretes. The chief impurities are clay, loam and organic compounds
such as vegetable matter. The latter, not being inert, is liable to decay, and the
organic acids produced may have an ill-effect on the mortar or concrete.
Clean sand when rubbed will not stain the fingers. A simple and effective
test consists of half filling a glass vessel with the sand, water is added unfil it
almost reaches the top, and after being agitated, the sand is al!owed to settle.
If the sand is clean, not more than a thin film of silt will be seen deposited on
top of the sand, and the water above it will be clear; if, however, the sample is
a dirty one, the bottom layer of the washed sand will be covered by a relatively
thick dark layer of dirt, and small particles of suspended matter (generally
organic and fine clay) may be seen floating in the water even if several hours
have elapsed after agitation and examination.
Sand for general purposes may be considered satisfactory if a test similar
to the above (but in a measuring cylinder) shows that it contains not more than
6 per cent. of silt. This is known as a sedimer.tation or decanting test.
A test for organic impurities consists of comparing the colour of the water above
the sample of sand in a cylinder (to which a definite amount of 3, per cent. sodium
hydroxide solutIon has been added) with that of a standard solutIOn of tannic acid
and sodium hydroxide. If, after standing for twenty-four hours following agltation,
the colour of th e fonner is darker than the standard colour, it indicates that th e sand
contains an excessive amount of organic matter which may be injurious and should
be treated with suspicion.
If, on the score of economy, a local sand is to be used which is not sufficiently
clean, much of the dirt can be eliminated by washing.
The following aggregates are used for mortars; (I) Pit or quarry sand,
(2) river sand, (3) sea sand, (4) crushed stone and (5) ashes.
I. Pit or Quarry Sand.~The quality varies. Provided it is clean, it is a
very good sand for mortar, concrete and plaster. Some pit sands are liable to
contain organic matter in the fo rm of coal which may interfere with the setting.
2. River Sand. ~This is usually clean and is an excellent sand for all
purposes .. Some river sands may be deficient in fines (smaller particles) and
thus produce harsh mortars.
3. Sea Sand.~Whilst this sand is commonly used locally for concrete, it
is not suitable for mortar on account of its salt content which causes efflorescence
(p. '3) ·
4. Crushed Stone. - This is now often used, especially for mortar required
for ashlar work. The waste stone at the quarries is crushed to the size of sand
particles. When this crushed stone is the same as that used for the ashlar work
it assists in producing a mortar which closely conforms to the colour of ·the
masonry and thus helps in making the joints inconspicuous.
5. Ashes or Clinkers from furnaces are crushed very finely and intimately
ground with the lime in a mortar mill to produce a cheap and strong mortar,
known as black mortar. The ashes should be frce from unburnt coal and dust.
Old broken bricks, which should be clean and especially free from plaster, are
sometimes crushed and mixed with the lime in the mill.
Lime Mortar.-The slaked lime is mixed with the aggreg..te and water
either by hand or in a mortar mill. Manual mixing should be done on a boarded
platform to ensure that dirt will not be shovelled into the mix. The period of
slaking, composition and strength of mortar depend upon the class of lime
used.
The properties of the mortar should resemble those of the bricks. Thus, whilst
a dense, strong impenneable mortar, such liS cement mortar, should be used fo,
bending. jointing and pointing strong bricks of the engineering class, such mortar
would be unsuitable for low-strength bricks of medium permeability if used in the
construction of external walls. Existing brickwork has been known to develop defects
in the bricks subsequent to re-pointing with rich, dense mortar. A possible explana-
tIon of the cause of this is that water absorbed by th e bncks during wet weather
can only be eliminated during dry periods by evaporation on the surface of the bricks
and not through the joints, and any salts in the bricks may crystallize near the surface,
causing disintegration of their fac es.
N(}/l-hydraulic Lime Mortars (from pure and lean limes, see p. 20) must
be well slaked before use. This type can be stored in a heap for several days after
mixing, provided the surface is smoothed over with a shovel to minimize
carbonation by the exclusion of as much air as possible. As such mortars can
only harden when exposedoto the atmosphere (p. 20), a relatively large proportion
of sand must be added to the lime to assist in the penetration of air. For this
reason the proportion of sand may be as high as 4 parts by volume of sand to I part
lime. These mortar~ 3re light-coloured. They are not likely to cause efflorescence.
 MORTARS
These mortars are not suitable for work below ground level, especially if the
ground is water-logged. Such mortars are improved if gauged with cement.
Hydraulic Lime Mortars (see p. 20) should be used within one hour after
being mixed. This especially applies to eminently hydraulic mortar which
sets quickly after the addition of the necessary amount of water. Any mortar
which has stiffened and cannot be knocked up by means of a trowel to a suffi-
ciently plastic condition should never be used. The proportions of lime to
aggregate range from I part lime to from 2 to 3! parts sand, a common mixture
being I : 3. These are excellent mortars for all purposes and afe particularly
suited for work below the ground level and in exposed positions.
Eminently hydraulic lime mortars rank next to cement mortars as regards
strength. They may be a cause of efflorescence (p . 13) owing to the presen~e
of salts.
Magnesian or Dolomitic Lime .iWortars (see p. 21) have a slow-setting action
and they should therefore be slaked for several hours before use. Their pro-
perties and uses are somewhat similar to those of hydraulic lime mortars.
Hydrated Lirru (p. 21) should be reduced to a putty consistency by adding
water and allowing it to stand (soak) for a day before being mixed with sand.
BUick Mortars {see p. 26).- A usual proportion is I lime: 3 ashes or clinker
(mixed in the mill). They are hard-setting and are suitable for internal walls
and for brickwork and masor.ry where the colour is unimportant.
Cement Mortar {see Chap. I, Vol. I).- It is stronger than lime mortar and
is therefore uscd in the construction of piers and load-bearing walls; it is also
usefully employed for work below ground level and for external walls in exposed
positions on account of its impermeability. Cement mortar is now extensively
used during winter, as it is not so liable to damage by frost, owing to its relatively
quick-setting property. It must be used immediately after mixing. Efflorescence
may be caused, due to the presence in the cement of carbonates and sulphates of
potash and soda (see p. 13). The usual composition is I cement: 3 sand; there
is nothing to be gained by using a richer (and more costly) mix than this. A
dense cement mortar should not be used for bedding and jointing low-strength
bricks (p. 26).
Chemical additives are now available to improve the workability of mortar;
these enable a coarser sand to be used and mixes leaner than 1 : 3 are practicable.
They are added to the water in the proportion of about 3 per cent and allow the
mortar to entrain air bubbles giving increased plasticity.
Cement-lime or Compo Mortars.- Compo is a mixture of lime, cement
and sand . It is usual to mix the time mortar as already explained , and then
gauge (add to) this mixture with the necessary proportion of Portland cement
immediately before the mortar is required for use. Non-hydraulic, feebly
hydraulic and hydrated limes can be used for this class of mortar. The addition
of the cement increases the hydraulicity of the mortar, besides increasing its
strength, and the rate of hardening is therefore accelerated. This quality makes
it a useful mortar to be employed in winter. Compo is more open textured than
27
cement mortar and is therefore better suited for bedding and jointing bricks
of moderate or low strength. The gauging also increases the workability of the
mortar. The proportions vary from I cement: 2 to 3 lime: 6 to 9 smd. Emin-
ently hydraulic and magnesian limes shoulo not be gauged with cement.
Comp<) is an excellent mortar for rubble, flint and similar walling where a large
proportion of bedding material is required. When ordinary lime mortars are used
foc this class of work there is a tendency for excessive shrinkage to take place, and this
may cause cracks th rough which water m ay penetrate. Compo for such work may
consist of I part cement: 4 parts lime : 12 parts sand.
FIRE-RESISTANT MORTAR.--Ordinary Hme and cement mortars are unsuitable
for setting firebricks or fireclay blocks used for lining furnaces, fireplaces, etc., as
they shrink considerably when subjected to heat. There are several proprietary
mortars specially produced for this class of work. A good fi le·resisting mortar
consists of a mixture of I part ccment ·(preferabl y aluminous cement, see p. 25) to
2 pa rts finely crushed firebri ck (p. 16).
StTenr:th of Mortar.-Cement mortar produces the strongest brickwork,
non-hydraulic lime mortar walling is approximately half the strength of that
in cement mortar, and the strength of eminently hydraulic mortars is inter-
mediate between that of cement and non-hydraulic lime mortars. The strength
of compo mortars depends a good deal upon the cement content and may be
very little less than cement mortar.
Cowur of Mortar .-Whilst the colour of the mortar is immaterial if the
brickwork is to be covered with plaster or roughcast, it is very important that
the colour shall suitably conform with that of the bricks when these are to be
used in the construction of faced work. The appearance of brickwork is often
spoilt through inadequate attention being paid to the colour and texture of the
jointing material, even when the bricks are expensive facings. The colour of
mortar is infiue!l(:ed by both the lime or cement and the aggregate, and in order
to obtain the desired result it is sometimes essential to tryout different materials
and proportions .
The colour of lime mortar varies from white (when pure lime-po 20-is used) to
black (pr~eding column). Ordinary Portland cement mortar is grey in colour; whi te
P<:ortland cement with a light·coloured sand pro-cluces white mortar; different shades
can be obtained by using coloured cements (p. 25). Sand varies in colour from white
to dark brown or red . A yellow sand, mixed with grey lime, produces a satisfactory
c()louf for certain sand_faced brickwork.
Multi-coloured brickwork esp~ially is apt to be disfigured by iron stains. As
this staining disappears after the brickwork has weathered, it is advisable to defer
the pointing of such brickwork .
In masonry, and in order that the mortar shall hannonize with the stone, it is a
common practice to use crushed stone (p. 26) in lieu of sand. Thus, for Portland
stone ashlar work the proportions recommended are 2 parts Ponland cement: 5
parts slaked lime : 7 to u part$ crushed Portland stone.
Waterproofed Mortars...&.There are now available a large number of pro-
prietary substances, called waterproofers, which are mixed with mortars to
render them impervious. They are marketed in the form of powders. pastes
and liquids. Their object is to either fill the pores of the mortar or to line the
pores with a film of water-repellent material. Most of these, such as
 BRICKWORK
"Cementone,"" Medusa,"" Pudlo" and" Sika," are only suitable for cement
mortars. & such mixtures must not be used after the initial set, it is necesq.ry
to apply the material without delay and in some cases within half an hour
of the addition of water. Unused partially set mortar ,must be discarded.
The amount of waterproof added varin and should be in acxordance with the
manufacturen' irutructionl. When in powder fonn, the mixture may consilt of
I part cement: a to 4 parts aand; a to 5 per cent. of the waterproofer; the required
amount of the powder il added to and well incorporated with the cement before being
spread over the ..nd; the whole il then mixed dry before the water i. carefully added,
Ifter whieh it i, mixed to an even conliltency, When in the fonn of a paste, water
il added very gr1ldullly to the waterproofer in the UlIual proportion of I part paste to
10 paru wlter whil.t being wellstirnd to reduce the solution to. unifonn consiltency;
the cement and $and are well mixed dry before the solution i, added, and then mixed
wet to a workable condition. If in liquid fonn, it il utu.l to add I litre of the water_
proofer to every IS litres of waler: the cement and sand are mixed dry before this
" gauging water" i. added and finally mi:o;ed wet.
Further reference to waterproofers i. made on p. 36.
Waterproofed cement is also used to make waterproof mortar.
CONCRETE
Concrete consists of a (1) matrix, (a) fine aggregate and (3) coarse aggregate
thoroughly mixed with water. In general, a good concrete is required to be
hard, strong, durable, dense, non-porous, fire resisting and economical, although
for certain structures, such as internal partitions, strength and impermeability
are not necessary requirements where a porous concrete may be desirable on
account of its lightness and sound-insulning properties, The characteristics
of concrete are influenced by the quality of the materials, grading of the
aggregates, proportioning, amount of water used, and workmanship. Ideally,
the variation in the size of the aggregates (known as grading) should be such
that the fine aggregate will fit into the spaces between the coarse aggregate to
leave a minimum percentage of voids to be filled by the matrix in cementing
the whole mass together. Adequate grading is economical, as less cement is
needed when the aggregates are well graded. A mixture which is too rich in
cement may shrink excessively. It is most important to appreciate that the
strength of mortar depends very largely upon the amount of water used in
relation to the cement; an e:tCesl of UHlt" results ill a cmuUkrabk redlUtibn ill
strength. (see p. 30). Just sufficient water should be added to make the mix
reasonably plastic and workable.
The expression" workable mixture" is applied to concrete of such con-
sistency that it can be readily deposited in position in a uniform condition
. and rendered dense after a reasonable amount of punning (see p. 35).
Concrete when used bY'itself is k.nown as mass C(J1IDtte (used fOf foundations ,
certain flool'$, retaining walls, etc.); concrete reinforced with steel is called
reinforced c01IDtte.
I . Matri.ll.- The binding material used for most concretes is ordinary
Portland cement (pp. at to 24). Rapid-hardening cement (p. 24) is suitable
as a matrix for concrete atructures which have to be speedily constructed. The
fire-resisting and durable qualities of blast-furnace cement (p. 2S) render this
a satisfactory matrix for reinforced concrete and marine work. High alumina
cement (p. 25), because of its high strength and rapid-hardening characteristics, is
especially suited 10.:1 a binding material for concrete used in structures which are to
withstand high stresses and be speedily erected. Sulphate-resisting and super-
sulphate (p. 2S) cements are for use in concrete placed insulphate bearing ground.
Some clay subsoils and those containing industrial waste attack normal p.c.
2. Fine Aggregate.~Acco"'ding to B.S. 882~Concrete Aggregates from
Natural Sources, a fine aggregate (conforming to the Code of Practice" The
Structural Use of Concrete ") is one which mainly passes a test sieve having a
4'8 mm square mesh. Sand (p. 2S) is the chief material employed as a fine
aggregate, and both quarry and river sands are extensively used for this purpose.
Sea sand is also used locally as an aggregate, chiefly because of its low cost; if
such sand is required for concrete which is to be exposed to view, it is advisable
to eliminate as much as possible of the salt content by washing withfresn water,
otherwise efflorescence may be objectionable. Cleanliness and suitable grading,
already referred to, are essential requirements.
3. Coarse Aggregate.~This is classified as material which is mainly
retained on a 4.8 mm meshed sieve. The maximum size varies; thus, for rein-
forced concrete work it is usually 19 mm, and for mass concrete, as for founda-
tions, it is generally 38 mm and may be 64 mm. The materials must be clean
(to ensure the thorough adhesion of the cement and the development of the
setting properties of the concrete), strong (to resist stresses), durable (to withstand
alternate weather conditions of wetness and dryness, frost and thaw, etc.),
suitably graded (for economy and the development of the strength and workability
of the concrete), free from combustible material (to ensu re adequate fire-resistance)
and inert in the presence of water (otherwise disruption of the concrete may
result by expansion and contraction movement). In addition, aggregate for
concrete floors and roads should be effective in resisting abrasion. Flaky and
laminated material should be avoided.
The following materials are used for coarse aggregate: (a) BrOken brick,
(b) broken stone, (e) gravel, (d) slag, (e) pumice, (f) breeze and clinker, (g)
foamed slag and (h) expanded slate. See also Jawdwt C07JCrett and fibTous
wood cnnmt (Chap. I , Vol. III).
(a) Broken Britk.~Old bricks from demolished buildings, etc., are broken
for use as aggregate. This is a good aggregate, provided the bricks are not
porous and are thoroughly cleaned, i.t., any lime and plaster must be removed.
Soft and porous brick aggregate is particularly unsuited for reinforced concrete
work, as such admits air and moisture to cause corrosion of the steel; broken
well-burnt brick aggregate makes a valuable concrete because of its strong,
durable and fire-resistlhg qualities. Adherent lime and plaster afe very
objectionable, as any calcium sulphate may cause expansion and diSintegration
of the concrete. Bricks having a high sulphur content are also unsuitable.
Broken brick aggregate should be well watered before being mixed to prevent
 CONCRETE
excessive absorption of the water used in mixing which may cause the concrete
to crack.
(b) Brohm Stone is an excellent aggregate provided the stone is free from
any undesirable mineral constituents and is not soft, porous, friable or laminated.
Granites, sandstones and close.grained limestones are all suitable. The stone
is crushed and then screened.
There are several (onna of crushers, such IS the jaw, h.mmer, disc, gyratory aod
roll types, which break up Is:ge blQ(:ks of the rock into smal! pieces. There are also
$evenl types of screclU, moot of which have I vibnting action. In seruning, the
m.ateri.l is passed from the crusher by • bf:lt conveyor to the prim.ry Kreen, which
has a large (76 mm) mesh. The screened material is then pISsed successively through
a series of Icreens of various sized meshes, i.c., 38, 19 and 4'8 mm. Thus, the
76-38 rum grade is retained On the 38 mm sieve lind pllned to the stock bin, thllt wtftch
passes through it is discharged on to the 19 mm sieve which separates the 38-19 rum
grade (discharged to 1I second stock hopper) lind allows the finer material to pass
through on to the 4'8 mm sieve to be separated into 19-4'8 mm and finer grades. each
of which i. conveyed to a stock bin.
(c) Gravel is another very good aggregate and is extensively used. It is
hard and durable, and is obtained from river beds, the seashore, and inland
deposits which are quarried. The gravel is excavated by hand labour or
mechanically. Clay is a common impurity and must therefore be removed by
washing. Seashore gravel, if required for reinforced concrete, should also be
washed in fresh water so as to eliminate as much as possible of the salts. This
is also known as ballast (see below).
(d) Bilut-furnace Slag (p. 25) is a very uncertain material as a coarse
aggregate. Some slags readily disintegrate and are quite unsuitable, whilst
others are inert and are cbmmonly used locally in producing concrete of good
quality. This is also referred to as .. ballast" in districts where it is used
(.eo .1., (g)).
Burnt Balilut is produced by burning clay in a kiln, and the slabs are then
crushed and screened. It is a suitable material for coarse aggregate, provided
it has been hard-burnt. Under-burnt ballast and that containing sulphur
(from the fuel) should not be used.
(e) Pumice is a whitish or yellowish material of volcanic origin which is
highly honeycombed. It was imported into this country, chiefty from Germany,
and used as an aggregate for lightweight concTtte. This concrete, although
relatively weak, is, as its name implies, light and very suitable for partitions
(Chap, I, Vol. III), covering fiat roofs, encasing beams and pillars, and similar
purposes where strength is not important. Pumice is crushed. Dust and shaly
fragments should be removed. It does not contain sulphur and is inert.
(f) Bruxe and Clinlur are waste materials resulting from the burning of
coaL Breeze is obtained from gasworks and coke ovens j clinker is the mineral
matter or uh from furnaces. These materials produced from certain coals,
especially when they contain small particles of the coal, are distinctly unsound
and should be avoided. They have been responsible for a large number of
concrete failures owing to the considerable expansion which takes place when
29
associated with cement. They may also have a large sulphur con~nt, which
will cause rapid and extensive corrosion of steel and the spalling off of the
concrete. These are classified as " prohibited aggregates," are quite unsuitable
for concreting, and they must not therefore be used for reinforced concrete work
or for encasing beams, pillars, etc., in steel framed buildings. However, not all
breeze and clinker are dangerous, and on account of cheapness and lightness,
much is used for internal concrete block or slab partitions (Chap, I, Vol. III).
(g) Foamed Sw.g, which somewhat resembles pumice, is produced from
b1ast-furnace slag by rapidly cooling the molten material with water. It is light
ir, weight owing to its cellular structure and is crushed and graded as required.
It is very suitable for the manufacture of partition slabs (Chap. I, Vol. II I).
(h) Expanded Slate is another good lightweight aggregate which has not
been extensively used, probably because its cost is higher than that of foamed
slag. It is produced by heating waste slag to a high temperature until its
thickness is considerably inCreased. This light honeycombed material is then
crushed and graded.
Grading of Aggregates.-The importance of suitably grading the aggregates
in order to obtain a concrete of good quality has been referred to on p. 28. It
is therefore desirable that samples of the aggregate should be taken periodically
and examined.
Thcse samples should be reprcsenlative. and therefore ten are taken from diffeunt
pans of the consignment. The,e are well mu:ed tOj!ether and a final test s;mlple
obtained. Acwrding to C.P. 114. the aggreglles must eom?ly with B.S. 88:l, both
referred. to on p. :l8. lind they must be tested IS described in B.S. 8. :l- Methods for
Slimpling and Testing of Mineral Aj!gregates (Slnds and fillers). The latter splits
sands into four zones hiving dd'ferent degrees of finenns, wnn I to 3 IU suitable
for uinforced concrete work. Samples are taken of the aggregates and passed
successively through a series of nine standard slevu. i.t., 3g'l, 19'1, 9'5, 4'8 mm,
NO.7 (2.4 mm square mesh), No. 14 (1 '2 mm mesh). NO.:lS (0·6 mm mesh), No. 52
(0') mm mesh), and No. 100 (0'15 mm mesh). It will be observed that the size of
opening of a sieve is double (or approximately .0) that of the next smalier 5ieve.
The aggugate refained on each sieve is then eaufully wdghed and the amount
pISsed through each is expressed 1& a pereentaj!e.
The following figures shown in brackets au the limits of material passing through
the sieves in respect to :lone I fine aggrej!ate; "'8 mm sie~ (90 to .00 per cent.).
NO·7 sicve (60 to 95 per cent.). No. 14 sieve (30 to 70 per cent.). No. is sieve {IS to
34 pu cent.). No. 5<1 (S to 20 per cent.) and No. 100 sIeve (0 to .0 per cent.).
The following are the limits of material passing through sieves in respect to
coarse aggregate of a specified size varyinJ~ from a maximum of 38 mm to II minimum
of 4'8 mm; 38 rum sieve (95 to .00 per CCflI.) 19' I sieve (30 to 70 per cent.). 9'S mm
sieve (10 to)S per .cent.) and "'8 mm sieve (0 to 5 per cent.); for 19 to 4.8 mm coarse
aggregate. used in reinforced eoncrete work, the limits ne; '9·1 rum sieve (95 to
100 per cent.). 9'5 rum sieve (25 to SS per cenL) and 4'8 mm sieve (0 to 10 per cent.).
Not more than one-fifth and not less than one-twentieth of zone t sand of
4.8 mm maximum size should pass through a No. sz sie'/e; for zone 3 sand the
percentage passing the same sieve is 15 to 40. Unsuitable grading of the sand
is a frequent cause of defects in concrete, and the strength and workability of
the concrete depend a good deal upon the percentage of sand which passes
through a No. 52 sieve. Thus, an excess of thiS fine material ncoeuitates the
30 BRICKWORK
addition of an ~xctssjtJt amount of woltT during mixing and a dtcrtase In the
strength of concrete results, whilst a deficiency of fine material cause~ unwork-
ability and harshness. The above D.S. 882 requires that not morc than 10 per
cent. by weight of the sand (20 per cent. for crushed stone sands) shall pass
through a No. 100 sieve. Fine dust must be excluded from the aggregate.
For coarse aggregate of 19 rom maximum size, not morc than 55 per cent. and
not less than one-quarter should pass through a 9'S mm sieve.
Thl' importance of correct grading cannot be over emphasized. The shape
of the particles of aggregate influences the workability of the concrete. Thus,
concrete with crushed aggregate having sharp edges will require more water
than that made of rounded particles, and therefore the latter makes a stronger
concrete for a given workability and is preferred to angular particles. The
particles should be compact and not Aat and elongated.
Proportioning Concrete.- The composition of concrete varies considerably,
depending upon the specific requireme-nts in respect to strength, durability,
impermeability, workability and economy, ~n addition to the quality and
characteristics of the materials. Thus, the proportions of materials for concrete
required for a reinforced concrete beam will differ from those for a concrete
non.load.bearing internal partition or for site concrete.
Great care should be taken to determine the correct proportions of the
materials. Cement should always be specified by weight and it also good
practice to express the proportions of the aggregates by weight. The Code of
Practice (sec below) require all materials to be weighed.
Sometimes the proportions of the aggregates are specified by \'olume; thus
the Building Regulations stipulate the site concrete shall ct'nsist of not less than
50 kg of cement to every 0'1 m 2 of fine aggre~ate and 0'2 m 2 of coarse aggregate.
In practice, and during wet weather especial\y, it is difficult to obtain batches
of concrete which are uniform when the fine aggregate is measured by volume.
This is due to the increase in volume, known as bulking, of the sand which
occurs when it is in a moist condition. Experiments show that I m S of dry
sand will approximately increase to 1-2 m 3 if 3 per cent. of water is added
to it, and therefore there is actually less aggregate in I m 3 of moist sand than
in the same volume of dry sand. If the water content increases to 4 per cent.,
the volume will be increased by approximately i; as the moisture increases
beyond this percentage, the bulking gradually decreases, and when the sand
becomes submerged the volume of the inundated sand is the same as that when
dry. The finer sand, the greater the bulking. This bulking of moist sand
should be allowed fOT; it is customary to assume thai the volume has increased
by 20 ~r cent., and therefore this amount of sand is added to the proportion of
fine aggregate when mixing.
It is obvious that this is only an approximate correction. In wet weather, sand
which has ~en deposited on a sile has a variable water content. When high-grade
concrete is required, the actual bulking may ~ obtained in the followmg manner:
A amall box is filled with the moil ' »nd. This sand i. dried, re!Utn",d to the bolli, and
after bemg Jev",lI",d off al Ih", top Ih", r",duced d"'pth of th'" sand i, measured. The
percentage of bulking equih
Depth of box-depth of dry aggrell'3te x JOO.
Depth of dry aggregate
This method IS not readily applied in practice and is only resortcd to when speeially
called for .
The bulking of sand does not present any practical difficulties when the
mixes are proportioned by weight. Coarse aggregates are not normally subjected
to the phenomelloll of uulkitog.
The Code of Practice for The Structural Use of ConcTete provides for two
methods of determining the mix proportions of concrete :-(a) desig1led mixes
and (b) standard mixes.
(a) Designed mixes. In this metood the designer specifics the concrete
strength required and is free to select the proportions of the different materials
to achieve this strength. The Code specifies a numbyr of normal grades of
concrele having different characteristic cube strengths. The following Table I
gives three extracts from the Code; it will be noted that the grade number is the
value in N fmm! of the 28 day cube strength.
TABLE I
Grade Specified eharaCleristic cube: strength in Nlmm' at
28 days 7 days
'0 '0 6.,
u·s 1<1'5 '5'0
~7'5 37'S <16'0
By adopting designed mixes economy of materials is ohtained because the
required strength and workability for the construction in hand can be obTained .
This is done by, prior to the start of construction, making 6 cubes (see p. 32)
from 4- separate batches of concrete (including one batch from full -sef>.·e ptOduc-
tion conditions). The actual materials to be used for the work arc weighed and
the slump (see p. 32) of each batch measured. Three cubes from each batch arc
tested (see p. 32) at 7 days and 3 at 28 days. If the desired strength is not attained
the proportions are altered and the procedure repeated until attainment.
The concrete mix has to be designed to have a mean strength greater than the
required characteristic strength by a margin of between 1'64 times and twice the
standard deviation calculated on at least 40 separate batches but not less than
If3rd of the spe<:ified strength for grades of 15 and below and T 5 :sr l mm 2 for
grades 22'5 and above.
The site procedure ta ensure quality control of the mix includes the following.
When the mix is first used on the site at least 40 cubes should be obtained (8
samples per day over a 5 day period). Thereafter samples should be obtained
from about 4 % of the balches made wilh al least one sample per day.
 CONCRETE 31
(b) StamJard mixes. The Code gives a table of standard mixes wherein the TABLE III
weights (in kg) of cement and total aggregates are given for three sizes of aggre-
gate and for medium and high workability. Table II below is an extract from the Normal Mix",s M,xes with 30 per cent,
PerCent,
Code table for two grades of concrete using 19 mm maximum aggregate and Excess Water
Reduction
med ium slump (see p. 32) of between 2S and 50 mm. The grade number should Mix Proportions ;n
W W Strength
give the z8-day cube strength in N Imm! of the mix. Slump Strength Slump Sm,ngth
C C
T ABLE II
A I: I: , 0'43 ..
mm (Nfmm )
'
34'9 0'5 6
(mm)
"9
(Nfmm')
23'4 33
Grade

'0
Materials

cement 24~kg
aggregate lQOO kg
SBnd content 33-50%
Grade

"
Malerial,

cement Joo kg
aggregate 1900 kg
sand'eontent 35-50%
B
C
I : :1

I :
'.
3 ,6
0,62

0'85
8,
,0
20'3

10'7
0,81

'·'0
",
'79
11,6

5'9'
42!

441

These figures illustTate the appr~ciable reduction in strength as a result of excess water
content,
If grade IS concrete from this table is used with 35% sand content the
proportions of fine and coarse aggregate to f part of cement can be found thus: This relationship between the quantity of mixing water and amount of
cement in a concrcte mix is known as the fl.later-cement ratio, expressed as
35% of the total aggregate weight of 1900 kg=66S kg; leaving 1 235 kg of
coarse aggregate, The mix proportion is thus 300 : 665 : I 235 which is equiva- "-"---C
Vo' ,;" ( C-
water)
- - either by volume, or by weight, or by the number of litres
lent tc I : 2'21 : 4'I2, The latter is a very common mix for reinforced concrete cmcnt
work which, given good quality control, could have a strerigth of about 20 of water per 50 kg (weight of a bag) of cement. Thus, if expressed by volume,
N Immt; i,e" about 25% in excess of the grade number value,
Tr.e laaer example shows that the use of standard mixes is not economical;
I m 3 of water per I m3 of cement equals a ratio of : = , I; if by weight, this
the proportions of materials in them are chosen to reduce the possibility of poor ratio becomes
concrete being produced, Standard mixes are intended for use on very small r 000 kg (weight of I m3 of water)
jobs where quality control by taking regular test cubes is not practicable, I +42 kg (weight of I m 3 of cement)'
It IS convenient for the student to have some idea of concrete proportions for
different classes of work, Thus, I : 3 : 6 is commonly used for strip foundations, if 26,85 lilres of water are used per So kg of cement, the ratio is
I : 2 : 4 makes a general purpose reinforced concrete as does I : I ~ ; 3, I: I : 2, 26,85 kg
having a high cement content, produces very strong impermeable concrete, ~=o,S4

Water,-The water used for mixing concrete is required to produce a
workable plastic mix, in addition to hydrating the cement, It must be clean
and fresh, It is emphasized that the strength of concrete depends upon the
quantity of water used in relation to the cement content, and an excess of wattr,
howevn- slight, reduces the strength of the concrete,
The follOWing tests were <;sTtied out in the Building l..aboratory of the Manchester
U:'liversity InStitute of SCience and Technology to demonstrate to students the
mlfked effect that .Ihe water content has upon the compressive stre ngth of concrete:
Three d,fferent m1xes of concrete were separately prepared, The mHlenals in mix
"A" were mLxed dry In the proportIon of 1 : [ : z. The cemem used was normal
Portland cement. The mix wllS divided and each half was separately mixed WIth
wuer, one hBlfhavmg 30 per cent, more water added than the other, A 100 mm cube
(see p, p,) was then made from each half of each batch and tested for eomprtssion
SttenRth at the cnd of twenty-eight days Mixes" B " and" C" were dealt with in
a 'imibr manner, the excess water added to on"'_half of uch mix being also 30 per
cent, The following were the results:-
\Vh'ilst in the laboratory the materials arc usually taken by weight, it is more
convenient for practical purposes to specify the number of litres per So kg bag
W
of cement. Thee ratios and the corresponding strengths shown in Table III
dearly indicate that the strength of the concrete is lowered as a result of the
additional water.
It is not possible to state definitely the amount of water which should be
used in a concrete mix, as this depends upon the desired workahility, amount
of water in the fine aggregatf and that absorbed by the coarse aggregate, An
approximate rule for finding the amount of water for concrete consisting of
1 The weight of I-cub, metre of cement depends upon its fineness; thus for normal
Portland cement the weight is usually t8k~" as 1442 kgrm'; the finer ground rapid-
hardening Portland cement may only weigh, 282 kg/m'. The volume of 50 kg of nonnal
P,C, is approx, 0'0341 m',
32 BRICKWORK
dry and non-porous aggregate is to take 28 per cent. of the weight of the cement
plus 4 per cent. of the weight of the aggregate. Thus, for a I ; 2 : ... mix requiring
50 kg cement, 0'0696 m' sand (weighing 1602 kg/rn 3 ) and 0'14 rn s gravel
(weighing t 570 kg/m S). the number of litres of water equals:
28
(Cement) - x 50= 14 kg = 141itres
'00
(S.nd)
(Gravel) ...!.. x 0 '14 x 1570 = g·8 kg = 8·8
'00
27'28 litres
Slump Test.- The best practical test for determining the desired work-
ability of concrete and the required amount of water is that known as the slump
test. This is now universally adopted both on the site during the progress of
the work and in the laboratory. The apparatus simply consists of a metal mould,
frustum of a cone in shape, with both ends open and provided with two handles;
the dimensions are 305 mm high, 203 mm internal diameter at the bottom and
102 mm internal diameter at the top (see G, Fig. 9). A 610 mm long metal rod,
16 mm in diameter and bullet nosed, is also required.
In carrying out the test, the mould is placed on a fiat surface which must bt
non-absorbent. It is filled with the freshly mixed concrete to a height of about
75 mm; this is puddled to expel the air by applying twenty-five strokes of the rod.
The fiHing is completed in similar successive consolidated layers and the surface
is struck off flush with the top by a trowel. The mould must be held firmly
as it is being filled, and to prevent movement it may be provided with two fiat
footpie<:es, attached near the base, upon which the operator stands. Immedi-
ately it is full, the mould is carefully lifted fJtTljeully and placed on the mixing
surface adjacent to the concrete specimen , which will have subsided or slumped.
The lmOl'nt of settlement. which varies according to the water content, is
measured in mm by placing a rule across the top of the mould and measuring
the height that its lower edge is above the tOp of the concrete. Thus, at H, Fig. 9,
a 75 mm slump is indicated.
This is an excellent practical test, as it is simple and takes little time to
carry out on the job. By its use it is possible to reasonably control and obtain
a uniform consistency of the concrete. It is important to note that the slump
wiJI be affected if the cement and aggregates are .changed, and therefore any
such change of materials will necessitate preliminary trial tests to see if any
alteration in the slump is necessary. A slump test is taken daily to check Ihe
consistency (or condition of wetness) of the concrete used for first-class work.
The alump values vary with different classes of work and the following
may be taken as a general guide: For mass concrete and heavy reinforced
concrete structures the slump varies from 25 to 100 ~m. It may be necessary to
increase the slump to 175 mm for columns, and for thin vertical arid confined
horizontal structures where adequate ramming of the concrete is not possible.
For concrete roads the maximum slump-should not exceed 25 mm in order that
the necessary strength and wearing qualities may be obtained. Whilst a 175 mm
slump is considered as a maximum for good quality mixes, it may be possible
to increase this figure to 200 mm for concrete which does not require a high
standard of strength. Concrete having a slump less than 50 mm must be well
consolidated when placed in position to avoid honeycombing or pore spaces
(see p. 35).
Compacting Factor Test.- This is another test applied to concrete, but
it is only suitable for use in the' laboratory. It is related to the workability of
concrete, which is defined for this purpose as being the property which deter-
mines the amount of work required to compact or consolidate the concrete
completely. The compacting factor may be defined as a measure of the density
of a concrete achieved by a standard amount of work.
The apparatus used for this test consists of a frame which supports two truncated
conical hoppers, one above the other, with a space between. A cylindrical mould,
having a detachable bue, is placed below these hoppers. Each of the latter hu a
hingcd baK which can be shot open.
The upper hopper is completely filled with the concrete immediately afler mixing.
The hinged door is released to allow the contents to fall into the lower hopper. The
base of the laner is then opened and the concrete falls iNO the cylinder, completely
filling it, the excess concrete being struck off level with the top. The compacting
factor is then calculated in the following manner; The weight of the container when
empty is subtracted from that of the container when full, and this net weight of
concrete is divided by th e weight of the concrete calculated from the known specific
gravities of the cement, sand and coarse aggregate, in the correct proportions, required
to fill the cylinder without pore spaces. Thus, if the net weight of the concrete is
3'56 kg and that of the contents of th e cylinder (when no voids sre left) is 3'79 kg,
the compacting factor will be ~ =0'94. Experiments have shown that a com-
f'79
pacting facto r of 0'95 reprC$f!nts a concrete mix of high workability, that of 0'9:1. a
medium workability, and 0'85 a low workability.
This is a useful test for comparing Ihe workability of different mixes of concrete.
Each specimen is brought to a standud condition (when deposited from the upper
10 Ihe lower hopper) and is subjected to a standard amount of work when it falls into
the cylinder.
CODlpres.sion TeRt.-The quality of concrete is generally assessed by ils
crushing strength. This strength is determined by testing suitably prepared
specimens of the concrete in a compression machine.
The fonn of standard test specimen favoured in this country is the 150 mm cube.
This and Ihe slilhdard method of testing are sp~cified in the B.S. 188t, Methods of
T~ting Concrete. The cement and fine aggre~ile, in correct proportiOn!, are first
mixed dry unul I umfonnly CQloured mixture IS obtained; the CQarse aggregate IS
added and we ll mixed; the correct amount of waler II Ihe n Idded and the compOS1t10n
mixed for at least two minutes. The concrele ;$ tested for consistency by the Ilump
test, described above, Ind Ifter re-mixing it is placed in a st«1 mould of t So mm by
 TESTING APPARATUS 33

TESTING APPARATUS F 0 1\ CEMENT ETC

SHOT (ONTAlNE'"
•
Q p
NOZZLE
R.OD E
N PIN
SCALE --t_..!4
8UCKET
TU6E
CONTAINING WD~
5 SPINDlE 0
(~ ;:!

A 0 (. PLATE ·~·~-+~~rnr
ENLARGEMENT
OF al\lQUETTE
~ l-J /
--:::::::=- . " eASE !2..
APPAIV.TUS FOil- TENSILE e., SETTING TESTS
RAM ~ CYliNDEI~1
;" SPLIT I02MM INT. DIA::---1E~-'---:;-;-t
r'~f~:"':MOULD ".,..,be- SECTION THW' ~~===::J~",-;::,~
.•... '.; A CONCJU:;'T,~E'Wlt.i ..
... ;:~~INDICATORS ME
.... AlRALLEL WHEN • , 'H".
6'
.: ~ SPECIMEN
A 75MM SLUMP
MOULD IS
F CLOSED , . ~.
CO/ilPKl:SSI(>N TESTING MACHINE
,. . 17'..
. ~-,

APPAII.ATUS FOil. ~

EXPANSION TEST /
MOULD FOI\ SLUMP TEST SKETCHES NOT TO
FIGURE 9 •

I
34 BRICKWORK
I so mm by 150 mm internal dimensions. The mould has • steel bue plate attached The specimens referred to in Table III, p. 31 were tested in a 10000 N
and both Ihi, and the ;nlnnal fates of the mould mUSI be well oiled before filling to
make the joint wau:rcighl, prevenl stickin,ll of the concrete and facilillte the removal of machine. The following results of tests, which may be considered as typical,
the cube WIthout damage. The concrete is placed in the mould in thru layers of show how the strength of concrete, ha\'ing a 50 mm slump, increases with age ; -
approximately equal thickness, each layer being separately tamped 35 timcs if the
slump is 38 mm or less (or a5 strokes for welter mixes) with a 380 mm by as mm by
lS mm steel bar wo:ighinj{ 1"8 kg. after which the surface is carefully smoothed level with TABLE IV
• trowd flush with the top of the mould. Th e mould is then stored in a damp cabinet
for twenty-four hours, after which the Cantrell! cube IS removed from the mould, Compressil'e Strength (N/mm')
marked, and either immersed In water contained in a lank or buned in damp sand NomiTlal
until the cube is ready for le~tinll:. This protection of the cube, called {''''TIl(, is Type of Cement
necessary to prevent cvaporatiOTl of the watH and to provide a favourable condition
, Mile
Year
3 Days 7 Days 28 Days J Months I
for selling and hardeniTlg of the concrete. Thc strength of the concrcte is usually
taken .11 either founeen Or tweTlly-eighl days after it has been mixed; occasionally Ordinary PortlaTld 9'65 26·8

I
'7'~ JJ 45
early date Slr1!ngths are taken .11 three and seven days, and sometImes the streni!ths at
three months and one year are required. Rapid-hardeninJ! p, , : z: -+ "'2 ~"'I H'" )' 48 '2
Test cubes prepared on thc site durinl( thc pr0.llress of the work are kept damp
for twenty_four hours and Ihen r~moved from their moulds. After heing marked
to distini!ulsh them, they arc car~futty packed in a wood 00", encased in damp sand
Hi~h Alumina .. 8'% ., 55 No .appreciable
lncrt-Se
or sacking and dispatched 10 the laoornlOry where they Ire kept damp until required
for testing.
One type of compression testing machine, manufactuted by Messrs J. A, Amsler,
and of 500 000 N capacity, is shown at E, Fii!. 9. The concrete specimen is placed on Mixi.ng Concrele_~1t is most important that the materials shall be
the lower compression plate B Ittlched 10 the rim or piston which opernles within
the press cylinder. The upper compression pl .. te" is conTlected by m eans of a batl- thoroughly mixed in correct proportion. The mixing should be continued until
and -socket joint to the large screw which is operated by the hand Ilheel w. The the concrete is of a uniform colour and consistency. Concrete is either (I)
screw is adjusted to lowe r the plate" tightly on to the top of the specimen. Brackels hand-mixed or (2) machine-mixed.
at the right-haTld side support th~ oil pump, subsidiary cylinder x with small pinon,
pressure gauge and spiral spring. Oil is conveyed by a pipe to the pump from a ~$Crvoir I. Hand-mixing.- This method is sometimes adopted on small jobs. The
fixed to the back of the machiTle; the pump is connected to the press cylinder by an mixing should never be carried out on the bare ground, as this results in the
oil pipe, and a branch (not shown) from this pipe is connected to the subsidiary
cyliTlder x. materials being contaminated by the earth which is scraped up, It should be
After plate" has beeTl tighteTled down and vah'c u closed, the pump is operated done on a proper close-boarded platform or staging, 2'75 or 3 m square, preferably
by raisiTlg and 10wenTlR the 915 mm long lever by haTld, This forces the oil .loni! the made of t. and g. floor boards fixed to fi\'e lengths of 100 mm by 50 mm battens.
pipe (see arrow" 1 ") into the press cylinder to exert pressure on the underside The joints of the hoards must he close to prevent the escape of liquid grout.
of thc ram. The latter and pl .. te 3 gradually rise (see arrow" z ") to press the
specimen against the stationary plate A. MeaTlwhile Ihe oil forced aloTlR the branch Sometimes the boards are protected by a covering of sheet iron or zinc plate, and
pipe to cylinder x p~S$CS the pilloTl down"'ards (see arrow" 3 ") and this extends a raised kerb round three of the sides is provided, The platform should be quite
the spi",l spring. This extenSIOTl of the spriTlg is t",nsmilled to the indicatiTl!! hand

or pointer on the gau~e by a steel riboon tape which is fixed at y and passed round a
pulley fixed to the spiTldle of Ihe pointer and weighted at v. Th,s causes the pomler
to rotate round the dial, the scale on which is calibrated to Rive direct load readiTlgs.
The pump is operated aTld the oil prcssure iTlcreased, UTlti! the specimen i$ crushed.
When this occurs the indicat inR hand RT"3dually returns to zero, but a loose pointer,
which the hand eTlga~es as it rotates duriTlg the test, remains to reguter the hlRhest
point reached when the specimen failed. The figure, e"pressed in kg, is divided by
the area of the cross-section of the specimeTl to give the crushing strenRth of the
concrete in kg per mm'; if this value is mUltiplied by 9'8 the stress iTl N/mm" is
obtained. The specimeTl is removed by openiTlg valve u aTld reversing the haTld
wheel w; this rehevcs the pressure OTI the prCS$ cylinder and the weight of the ram
forcC5 thc oil from the cylinder to the reservoir.
Very !ittle effort is required to hand-operate Ihis machiTle aTld the time takeTl
to cany out the test 11 approximately two minutes, dtpeTlding upoTl the strength of
the cube (about 15 N'mm' per min.),
For telliTlR specimcns requirinR comparatively small pressures to crush them
(such as timber), the spring OTI the 500 000 N machine is replaced by a lighter one and
the dial is lubstituted by one reading to 200 000 N. This type of machine is also made
having . C8pacity of2 MN. This larger machine is Tlccenary wheTl ISO mm concrete
cubes have to be telted, as a 500 000 N m.chiTle will only tCSt tOO mm cubes at
tweTlty-eight days.
.
level to pre\'ent the water from draining off, and it should be placed conveniently
near to the place at which the concrete is to be deposited. A water point is
brought near to the platform. \
Careful measurement (by weighing) of the materials is essential for good
quality concrete.
After proportioning the materials 3re mixed at least" twice dry and twice
wet." Usually two men, one on each side of the heap, shovel the heap to one
side, turning and sprinkling the materials in the process. This operation is
repeated, the heap being thrown back to its original position. If necessary the
materials arc again turned Over until the colour is uniform, free from streaks of
brown and grey. Water is then added. Only the correct amount of water
\'ary ing with the nature of the work and materials, and probably determined
from a slump test (see p. 3,j), must ~e used, It may be measured by a bucket of
known capacity. The water should not be thrown on to the heap from the
bucket, as this washes the cement from the aggregate, but rather sprinkled
on by means of a watering-can, having a rosehead. and which is filled from tho>:

1
 CONCRETE
measured pails. Usually a third man adds the water whilst the other two attend
to the mixing and turn over the heap at least twice, as above described, until a
uniform consistency is obtained.
An alternative method of mixing is to spread the measured sand in a layer
of even thickness on the platform, the cement is distributed over this, both are
mixed together until the colour is uniform, the coarse aggregate is thrown over
the mixture which is turned over at least twice. Water is added and the whole
again turned over two or three tirr,es.
2. MtUhirle-mixing.-Concrete is now chiefly produced by mechanical mixing
except where only small quantities arc required. Machine-mixing is faster and
cheaper than hand-mixing, and it generally produces a more thorough mix
having additional strength. 1 There are two groups of mixers, i.t., (a) batch
mixers and (b) continuous mixers .
(a) Batch Mixers, which are portable, include the (i) tilting drum and (ii)
closed drum types. Each is usually driven by either a petrol or oil engine or an
electric motor.
(i) The tilting drum mixtr (see line diagram }, Fig. 23) consists of a hopper
and mixing drum. Correct quantities of cement and aggregates are loaded into
the hopper, which is raised to discharge the materials into the drum. The coarse
aggregate is first placed in the hopper, followed by the sand and the cement.
The capacity of the drum varies considerably, one of 0'3/0'2 m' being useful
for average work; the first number indicating the capacity (in cubic metres)
of unmixed materials and the latter number that of the wet concrete produced.
The correct amount of mixing water is discharged into the drum from an auto·
matic tank fixed above it. Projecting metal baffle blades fixed to the inside of
the drum assist in the distribution of the materials as they impinge against them
whilst the drum is revolving. The period of mixing, which may be controlled
automatically, should not be less than one minute and not more than two
minutes after all of the materials have been added. The strength of the con·
crete is not materially increased if the latter period is prolonged; excessive
mixing produces an undesirable stiffening up of the concrete. When mixing
has been completed, the drum is rotated vertically to discharge the concrete.
(ii) The closed drum mixtr has a hopper, a mixing drum which rotates on a
horizontal axis, and a steel chute which is inserted into the drum after the mixing
has been completed and down which the concrete is discharged.
(b) Continuous Mixers.- These are used on large engineering jobs. The
aggregate, cement and water are mechanically measured and fed into the mixer
from which the concrete is continuously discharged.
Centnll Miltin• •-ln connection _wilh large contncts, a cenlral balChing and
mixing planl il oflen inualled on Ihe $,Ie. This may con.i" or large elev"ed storage
bins, below which Ire hoppera Ind mixinR drums. The aggregate is conveyed to the
stonge bina Ind these feed the measurinR hoppera below .. required; the hoppe,.
I In the Code of Pf"Ktice for The Structural UR of Concn=te <_ p. 28) it is stipu-
lated that concrete ahould be mcc:hani<¥lly mixed.
35
also receive the cement. The mllerial. from the hoppers pus into the mixinR drums,
water ;5 automatically added, snd, Ifter bein~ mixed, the concrete is dep<niled inlo
truck. and transported on rails to the required part of Ihe site, where it is deposited.
Central hatching plsnts are now being used to bitch the male rials and di$Char~e
them into mixinR lrucks which perform Ihe actual mixing in course of transit from
the plant to the job.
' Placing CODcrete.~Concrete should be placed in position as soon as
possible and before setting has commenced. For short distances the concrete
is usualJy shovelled from the mixing platform or discharged from the mixing
drum into watertight steel wheelbarrows or handcarts and conveyed to the place
of deposition. In order that the effect of the mixing will not be nullified.
concrete must be carefully plact;d and not thrown from :\ height, otherwise its
consistence becomes non-uniform t>y the . separation of the heavier from the
lighter particles. Concrete required for upper floors is hoisted by means of a
barToU'-I,!t (pulley block and tackle, attached to the scaffolding, for lifting the
full barrows) or concrete-hoist (large hoppers containing the concrete are lifted
to any desired height, the apparatus resembling the ordinary passenger· lift).
The placinR of concrete on a large ICJIle may sbo be effected either by tippin~­
trucks, towers or by pumping. Tipping-trucks, as already expllined, run upon nils
laid round the site and convey the concrete where required. A lower rna)· reach a
Rreat height; a mechanicll minr is placed It the bottom, and Ihis feeds concrele
into large receptacles which Ire hoisted to Ihe top of the tower where the concrete
is pISsed down inclined shoots and deposited where required. Pumping concrete
has been proved effective on luge jobs where contested conditions prevenl the
placing of the mixture on the sile; I pump forees Ihe mixed concrete throuVh a steel
pipe 100 to 150 mm in diameter, to the place of deposition; concrele has been
delivered in this manner 10 a height exceeding 30 m and for I horizontal dillinee of
approximslely 300 m.
Compacting Concrete.-Concrete after being placed in position should
be well TatfmUd or punned or tamped to consolidate it. This is done either by
hand or mechanically. Two forms of rammers are shown at f and G, Fig. 23;
these may be used for mass concrete. Metal pummels, similar to G, of various
sizes are employed for consolidating the concrete round the steel bars in reinforced
concrete structures. For mass concrete work the concrete is laid in layers not
exceeding 300 mm thick, and each layer must be compacted before the next is
spread. For reinforced work the concrete should be deposited in successive
layers not exceeding I So mm in thickness, and these must be rammed in turn.
A I6 mm rod is useful for ramming (or" rodding ") concrete and expelling the
air (see also p. 32).
For concrete work on a large scale, hand·compacting methods arc being
replaced by mechanical means. The concrete is consolidated by vibration, the
vibrators being operated by compressed air or electricity. One form, called a
sur/au vibrator, consists of a-.flat plate which is placed on the surface of the
concrete, a vib{ating appliance is attached, and this transmits rapid shocks or
vibrations to the concrete which is consolidated as the plate is moved slowly
over the surface. Another is the poker vibrator consisting of a needle, -;60 mm
long (or a fork. with four prongs), which penetrates the concrete as the app!iance,
 BRICKWORK
held by both hands at the head, vibrates and consolidates. External vibrators
are adopted for vibrating reinforced concrete work. The vibrators are clamped
to the formwork (temporary wood framing used to support the concrete until
it hardens.) These transmit shocks (some q 000 per minute) through the
formwork to the concrete and consolidation results.
Vibrated concrete is denser than that which is hand-compacted , and it is
therefore more impervious and weather-resistant.
Curing Concrete.- The water milS! not be allowed to evaporate from the
concrete, and the longer the concrete is kept moist, the more effecti\'c will be
the chemical comhination of the cement with the water. The rapid drying out
of the water considerably reduces the strength of the concrete. The concrete
should therefore he co\'ered o\'er immediately it has been consolidated. A laver
of sand or sacking, upon which water is ~prinklcd each day fora week : IS
effective. Surface bituminous coatings art: sometimes applied to prevent
cvaporation, the liquid heinR sprayed on the concrete,
Frost can do considerable damage to concrete hefore it has hardened, and
once it has frozen it does not increase in strength. As a protection against frost,
the concrete should he at once covered over with sacks, tarpaulins, straw, saw-
dust, etc. Can\'as screens assist in protecting concrete from cold winds, and in
~evere weather the covering of windows affords a partial protection to internal
concrete work in buildings in course of construction.
Waterproofed Concrete. Tht: production in a laooratory of concrete
which is practically waterproof is ,\ relatil"t:ly simple mailer when clcan, well
graded and best lJuality materials, properly proportioned, art: thoroughly mixed
with the correct amount of water undcr ideal conditions. In practice, however,
where the conditions are less favourable, impeTlious concrete is not readily
produced, and unlt..-ss Ihe various factors which tend to the production of good
quality concrete are rigidly controlled, it will be IIlterspcrsed with \'oids to
such an extent as to render the product porous. Where the concrcle is required
to be impervious, it is now a cnmmon practice to usc admiXTures, known as
wll.lcrproofcrs, which will ha\'c the effect of reducing the void space. Reference
has been made to waterproofers on p. 27. The powder, paste and lilluid forms
arc used for waterproofing concrete. The amount of waterproofer added to the
concrete varies, but if in powdered form the usual proportion is 1'5 kg of the
powder to 50 kg of cement. When hand-mixed, the concrete is prepared by
adding the required amount of the waterproofer to the cement and thoroughly
miring them. If the concrete is machine-mixed, it is recommended that approxi-
mately half of the coarse aggregate, sand and cement are charged in this sequence
into the hopper, all of the waterproofer is then spread ovef the cement, followed
by the rest of the cement, sand and aggregate; these are placed into the drum,
which is rotated for about one-quarter of a minute before the measured amount
of water is added and the mixing is completed. The general proportion of pallte
waterproofer is 3% by wcight of the cement, the paste being dissolved in the
mixing water before the latter is added to the ccment, sand and coarse aggregate.
When in liquid form, thc waterproofer is usually in the proportion of I litre
of the liquid to Islit~es of the mixing water Jste pp. 27 and 56).
Certain of thc v.-aterproofers arc just finely ground chalk, talc and iron
filings which reduce the voids in the concrete. Others are chemically active,
such >as sulphate and sodium carbonate,
Waterproofed concrete can also be obtained by using waterproofed cement
(p. 28), this is the most usual way of prepannR large quantities.
BONDING
Students should revise the principles of bonding ~tated in Chap. I, Vol. I.
The structural design of hrick walls is giveu in Chap. 1\', \'01. IY.
Squint Junctions.-~Iost junctions belwecn \\alls are right-angkd, as
descrihed in Chap. I, Yo1. t, and squint or obliquc junctions are not oftcn
called for.
Fig. 10 shows some typical examples of squint junctions. Those at A, H, C
and D show English hond and the remainder are in double Flemish hond
Details A and B show alternate o.;ourses ur liS mill and 3Z7 5 mm 3(luint walls
connectcd at an angle of 45 0 to a 327', mm wall, and those at C and n indi.cate an
angle of 60 0 between the walls. It should be notcd in each case that (I) the
heading course of the squint wall is bonded into the stretchin~ COl]fSe of the
main wall, (2) the alternate stretch ing course of tbe squint I\'all hutts against
the heading course of the main wall and (3) the first brick al J in thIS stre:ching
course is a three-qurter bevelled bat. For comparative purposes and con-
venience in setting-out, the angle between the walls in each detail has becn made
to coincide at 1 with the continuous transverse joint of the main waiL In practiCe,
both the' position and magnitude of this angle vary.
The double Flemish details at F. to H show similar angles and thickness of
walls. It will be observed that, for cOIl\'enience, the Ib<) mm bevelled bat in
each of the squint walls coincides With the through tranSI"CTse joint of the main
wall at J, and the first bonding hrick in the alternate course of each sq'lint wall is
a header on face.
In this class of work the amount of cutting necessary to al'oid continuous
vertical joints should be kept to a minimum, the cut bricks should be as
large as possible, and awkward shapes of bricks difficult to cut should be
restricted.
Squint Quoins.- The description of the more usual right-angled or square
quoins in Chap. I, \'01. t, should be referred to when considering squint
quoins. The latter are of two forms, i,e., (a) obtuse and (b) acute squint quoins.
(a) Obtuse Squint QuoinJ.- These are formed when two walls meet at an
internal angle greater than- 90°, such as at a bay window (see 0, Fig. II) and
splay-corners of buildings adjoining streets. Typical examples are shown at
A, B, C, 0 and E. Conforming to the general rule, the closer appears next to the
quoin header, whi("h latter is often less than 1I2'S mm on face. It should be
 37

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FIGURE II
 BONDING
noted that, in each case, the combined width of the header and closer is S6 mm
less than the quoin stretcher. Thus, the alternate courses at A show the stretcher
face to be 16<) mm; therefore the return header, together with the closer, is
16<J-S6=113 mm; as the header is 79 mm, the closer is 113 - 79 =34 mm as
shown. Joints which appear at the internal angles should be lapped as much
as possible at successive courses. In this connection stability would be increased
at the internal angle at A if purpose~made bricks Q and R (shown shaded) were
used, as these would eliminate the 112'5 mm wide mitred joints at the angle.
For faced work it is now general to employ purpose-mades for the quoin
bricks, and most of the larger manufacturers stock special bricks, such as A, B, C, 0
and j, Fig. 5, for this purpose. A much better appearance is thus obtained than
when ordinary standard bricks are cut to shape. In the absence of purpose-made
bricks, wire-cuts only should be shaped, as those with frogs produce ugly joints
if the margins are removed.
(b) Acute Squint Quoins are rarely employed. They are necessary at corners of
buildings abutting on streets which meet at an internal angle less than 90°. A few
typical examples are detailed in Fig. I I, those at F, G, II and N showing alternate
courses in English bond and those at ], K, L, M and P indicating alternate
courses in double Flemish bond. In each case the rules of bonding
which influence the face appearance have been complied with (see Chap. i,
Vol. I).
Several expedients are sometimes adopted to dispense with the sharp arrises at
very acute quoins, as such arc readily damaged, difficult to cut (if standard bricks
are used) and may cause injury to persons coming in contact with them . Thus,
at F and J the corner is removed (or, preferably, purposely moulded to the shape
shown) and bull noses are shown at G and K. A simple and effective alternative
is shown at Nand P. where a bird's-mouthed appearance is obtained by the use
P I E R S and a 60 or iO mm cavity (see A, Q and 1', Fig. 13). Such a wall is adequate for
39
of standard bricks which require little cutting and which cut surfaces are not
exposed.
The above are only a few examples of squint quoins. There are a number
of alternatives. The aim should be to obtain the maximum lap with the minimum
of cutting. Whilst the correct face appearance is not necessary if the walls are
to be plastered, the principles of sound bonding should be observed and con-
tinuous straight joints avoided.
Piers.- Further examples of piers i!!ustrated in Fig. 7, Vol. I, are shown at
I, K, Land M, Fig. 12. The alternative plans of detached squint piers (J and K)
are typical of those required in the construction of. bay windows. The number
of joints could be reduced, and greater strength therefore obtained, if purpose-
mades were used instead of cut standard bricks.
An example of a detached octagonal pier is shown by plans of alternative
courses at L, and an attached octagonal pier is detailed at ~l. Other polygonal
forms, especia!!y the hexagonal, are sometimes preferred. These may be con-
structed of standard bricks, cut to shape as required, hut a better appearance
is, of course, obtained if purpose-made bricks arc med. Two further examples
of detached piers arc shown at R, Fig. 24 (see p. 6-t).
CAVITY OR HOLLOW WALLS
This type of construction is now very common and, for the rea~ons stated
on pp. 42 and 43, is generally preferred to solid wall construction for many types
of buildings, especially houses. Ca\·ity walls arc detailed in Figs. 13 and q.
A cavity wall is usually an external wa!!, although it is sometimes adopted
internally because of its good sound-resisting quality (see Chap. I, Yo1. Ill ).
It consists of two separate walls 1, known as !emil's or skins, of brickwork, having a
cavity between, and connected together by metal tlts. This double wall is
generally 265 or 275 mm thick. consisting of 102·5 mm inner and outer leaves

~
DETACHED ATTACHED a two-storied building of the domestic type. The inner leaf is increased 10
SOU I NT PIE ~S OCTAGONAL PIE R
215 mm or more in thickness when heavicr floor, etc., loads have to be supported

~TdJ?Z ~I I (see J, Fig. 13 2 ). For stone-faced buildings, the doublc wall may consist of a
cavity between a 103 to 206 mm stone outer leaf and a 102·5 mm or tbicker brick

~~
~ r- inner leaf (see p. 44).
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The width of the cavity varies from So to 75 mm. the former being the mini-

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M" '< !-Ut mum and the latter the maximum width specified in the Building Regulations
~ Ties.-These must be sufficiently strong for the purpose, he non-corrodible
"or IH )21 .., and so shaped that water from the outer leaf wil] not pa~s along them to the
wmtSb ....
<><US ,,,'"
M1lt lll ..... I I I inner leaf. The metal ties are usually of mild sted, and these should be thorough-

-
ly galvanized or dipped in hot tar and sanded to protect them from rust. Either
bJ Ii
---
CETACHED OCTAGOHAl PIER
'0 vY copper or bronze or similar d~rable and highly corrosive-resistant metal ties
should be selected for important buildings and those near the sea.
1 An alternative type of cavity wall lS that built "'ith V_hricks, see p. 17 and Fil'(. 5
FIGURE 12 • See also J, Nand R, Fig. 7, Vol. III.
 BRICKWORK
Three types of cavity ties which arc made of any of these metals arc shown
at F, C and II, Fig. 13- The wire tie at F is commonly used, and, provided it is of
sufficient thickness, is a useful type; the ends, which are twisted together and
turned downwards, cause any water traveHing along the tie from the outer leaf
to drip into the cavity (see J) dear of the inner leaf; in addition, 11rge accumula-
tions of mortar droppings, which are a frequent cause of dampness (see adjoin-
ing column), do not readily lodge on the ties as the wire is comparatively
thin. The wire should not be less than 3'2 mm thick; lighter ties, 2'7 mm
ate used for cheap work only. A similar pattern, of narrow flat bar section
with twisted ends, is shown at H, and is a good type. The flat bar tie shown at G,
having forked ends and twisted in the middle, has been used for many years, and
affords a stiff and darable connection.
According to the Building Regulations, these ties must he placed at distances
apart not exceeding 900 mm horizontally and 450 mm vertically. The ties are
staggered and the distribution is as shown at E. Ties must be placed at
300 mm vertical intervals at all angles and door and window jambs to increase
stability (see Q and L, Fig. 13; E, Fig. II; and D, Fig. 15).
Construction.- A cavity wall is ofleil. built with the outer leaf of facing
bricks and the' inner leaf of commons. :--':0 difficulty arises if the facings are
thinner than the commons, as the ties are placed at vertical intervals (not
exceeding 450 mm) where the bed joints of both leaves coincide. The 102'5 mm
leaves are commonly constructed in stretching bond. As this has a very
unattractive appearance, the monotony is sometimes relieved by construct-
ing the external leaf with a row of snap headers (half bricks) to three or five
rows of stretchers (known as English Garden Wall Bond, see A, Fig. 18). Alterna-
tively, the outer leaf may be built in Flemish bond or Finnish Garden Wall
Bond, shown at Y, Fig. 18, and A, Fig. 49, snap headers and not whole bricks'
being used as required. The cut surfaces of these snap headers should be
flush with the internal face of the outer leaf.
Two methods of constructing the base of the wall are shown at A and P,
Fig. 13. Brick footings are rarely employed. j\'lethod A, showing the cavity
extending down to the concrete foundation, is common. This has one possible
defect, namely, if the brickwork below the ground level is not soundly con-
structed, especially if the site is water-logged, water may pass through any
open joints, collect in the cavity and escape through open joints in the inner
leaf, to cause dampness below the floor by spreading over the site concrete. A
sounder method, and one which is advocated, is that shown at J and r, where
the bottom of the cavity is ISO to 300 mm below the damp proof course. Rain-
water gaining access to the cavity through the outer leaf will stream down the
inner face of this leaf. This should be prevented from accumulating at the base
by providing narrow outlets or weep-holes in the course immediately below the
damp proof course in the outer leaf, each third or fourth vertical joint between
the stretchers being left open and not filled with mortar, otherwise the water
may penetrate the brickwork above the damp proof course and caus.e dampness
on the internal face of the wall. See note at J, which shows the detail at the foot
of a 387 mm cavity wall. The lower portion of the cavity when continued to
the concrete bed is sometimes filled with I : 2 : 4 concrete, the coarse aggregate
being not more than 19 mm gauge. The top of this concrete should be at least
ISO rom below the damp proof course and not as shown at F, Fig. 14, otherwise
mortar droppings (see below) will accumulate through which water may be
transmitted in the direction of the thick broken arrow to cause dampness and
possibly dry-rot.
The position of the damp proof course is as for solid walls, i.e., at least
t 50 mm above the ground level. This must not extend across the cavity for the
reason stated below, and each leaf must therefore be provided with a separate
damp proof course.
For cavity wall construction to be effec;tive, it is essential that the inner wall
shall be entirely disconnected (except for the cavity ties) from the outer leaf.
Where this is not possible, as at door and window openings, special precautions
have to be taken, as stated below. If the cavity is bridged by a porous material,
water may penetrate and cause dampness on the inner face of the wall. Hence
it is important that during construction mortar shall not be allowed to drop
and lodge upon the ties (see 1:, fig. 14)' In order to maintain a clean cavity,
a wood batten should be employed of a thickness slightly Jess than the width
of the cavity and with a piece of cord attached to each end. This is supported
upon the ties, raised as Ihe work proceeds, and any inlercepted mortar and
brick chippings removed. Temporary openings should be left at the bottom
of the cavity to afford access for the removal of droppings on completion of the
wall. Similar gaps should be left at intervals up quoins and jambs through
which a lath may be passed to dislodge any deposit on the ties. Another effective
method is to Rush the wholt: cavity with water, a hose pipe being used from the
top of the wall for the purpose of dislodging any mortar and washing it to the
base, from which it is removed through the u:mporary gaps. Neglect of this
precaution is a frequmt cause of dampness in cavity walls.
The reason why the cavity should extend below the damp proof course,
and for the latter to be in separate widths, will now be appreciated. If the
bottom of the cavity is level with the damp proof course, or if the latter is the
full width of the wall, water may be conducted to the inner leaf through
accumulated mortar droppings. and produce damp and unhealthy conditions.
Alternative details at Ihe eaves are shown at A, Band P. That at A is sound
as the solid portion of wall al the top distributes the weight of the roof over
both leaves and the overhanging eaves prevents the transmission of moisture
through this solid wall. This is a better detail than that at 1', which shows the
roof supported chiefly by the inner leaf. Detail 11 shows sound construction.
Special precautions should 'be taken 10 prevent dampness at parapet walls.
Defective construction is shown at A, Fig. t4, where water may be transmitted
through the 215 mm solid parapet wall in the direction of the thick broken arrow
to cause dampness and possible defect of the roof timbers. The cavity should
 4'
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 BRICKWORK
be extended to the coping. An example of defective construction associated
with a flat roof is shown at D, Fig. 14. The cavity should have been conlinucd
to the coping, or, alternatively. eith~r:l lead or asphalt felt damp proof course
should have been inserted above the cavity where indicated. It is always advis-
able to continue the asphalt roof covering (or lead flashing) for the full thickness
of the wall to prevent the penetration of water through defective coping joints
or porous stone or brickwork.
In the absence of adequate precautions dampness will readily occur round
door and window openings. An example of unsound construction, commonly
adopted, is shown at K, Fig. 13, where water may penetrate in the direction of
the thick broken arrow through the solid jamb. A damp-resisting material should
be provided as shown at 1.1 and o. The former detail shows a double layer of
slates, bedded in cement, the outer layer projecting in a groove in the frame;
this groove should be filled with oil mastic as thc work proceeds. Effective
construction is also shown at 0, where lead, asphalt felt or a double layer of
slates is applied at the slightly recessed jamb. A small reverse recessed jamb
is shown at N, and the bevelled bricks forming the inner reveal only come into
contact with the frame, which should be bedded in mastic; this detail is not
recommended for adoption in exposed po.itions, although it is an improvement
upon K. Detail L shows the cavity extending to the opening, and being closed
by a double layer of slates in cement. This is quite satisfactory, although not
so effe(.:tive in withstanding heavy loads transmitted from lintels. An alternative
and common method for preventing dampness at jambs consists of placing as
the work proceeds a vertical layer of asphalt felt or lead in lieu of slales; this
layer should be 215 mm wide, extending to the groove of the window frame at
one edge and into the ";,1\ ity at the other.
Dampness is very liable to be caused at the heads of openings if proper
protection is not afforded. Thus, water passing through defective joints, etc.,
in the outer leaf will travel down its innn face until it comes into contact with
a lintel, when it will spread along the top to the inside face of the inner leaf;
the water will also drip at thc soffit. The protection should take the form of a
lead, copper or asphalt felt covering, stepped down from the inner leaf, as shown
at c, Fig. 13, and continued ovef the tile course or window (or door) frame, as
indicated at A and c, and by broken lines at D. This covering should extend for
some 75 to 150 mm beyond each side of an opening or end of a lintel in order that
the water may drip clear into the cavity. ]n addition, a few open vertical joints
may be left in the brick head to allow any water to escape. The alternative lead
trough, shown al 0, is nol recommended, as this does not prevent waler from
gaining access through defective joints in the head (or porous bricks) and causing
dampness. Nor is it sufficient to use a narrow covering with the lower edge
bedded in the joint level with the top or above a concrete lintel; contact between
the lintel and the head or arch must be broken by the lead, which is continued
as shown by broken lines at B, Fig. 14.
Dampness may also be caused at window sills. especially if these afe of
porous stone: and are in direct contact with the brick backing (sec c, Fig. 14).
An effective preventive is to hreak contact by rr.eans of a lead or asphalt felt
covering as shown by broken lines, or hy continumg the cavity (even if reduced
in width) to the wood sill or window board. The ends of stone or terra-cotta
sills should be notched with the back flush with the inner face of the outer leaf,
otherwise rain may penetrate through mortar droppings which may lodge on
the projecting ends.
If a lean-to or flat roof of a lower building adjoins a cavity wall the usual
lead cover flashing should be continued for the full thickness of the outer leaf
and be stepped up to Ihe inner leaf. A few weep-holes should also be left in
the <;ouTse of the outer leaf above the flashing. Similarly, when a pitched roof
abu(~ against a higher cavity wall, the stepped cover flashings at the intersection
should be continued wilh upturned edge to 25 mm beyond the inner face of the
ou:er leaf. Such provision is necessary to intercept rain-water streaming
down the inner face of the outer leaf and causing dampness to the party wall
below.
An additional cavity wall detail showing plans of successive courses at an
obtuse: squint quoin is given at E, Fig. II. The external corner brick may be a
pUrJ)()Se-made dogleg as shown, or the special squint c, Fig. 5. Alternate plans
of an 275 mm circular wall are shown at D, Fig. 15 (see also p. 44). In both
daails wall ties are shown at the angles in each course to increase stability.
Floor Timbers.-Only sound, well-seasoned timber should be used for
floor joists, wall plates, etc., otherwise dampness from the cavity may cause
dry rot. II is also a wise precaution to have the wall plates and ends of built-in
joists creosoted or treated with other preservativ~s (see Chap. I, Vol. Ill). The
risk of dry rot to ground floor (or basement) timbers is considerably reduced
if the joist$ are supported on wall plales bedded on sleeper walls.
Advantages of Cavity Wall Construction.- The chief merits of ca\'ity
walls are: (I) They prevent rain from penetrating to the internal face, (2) they
have a high insulating value, and (3) they are economical.
I. Prevention of Dampnus.-A cavity wall is more reliable than a solid wall
of corresponding brick-thickness in excluding rain. Thus, an 275 mm cavity
wall in an exposed position will prevent water from penetrating to the inner
leaf, provided adequate precautions are taken in its construction and sound
materials and workmanship are employed. But an external 215 mm solid wall
(which is equivalent in thickness of brickwork to an 275 mm cavity watl) in an
exposed position will not prevent rain from penetrating to the internal face
unless the w.all is rough-casted or similarly protected. As has been pointed out
on p. 14, a solid wall is vulnerable to dampness by the penetration of rain through
cracks in the morlar joints and to other causes, and it is recognized that external
solid waUsof buildings fb be used for human habitation should be at least 328 mm
thick, unless they .are rough-casted.
2. Insulatjon.- As air is a good non-conductor of heat, it follows that the air
in the cavity is effective in reducing the transmission of heat through Ihe wall.
 CAVITY WALLS CAVITY WAllS 43
DETAILS SHOWING DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION Tberefore the" heat losses" through. an 275 mm cavity wall 3re less (about So
per cent. less) than through a 215 mmsolid wall, and a building of hollow wall con.
struction is warmer in winter and cooler in summer (as the inward flow of the
heated external air is impeded) than one built of solid outer walls. This affects
fuel consumption, for less fuel is required to heat a building with cavity walls
than that of solid waII construction Thermal insulation is measured by the
thermal transmittance coefficient (V-value, see Chap. XII, Vol. IV) and the
Building Regulations require an external wall to have a V-value of not more than
1'7 W/m 2 "C., which is equivalent to a 275 mm cavity wall.
An important matter affecting the heat insulating value of a cavity wall is the
A Cl(tent to which the caviTy "hoilid be ventilated. Fmmerly, it was generally
considered desirable to ventilate the cavity by means of air bricks fixed JUSt
D ahol'e the ground lerel and also near the top, Whilst this circulation of air
ensured a dry cavity and reduced the risk of defects arising in floor timbers, it
also destroyed the insulatir.g value of the wall to such an extent that a 275 mm
1,:,\I'ity wall so vcntilated afforded les~ heat insulation than a 215 mm solid wall.
Thcrefore the only I'entilation of the cavity which is no ..... advocated is that
pro\'ided by the weep-holes near the base of the cavity and at the head of door
;Uld window openings, as described on pp. 40 and 42, Of course the usual
Iclltilation must be provided to ground Aoors of timber construction,
";a-I-"ALL TIE E The sound insulating value of a 275 mm cavity wall is also higher than that
of a 215 mm solid wall, and the former is therefore more effecti\'e in excluding
B c\ternal noises (see Chap, I, Vol. III),
3· Economy.- A 275 mm cal'ity wall costs less to construct than a 328 mm
solid wall (which is the minimum thickness if dampness is to he a\'oided).
Comparatil'e figures show that the approximate cost of a 275 mm wall is at least
20 per cent, less than a 328 mm solid wall.
Summary of Special Precautions.- I, Wherever possible, contact bet .....een
the two leaves should be avoided.
2. The cavity should he kept clear of droppings, and any on ties should be
removed,

c 3, The main horizontal damp proof course must be in two separate width s,
and the bottom of the cavity must be at least 150 mm below this.
-4, Heads of openings must be properly protected by lead or similar damp
SlU COHCItUf proof material. Jambs must not be: solid unless slate, etc., damp proof
'- courses are prol'ided. Projecting ends of stone or terri-cotta silts
should be notched back from the inner leaf. Cover Aashings at inter-
W"'TE~ sections of lower buildings adjoining cavity walls must extend to at
F least 25 mm beyond the inner face of the outer leaf.
5· Weep-holes should be formed immediately belo..... the main horizonul
damp proof cQurseWlnd abol'e the damp proof cour~es over openings.
No other \'entilation to the cavity should be provided.
6. Built-in Aoor timbers should be sound and well-seasoned and their ends
should be tre.ated with a preserv.ative (see Chap. I , Vol. III),
i
SCALI
•
..
.,.,!

F1GL'RE q.
44 BRICKWORK
7. The cavity should be continued up a parapet wall to the coping.
8. Ties must be rust-proof, capable of preventing rain-transmission and
easily cleaned of droppings.
At certain Bath stone mines (~e p. 110) small pieces of waste but sound
stone arc sawn into blocks which are 140 mm high (or equal to two courses of
brickwork) by 102'5 mm wide by 215 to 610 mm long. These are usedas facings
of 275 mm cavity walls, the stone t>eing in regular courses, a type of walling
known locally as rangt-fJ;JOTk.
Another type of cavity wall, suitable for public butldings, is shown at !o, B
and P, Fig. 16, Vol. III. This consists of an external1eaf of ashlar, backed at
alternate courses with brickwork, and an inner leaf of brickwork.
CIRCULAR WORK
Curved work is occasionally required as for segmental and semicircular bay
windows, wells of staircases, apsed ends, and ci rcular (on plan) factory, etc.,
chimney stacks. The plan of a portion of a room with a semicircular bay window
is shown at A, Fig. IS, that on the left being above the sill level and that on the
right below it. A sketch of this wall is shown at H, Fig. 29.
It will be seen at E and r, Fig. IS , that uncut standard bricks are quite
unsuitable for circular work if normal bonding is to be maintained, as the
stretcher faces of the bricks only conform approximately to the curve, and very
wide joints on the convex surface are produced. The width of the joints can
only be reduced by cutting each brick to a wedge-shape to form radial side
joints. Not only is this an expensive procedure but the appearance is not
satisfactory (especially if the curve is to a small radius), as the" curve" is made
up of a succession of straight stretcher faces. In order to conform more closely
to the curve, and when ordinary standard bricks only are available, heading
bond (see Chap. T, Vol. J) may be adopted. But such a wall, where each
course consists of headers, is I:nattractive and deficient in strength.
It is now the general practice, even in cheap speculative work, 10 use on ly
purpose-made bricks for the exposed faces of circular walling. Such bricks
are moulded to the required shape either by hand (see p. 4) or by the machine-
p ressure process (see p. 3).
Many of th., larger manufacturerl keep stocks of circular stretchen and huder.,
machine-pressed In diu Ihaped 10 curvu of rad!' vuymg from-O'6to 2'5 m IS shown
at Land M, Fig. 5. Th., contractor states the radius of the curv", when ordering the
bricks. If these do not conform 10 • stock radiUS, the plan of the wll! ,s chali<ed out
on the aening-Out board and the pos>hon of Ihe brickS'mark.,d after due IlIo"lnce
hIS be.,n mlde for shnnkage in dryin8 and burnlni. Two zinc templets a~ cut to
th., shipe of. huder and ,tretcher. Wood mouldl (see p ... ) are prepared from
thes~ and handed to Ihe moulder who proceeds 10 shipe the brick. by hand.
Alternative plans of a portion of a 31.8 mm wall in English bond are shown
at C, and of an 1.7S mm cavity wall at o. Unless both faces of a curved wall
are to be exposed, and as purpose-made cif,cular bricks are relatively expensive
(especially if hand-made), it is customary to back the curved facings with
common bricks which are axed to give radial joints as shown at c. If the
internal surface of a ca ... ilY wall is to be plastered, the inner leaf is usually built
of common hricks sec (0,) and unltss the curvature is too sharp these commons
are not cut to give radial joints.
The setting-out of circular work is described on pp. 71 and 73.
REINFORCED BRICKWORK
Re)nforced Brickwork (sec Fig. 16) is brickwork which has been
strengthened by the introduction of steel or wrought iron in the form of either
flat or rod bars, woven wire or expanded mda!. This reinforcement is placed
in the joints or in grooves or perforations in the bricks. S\lch brickwork
is capable of resisting tensile and shear stresses, in addition to coml-'rcssion
stress. It is essential that the bricks shall be !>Qund and well burnt, the work
well bonded in cement mortar or cement-lime mortar, and the reinforcement
effectively protected agalOSt corrosion. Rusting of the reinforcement may cause
serious damage hccause of the resultant expansion. Bricks of the engineering
t'ype are most suitable when heavy loads have to he supported. The mOrtar is
usually composed of 1 part Portland cement to 3 parts sand; T'o part of slaked
lime may h:! added. Lime mortar should nOt be used, as this may have an
injurious effect on the metal. It is generally considered that a brick wall
may be reduced in thickness by 102'5 10m provided it is suitably reinforced
and such reduced thickness is not less than 21S 10m. lIence this Iype of
construction increases the floor area of a building (or reduces the external size of
a huilding) and decreases the dead load on foundations.
Reinforcement of brickwork also impro\'es the longitudinal hond of thick
walls. Whilsl thick walls are strong transversely, they are weak longitudinally,
as, with exception of the outer stretchers, they consi~t wholly-of headers which
only give a lap of S6 mm. The details in Fig. 16 show how the provision of
reinforcing metal strips increase the longitudinal tie.
Fig. t6 shows examples of reinforced brick (a) wails, (b) pillars and (c) lintels.
(a) R~inforud Brick Walls.- The walls at B aTe shown reinforced al every
third course with steel meshed strips called Exmet. 1 This is made from thin
rolled steel plates which are cut and stretched (or expanded) by a machine to
a diamond meshwork form (see A). It is known as "expanded metal." The
junctions between the meshes remain uncut. It is supplied in 83 m coils or
bundles of S m long Aat strips in three standard widths, i.e., 6S mm (suitable for
101.·S mm walls), 178 mm (s'tiitable for 1.tS mm walls), 230 and 30S mm (used for
thicker walls). Each width is obtainable in I, 0'8 and 0'6 mm thicknesses. In
, Manufactured by The Eiltpanded Metll Co. Ltd.
 c K BONDING 45
addition, 100 mm width of material 0'8 and 0'6 thick is also produced. The ,ize
of the mesh (16 mm) is constant. To prevent corrosion the metal in the coil
form is coated with oil and then dipped in asphaltum paint. Flat lengths are
galvanized,' -
The Exmet ill uncoiled and pressed down into the mortar immediately the
latter has been trowelled on the bed. It lies quite flat when uhcoiled and the
thickness of the bed joints is therefore not increased. Hand shears are used to
cut the material into lengths as required.
The example at B shows the application of 65 mm (see A), '78 mm and
305 mm wide Exmet. Combinations of these widths are used for thicker wall~,
and when so employed, the material considerably improves the longitudinal tie
which is especially weak in thick walls. The strips should he lapped 75 mm
al the intersections, as shown, and at the joints. Sometimes only 65 mm
wide strips are used for any thickness of wall, one strip to each half-brick.
thickness nf the wall, and is thus similar to that shown at D. The amount of
reinforcement used depends upon the nature of the loading, and whilst It may
be necessary to reinforce e\'ery course, it is usual to provide reinforcement at
every third or fourth course. Another arrangement consists of staggering the
strips, thus Jfl a 328 mm wall, one 65 mm strip is placed on one course at 25 mm
from the external face, another strip is provided in the centre of the next course,

c and in the following course a 65 mm strip is placed 25 mm from the internal

face; this is repeated for the full height.
Cavity walls (p. 39) may be reinforced by a 65 mm strip at every third course
Ml'01f-~ f,o\Cl1G was of each 102'5 mm lining. Partition walls, built with bricks laid-an-edge, may
___ COIoIJN:lN IAICM M.A.'I at: tiSI'D also be strengthened by the pro ... ision of 65 mm wide Exmet. The 65 mm wide
~ THllNTw.IAJ. UNIHG strips especially are suitable for curved walls (p. 44), as thiS width can be readily
WH[N rT ~ ~TlUD
bent as required. Expanded meta! is also used 10 strengthen walls of chimney
nv
stacks and parapets built 1fl exposed positions. Further applications include
/ 1O...o.'fTV footings, walling over wide door and window openings, boundary and balcony
walls and tall chimneys Reinforcemem of retaining walls, piers and arches is
referred to on p. 46. il can also be usefully employed at toothings (see Chap.
I, Vol. I) when the bond between new and existing walls at the indents is rein-
forced if the strips are left projecting beyond the old work and built-in as the
D new wall is constructed.
Another well-known form of meshed reinforcement, called Bricktor,1 is
CAVITY W"-U
shown at c. II is made of steel wire, black Japanned as a protection, produced
in 50 and 65 mm widths and sold in coils. The 50 mm width is suitable for
brick-an-edge partitions and consists of four straight tension Wi,iS 1'4 mm
thick mterlaced with three ,., mm thick binding wi'~r. The 65 mm strips
have fi\e tension wires and fOlllr conunuous binding wires, eaeh tWIsted to md
F , One methoJ of gah'am~ln~. kno\\n as lhe hol_d,p prours. consi!!s of cleanSing the
melll.land remOVIn.'lany run by placing II In d,lule hydrochloric aCi<.l. \\uhioK it to remewe

\~~~"
b",,!,,=,,==~==,i
the ac,d and then pas.mg it through a bath COOI.,mnll" liqUId 1.IOC.
• A product of Messrs Johnson' s Reinforced Concretc EnltlOculn~ Co. Ltd.

It"'U' , ·hi ,i.,. .

PlANS SHOWING THE UHSUITA&lUTY OF UNCUT 5TANDMD 8NCKS fOfI. CU,.,VID 'HOf¥.
,..
 BRICKWORK
between a pair of tension wires u shown. One .trip is provided at every
half·brick thiclr.nesa of the wan (Itt D). It is very euily handled, .nd is used
(or similar pu~ and in like manner u described (or Exmet.
A type of ft:infofCm'lent much ~ to ""'ngtMn brldF: walb in the put i. thown
It c and,. nu. COM.IU ofwrouabllfOn (kno...." .. Mop f,.,., haKe lhe name applied
to the: bond) or mild ateel flat ban ..... hich vary In width (rom 11 to)2 mm and O":lS to
1,6 mm in thickn",. Protection spinal rull i. provided by dippin, the ban in hoi
tar; IhQe 1ft: then It on« ..nded TO increue adhHion of the motUr. OM .trip
.1 provIded per h.llf·bridt thlcknHa of ""'111, and it il Ulual 10 reinforce: every .ath
OOUrK (_ G) nit det.il tho_ the U'fttment at • ri,ht-angled quoin where the
end. are double-hooked (_ Illnd belten ftlt. Iltem'lively, the middle and inner
.trips may be oonhnued and l.n,le.l»oked {tee ttl to the two OUler ItriPI. At an
mtcrwctlon (_ H) the ban are Interlaced _and .inlle~hoohd. Any joinu bel ....een
lana I.UI.,:hl an In the fonn of a ...~k (11I1'1I1ar to D, Flf. 7S. Vol. I). Al1houlh Ina
Irtre<tln. thm WlR t'li'lllird round lhe ban may be UKd mlt~d of the moR ttplrnllv~
hook-and-"'lrl! jolnll. Hoop Iron II now rarely employlrd. and whilst it .1 Itronger
than Exmet and Bndnor, it i. more costly. It is abo difficult to bed the: bric:k. evC'nly
unlna the joints are un\l.ually thick.
Retaining walls (thO&e supporting earth, etc.) arc often reinforced. If either
of the meshed typcl are used, 6S mm stripa may be embedded in the vertical
joints to aMist in resisting lateral pressure in addition to the bed joint reinforce-
ment. Another form of reinforcement consists of vertica1 ban of circular ICction,
and details of an actual retaining wall of such construction is shown at L, M and N.
Thil :1I S mm wall is built of engineering bric:b in ument mortar (I : 3) and re-
inforud with vertical mild steel ban near each face, in addition to steel meshed
stripa at every fourth course. The bricb opposite the vertical ban are pur-pose--
made and grooved I I lhown at P. These grooves are slightly larger than the
diameter of the bart to permit the latter to be grouted in with mortar to prevent
corrosion. In constructing such a Will the bars Ire accurately placcd in position,
the ends being bent and anchored into the concrete foundation (sec L). Erection
of the bart is facilitated by the usc of thin (3 mm thick) stecl wire ties It every
fourth course. These ties. which Ire built in as the work proceeds, are twisted
round the blrt, and those round opp<»jte bars arc tightened by twisting their
ends. When the top course haa been completed the groo"CI on facc are well
pointed 10 that the vertical rods are completely encased in cement mortar.
Vertical damp proofing (see p. S2) oompletet the wall. If it is an area wall it
may be finished with a stone or reinforced concrete coping and the ends of the
vertical bars would be bedded in it to strengthen the work.
The wall. Ire designed in accordance with the strClSel to be resisted, and
the IIZC and Ipacing of the venical reinforcement are therdore variable. Some-
times the ban arc arnnged ncar to both flcc lines of the wall, opposite to each
other and in pairs at :uS mm centres with .teel wire connections placed in the
horizontal jointa.
Perforated bricks may be used instead of grooved or slotted bricks, the
centre of the perforations being about 19 mm from the external face. As these
must be threaded over the vertical bars, they are not 10 con"enient as the grooved
bricks, although they are quite suitable for dwarf walls such u balcony, parlpet
and garden walls. The pwition of the vertical bart is conualed when perforated
bricb are used in wall construction, and .uch arc therefore preferred to
grooved bricks when the appearance of the brickwork is of importance.
Small bars of circular sect.ion (usually 6 mm dia.) arc sometimCl uscd at the
bed JOints of walla in lieu of hoop iron or meshed reinforcement. Thin stetl
plates, 6 mm thick and 13 mm less in width than the thickness of the walls, may
be embedded at every fourth coune to provide heavy reinforcement. Such
should be well tarred and sanded.
A patent type of reinforced partition is described in Chap. I, Vol. III.
(6) Rti"forced Brick P:iIlQTI.~Dctached pier. are reinforced by providing
a 6S mm wide strip of Bridttor or Exmet sct back as mm from the external face
at every second or third course or as required. Ahernatively, 6 mm diameter
rods may be embedded at the bed joints, each rod being bent to the shape of
the pier. about 2S mm from the face, with each end overlapping about ISO mm
at one corner. An excellent type of reinforced pillar is shown at S, T, U, v and w.
This 21S mm square pillar is reinforced with four stccl rods, well anchored into
the concrete bed, and steel plates (sec v) or wire ties (sec w) embedded at every
rourth coursc. The purpose-made bricks are shown at Q, T and u, Note that
the bart are well protected against corrOflton by the mortar. Details of a +40 mrn
square pillar arc shown at X and y, including a sketch of the Ipecial bricks at .;
holed steel plates may be adopted in lieu of the wire ties when a heavier reinforce-
ment is required. Perforated bricks may be uscd, but as these have 10 be threaded
over the rods they arc not so convenient as the grooved bricks .
. Attached piers arc reinforced by 6S mm wide strips of Exmet or Bricktor,
placed as mm from the face and lapped over the continuous outer strips on the
wall bed joints. Alternatively, two vertical bart with special bricks. similar to
that shown at R, may be preferred.
ec) Ra"forced Brick Lintels or " Soldin Archa."-These lintels must be
provided with additional support when the span excceds 900 mm. Omission
of adequate reinforcement has been responsible for many failures. Two
methods of reinforcement are shown at z and z', Fig. 16 (see also Fig. u, Vol. I).
That at z shows the lintel reinforced with twO u mm diameter mild steel
bars embedded in the longitudinal joints and extending to 1So mm beyond the
jambs. The alternative form at z' shows two 6 mm diameter bars or tension
reinforcement embedded in the continuous longitudinal joint. together with
6 mm diameter bent stccl bars, called stiTTups, bedded in every third vertical
joint. The object of the atirrups is to rHi!t shear !!.tresses.
In constructing the lintel at z', two small wood fillets are nailed to the top
of the turning piece (used as a temporary support) at a dear distance apart
equal to the thickness of ftle lintel. Pieces of thin wire arc placed transversely
across and nailed to the fillets at I spacing equivalent to the centre of every
third vertical joint. The bottom bar is placed centrally on the wirCl and built
in at the ends. The bricka of the lintel are laid (working from each end towards
 47

E N F o c E D B c K W 0 R K
~
-5_I)IA
Wl~ TIE.
,V ALTf~ATM
W~f~ATi!~
'~~~
~o;iilNU'~ SI,f KH OF 215 n!Hf()I\CEO PIllAR

HOUD
FOR ~AI\5 ~v
o 0
PLAN OF
STEfL PLATE
8RICKQ.~
1& DlABAi - U SINGLE HOOI<.. JOINT
HER PlATE £ 3 AT "H'
APPLICATIONS OF PLAN
X E T' ~ "B ~ I C i<- T 11:' WIRE. TIE 20 .... 8AA

i~T
I ¥ lIRICK. R \ l N T E l S
.iXit
" •• ~ T ~CTION
S,,,,,Lt H)" 1\,C.,Ji-K
l<- E I N F 0 I'- C E D E T A I N
PlAN
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"'(;3J "'~~
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Mp' ~Q'
m~
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_.' PLAN OF PllLM.
o PUR.POSE-MADE BRICK.S
"
"
20..,&AJIj ElEVATION

""
1& OjAWOS

"
"
A" +,--440 -

"
"

"

"
12 OIA MILO) =2":~,
STEEL 5AAS - Z
L1NTEL p.,ElNFORCED WITH MRS BETWEEN VEHlCAl ..oINTS
I
'6RICII. F'
OIA,em

., ....",.....--,,,
SKETCH Of TWO COURSES OF PAIt.T ELEVATION
THE REINFORCED IUTAINING WAll OF A 44011/<1 SQ
RflNFOll.CED PILl"-R.
•
g
16 tlIA.MfS
'" ANCHORED ItHO
t"~'-~-,;-;-;;-~''l~ -.l (ON<:RHE
440
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PMT ElEVATION m A
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L seA-LEt i toe 1009

FIGURE 16
 BRICKWORK
the centre), and at the same time the stirrups, supported by the bottom bar,
are bedded in position at c\"ery third joint, care being taken that the continuous P l A N 5 o F N G B 0 H 0 5
longitudinal joint is filled with mortar for the lower 50 mm only. The top rod
is inserted and pressed down to the stirrups or to a ICHl slightly above them.
The continuous vertical jOint is then filled with grout from the lOp. Prior to tht:
removal of the turning piece, the pieces of thin wire are cut Rush with the two
faces an~ the ends turned into the joints. Pointing completes the lintel. A 25
mm by 13 mm wood fillet may be used as a temporary support for the lower ten-
sion bar in lieu of the pieces of wire. This must be oiled before being built in to
permit of its removal after the turning piece ha~ been removed. The continu-
·••
ous joint is filled with mortar and Ihe soffit pointed after removal of the fillet.
The size and number of bars vary with the span and loading. Thill sho~'n •
at z' is typical for a lintel having a maximum span of 2'5 m.
HE~RI NG·BONE BOND B
Flat and segmental arches may be strengthened by embedding meshed
reinforcement in the bed joint~ of the walling which they support.
Reinforced hrickwork has heen adopted in the construction of fire-resisting
Roors. These slabs are reinforced ..... ith bars bet .....een the joints of the hricks
placed on edge, both transversely and longitudinally, and these slabs are supported An altcrnali\e to raking honds for increasing thc lonl'lltudinal tie in thi(k
by steel beams at a maximum distance apart of 2" m. Reinforced slab construc- walls is known as longitudinal bond. A course huill ill this hand consists entirely
tion is necessary for large brick canopies O\'er doorways, etc. of strdchcrs, with uception of a row of queen clo:>ers adjacent to each outer
Raking Bonds. A characteristic defect in a thick wall built In English row of stretchers. The inner row~ of stretchers arc arranged to break j()int to
bond is a deficiency in the longitudinal bond due to the absence of stretchers in gi\'e a 102.5 mm lap. This hond rna}" he applied at e\'er} fifth cour~c.
the heart of the wall. As stated on p. 45, this tic may be improved by the The abo\e three bond~ are seldom required for constructional purposes, .I~
provision of metal reinforcement. An older method, and one which is now only modern steel-iramed and reinforced concrete con:;truction has, to a large extent,
occasionally adopted, is the introduction of courses of hricks sct at a rake (or eliminated thick walls. Both forms of raking honds ilre, howe\'cr, often used
indination) at intervals up the ..... 0111. These are kno ..... n as raking bond courses with good effect in decorated brickwork. E1{ample~ of ~uch hriekwork are shown
and are of two forms, i.t .• (a) diagonal bond, and (h) herring-hone hondo in Fig. 24. the panel at M.l indicating diagonal hond and that at \1.2 ~ho\\illg the
(a) Diagonal Bond (see plan A, Fig. 17).- This is best suited for walls which bricks arranged to a herring-hone pattern (see p. 62).
are from 3 to 4-bricks thick, and is applied between the Slrtfching l faces at evcry
fifth or seventh course. Alternate raking courses should he inclined in the
opposite direction to that shown. The method of setting-out is indicated on
the figure. The triangular spaces formed near the stretching faces should be
filled In with cut pieces of brick and not mOrtar only.
SPECIAL BONDS
(b) Htrr;n.t:-bont BOlld.-Thisform(so-called becauseof its slight rcsemblance
to the spine of a herring) is shown at plan s, Fig. 17, and may be applied to Rond:; which have not alrcad) been de~crihed Inc:ude Garden, Cross, Outch.
wa][~ which are at least 4-hricks thick at five to se\'en course \'crtical intervals. Brick-on-edge and Facing Rond ..
The bricks are laid at an angle of 45 in both dircctionll from the centre. Like Garden Wall Bond. \s its name implies, this hond is suitable for garden,
diagonal bond, alternate herring-bone courses are reversed. The ~elling.oul dl\15ion and similar w<llls which usually do not etceed I-hrick In thickness.
is shown in the figure. "'ote (I) the con~truction lines f and G are drawn parallel Due to the slight \ariallon in length of some bricks it is difficult to construct
to and equidistant from the centre line, \\ilh the 45 distance between (as 3-5) all; mm wat! in Engliloh ~nd if a fair or uniform face i~ required on hoth sides
equal to 102'5 mm or the width of a hnck, and (2) the long raking JOint 1-2 is (sec Chap. I. \'01. I). As fewer headers are emplo)"ed in garden wall hond than
drawn from the centre and inclined at H. followed in sequence h\· the long in eitllcr English or Flemish hond~, it i~ USUJlly possihle to ~dect from the hricks
raking joints 3-4. 5-6, 7-R, etc. .l\ailahle suffi(ienl of the longer bricks of uniform length as headers for ;I. x.. rden
, Rlklng boftd cours"~ ,n b.u·k {'>otml!' ~h"ukl Ix· h.,to,u.,n th.· "".mll 1'''''''''1111 tan... bonded wall, th( r(mainin~ hrid.~ hem/{ used as stretchers and built flu~h \\ Ith
 SPECIAL BONDS
both faCtiof the headers. Fair faces on both ~;Jes of a garden bonded wall are
thu ll rn5urf'd. Whil!!.! garden wall bond i8 not as stronp. as f.nj;l'1i~h hond (thl'
transvenoe tie bein~ Inferior), It 1>1 sufficient for most dwarf walls and (or those
not required to w:thstand laTRe stTessa. As mentioned on p. 40, garden wall
bond is sometImes used instead of stretching hood for the Cflnstruction of the
out~r lea\cs of C3\'ity \'\'alb It has a Rood appearance, and on this account is
jitreatly to he preferred to stretching bond.
There are two forms of garden wall hond, l,t" (0) English garden wall bond
and (b) Flemish garden wall bond.
(a) };nglish Gardtn U"QII Bond (see A, FiR. 18). -This consists of one course of
headers to three or h\"c COUr.>di of strelchers. As in English bond, a queen
closer is mtroouced next to th~ quoin header in th~ h~ading course. A head~r is
placed at th~ quom of each middle (or alternat~) course of stretchers to give the
necessary lap and face appearance of stretching oond (scc also H, Fig. J, Yol. I).
The lonjlltudinal \ertical Joint bet ..... een each three (or five) suCCeSSiH! stretching
COUrM!lI i~ continuous, and this caulles the defiCiency in transverse strength
stated aho\'c. This bond, hecause of its ewnomy, is very frequ~ntly adopted in
the cnn~tructinn nf 215 mOl thiclt rouJi(h-cuted external ....-aIl8, especially for
houses not exceeding two stories in heip:ht.
(b) F1r"ush Gardt71 II-'QII BQ1Id (!itt B, Fig. 18). This is also kno ..... n as Swssrx
and Scotch bond. It comi!>1i of three or ti\'e stretchers to one head~r in roch
cour~e. A three-quarter hat is placed nel(t to the quoin header in e\·ery alternate
course, and a heacer is laid over the middle of each central stretcher.
In a~modified arrangement at the '11.1010 of a Russn bonded wall, a queen
dOfoCT is placed nnt to Ihe quoin header of each alternate course, and this is
follo ..... ed by a series of three ~Iretchers :ilOd a header Each alternatlOl/: course:
comprises. quoin. stretcher with a ~tretcher adjOlninl/:. followed by a series
conslMinp: of a header and thrtt stretchers. Excepting at the quoin the appear-
ance is similar to the abo\'e, as each header is centrally over the middle stretcher.
Monk Bond isa variation of Flemish garden ..... all bond, Men course consisting
of a sene.. comprising a header and two stretchers, the header falling cenlrally
over the joint between a pair of stretchers.
English Cross Bond (see c, Fig. 18). -ThIS IS foImilar to EnRli~h hondo in
Ih11 it con..i,t, of alternate courws of header~ :md ~tretchers, .,..ith queen closcrs
next to the quoin headers. Each Q!t""Ou str~tcnl1lg course has, howe\er. a
header placed neXl to the" quoin stretcher. This causes the stretchers to break
Joint in alternate courses.
Dutch Bond (see D, Fig. IR). This IS another modification o( English bond.
The bond cons.ists of alternate l"OUT'SCI of headers and stretchers, but tQch
strtlchl1lf course begins at the quoin with a three-quarter bat, and e'ery Q!,"natt
st,tUnl1lK course has a header placed next to the quoin thrte-quarte"r bat. This
also hu the effect of the Mretchers. breaktol/: joint In alternate courses The
preaence of the quoin three-quarter bats makes it unnecessary for queen closers
to be placed neIt to the quoin headers as in Enghsh bond.
49
Bridt~n-edge Bonds. -These differ (rom normal bond in that at least
.Iternate courses are 102'5 mm high, the bricks being laid 00 edge :and not 00 bed
They are economical as, compared with English hond, considerably fewer bricks
and less mortar are required. Their strength is deficient, and the appearance is
unsatisfactory on account of Ihe large scale of the brick unitll and the light colour
which is characteristic of the beds of mo~t hricks. Only wire-cut bricks should
be used. These bonds are sometimes employed for garden and similar walling,
and occaSionally for walls of cheap one-storied cottages. They can be employed
effectively if their external faces are co,·ered with \"erticaltilin~ I~e Chap. III,
\'01. III), Thc best known brick40n-edge bonds are (Q) rat-trap bond and
(b) Silverlock's bond.
(a) RQt-trQP Bo,,/(see F, Fig. 18).- All hricks are laid on edge. and, as shown,
are arranged 10 gl\·e I face appearance of Flemish bond, Each alternate course
I. commences with a three-quaner bat, followed by a header, and cach alternate
course K commences With a header, succeeded by a stretcher. As indicated on
the plans, tkre is a 85 mm ca\'it)" between each pair of slTetcher~, excepl at the
jambs, which arc !iolid (see also sketch). It is estimated that, compared with a
215 mm solid wan,. Tu·trap bondcd .....all ~hows a saving of appro"(imately z5 per
cent. External wa115 of cottages built \0 thl::; bond must he protected on their
outer faces by rough-cast or vertical lliinl/:, otherwise watcr may penetrate
through the solid headers and mortar droppings.
Occasionally :ztS mm raHrap bonded walls are built solid, the cavity being
filled by stretchers placed on edge.
(b) S,/ur/ock's &nd (see E, Fig. 18).- This resembles Engli~h bond in that
It con~ists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, but, .... hereas the headers
are laid on hed, the stretchers are placed on edge wllh a cor.tinuous cavity
between. The Jamhs are solid, and a three-quaner bat at the beginning of each
headinfl: course gi\d; the necessary bond. Whilst this is stronfl:er than rat-trap
bond, it is not SO economical.
On the score of economy in materials and space, brick-on-edge stretching
hond i~ frequently employed in the construction of 65 mm thick partition walls
in lieu of 102'5 mm thick brick wall~.
Facing Bond. This is usually employed (or solid .... alls uceeding 215 mm
in thicknU3 ..... hich a,c: faced with thin bricks and bacl.ed by thlt-l.er and dll:<I~r
standard commons. Tlte faced work is bonded to the hackinfl: to a series of
blocks of a height which depends upon the difference in thickness between the
two types of bricks. Thus, in the section through the 440 mm wall at c, fig. 18,
the height of four courses of 50 mm thick facings wilh their bed Joints is shown
10 coincide .... ith three courses of commons together WIth theIr JOlOts, and the
blocks of facings are allernal,&ly i and 14brick thick. The facin~ may be built
in Cit her English, Flemish or any of the bonds A, B, C or D. Fig. 18 ( ..... ith snap
headen at the i-brick thick blocks), and the backing is built in English bond.
~mewhat similar con~truction may be 1pplied to I i brick walls, with the backing
to the alternating 215 mm thick facing blocks built in stretching bond.
50 B RICK W ORK
A modifi~d form of facing bond may be- applied to 215 mm thick walls. Thu:>,
the facings and commons would be built in ~-brick thick lea\'e! in stretching
bond with facing heading courses at suitable intcruls. If the facing and backing
bed joints coincide, as shown at G, such facinR headen would ap~ar at c\"try
fifth flcing course.
Facing bond is not, of course, all strong as English bond, but the alternative
would be to use thin bricks for the backing of the same thickn6S as the facings.
And this would add considerably to the COSt, especially if the facings were
So mm or less.
A R C H ES
A description of several fo rms of arches is given in Chap. I, Vol. I.
Semic irc ula r Arc h with Orde rs. -An opening in a thick wall is often
finished with either splayed or stepped jamhs and an arch comprising several
rings of diminishing .... idth or thickness. The arch is thus rec~d or stepped by
a series of rings known as ord", (or" ro ....s "). It is applied to both door and
.... indow openings and has a satisfactory appearance.
An example of this type of arch is shown at A. Band C, Fig. 19. which illustrates
a main entrance to a house. Special attention is drawn to the section at c ..... hich
shows Ihe bonding of the arch as each ring ulends 10 Ihe inner face. This is
known as a bund~d arch. It is much stronger than the alternati"e unbonded
arch, often applied, .... hen IOl'5 by 102'5 mm h}" 65 mm ,'OUSSOITS are used
for each ring .... hich is thercfore only 102'5 mm wide on soffit. The Impost
is shown consisting of a douhle row of tiles .... hich project 20 mm. An alternal;"e
is a thin stone course or a eour~e of purpose-made bricks.
It is assumed that the door !Ohown opens into an outer lobby, otherwise the
thickneSl> of the wall !Ohould he increased, With the inner ring at lea"t 215 mm
wide on soffit.
The two steps, of camhi ned height equal 10 the brick-an-end plinth, arc

GARDEN, C R 0 S S, D UTe H, F A C N G, ETC BON D 5

~="~I:
~MTS~
; '~ I11III
ENGUSH GMOO< WAlL IOND A FlfMlSH GMOEN WAlL SONO B ENGUSH ClOSS aoNO c
V I /-5-U
",. u
-'''' I(. ,o2-5
I I H I so T1-Uo.
L fACI~

""'I<S
DUTCH &eND o
SECTION
FACING SONO
, 119
coXt i ••• ••• G

FIClJRE 18
 ARCHES
f6rmed with bricks-on-edge in cement. These bricks must be hard and durable,
otherwise the arrises would be readily damaged. The bottom step is segmental
with a r'2 m radius, and consists of purpose-made bricks with a tile-on-edge
infilhng; the vertical joints are radial.
Another example of a semicircular arch with orders is shown at P.li, Fig. 24.
This arch is three-ringed and the stepped recesses are continued down the jambs
to the steps of the doorway. This is an alternative treatment to the splayed
jambs showl! at A, Fig. 19.
A semicircular arch with a toothed or jndented extrados is shown at P.13,
Fig. 24 (see also p. 62).
Stilted Semicircular Arch with Segmental Rere Arch (see u, v, w, x
and z, Fig. 19.)--A stilted (or elevated) arch is one which has its springing line
above the imposl. Thus, the amount of stilting of the semicircular arch at u is
equal to two courses. In the absence of an impost the arch is continued below
the springing line with several parallel voussoirs, any differ ence in texture and
colour between the voussoi rs and general walling producing the stilted effect.
This arch is enriched by a slightly projecting crown course known as a wbet
(see u and the section at z). When the label consists of moulded hricks (or stone)
it is called a hood mould. The voussoirs and label are of purpose-made bricks,
and the arch is bonded on face.
When the jambs of an opening are rebated, the external arch need not
necessarily be of the same shape as the internal arch. Thus the external arch at
u is sqnicircula.r of 685 mm radius, and the inner arch is segmental of 1·81 m
radius. As the internal jambs are splayed, as shown at wand x, the intersection
between the soffit of the segmental arch and a spldyed jamb will take the form of
a curve as indicated at z. This segmental arch is known as a rlre (meaning
" back" or " rear ") arch.
The devtlopment of the curved intersection i. mown at x, \. and z. The pllln at X
and ,..,cHonal elentlon z of the splayed Jamb are each diVided mto four or any COn_
vement number of equal plrts. Venlcal hnes are projected from the quaner-polnts
I. a and J on the plan to the mtrados of the u:gmennl arch. Horuwntal hnes ue
dr:awn from the pomts .S, I, a. J and ... on the mtrados 10 mterscct the corre$pondin~
\'ertlcallinn It z. A Ime 5, I. a J Ind -I- drawn through these pOints of mters.ectlon
gives the required Clln;e. as shown at z. Honzontal hnea .pmj...,,1'<i fron> the vou."'.'r
Jotm. at the mu-adol of the segmental arch at V 10 Z I{lve the :e\"el soffit JOlnrs m
Icctlon YY.
Circular or Bull's-eye Arch (sec II, Fig. 19).-This form of arch is
chiefly adopted as an external decorative feature to receive either a fixed light
or frame with a pi\'oted sash. Circular openings in internal walls are occasionally
required through which metal smoke flues, ventilating tubes, etc., are passed.
Purpose-made, rubber or axed bricks are used externally, and an internal arch
is usually a rough ring.
Co,urn.lt,oll.-The lower half or Im-nt .of thll arch IS first built. The adjacent
brickwork which WIll form the bale for thll lower half II bUilt from coune z and
5'
racked back up to COllrse Y at the centre. A "ood hlnen i.laid across the openin~ and
weIghed at the e nd s on collrse Y, and the trammel rod or ~adjw ,od (sec Chap. II ,
Vol. I) is ICrewed or nailed to It at the cen tre; allowar"ltt for the thickness of the
bed joint at the extrados must be made in determining the len.l!th of the roo. Course
Z;I completed; ItrclchelJ. I, a and J are laid tempolllrily in posit ion I r"ld mlrked to
the required CllrH lIS the radius rod is travel"Rd; the,.., bricks are cut with I hammer
Ind bolsler (see JS, Fig. 19, Vol. I) and trImmed accurately to shape with Ilcutch;
they are then la id pelTnanently. Each course up to the middle hne i5 completed in
thll manner, after wruch Ihe purpose-made vouS-Wln formmg the lower half of the
arch are bedded in poa;;tion, the radius rod bei ng u,..,d to ch«k the IlIdi.1 joints and
curve. Ftnally, the "pper half of the arch IS conltrUcted by the ulual method, I
woOO cent~e on struts ~m.l! lIsed as a temponllry suppon (see C h ip. I , Vol. III).
Semi-elliptical Arch (see 1, Fig. 19).-This shows half of an axed arch.
bonded on face with a portion of a tiled key, and a half arch in three rough rings.
Both purpose-mades and rubbers may be used for the former.
This form of arch has se\'eral demerits. It is not structurally sound, as
defects such as shearing at the haunch joints may occur, especially if the rise
is rdatively small. Labour costs are high, as special care must be taken in its
setting-out and erection if abnormally shaped curves at the intrados and extrados
are to be avoided. It is sometimes preferred to the segmental arch where :!.
comparatively large span is required and the height is restricted. The rise of
the arch should be at least one-third the span.
As the student will be aware, an ellipse is produced when a cone is cut by
a plane which does not intersect the base and is not parallel to it. A true
elliptical curve cannot be constructed with compasses, as no part of it is circular.
However, for reasons of economy and the need to reduce the number ofvoussoir
templets to a minimum, it is usual to adopt a gt!Ometrical method for setting-
out the intrados and extrados of a semi.elliptical arch. There are se\'eral methods,
th~t set out from five centres shown at J being one of the best, as by it compound
curves can be produced which closely conform to that of the true ellipse.
S""'rw-(),,'.~Draw the mljor and minorue.; make cd_half span ah; con-
struct Circle w,th d .. cenln> Ind db a. radIUS, and mark oR" be and bj _llIdlUl
db; draw lines dem, dj" lIr" and hfo; g, ", lI, j Ind h are the five ~uired centre.
for both the mlndos and e>:tradol. Ind dm, lin, 1.0 and d, Ire common normlll,
Con~[ruct tangential curves as, zl, tu., lit! Ind 11W WIth g, " I., f and h as centres
l"upe<:I,,·dy; con~IC ... ~t tho: "unodoll. m a Ilmllllr mllnner; mark off me thi~ness of
the \"ouS5oin on the elltrados (if the brickl arc n.ed, purpose·made or rubbed) and
draw the bed jomtl of the voulsoin. It is importlnt to note that these jomts Ire
radIal, as shown by ae broken construct;onll hnes; thus the VOUllOlni Wtthm the
portion of the Irch "l'Its radiate from ce-ntre ~, Ind those within portion ltOul radiate
from centre k. It will be seen that the bricklayer WIll only require three dJfferently
shD~ lempkts to which Ixed or rubber \"ousso;n are .haped, i.e., one for the
central IIOUlSOln, one for those within the intermediate portions "'"11 and """,, and
one templel for the V()lJSSOln "ithin the two end portions. Also for purpoK-mades,
three SImIlarly Ihlped but IlrJlC'r (to IIllow for shnnkage) moulds will lerve the
moulder to shipe the bncks.
•
Elliptical Arch (see K, Fig. 19).-This may be adopted as an alternative
to the circular arch H. The method of setti:1g out brieRy indicated in the figure
 BRICKWORK
has been sdected as an alternative to that described for the semi-elliptical arch J.
1t will be seen that only four centres e, m, n: ar.d / are required
Selltrrt..ouf.-After the major and mInor axes have b«n dra"'n and their lengths
dKided upon, with untre a Ind radius ab describe arc be: jom hit. with centre hand
radiu! he describe arc cd; bisect bd, Ind the twO centres t and! are at the intusect;cm
betw.,en thIS bisector and the twO axes; the two remalnlnR centres'" and .. ue casily
obtamed by making am=r>! Ind an_at. The vo""mf JOints of neh of the four
sectIons of the arch rad,ale towards ;15 centre. Only ' .... 0 templeu are requir<ed for
th" whol .. of the VOUasOlT'S.
Pointed Arches.-These arc also known as Gothic arches, as the pointed
3rch is characteristic of this style of architecture. The intrados and extrados
of each of the several lorms of this type of ~rch are st:grnental curvc:'! which
imersect at the pointed apex at which each half abuts to form a vertical joint
on the centre line. It is therefore not usual to have a key.
There are five forms of pointed arch, i.r., equilateral, drop. lancet, Tudor
and Yenetian.
The first three are illustrated at T, Fig. 19 The Iquilateral arch is shown at
R, bonded on face; the radIUS of each curve of the mtrados equals the span,
the centres are at the mds of the springing 1inl: and the extrados is parallel to
the intrados. A drop arch, as at Q , has It:> centres on the springmg hne and
within iti in the example the span is 1'36 m and the radius is 1"4 m. A lanert
arch has its centres on the !;pringing line and outsidt the span; that shown by
broken lines at s has a span of 0·69 m and the radius is 0·8 m. In each form the
bed joints of the \'ou~soirs radiate to their respective centres. The equilateral
and drop arches are shown in section at o.
Tudor Arch (see x, Fig. Ig).-This arch, commonly employed during the
Tudor period, has four centres, all within the span; tWO of them are on the
springing line and the other two are below it. The Tudor arch, like the semi-
elliptical, is a weak form.
S~tting_out._There are ~everal methods In that shown, ac IS set up and made
equal 10 t (or iJ nae n71; jmn mc and draw ",n at "Kht an~!e~ to it of indefi.nit~ length;
mark off mn Bnd ar _ or; JOIn nr, b,sect It and continue Ihe b,sector until ,t mle,.,.ects
"''' connnued at J; J and r are the requ,red centres for Ihe nght half of the arch, and
Jr produced to u is • common nOlTOa! The lemamm¥ twO centreS" and w may be
found by rncuunnl'( from .he r"nlre !me The VOUSSUIT bed jomts radiate from the
resp«""e centres Two templels are requIred for the vouumrs.
Venetian Arch (see L, Fig. 19).-This pointed arch is deeper at the crown
than at the springing line. The centres are on the latter. The voussoirs are
radial from the centres of the in/rados cur'ies.
Florentine Arch (see M, Fig. 19).-This, like the Venetian arch, is deeper
at the crown than at the springing. The inllados curve is semicircular, and the
extrados has II pointed apex as it consists of two segmental curves, as shown.
Here also the \'oussoirs are normal to the In/rados cuneo Sometime!; the extraJos
is semi.elliptical.
A stmi-hrxagonal arch and a tifrd srgmental arch are illu~trated in Fig. 24
(see p. 63).
The centering for the abo,'e arches is described in Chap. I, Vol. III ,
DAMP PROOFING OF BASEMENTS
The materials used for horizontal damp proof courses and thelT apphc~tion
are described in detail in Chap. I, Vol. 1. \" ertical dJ.mp ploof courses will now
be considered.
The materials chiefly w.ed for H;rucal damp I'''Klf cour~a are (I) bituminous
substances and (2) waterproofed ct:ment 2nd com.:rete.
I, Bitumen is a name applied to natural pItchy (sec p. 54) substances con-
sisting pnncipally of hydrocarbon~ which \'ary III colour :.tnd hardness. It
mcludes (a) natural asphalt, (b) ~rtlfio.:ial asphalt and (c) fihrous a~phalt felt.
(a) Natural or ,Va/IVt /lsphalt occurs In man~ part:; of the world in either a
pure (or moderately pure) condItIOn or a~sociated .... ith a large proportion of
mineral matter such as limestone, shale, ett:., and known as rock asphalt. It i:.
found tn liquid form in springs, hquid or semi-liquid conditIon in lakes, and
in Impregnated rock formation. As therc are no deposit" 10 thts country,
asphalt has to be imported, thc chief ~upp1ies being oblamed from the British
West Indies, France, SWitzerland and Germany
Natural asphalt is one of the m.ost efficient materials employed for damp
resistin~ purposes: it is black in colouT, \'cr)' durab!.:, tou~h and dastic.
One of Ihe l"'<Jolest deposlU of asphah "",siS on Ih .. hland "I TnO/dad. Untlsh
Wen IndIes It I~ a lake, known as TWlldad A~phah i.ak", ar>pm~""ately c,rcular. of
:1 000 rn In d,ameler and r .. ar!\" <)0 rn deep \\"hd~t lar~e <juanflnu of uphalt
h."e alread}" been oh!aln.,.d from II. 11 IS estImated thai Ihere sl,ll remaIn some 10000
[0 IS 000 1\1,. The consIstency of Ihe a~phah t" §u"h th>t " "'ill penml men to
work on .he $urface.
The chief supply from France cornU from ~ !ar,.~ uq)()SII ,11 !he "';",'1;5"\ re~lon
and IS commercially kno"n bv thaI "a""e \nolhcr ~our'" I~ IhJt Irum a ucposn
mInd m Ihe soulh 1St Jean de :\laru<-Jo\'. l)epanmenl "f (;~r,!· . 'l'hese arc rock
asphalt depo'll$, the IIme'tone hannl( a ma,,,llum asphalt "nprel(n~IIOn of 11 pet
e .. nl It is both qUITned and mmed
The larjl"ut d~r>0$ IU OCCUTlnR ,II SWltz.. rland are If} til< Yal de Travers reJol,on
",est of Lake l'-euchllel. and \\"ell known as Yal de TraH',"" anJ 'cuchalc1asphalt.
Th,s IS a~phah,'mpreJolnaled l,mes.one. Ihe asphalt ""nteot \·ar.·m..: from l! to 12 per
cenl
The prlnelpal depoSlI in GelTOany IS sIluated al the dlaJole "f \.Immer (m Ihe
prov.nce of H~noverl and ,s marked as .. Lm,mer Asphalt" Th,. IS !,m{'Slon..
",him 15 Imp<~l(natcd with l! to 20 per cent. "f asphalt
Il'l1Il1ing and Rtjimng.-The methods employed to obtam asphalt depend
upon the nature of the deposits. Thus. Trinidad Lake asphalt i:> hand-picked
 53

A~CHES

A
WITHll~lO ....
.IOINT$

'"
~lntnHG /
EXTEmAl
EUVATION
54 B R IC K WO RK
by m~n working on the surface. load~d into trucks which are hauled by cable
over rails either to the refiners or to the shore (about 1'2 km distant) and loaded
for di r«:t shipment. Deposits of rock asphalt near the surface arc open-quarried.
blasting being resorted 10. Deep deposits arc mined.
Water is present in most natural asphalts. That from Lake Trinidad, for
instance, has nearly 30 per cent. of mois.ture content. This must he remO\'ed.
Dehyd ra tion is effected by heating the 35phah in open metal tanks, after which
it is passed through a fine screen (to remove pieces of wood, etc.), and poured
into barrels. Roc.:k asphalts are crushed, ground and screened before being
either heated in tanb or dried by exposun; to the atmosphere.
PrtpoTu/lon of ValurQ/ Asphalt MaJtie-This is recognized as one of the
most reliable materials for the damp proofing of walls, Roors and Rat roofs.
As, for this purpose, most rock asphalts are deficient in bitumen. it i!l necessary
to enrich them by the addition of Trinidad Lake asrhah. The rock asphah or
aggregate used in the preparation of the mastic should contain at least 90 per
cent. of calcium carbonate and not leS!! than 8 per cent. of bitumen. This
rock is reduced by grinding to a powder m that the whole will pass a ~o. 8
sieve (mesh of 2 mm aperture) and at least 15 per cent. .... ill pass a Xo. 200
sieve (mesh of 0'075 mm aperture). The required amount of Trinidad Lake
asphalt is added and thoroughly incorporated by mechanical agitators .... ith
the powdered agg-regate in a tank at a temperature of from 176" to 200~ C. The
total bitumen content should be at least 16 per cent. In order to stabilize the
mastic and render it suitahle for marketing, up to 121 [ler cem. by weight of
fine grit such as sharp-gramed sand is added during the mixing process. Finally,
the mastic is discharged from the tank and cast into Rat blocks .... eighin~ approxi-
mately 2S kg each. It is thus 10 a convenient form for handling.
(b) ArtifiCIal Asphalt j,; a cheap and mferior substitutt: fo r the natural product.
The composition is a mixture of 10' .... ith aggre~ates such as sand, puherized
chalk and piuh (see below). It is liable to deteriorate and become hrittle.
Therefore, .... hen used as a damp proof course, cracks may appear through
which .... ater may penetrate. The composition of artificial asphah varies, a
common mixture being I pan tar (or tar and pll\:h), I part sand and 11 part~
crushed chalk. These are boiied in a tank and thoroughly incoroor:lled hy
sti rring before being run IOto blocks.
Tar. a black, thick, oily, strong-smelling liquid, is obtained by the dc!>tructi,e
distillation in a cI~d retort of bituminous coal, ..... ood and certain other organic
substances.
Coal lar " [he Ialll:~t group, .nd II recn\-erro 85 a b)'-product m jl:U m.nu_
f.clUre, The 1/'_ produced .. hen the coal m the reton, (long ,·en,ol or mclmcd
,r_l, of cHl;ul.r or O.<O«llon) IS hute,j procr.. d Ihroulth the hnlflluhc m31n Iii
large Pipe), condensen (p.pes m .. h,eh the gne. lire couled), lar {'''r~clOr ~nd
_crubbers (.. heu ammOnia and ,mPUnll'" arc re-mo\ed) to the F:a50mefer. DuronI'!"
the pnxeM. tlr I. depos,ted ,n the h, dr.uhc m .. n. condenseno, ntra(;for and Krubben,
coUrned .nd m"ed
\·.Iu.ble 0.1. are ohllmed by .ubJe<:ung the tar (0 fractional .J1~ldl",on The
prOCeM conSI'ts of hCltmg the II. m a 11111 (metal cylinder) and collecting Ihe con_
densed upoun. Benzene, toluene, naph tha, ca roohe aCId. cmol, creasotr, naphtha_
lene Ind anthracene are wme of theK all.
P,tch .. the .e"due m the 11111 after the 0.1, hf\'e been C"'·aporatcU. nil bl.ck
coloured mllenal has. , .. n.ble conlistenc". becominlC bnltlc in .. mter and IK>ftcnmg
when lub,ected to hut m the lummer, hener the lTuon why th" " ~n unrelilble
material for damp proofing (au lbo,'e).
(c) Fibrous Asphalt Flit (5« Chap. I. \'01. I). The continuous process is
one of several used fo r manufacturing this material. The felt or hessian forming
the base is passed in a contin uous stretched sheet through a machine and sueees-
!<.ively (I) pre.heated as it travels o,'er and under steam4heated cylinder.o, (2)
impregnated with asphalt by heing passed under and o'-('r a series of rollers
in a tank contain ing hot liquid asphalt, (3) ai r-cooled as it traH'rses rollers,
(4) passed through a second tank containin~ hot asphalt mastic and surface
coatings of the liquid applied to cach side of the sheet, (S) 011 emerging, $prayed
by compre~~ed air with grains of talc or ..imilar material (to prevcnt the sheets
from sticking together ..... hen coiled up) on the upper surt'ace, (6) passed between
a pair of rollel"!> to embed the particles of talc and COIled hI" trAHrsing ai r4cooled
drum~. (7) automatically cut inlO 22 m len~ths, and )\ tin;llJ~ wound into
cools by a I\inding machine.
Ap plication of Vertical Damp Proof Courses. h ~tated in Chap. J.
\"01. I, the object of a horizontal damp proof course prol'ided in a wall at lca~t
150 mm ah()\e the ground lel-e1, IS to trHerCl'pl wale~ JhsoriJt."d from thl; soil and
pre\-ent it from rismg up the wall. It is ckar that Ihl~ willllot "top waler trom
passing through a basement 1\;111 from the adJan'nt l';lrth Thtrdorc it i~
neecss.ary to introduce ;l vertical damp proof t:()UfSe w11th nlu,;t extend from
the aool'e horizontal damp proof cnurse df)l\l. 10 a Sl,'l'Olld horl1:ontal .:ourSl' at
or near the base of the wall.
Sneral alternalile dl'tail~ FhO\.\ing Iht: dAmp proofing 01 t-.lscmcnU are
illuMrated in Fig. 20. .\ f.et;lion through a nasemcnt 110 shown ,11-\, in which a
damp proof course in the thickness of the Iloor is eOlltltlucd \ ntic.llly up cal· 1
wall to the horizontal cour~e placed at a minimum hl'ight of 150 mm abovc the
ground lel'e1. The damp-resisting material thus form~ a .... aterproof talll...
preventing water from pa!iSotng through IIle tloor and walls adj .. (t'llt to the earth,
in addition to interecptlllg water Jh~Jrhed Irom the ground which would other-
Wise pass up till: walls above tbe t:Tf1und lelcl.
file damp prooting material in detail,. H, c. IJ, [ Jnd G ii natural asphalt
OlastlC The hlock-. of mastic (sl'e aho\-e) .Ire hroken i,lt,) ~m,lll pieces, placed
into a tank on the ,me. and ,gradually heatn! unt,l till" .lsphalt IS ~ufficiently fluid
to be :l.pplied With e'l:l·eption (II detail I, the \"{·ttieal damp proof courses
are ~ltuJled ""hlll the thicknC"~ of thl" I\alls, and thus toniurm \Iuh "hat IS
considered to he the ~t pranice,
Dctail l· ~holls o~c method (If dam!, prooting" b,I'l'lnl'l1t "hK"h has a jOist
anJ boarded floor. The I ~ bm.k maIO "all hd.~. 10 addition . .I 102'S mm thick
outer leaf winch If> finished w,th a plinth course. Thi~ leaf 1$ bUilt 1ft stretch-
c
 DAMP PROOFING
ina: bond, and ill function is to protect and retain the vertical damp proof courK.
The wall is built up to the level of the lower damp proof course of asphalt
or other approved materials described in Chap. It Vol. I. II is construct(:d
in the following manner The main II-brick wall is continued for three or four
courses, and the Joints on the outer face are raked out to a depth of about 20 mm
to afford a key (or the vertical asphalt. A similar number of courses of the outer
lear Irc buih at a distance of 20 mm from the main wall. Th1s u\'ity is main·
tained and mOrlar droppings preH~nted from falling inlo it, if a length of 300 mm
by 20 mm board is placed next to the main wall as the leaf is constructed. This
board is remond and the cavity is filled with molten asphalt from a pail; a
length of floor board supported on the leaf by small splayed blocks and tilted
towards the cavity facilitates thi~ operation. A metal rod is used to consolidate
the asphalt and pre\'ent the formation of air \'oids. Care must be taken to
ensure that the cavity is entirely free from mortar droppmgs before the asphalt
is pourert, otherwi~e water may be subsequently transmitted through such
porous materials to the main wall. The wall and vertical damp proof course: arc
formed in ~hort .. lifts" in this manner until the posillon of the upper horizontal
damp proof course is reached. The latter course is then applied and the nortnal
constlUo.;liUI1 of the wall continued.
Attention is drawn to the means of \entilation pronded to nfeJ:uard the
floor timht-rs agaimt dry rot. Vertical shafts or flues, of 215 mm by 102.5 mm
cross section, are formed at approximately 1·8 m inter\'als in the centre of the
main wall durinJ: construction; o~nings arc left at the inner face below the
base~ent floor, and the upper ends arc completed With the usual perforated
air bricks, as shown.
Delail D lhows an alternati\'e and efficient method of damp proofing. The
bottom la)'er of concrete known as Ihe subfl.xJr is covered with a 20 mm thickness
of asphalt laid in IWO separate coats (or a 30 mm thickness in three coats); this
in turn is covercd with a second layer of roncretc, called the loodinf!ftoor (as It
counterbalances the upward pressure of subsoil water), and finished with wood
block flooring (sec Chap. I, \'01. III).
The asphalt co\'ering tht subAoor is continued as a ,ertical damp proof
cou~, additional asphalt being applied at t!'le intersection bet\\I'1:n the horizontal
and vertical layers, and fini$hcd as a spbyed angle fillet, to prevent possible
crttp of moisture": at the inter.;ection The vertical layer is formed as follows.
The outer 102' 5 mm thickn«& of the": wall is first CQnstructtd in strttching bond up
to the levti of the horizontal layer; the Joints of the inne":r face are raked out
and dust, etc., remo,-ed by mean~ of:a s~tff broom; the first coat of Ihc hOI
uphall, approximattiy 10 mm thick, I~ then applied, it being spread or Rooted
on by the aid of a hand float similar to that shown at D, Fig. 23. The latter is
applied WIth sufficient pressure": until a smooth surfaced hom~tneou8 layer of
asphalt is obtamed, free from mid!! or blow hoi(:S. Any blow holes must be
Itabbed, fillC'd in and smoothed over. The second coat must co\'er the Joints
of the fir!>!. Tht finished thickness of two-coat work is zo mm. For special
55
work, and especially if wate":r pressure has to be resisted, three separate coall are
applie":d, the O\'erall thickness being 23 mm or, preferably, 30 mm.
In order to pro\·ide a uniform backing for the asphalt, it is advisable to build
tht inntr or main wall 20 mm from the face of the asphalt. Grouted ctmtnl is
run into this cavity as each four courses of the brickwork is built. If this is
not done, spaces will be left betwetn the asphalt and the outer face of the main
wall. and any wattr from the soil forced through the outer leaf may seriously
damage the unsupporttd patches of asphalt and gain entrance into the building.
The cement grouted backing to the asphalt is shown in detail a.
The upper horizontal damp proof course: may only cover the wall from the
vertical layer to the outer face, or, preferably, extend for the full thickness of
the wall as indicated by broken lines at I).
Som"llmn th" prtwision ofsub$oil dramlll'!" IS mlld" 10 r"mo'" th" risk of damaK'!'
10 th" '"nical damp proof COUI'R. Thu •• as sho'" 1'1 n n .• mall dlamet"r dnlln pipeS
(ke Chapter Two) ar" 1.ld bUll-jointed In the trench and COHre<! "ilh about 600 mm
of 1("",,[ before Ihe trench is fitll'd in "llh ''l,I. Th.s subsoil dnun II continul'd round
the bu.ldlOll. la.d w.th Id«jUllt f.ll, and contlOued to a hw!t" dilCh or olher IUIllble
oUIII'I. Hl'na Ih" 1",eI of Ihl' tubsool waler is lo",ued to thlt of the dram. el,mmllmR
preuure on Ih" \'ertlcil damp proof cou ... ~. IS thl' wall'r pissel throu~h Ih" open
jo.nt. of the drain Ind .~ remo'-ed.
Another form of internal "trtital damp proof collrsc is shown at c. Tht
wall is constructed in two block-bonded thicknesses with a continuous double
laytr of asphalt bttwetn, tht height of the blocks being five'courses each.
The detail at E shows the \ ertital asphalt applied on the external face of the
walls. The Joints must be well raked out to afford an adequate key for the
asphalt, otherwise there is a risk of the covering becoming detached from the
wall. Thtre should be a minimum width of 760 mm working space between
the wall and the timhering of the trench to enable this to be done. In order
that the asphalt will not be txposed to view and the hot rays of the sun, it is
turntd in 102'5 mm ju~t below the ground le"el and continued vertically to the
up~r horizontal course. ThiS method is not so efficitnt as either of those
shown at C, D and c, I-,specially if the damp proqf course is subjected to sub-
soil water pressure. The construction of the Roor, in which Bull Dog dips
are employed, is described in Chap. I, Vol. III.
Detail F shows the application of sheets of fibrous asphalt fclt This bitumin-
ous sheeting is generally in 9'5 mm widths and is laid \'ertical1y with 75 mm
widt lapped Joints. In the given example it IS shown applied to the internal
face of the main It-brick wall. This face is first rendtred with cement mortar
(I . 3) of 10 mm thicknese to provide an C\Cn surface: fo. lIlt: sheeting
It II usual for Ihr~ men to work tOg<'thn when appl)'lO.Il: the felt. The roU 1$
tupportC"d by two men holdlOg thl' proj"Cllllg "nds of I wood roller whIch il paSll'd
throuli;;h ,to Comml'nCin,.1 the upper hontontal dllOlp proof courte pre"ioutly la,d.
and workln" do"n"lrds. Ihe undcrs.d" ofth" roll as ,t Ill!'radu.ally uncOllw II healw
by I blow JllOlp m.ampuialcd by thl' Ihlnl "'an M('In"htl", one of thc olhu m"n
h.nldmll In t'nd of the rod ,,"h one hind, pr~se. I hind floal over Ihe 1h~1 al ,I
"IOcools and attach", il to thl' rtndned flce of Ih" Will Thl. is conlll'lul'd, Ih" roll
bell'll!' 110,,1), unCOiled II it il h<'lted and luaehed. untIl the bile i. relched. The
,
 BRICKWORK
upper edge mutt be thoroulh.ly heated and ua/rd to the honzontal damp proof ooune.
and the lower edge should be he-ted and lapped 75 mm ovu the Roor damp proof
course p~viou.ly Ilid. Each successIve venica! llyn of sheetmlt must be thoroughly
sc.led by hUI and pressure .t the Ilppc.:I Joints.
The inner 102'5 mm wall is built after the concrete loading floor has been
formed, a 10 or 13 mm cavity being left between the leaf and the asphalt and
filled with grouted cement as described on p. 5S in connection with detail B.
It is usual for this inner leaf to be continued up to the basement ceiling.
Bituminous sheeting may also be applied next to a 102'5 mm leaf as at 0 or
externally as atE.
Damp Proofing of Floors.- The concrete floors shown at 0, E, F and G
are shown with a damp proof course over the concrete subftoor. Such pro-
vision is necessary if the site is damp (see waterproofed concrete floors below).
The course may be either of asphalt mastic or fibrous asphalt felt.
The surface of the concrete must br absolu tel y dry brfore the asphalt 15 applIed,
otherwise adheSIon will bt ad~'ersely affected. It shnuld be leve! and well brushed
down . In ordn to promote adhuion, hot liquid asphalt, known I I a p"",~~. is bnl5hed
over the surface btfore the first ooal of asphalt mast,c is apph",d; alterna",dy, thc
concret'" may be co~·er",d w,th b,tummous paper or bu;/dlnx paptr (one type consists of
IWO layenl of hemp ,mpregl'lated '" lth b,tumel'l and co"ered with brown or klllfl paper)
Th,s first coat of mastic. ,0 mm thIck. ,5 spread and ftoated over 10 bays not e,.c~dinj;(
'.4 m; th'" joint bttween a bay and Ihatlas! fonned is properly sealed by spreadml(
the ho t uphalt some 75 mm over the ed([e of that already l.id tosoft"'n it. and afler thc
supCrftuou5 asphalt has been removed. the jomt 15 wdl floated or ,ronI'd until both
edges are properly bonded and levelled The second ooal 15 apphed d,rect on 10 the
first. care bc1O~ taken that Ihejoints do not coincide w,th those belo"'. If a third coa l
is required, th,s must also hreak j01O! with Ihe second
If fibrous asphalt felt is to be used, as shown at Y, the concrete subfloor is pr,med
and the bituminous sheetin!! IS laid w,lh 75 mm lapJX'd joints. as described in the
preceHling column for vertical sheeting, the sheets bem~ hCKted as they arc unCOIled
and floatcd on to the floor. As an~· sharp projectl<)ns on the surface ofthe suhfloor may
I~ar the she~IIOR, "is adVIsable 10 oo~·~r Ihc concrrle WIth a 13 mm thick layer of
cement mortar to pre~·e: nt damage when the cone:rete of the loaded floor is deposited.
Th,s also ensures a good backing for the damp proof course:, which is very euential
if water pressure has to be resisted.
In order to prevent darnalle being c:au~...a In Ih~ hnrizontal damp proof course
by the upward pressuI"C of subso il water. It is often necessary to remforce the
concre!'" by a contmuouslayer of expanded m",ul or other steel n:inforcement placed
about 25 mm below the damp proof course. Similar reinforcement, placed appro",i-
mately 25 mm from the top, IS also usual1y provided 10 the concret~ 10adinJl ftoor.
Such reinforcement resiil~ the tenSIOn stresses cn:ated.' In all such construction
the loadinl!; ftoors should be lied or bUllt-1O to tne wall s, as shown at 0, E, rand c.
Treatment of Damp Existing Basement Walls.-The absence of vertical
damp proof courses is a frequent cause of dampness in walls of existing basements.
One method of curing such dampness is to apply a bituminous sheeting
vertical damp proof course to the internal face of the wall, similar to that shown
at F and described on p. 55. and to construct a 102'5 mm brick (or concrete)
wall from the floor to the ceiling.
Alternatively. asphalt mastic may be applied to the internal faces of the walls
after any plaster has been remo\'ed and the joints well raked out. Two coats of
'See VOJ. IV.
asphalt may be rendered as described in connection with detail 0 and a 101'5 mm
brick lining constructed, or this inner lining may be built with 20 mm cavity
bet.....een, into which the liquid mastic is poured (see description on p. 5S in
respect to detail c). If a wall exceeds 2'7 m in height . it is desirable to bond the
new 102·5 mm brick lining to it; this is effected by forming 12S mm by 125 mm
by 100 mm high pockets (one per square metre) in the existing wall, lining
these with. asphalt mastic, and building in headers from the new wall during its
construction.
If the wall can be treated externally, the vertical asphalt damp proof course
may be applied on the oUler face. as shown at E.
When the floor, in addition to the walls, of an exisdng basement is damp, it
is advisable to take up the floor, replace it with at least 150 mm thK:kness of
concrete ( t : 2: 4) and cover it with a 20 mm double layer of c()wured asphalt
before the walls are treated. This can be obtained in \'arious colours. and
provides a noiseless. damp-resisting and hygienic finish. Occasionally the
layer of asphalt may be placed direct upon the existing concrete floor: this is
rarely satisfactory, as the concrete is usually defective.
·Waterproofed cement (see below) is also applied to walls and floors of damp
existing hasements in lieu of bituminous materials.
2. Waterproofed Cement Renderings and Concrete. - Waterproofers,
as described on p. 27, are used for cement renderings and concrete (see p. 36)
for damp proofing basements. The composition of the mixes vanes according
to the waterproofer, water pressure (if any) to be resisted, and the particular
requirements of the building. In all cases the directions of the proprietors of
the waterproofers should be complied with, and only best materials and work-
manship employed.
The construction may be somewhat similar to that shown at E, except that
the floor con~ists of one layer only of waterproofed reinforced concrete covered
with a rendering of waterproofed cement mixture; the rendering is continued
vertically on the outer face of the wall to the upper horizontal damp proof
course as shown.
The compo,ition of the concrete recommended by one firm wh(ue product
is a we\l.kno",n ",aterproofer in powder form is 1 part Po rtland cement, 1 parIS
sand, J parts coanle a8~regale (fEnded from III mm down 10 6 mrn) Ind 3 kg ofwate r-
proofer to 100 kg of cement. The reinforcement ,s placed al 25 mm from the upper
surface, the thickness of the floor and amount of reInforce ment dependlOl{ upon the
span and "atel' pressure to b", resisted. The concret'" is at onc'" covrrHl .... ,th a 10 mm
mIxture composed of , pnt Portland cement, 1 parts sand and S ~8 of waterproofer
to ,00 kg of cement. The vertical rcnderin([ is of limilar compositlon. but is 15 mm
th,ck In Ih ree coalS.
To cure dampness in an existing ba!>tment, it is recommended that alSo mm
layer of waterproofe! reinforced concrete, composed as above, be formed on the
old concrete floor; this is rendered with a 20 mm layer of waterproofed cement
mortar, as above, and continued as a 25 mm thick vertical layer on the inner face
of the walls.
 DAMP PROOFING 57

DAM p P ROO F N G
A o F B A S E M E N T 5
aASIM.ENT

£ Y S f C T I 0

~S~E_c~-_r___o__N__S___T__H
__~__O_'.~~E~X=T~E~~~N==A~l===W
~A~l~l~S~=§G===P~O~R~T I__O__N_S____O__F____F__l_O__O__R
__S-+
FIGURE 20

The following is th., !equence of operallonl; (I) Chasn are fonned in the waUs
to u.;:ei ...., the cdgl'li of the waterproofed concrete floor; (2) any pinter, limewash
or paint is remoH:d from th" wills, thl' jOlnlS Ire raked Out or the brickwork (or Itone-
work) i. hacked over by uSing. hammer and punch to give I key for the rendering,
the walil ne bru.-hed down with l stiff broom to remove dust and afterwards copioUllly
watered to prevent excen; ... e absorptIon of mOLsture from the rendenng; CJ) the
s urface of the extl!mg floor IS well hacked, brushed and washed; (,.). s ~r cent.
grout of '" Bterproofed cement ;1 brushed over the duned IUrfac., 10 effect I bond
hetween it and the WIIterproofed concrete Ilyer whIch is at once laid befou thoe grout
sell; (~ ) th1l it roendoeud without dday; (6) uch puplrW1nh:mal facoe of the wall,.
grouted, and Ifter the fillct hu been caufully fOnTlw It the bottom corner (thiS is
1mportlnt, as the intersection is yulnoerable) and bdou the grout hiS Id, the firal COlt
of Ih" wall rcnd"ring is applioed, followed by th" lub$C'qu"nt COlts.
Defects in this form of damp proofing may occur through cracks which may
develop in the rendering collts through which water may penetrate.
In mooern construction, basements are frequently constructed of solid
reinforced concrete walls, the concrete being waterproofed.
A double course of slat~, bedded in cement (as described in Chap. I, Vol. I),
1

58 BRICKWORK
may be used .. a chellp, but less ctrettin, alternative venial damp proof course
to tho&e described above.
Finally, the practice adopted in cheap work of rendering the huide (1«1 of
basement walls with two coats of cement mortar to I finished thickness of:1o mm
i. highly undesinlblc. as dampness will ultimately appear through this thin un-
waterproofed layer. The covering of damp walla with wood (uad,,., or panelling
should also be discouraged, as this only hides the defects, and, whilst the
unhealthy conditions still remain, the wood i. likely to be atUicked by dry rot.
The provision made for damp proofing walls built on 810ping sites is described
on p. 59.
Dry or Open Areas.-Fig. 21 shows a ICction through II typical open afra.
Such provision is necessary to afford natural lighting and direct access to a
hasement.
D R y A R. E A
The ground i. lupportcd by • t'ttaiJrj"l fDQlllOmc distance from the outer
wall of the building. The area must be paved and drained, gullies (see p. 78)
being placed as required and connected by drains [0 the public sewer. The
retaining wall must be built in cement mortar, and is usually surmounted by •
metal railing or balustrade, as this obstructs little light; either small uwp-hokl
must be formed, or pipces, as shown, provided ncar the base of the wall to allow
the escape of subsoil water, otherwise the pressure may overturn it, especially
if the water becomes froun. The Roor of the basement is an alternative to those
shown in Fig. 20; the floor is waterproofed with I 20 mm asphalt d.p.c.
A do"," dr)' IIrt'tl may con ••• t of a 102'S mm indepc:nd~nt wall, externhn!! from a
few millimeu," Mlowthe basement ftoorto th~ Rround level, 5' to 102'5 nun from the
main wall and fini.hed It Ihe (lround level wilh a bnck-cn-edi[e copinjl' which cloaet
the Clvity; Ih~ latt~r may be v~ntllated by vertiCIl .haftl formed in the mam wan,
limilar to thlt shown at C, F'R. \la, ' nul i. an undeSirable fonn of con$lruct.on,
as ""Iter may Rain aceen throuRh Ihe thm retainin" ""all and ClOUse dampneu ..
il accumulltn, To o,'ercome Ihis defect the closed Clvlty i. somellmes incrused
in width, the bottom i. concreted and a i[utty pro'ided which il connected to the
~wer by I drain, 1·h,. Rutty will, howevet, b«ome unsealed (ICe Chapter Two) in
dry .. ealher owinillu the evaporation of the ""Min in Ihe ,rap, and thus )(1IKI from
the aewet will ncape into the inlcttnible cavity. Such provision cannot be 100

C". 0'- W". MlliNG ---_j! F<)(m'AT"

Itronjl:ly condemned.

STONE
500ll. bO HAM> S'
COP"'NG;';;;;;~~~~~p::bd STEPPED FOUNDATIONS FOR SLOPING SITES
Foundations must be horizontal irr~pectiye of the character of the site.
I( a site has little or no fall, the foundations of walls of the same thickness
lIS I'.ETAINING WAlL WILT IN ar~ generally level throughout, On a sloping site, however, it would be un·
CEMENT MO'-TM c:...:=,---,_
economical to construct all foundations at the same le\'el as that of the lowest,
318 El(TEIUJAl.. WAll and it is therefore the practice on such a site to arrange the foundations at
different levels according to the slope. Such are known as stepped foundations,
1·2M WIDE AA£A ----Y... The steps should be in relatively short lengths and preferably of uniform height
not exceeding 90Cl mm, the smaller the better. Hence when the slope is con·
!..---OAoMP P~OOF COUUE siderable, it is desirable to form the foundation of a wall of appreciable length
in a series of small steps; if the steps are high owing to their inadequate number,
there is a risk of unequal settlement occurring due to the large variation in the
CONClU"TE- loads transmitted to the foundation on each side of a benching (see below) and
tne difference in shrinkage of the mortar joints between the larger number
below each benching and those above; this may cause cracks to appear in the
wall immediately over the changes of depth, The lengths of the steps need not
be uniform, and they may vary considerably if the f.n is very irregular.
Two typical arrangements of stepped foundations arc shown at A and 8,
Fig, 22.
The site at A has a "irly regular slope, with a total difference in level in
the length of the wall of 1'2 m. The two steps arc of un,form height, The
sketch detail c shows the c:oncrete continued vertically from the lower to the
FIGURE 21 upper concrete beds, Thia is known as a bmLhi,., and should be of a width at
 STEPP'S D FOU N DA TlO NS 59
least equal to the thickness of the concrete bed. In this example the Roor level
ST E P P ED FOUNDAT ION 5 is the same throughout.
The sectional elevation at B shows the ground to have an irregular fall, the
FOR 5 LOPING SI T E S total difference in level being 2" m. Advanlage has been taken of the fall to
obtain garage accommodation as shown; a building should be designed to obtain
accommodation in this manner in order to reduce the cost and avoid .. dead
FlOOIt.. walling" at the lower level. The foundation consists of brick footings on concrete
as an alternative to that at A. The detail at D shows the footings (and wall) of
the lower section abutting against the concrete benching, and those above it
returned, the lowest course of footings being 150 mm from the edge of the
benching.
Site Concrete.-This has not been shown in order to avoid complication.
No attempt would be made to arrange this in a series of level steps; the top
150 mmofvirgin soil would be removed and the ISO mm of site concrete would be
formed to a slope more or less conforming to that of the ground . The Boor of
the garage at B would be of concrete. The site concrete under the floor on the
left of the division wall could be laid to fall as described above, in which case
the division wall would require a vertical damp proof course; alternatively the
latter can be dispensed with if the earth is excavated to a depth of 230 mm below
D the horizontal damp proof course in the wall, sloped back and covered with
150 mm of site concrete as shown at II.

c COtr4CRETE
Damp Proofing.-The horizontal damp proof courses are stepped as shown,
care being taken that none come withir> 150 mm of the ground; the \'ertical joint
should be as short as possible in order not 10 weahn the walls, otherwi~e the
6ENCHIN(jS
steps should be as shown at G where asphalt mastic is applied and the adjacent
walling toothed. A \'ertical damp proof course, indicated by a thick line, would
be required on the back face of the garage division wall unless the earth is removed
DETAILS and the sitc concrete sloped as explained abo\'e. The vertical damp proof
AT
course is required to be continued round the side walls of the garage as the
~E· 0 "F· floor is below the ground level; this may be applied to the internal faces, as
shown by the shaded area, but if this is objected to on the score of appearance,
it may be formed within the thickness of the wall in the usual manner.

CONCRETE FLOOR CONSTRUCTION

A concrete floor may consist of a single layer, known as one-course work,
or two layers called two-couru work. The former is commonly adopted for
floors of garages, ccllars, coal hou~es, etc., and those which are to be covered
with other materials such,ils boarding and asphalt; site concrete is in one layer
only, Two-course work is generally employed in good practice, and consists of
a base layer covered by a finishing surface or wearing coat which should not be
FIGt;RE 22 !toss than 20 mm thick, A common mix for the base is grade IS concrete (see
p, 31), just sufficient water should be used to give a 50 mm slump. A hard
 60 BRICKWORK
wearing surface. known as agranolithic finilh, is obtained from a mixture of I part
cement, 1 part sand and 2 to 3 parts dean granite or whinstone chippings
(crushed granite) capable of passing through a 6'''' mm square mesh sieve and
excluding dust; approximately 60 per cent. of the chippings should be retained
on a 3"2 mm mesh sieve; the surface concrete should give a 25 mm slump (~e
p. 32). The concrete is either machine or hand mixed, as described on p. 34.
An excess of water, cement and trowelling (see below) should be avoided, as this
brings the cement to the lurface and prodvcc:s what is known as a dusty floor.
Tne surface should be applied to the bMC before the latter has hardened. The
ground should be firm, any so([ patches being replaced with concrete or hard
stone. Sometimes a I SO to 300 mm layer of broken bricks or stone is first laid to
receive the base layer; this sub-base is caBed hard core or pe1lnin,E: (see Fig.
21).
Method, of forming a Co"crde F/oor,-Large floors are formed in a series of
h~ys or sections, a convenient size being 3 m square, concreted alternately.
One of several methods of forming a two-coursed floor i. as follows: As shown
at A, Fig. 23, 38 mm thick edge-boarth or battens are nailed to wood stakes (or
secured by staples to 20 mm diameter metal rods) driven in along the boundaries
of the bays at about 1'2 m centres, the top edges of the battens being brought to
the requirdl floor 'level by the use of a long straight edge and spirit level. The base
concrete is deposited in a bay, spread, and shovelled up to a height slightly more
than the finished level. A wood strike-board, tamper, or striki"g-of! hoard is then
used to consolidate and bring the concrete to a uniformly level surface; as
shown at B, this strike-board is notched at each end, the depth of the notch being
equal to the thickness of the surface coat of the floor. It is manipulated by a man
at each end who, working together, tamp down the concrete by lifting ~nd
releasing it as they proceed slowly backwards and forwards, any excess concrete
being struck off as the tamper is brought forward when traversing the battens,
and any low patches being filled in .before the surface is given a final light
tamping.
•
T~e wearing coat should be laid within an hour of mixing the base concrete.
The ends of the strike- board used for forming the finishing coat are not notched

CONC~ETE F LOO~ (ON 5 T ~ U ( T ION

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 DECORATED BRICKWORK
(~c). The granolithic mixture (see p. 60) is deposited and then levelled as th('
strike-board is caused to traverse the edge-boards with a to-and-fro and zigzag
motion. When sufficiently hard, the surface is tamped and floated with the wood
float D, any irregularities being made good. Final trowelling is by means of
the stul t,~l E, which is worked in a circular motion. Excessive trowelling
brings to the surface a liquid scum, called laitallct. Such should be avoided, as
this destroys the initial set and produces a friable, non-wearing surface having
a glossy finish which has a tendency to dust and craze.
Not all surfaces are finished in this manner. Thus, for common WQrk, the concrete
i. oflen JpDdt-jinishtd, i,t., the surface is beaten down and smoothed over with the
back of the .pade. Another finish, often adopted for paths and roads, il produced
by jumping the strike-board up and down as it Iravenes the edge-board., to fOml a
serious of small corrugations. A hard-wearing !unace of attractive appearance may
be produced by mechanically operated Ilrindinll discs which are applIed to the floor
.fter it hl$ become sufficiently hard. This exposes .nd polishes Ihe colne aggregate.
Turo;:;zo is another finish used in first-class work. One method is to cover the
concrtte base with a as mm thick wearing coat composed of I part cement and 1I parts
sand; crushed marble of 6 mm gauge (free from dUlt) i. sprinkled and rolled into
this coat whilt! it is stiU soft; when sufficiently hard (thrte or four days after layine)
it is ground down to D. smooth surface by stone discs meehanlcally operated. Another
terrazzo finish consists of a 25 mm coat of I pan cement and at pan. cruahed marble
of 13 mm gauge or less, which is machine ground after it has been allowed to paniRliy
harden.
An alternative method of fanning a two-course floor is .. follows: The floor ia
divided into bays, as above described, by temporarily bedding wood battent, c.\]ed
Jcrud nd~J, on nurow strips of concrete: these are fimlly upped in position until
their top edges Ire brought to the required level by means o( a ttraight edge and
s pirit level; tach alternate bay is dealt with in tum; the bue concrete it deposited
and le velled off to the top of the screeds by a straight edit which i, drawn over them
in a "IIUII manner; the C<.Increte is compacted or pu",,~d with a toood ,a",mC" (see F)
or i,o" ,am"," or PU""" (ace c); the top layer of concrete i. then spread over the
base, brought to a le"el surface flush with the screed. by means of the straight edge,
floated (D) and trowelled (E) 1$ already described; the screed. are remo.ed, and the
holes filled in wilh concrete and levelled off.
The floor should be covered with damp sacks or 25 mtn thickness of sand, kept
moist by occasionally spraying water on it from a hose to prevent the concrete from
drying out tOO rapidly. Alternatively thc floor may be covered with a sheet of
polythene. It should be kept damp for at least ten days (see p. 36).
DECORATED BRICKWOR.K
The decorative value of brickwork is influenced by the size, shape, colour
and texture of the bricks and mortar joints, in addition to the face arrangment
of the bricks and form of the feature.
Bricks.- - The thickness of the bricks affects the appearance of faced brick-
work considerably. Whilst a wall built of thick bricks looks strong, and these
are therefore suitable for engineering work, it is generally agreed that the appear-
ance of most walls is enhanced jf So nun bricks are employed. Bricks which are
uniform in shape, with straight, sharp urises. give a mechanical appeatllnce to
a wall, which is avoided by the use of the somewhat irregularly edged and surfaced
hand-made variety.
A wide range of colours and textures of bricks is now available (see pp. 12 and
13). Some walls are purposely built of bricks which are uniform in colour; such
bricks must be carefully selected if a dull, monotonous appearance is to be avoided.
Within recent years there has been an increased demand for multi-coloured
bricks; these have a very pleasing appearance, provided the selected shades
suitably blend and violent contrasts are avoided. Regarding texture, bricks
having a smooth surface can be readily cleaned and are therefore often employed
for external walling in towns where they quickly become discoloured in the dust-
laden atmosphere; otherwise sand·faced or richly textured bricks are gcperally
preferred becausc of the excellent effect they produce.
Jointing and Pointin/it".-Particular attention should be given to the colour
of the mortar, and the shape and texture of the joints used for facing work.
Various forms of jointing and pointing are described in Chap. I, Vol. I. The
appearance of a wall constructed of sound materials and workmanshi p may be
completely ruined by the adoption of unsuitable joints. Thus, for example.
joints least suitable for sand-faced bricks of rich texture and warm colouring
are those of black or dark blue mortar (see p. 27) which are struck-jointed, on
account of the colour and the smooth mechanical appearance.
The texture of the joints should conform with that of the bricks. Joints
smoothed over with the trowel should not be associated with rough textured
bricks, for which flush and recessed joints (see Vol. 1) give the best results. If
neither of the latter can be adopted because of expense, a satisfactory finish to
rustic brickwork is obtained if the joints are just !eft as the mortar is cut off
with the trowel, no attempt being made to smooth the surface; the faidy rough
teJlture of such joints gives a more satisfactory finish to this class of work than
that produced by smooth struck joints.
The colour of mortar is referred to on p. 27. to which attention is drawn.
Marked contrasts between the colour of the jointing material and the bricks
should be avoided, hence white joints should not be used with bright red facings.
Generally, black mortar should be avoided for faced work. The design of a
fa~ade can be influenced by mortar joints; thus, horizontality can be effectively
stressed. if the vertical joints are made inconspicuous by flush-pointing them
with mortar of the same colour as that of the bricks (which should be unifOTm).
and a lighter coloured mortar i. used for the flu.h_pointed bed joints.
That the shape of the joint affects the appearance of brick walling may be
appre<:iated by comparing work which has been flush jointed and that with
recessed joints. Whilst both are attractive. there is a big contrast between the
flat appearance of the former and the deep shadows formed by the latter. in
which each brick unit in tlae mass is elearly defined. An effective modification,
in which both of these joints may be employed in oonjunction, consists of flush
vertica1 joints and recessed bed jointl.
The thickness of the joints i.s aJlO important. With few exceptions, such ..
62 BRICKWORK
for ~Iazed brickwork, thin joints should be avoided. Most first-class work has
10 mm thick bed joints.. and sometimes this thickness is increased to 13 mm.
Monotony of plain b~ick walling is relie,'ed by using bricks either of con·
Ifasting colour, or texture or face appearance, or a combination of all three, at
prominent positions, such as at parapets, quoins, string courses, door and window
openings, etc. The judicious use of stone and tiles at these positions assists
in providing interesting contrasts. A few examples of these arc illustrated in
Fig. 24.
Parapets (see A, a, C, D, E and F).-That at A shows a simple finish to the
quoin of a brick-on-edge parapet. The double course of tiles at II is surmounted
by brick-on-end and brick-on-edge courses, both of which may be set slightly
back from the face and at the quoin. The parapet course al C consists of stretchers
alternating and coursing with bricks laid on end bed-faced; this is bedded on
a slightly projecting stretching course and is finished with one or more projecting
courses of tiles. Bricks-on-end (which may be slightly set hack from the face),
surmounted by two courses of thick tiles, comprise the parapet at 0, and an
interesting finish at the quoin is provided by the tiles as shown. A simple but
effective detail is shown at E, where the top four heading courses are set back
(or indented) 13 to 25 mm from the face and at the quoin, and these alternate with
stretching courses of suitable contrasting colour Hush with the wall face; a
50 mm thick stone coping serves as a finish. That at F simply consists of a brick-
on-edge course surmounted by a similar stone coping.
Additional designs suitable for parapets, modified as required, include the
string courses at N.7, 8 and 9, diagonal pattern at M.I (or a course of bricks
laid diagonally), herring-bone pattern at M.2 (two inclined courses laid hori-
zontally), panern M.3 (see below), pattern M.5 (arranged horizontally), bricks-
on-end as shown at P.IO, and one or more courses of basketweave shown at P.14.
The top CQurses of bricks, tiles or stone of a parapet should be well bedded
and jointed in cement mortar in order to exclude water and increase stability.
The provision of a horizontal damp proof course, below the parapet and extend-
ing the full thickness of the wall, is an additional requirement.
Built-up cornices, involving the use of moulded bricks, rarely find a place in
modern design.
Quoins (see c, II, j, K and L).- Additiond interest may be pro\'ided by simply
using at the t;uoins bricks of contrasting colour to that of the rest of the walling,
and producing a toothed effect, as at c and L; the quoin bricks may be darker
than the adjacent walling (i.t., "purple" quoins against a mass of .. buff
brindles ") or lighter, such as "cherry red" quoins contrasting with" dark
strawberry" coloured adjoining brickwork. The appearance of additional
strength is obtained by using rusticated or indented quoms, as shown at II, J
and k. The elevation and sketch at H show projecting blocks of two-cowse
depth alternating with three-course projecting blocks, the blocks being of uniform
length. The treatment at j is somewhat similar, but the shorter alternate blocks
give a toothed effect. Projecting blocks at greater intervals are shown at K.
In general, Indented cOllrses should not ha\c a greater set-b~ck than 25 mm
if a coarse appearance is to he :1I·oided.
This form of treatment is <l\:m employcd at door and window openings.
String Courses.-A few sUR):eslions are shown at 1'.6, 7, 8 and 9, and at j.
l\·iost of the parapets dt.."Sl;Tihed ahon: may also be adopted for string courses or
friezes. \10ulded hriek cour;;es arc not now greatly favoured.
Panels.- Largc masse;; of plain walling may he relieved by the provision
of decorative panels. A fell' designs arc shoWI!;il M.L, .t, j, 4 and 5. That at
M . I shows square panels of bricks laid diagonally with header divisions: the
infilling bricks may be of contrasting colour. The panel at M.2 consists of a
herring-hone infilling, short brick-on-end head and sil!, and header verticals.
Panel ,,1.3 comprises three "piers" of purpose-made bricks with hel-dled
faces which project (see plan), ahernating with bricks arranged on end, and \
finished with two courses of tiles top and bottom, the latter projecting as shown
on plan. The simple rectangular panel at 111.4 projects (see plan) and is of
contrasting colour. A somewhat complicated design, suitable for a large panel,
I
is shown at M.5; such provides an interesting feature, especially if surrounded
by a large mass of brickwork; the panel may be g-iven a shght projection.
Another form of pand, much favoured, consists of an infilling of bricks arranged
in basketwea,·e pattern (see ['.14).
Arches.- Apatt from their design, arches may emphasize such salient features
as doors and windows by the employment of hricks of contrasting colours and
textures, and the introduction of differing materials forming the keys and imposts.
Thus, for example, a pleasing effect to a fa~ade constructed of dark coloured
bricks may be obtained if rubbers or ~imilar coloured voussoirs are used for the
arches, and points of interest pro\'idcd if tile;; or stone are used for key blocks.
Severd arches having tiled keys arc shown in Vol. 1 and in Fig. 19 of this
volume; addition;;.\ examples arc illLlsuol\ed in Fig. 24. That shown at P.IO
shows a lintel or soldier arch with sen:ral projecting voussoirs. P.II shows a
segmental arch constructed entirely of tiles.
The mortar jmnts Mthe t,led soffit (and somctim~s on th~ face) arc usual. ~ recessed
(see P.II). Thi, effect LS obtaIned b}' ~preadml( a 20 mm layer of ,and on the wood
centre; each til. is forced down until ,t touches the l"Rging, and mortar is spread on
the bed of the tile aha"" thc sand. Pointinj!" is applied on removal of the centre. This
ensures clean exposed ed.r;:es of the t,les, which are otherwise liable to become sta,ned
with the mortar a nd rendered inconspicuous.
The semi-hexagonal arch at P.12 embodies tiles at the corners. The semi-
circular arch 1'.13 consists of a tiled key block and purpose-made long voussoirs
alternating with sho,ter ones; this toothed arrangement is continu.ed down the
jambs; owing to :hc difficulty in accurately cutting to the required shape the
bricks adjacent to the extrados, this form of arch is usually associated with
rough-casted walls, and rough cutting is therefore only nece.sary. A semi-
circular arch, with stepp&d rings, over a door opening ;s sho",n at P.lt; the
core or tympanum is filled with bricks arranged in basketweave paltern; an
equally effecti\·e treatment is to arrange the bricks forming the core in herring-
s
D E c o R A T E D B R c K W 0 R K

D~
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 BRICKWORK
bone formation. This core 15 supported on a ~tout llak frame , and one or more
courses of liles (with I] mm proJection) are often mtroduced ~twec:n dlC: top of
the frame and the brickwork,
Diaper Work. Yariegated coloured or I.liaper work In which dark coloured
bricks, arran~ed in pattern form. are associated with II~hler coloured hrickwork
(or light coloured brick patterns contrastln~ With general wallillJi: of dark bricks)
IS ic!'>s prc\aJent in modern construction than formt"rly. The present tendency,
when multi·coloured briCks arc employed. is 10 Jay the" dark .. " In haphazard
fashion. no attempt lxinR: made to arrange them to any mechanical pattern.
A few uamples of diapers or chcquer work arc shown at Q.15. 16 and '7.
In each case the general wall bond ;s adjusted to suit the particular design of
the diapers.
Piers.- These ha\e been rderred to on p. 39. The detached octagonal pier
shown in plnn and part elevation at R.IS, With a simple hrick-on-edge plinth
hanng a 13 mm proJection, has a pleasing ap~)Car3ncc. Indented courses, set
back about 20 mm and at SII( to eight cour»e mtervals, are somettmes prol-ided in
this form of structure. An alternatil·e design (occaSionally employed in modern
churches) is shown III plan and part elevation at R.t9. Stte! pillars (which
roupport the st«1 roof trusses and any steel heams) are en(:a~ed in concrete and
fini:-.hed wllh brickllork_ The plmth i" four (:our~ high abovc the floor and
hai a 13 mm proJe1:tlOn. The hncks forming the two longer faces of the pillar
shaft are arran\.:ed dia~nally (tho~e in alternate coursr~ being laid in the opposite
dirc(tlOn) to glle a -.crrated t:lr(~t. ..h ~hown, thc'iC brick~ are not purposc-
made; speu'-ll bricks, shaped ~mcwhat like those lIulicated at '1.3, are ~me­
tImes Il<:ed. The concrete is plneed in pOsition ;\S tht' brickwork proceeds.
Although thl!> hrickwork docs not sUPllOrt nny loall, other than Its own weight,
It IS ath Isablc to lie the shorter faces into thc concrete by placinJ!: 25 mm by
6 mm b~' 150 mm long copper ~trips in the bed jOlnt~ :\I si,.th course inttTlals.
FIREPLACES, FLUES. CHIMNEY BREASTS AND STACKS
As a means of heating a living-room of a house the open fire is still the most
popular in this country, despite the fnct that it i~ \"(~ry lar)lely resllOnsible for the
pollution of the atmosphere by the smokc and other products of combustion
emllted from it. Air pollution i~ no.w reducl·d in this country by the insi~tence
contained in the Building Regulations that only smokc1c$S fuels should be used
10 heating appliances. ~uch fuels arc anthracite, coke (including patent solid
smokeless fuels), oil and gas.
Fireplace, etc., construction must comply .... ith the Building ReJl:ulations
which give differing requirements accordlOK to the tYlle of heating appliance,
and differentiate between high and low output al)pliances.
A high-rating appliance is dtfintd tither as one with a heat output exc('tuing
45 kW (m~t dome~uc appliancts do not e~Cl·t:d this ulue), or as large
IncmeratOTl,- they arc beyond the scope of this volumt.
LOll-rating appliances are split into two types' Class l--solid fucl or oil-
burning t~·l'es with an output rating not exceeding 45 !;.\\' and mt:dium-loized
tOcinerators; and Class II gas-burning type~ hal-ing a rating not I;,ceedmg
45 k\\' and o;01all incinerators.
Thc requirements of the Building Re~ulations hal'e been hnefiy incorporated
in the following description, and most of them are illustrated in Fig. 25. This
shows the plan 8, I'erlical sectIOn c and elevation A of a two-storied chimney
breast (which accommodates tll'O fireplaces and Rues), together with enlarged
details.
Each heating appliance must be provided with a flll.~ or duct for the remol-al
of smoke. If the chimnt:y in which the fireplace opening and Rue are formed
projects (and it generally does) it is known as a dllmnry br~ast until it penetrates
the roof, when it is caned a ch'mn~y slack.
Foundations.- The foundations of a chimney must be similar to those of •
the adjacent wall, i.~.. they mlllOt comply with eitht:r of those shown at A, B, C or
D, Fig. 10, \'01. I (sec A, c and z. Fig. 25)' The chimney must be well bonded
to the adJ3cent wall (see plan at z) and be provided with a proper damp proof
course (see A and section z).
Chimney Stacks. -A chimney breast which is to penetrate the ridge of a
roof IS gradually reduced in Width abo"e the cellmg until that of the chimney
stack is obtamed, which should occur just below the penetration (see A, Fig. 25).
The minimum height of the stack is 915 mm above the ridge, as shown. If the
Mack does not pass through at the ridge but penetrates one slope only, this
915 mm height is measured from the highest point of intersection, such Isal the
hack gutter. For reasons of stability, the Buildtng Regulations require that the
height of a stack io; to be not more than six tlmell its least width (unless otherwise
scrllred) measured from the highest point of intentection (see T). The minimum
thickness of the walls ofa stack is 100 mm. If the stack only accommodates one
Rue, the apllCarance is conSiderably improved if this thickness is increased to
liS mm. The 102'5 10m thic!;' u·,thn (or dhisions) should be w~lI bonded into
the e"ternal waJ1s. Planssho~lOg typical honding are ~hown atJ and x. Chimney
stacks should he built in waterproofed cement mOitar from 300 mm below the
lowest POlOt of intersection of the roof. A metal or slate damp proof course can
also be inserted. Rain is thus prevented from soaking down the walls, and,
prol'ided the joints are well tilled with mortar, cold air is excluded which would
other"l~e cause chImneys to smoke as the rising warm air is cooled.
It is usual to terminate a Rue With a fireclay pot, although this is not always
necessary and its omission is ~metimes preferred. Chimney pots are of various
shapes and siles, a Simple type being cylindriC21l, of 200 mm (or 215 mm) internd
diameter 13 to 20 mm thick, and with a Aange at the base; its height varies,
300 mm being common; it is often tapered to about 11)0 mm (internal) at the
top to gi\e a restricted out~t which is consider~d to have the effect of increasing
the velocity of the ascending current. 'rhe pol should be supported on the
brickwork (see w) and securely built in cement mortar between two .n three
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66 BRICKWORK
courses of brickwork (or a stone cap or several courses of tiles); the top of the
atacK. isjfaunt.htd, I.t., co\'crcd with cement mortar, which is weathered to throw
off the water.
M,ny bu,IJink'S uc marred h)' uO"Mhtly chImney .tack. "luch penetrate the mob
al rand<>fTI. As. ruk flack. ahould be of SImple de"lIo. A frequent mlstlle I. to
completc sUlcks ",Ih rn"""tgJ of o\cru,lml( course. \\ Ilh C!.;CCIlIIC projection. The
COlrw fintlh which the.., 1oC1H' i. aho ... ".1 Y, \1 here the cappmjl.nd nockin" courses
.Il: J.(l\cn • 56 mm proJl.'Ctlon. Ullly chImney pou Irt' common T.II chimney polS
.rc unm."<:cu.;U'}', unlc~ Ihe Hue. Ire loon or haH' ~n .mpropc-riy con.truclcd, or
hlj.(h In.''':' .mJ bu,ld,II"", atl' In such dOk proxImIty as 10 produce do\O.n-drauKhu. An
unoblrus" .... but cfl"L..:IIIC finish rna)' be obtamed If the chimney poll (or shon lengths
of drain Plpt..,) Ire Clused [Q prnjl.'Ct not more th.n as mm .bo,e the Raunchi,lj,C; Ihis
11 u~ually lufficlent 10 prevent eddIe. of" Ind "hieh rna}' be cre,II'd If the top ,urflcCi
of Ih" ,IlICks "erc flit
T"o Slmpl" dnlj/;fl1lre sho"n II l; and Y. The former ItKk il c:unslruelcd of
Slandar,16~ mm bnc:Ls "lIh an 0' un,hnl(coul"Ie lurnnl(a pnall projection. The stack
II Y I. budt of SO mm brlda, .nd " finid.W "ith • bnc.. -on--edge course let b.ck
<10 mm; pIn 1C"CllOn Ind Ihe plan Ire Iho"n It wind... The Ippelr.ncc of. chImney
Itadl " much ,mpm,ed .f thin hrlck. are employed The leld"or),; conform. WIth
the deta,l. sho"n In F'll. 7S. Vol. I
Fireplace Recesses (or Class I Appliances. Heating appliances of
the open fire type have to be built into a recess; free-standing endosed heating
appliances (e.g. room heater~, ranges. etc.-see Vol. 1\') are often placed in a
recess but this is not ~ntia1.
The jaN/bl (attached pier:; at the sides of a fireplace opening or recess)
must not be le:-s than 200 mm wide. Their projection varies according to the
type of range to be accommodated, thus a greater projection is required (or a
kitchen range than for a small fireplace reeess. The size of a fireplace recess
also "aries, thus a modern kitchen range (with oven) of medium size needs a
space of I m wide by 1'2 m high, whilst the smallest room fireplace rettSS need
onl)" be HO mm wide and 610 mm high. The width oLa chimney hreast may be
varied according to the size and importance of a room, thus, for a long drawing-
roomi the breast may be at least 1·8 m wide In order that it may he of suitable
proportionS,
The h~ad of a fireplace rectsS is normally finished with a reinforced
concrete lintel. Very occasionally a stone lintel or brick arch ma)" he used, the
latter usually being segmental in two rough rings. Where a breast projects
more than 102'5 mm and the jambs are less than 330 mm wide, a briek arch
must be bUilt on a wrought iron or steel har, 215 mm longer than the opening
at each end; the object of this ca"'btr~d (hilll""y bar is to tie in the narrow
abutmentJ.
The iHMlr. of a fireplace recess in an txf""o! wall (see 8 and Q) or between
two recnsea buill baclr.-to-lxuk (5« R) in a wall, oth" tholf a party fl:olI, shall be
at least tOO mm thick, A party wall is a division wall between two buildings
occupied by differing tcnants or belonging to different owners. Ttfe back of
ct'cry other recess (thus including a single opening in an Iflttrnaf wall 15 at s,
and back-to-back recCII in a party \u.ll) shall be not less than :100 mm thick.
The backs shall be continued for the full height of the recess at the thickness
stated. The above thicknesses around a fireplace reCC$S are exclusive of the
fireback and sides.
Hearths (or Cia.. I Appliances must be of non-combustible materials
and s«urely supported. The IHuk Marth (that witbin the fireplace recess) is
bedded on the walling of the breast (see c) or as shown at z, The htorth must
have a minimum thickness of u5 mm (see A), a minimum extension beyond the
opening at each end of 150 mm (see R), and a minimum projection from the breast
of 500 mm, as shown at R. The support and trimming of front hearth!! are
illustrated in Figs. 32, 33 and 34, Vol. I; the section at z sho....-s an ahernati\'e
treatment of a ground Roor hearth. The Building Regulations state that no
combustible material shall be built under a hearth within 250 mm from its upper
surface unless such material is separated from the underside of the hearth by
an air spaceo!at least 50 mm. (An exCeption to this requirement permits the use
of timber fillets sup]>Ofting the ed~es of the hearth where it adjoins a floor.)
In addition to the requirement that the hearth should project 500 mm beyond
the breast the distance from the front of an appliance to the edge of the hearth
shall be not less than 300 mm (in thecase of an Open fueor room heater which can
be used a!! such) and 225 mm in other cases. The distance at the back and sides
shall not be less than 150 mm, If the hearth extends to a wall the latter distance
may be reduced for free-standing appliances providing the wall thicknesses given
abo\'{' are observed.
Chimneys (or Class I Appliances.-The smoke from heating appliances
is carried a .... ay via the chimney which is defined as being any part of the
structure of a buildin!( forming any part of a Rue other than a flue pipe. :\Iost
chimneys in domestic work 3re of brick incorporating a flue lining (see below),
some consist of a separate Rue pipe. A brick flue is normally 215 mm by 21 5 mm
and this should be uniform.
The brickwork above the fireplace opening is corbelled or gathered Ot.'~r in
order to reduce the opening to the size of the Rue and avoid a large space which
may produce eddies and reduce the upward current (draught) in the flue (see A,
Fig. 25). This reduced opening is known as a throat. The two flues at A,
Fig. 25, are inditated by broken lines (5« also c). That from the lower fire-
place must be bent in order to negOliate the upper fireplace. The gathering over
should be arranged to bring the narrowest part of the throat centrally over the
fire. It is generally agreed that, whereas a Rue should be as straight as possible
for most of its height, it should hare at least one bend in order to reduce down-
draught and the admission of rain; hence the reason for not continuing the
upper Rue in a straight line to the chimney pot; if this flue was straight through-
out, it ..... ould undoubtedly produce a smoky chimney ~cause of its short
length. Any bends m~t be gradual and Rues should not be less than 45 0 to
the horizontal. The brickwork enclosing Rues shall be at least 10Z mm thickness
(see J, wand x); the minimum thickness of the back of a Rue in a wall separating
buildings ..... hich is not back to back wid, another flue shall be not 1m than
 FIR E P LAC E S. FLU E S. CHI M N E Y B REA S T SAN D S T A C K S
ZO] rnm thick (or if a 1'31 ny wall, having each leaf at least 101 mm thick) up to
F E P L A C E s the roof 11'\1'1.
In Ihe l·.K. Ihe Building Rcguiluions specify Ihal for CI.,s I appliances tI,,;
( o tke musI be lined I~ith any of the following; rebated or socketed flue linings of
day (11) complyinf:: Ilith D.S. 1181 or of (6) kiln-burnt aggregate and high
A alumma cement; or (l) glazed \ IIrified day pipes and fittingJ complying ..... ith
n.s. 6, (sec p. i6); or (d) glass \ltrrous enamellC'd salt-glazed fire-clay pipes
and fiuings complying with B.S. 540 (SCI' p. 76). The reost commonly used
of IhC""~e is (a). As an ahernatll'e to the aOOle limngs chimneys may be constructed
\llth concrete flue block!; made of kiln-hurnt aggregate and high alumina cement.
Both linings and hlocks must be pointed \ILth I "cement mo rtar and the
N , lmings must he built with the socket uppermost, care being taken to keep the
hore of the flue free from mortar. Linings are built into the flue as the chimney
IS wll"tructcd and hacked I\ilh mortar. Flue linings complying with B.S. 1 181
are detailed in Fig. 28 The hattom length of liner in a Rue should rest on
curl""l ... projecting from the chimney flu!""; linings should not he cut because It
~
Is mportallt 10 I'rt.-...cne the socket or rehate intact.
0 0 0 0
Btfore the m"htl·ncc of flue lininf::s the in~'llt: of brick flues .... a" rendered
,• z
, ,• ,z (\..1">11 n ,I ... p"r::tdl 11) a thi~knes" of at ICol~t I] mm with a mi\tlLrc .... r I cement. 3
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FIGl:II:£ 26
68 BRICKWORK
lime 10 sand. This pro,"cd ver) satisfactory for open fires bUI with enclosed
heating appliam:cs where the products of combustion are less d11uted with air
Ihen~ was a danger of tarry compounds leaching through the flue and discolouring
internal wall~. The N:ottish Building Regulations permit the use of parged
Aues for open fires but the Regulations applymg to England and \\'al~ do not.
Flut plpl'! f'" Class J apphallctI. -A Aue pipe is sometimes adopted in heu
of a ChlmnC\ and un he convenientlv used wlltn fixcd on the outside of a wall to
sene, for e~ample, a central heating boiler which is being added 10 an exisllllg
house that has not got a conveniently situated chimney. It is also used in the
form of a short connecting flue between a room heater or range and a chimney
Rue.
.'\. flut' pipe of the above kind must be of 4'75 mm thick cast iron (usually 100
or ISO Inm diameter-in any case of not less diameter than the flue outlet from the
appliance) for the first I·H III oflenj!;th of flue pipe from the appliance. The length
l>e,'ond Ihe first 1·8 m (an be of 10 mm thick healY quality asbestos-cement pipe .
. Where a Hue pipe discharges into the side of a chimney flue (t.g. from a free-
standing appIL.lOce) an,· combu'>lible material in the chimney or anached wall
mu~t be ~eparated from it hy non-combustihle material at least 200 mm thick if
the combustible material is beside or below the pipe (300 mm if abo\"e). A
~imilar prollsion applie~ if the fllle pipe discharges into the bottom of a chimney
Hue. 11 a flue pipe pa~s-es through a roof or e:\lernal wall otherwise than for
dlsehar~IIIR into a chimney flue It must be either (a) placed at a distance of not
Ie,;,; th1m three IIme~ Its eAternal diameter from any <.;Ulllloustible n"'terial in the
roof or \\all; or (b) (i) (in the c~ of a pipe pa!lSing through a roof) separated
from ,my combustihle part of the roof by a minimum of 200 mm thick solid
non-comhustlble material; or (bJ (Ii) in the case of a pipe passing through an
nlernal \\.111 be protected as described abo\e ior a flue pipe passing into the side
of a chimney Hue i nr (t) enclosed in a metal or ashestO$-cement slee"e which
proJectit 150 mm bc:yond any combustible material in the roof or wall-a
minimum of 25 mm space is r~4uired betwee:1 the pipe and the slcc\e which is
to he packed With a 15 mm minimum thickness of non-combustible thermal
insulating material such as asbestos rope. Alternatively the Building Regulations
allow protection by a specially constructed ~Iee,·e.
Ch imneys fo r Class II Applia n ces.-As these are for gas-burning
appliances which produce a greater amount of water vapour in the products
of combustion than is the case with an open fire the flue linings ha\e to be of a
high standard. Class II appliance chimneys must therefore be lined with one of
the following; ( I) acid-resistant tiles embedded and pointed with high-alumina
cement mortar; (2) glazed I'itrified day pipes complying with B.S. 65 or (3) HO
JOinted with h,gh-alumlOa cement mortar; (4) glazed rebated or socketed day
flue lining§ complying with B.S. 1181 Jointed as abo\·e. Alternatively the flue
may be constructed with dense concrete blocks made with high-alumina cement
and pointed u abo\'e, these are detailed in Vol. IV, they prol'ide a flue size of
305 by 64 mm.
The n.l~ mu"t he surrounded ,Ind ,;.eparated from ally other flue in the
chimne\ hy solid m..lerial ,11 lea~t ~5 mlll thick.
Fluf I"Pl'S for ('Iau Illlppitwl(rt can he as (2) ami (3) al)()I'c or £If ChI irnn
"I'i~\lt :lOd socket /lue pipe.. confoTlTlIn):" with B.S. ,p <lnd coated internJlIy \luh
..(id rC"I~tJnt \'ltrcou~ enamd and JOInted With an aud-rcsbtln~ compound; nr
of sheet stcd tlue plp!:S to II.S. ilS trc,ltcd Internally as abo\c; or of ~lainless
steel: or of ;l.shestos-cement to ll.~. R35 (B.S. SOi if sen'ing an in(inerator).
The Hue pipe must he ..t lea"t So IIlOl from <lny comhustlhle matcrial and if II
passes through a combusublc rOt)f, Hoor, (eillng or \lall it must be in a slee\e
of non-comhustlhle material1ca\in),( an ;Iir spacc of 15 mm hetween it and thc
slet\e .
AdditIOnal Building Regulation requirement~ for Clas~ I appliances arc as
follows :-\0 cnmhustible materi.11 (r.g. a !loor joist) i~ to be placed nearer than
200 mOl from a Rue or fireplace recess 1.;0 mm in the case of a .....ood plug).
,"",,(,I haH' h.:~n c:auseJ h,' plu..:, (us"J fur fixlOl: S~,rllOl(l. pl~lure ra,b . ..:rounJI for
l"'andhnJt. e(~.1 \\ hleh h~\c 1X',:n In'cn thrOUl(h JOIntS and aCluall)' pcnctrat~J tlu\:")
II II therefore Important th~t JOlne" shoulJ ~n"" tof Ihc 1")$IIIOn of tlu('S II hen "",n..:
"ood membcn rounu chImney hrcMSts.
Where the thieknes.~ of solid non-comhustible material surrounding a
chimncy flue is less than 200 mm. nn combustible matenal, other than a Roor
hoard, skirting, dado rail, picture rnil, mantle shelf or architrave shall he placed
nearer than ]8 mm to the outer surf"c!: or Ihe chimney.
;\letal fastenings such as nails, screws, etc., in contact with combustible
materials, :;hal1 not he placed within So mm £If a Ruc nr fireplace recess.
Cla!>5 I appliances which are not fixed in a recess conforming to the pro-
\isions gi"en on p. 66 must not he fixed nearer a wall than I So mm unless the
wall for a height of 300 mm abo\'e the top of the appliance is 01 200 mOl thick
non-combustible m;aterial (if the wall is less than So mm from the appliance) or
75 mm thick (in any other case).
If the Rame of a Class II appliance is less than 225 mm abol'e th{ ROOT, then
the apphance mu~t he placed on a hearth of non-combustible material at least
12'5 mm thick. Thl~ h{'arth must extend (a) at least 125 mm in front of the flame
in the appliance and (b) not less than ISO mm beyond the back and ~Ides of the
appliance or, if there is a wall \\ithlO 150 mOl, up the w~l1.
Fire Interiors' and Firepla ces, ·Details of a simple fire interior, suitable
for the ground floor recess at A, are shown at z, Fig. 25. This .consists of a
fireclay block with base, inclined back and splayed sides or ,hURs, a metal (cast
iron) grate, metal (stainless steel, etc.) angle frame, and a SUI round of 100 mm
square glaud tiles. The fireclay block is bedded on mortar and backed sohdly
with lean concrete or br~k.work. The uppe r surface of thiS backing should be
sloped as shown to pre,'ent soot from accumulating; if left square, like 1', Fig. 28
I These are more fully dno::nbed In Vol. IV, togethtr With other fO""5 of hutm,.
j
A B c K. F E p L A c E C LAY FLU E
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FIGURE 28
 BRICKWORK
as is sometimes advocated, the luge accumulation of wat will be blown into the
room in the event of down.dnughts. The tiles are bedded on the cement
rendering. The tiles and simple kerb formmg the front hearth are bedded in
cement mortar. The back of the block is inclined fo""rd and its sirl.« splayed
in order to throw the maximum heat into the room.
Fig. 26 shows alternative positions of the fire, that at E being recommended
bea~ heat transmitted at the back of the fire is not wasted as is the case with
those on an external wall at F, G and H. A fireplace should not be placed oppo-
site a door as this creates draughty conditions; a1so, there should be sufficient
room at the sides for chairs, this weakness is shown at J and K. Stacks should
preferably rise through the ridge as previously explained and in a hipped roof
the treatment at c is more pleasing 6an that at o. If necessary, the Btack an
be corbelled O\·er as shown at Land o.
The fireplace in Fig. 27 has a simple brick surround built against the wall.
A timber mantel is pre.fabricated from 32 mm thick timber, the top and sides
being tenoned together as shown at A and 0; glued blocks and longues and
groo,·es are used to fix the parts to each other, these arc shown at D and
J, and in addition, metal angles as at II filt the mantel to the shelf. Ear
plates (G) fasten the mantel to the wall and floor as given at A and o. A
timber curb at F is placed round the tiled heanh, the space between the tiles
and the fireclay is clOl>t:d with a chromium plated metal protecting strip dnwn
at L
The brick fireplace at Fig. 28 is more elaborate. The hearth is of brick and
the fire opening is archtd over "ith a tiled core resting on a wrought iron bar
as noted at c. Two po»ltions I' anJ r of the smoke shelf are shown; although
this feature is ad,·ocated by some, as explained aho\e, It is le»s satisfactory than
the sloping finish.
SETTING OUT
A brief description uf Ihe construction of walls is given in Chap. I, Vol. I.
Prior to the commencement of h~lliding opcratiolh the ~He IUU),t be surveyed
and .any differences in level of Ihe $urfacc obUlIled by me.llh of an instrument
called a dumpy 1n:~1. The trenches to rc(;el\e the foundations mu~t be first
Itt out or ~gged /Jul before their eXC3'-alion is beglln, If the sIte is stoping, and
before the trem;hes are ~ct (Iut, It may be nccc~S-;lry to ic,-cI the surface by
excavating the higher part~ and removing lin: wil to tbe I",",er portion9 a9
required. Bomng rods, all described on p. 83, arc u~ed for le't'iting.
The tir:;.t line to he !;Ct OUI ii generally that of the main frontage of the
building. A~ a linen tape $trclches and i~ unreJiabk, a ~tecl tape i-; lIo;cd to
measure utT its length and fix its relative pO,>itmn. A ..... ood reg or sLike is drivcn
in at each end, the centre of the fWP. indilaline; the pO»llior: of the 4UOlIIs. TI-,e
illles of all other .... all, are measureJ off from this front wall illle.
The pl.ns of most bulld,ng. must be .pproved by the 10CiI aUlhority before
bulldmll operation. Ire commenced, A plan lubmiued for appro,'al will include the
bloclc pia" of Ihe building on which is .hown the "to:, d ... ,nage, relal,,·e poI.lion to
.dj.o:ent Ilfftta, riC. If the sile .djoinl ui.tmg buildmlfS or • highway, ,t " very
imponant that Ihr j,olltale b"t .h.1I be .cC\1t1ltely Kt (lut III order that It th.1I not
encroach beyond Ihe btlI(dJ.., t.~, the pas;lion of which IS obtamablt': on application
10 the local authonty,
If a building is rectangular, right angles are set off from the m.ain line by
using the" 3 : -4-: 5" method, i.t., a distance of 12 m is measured along the line
from one end and a pi" (or arrOUl, made of stout wire, about 230 mm long, ring-
shaped at one end and pointed at the other) is inserted; a tape is held at each end
of this length, the 9 m division on one of Ihe tapes is held at the IS m division
on the other, both tapes .are stretched taut and a pin is inserted at the inter-
section. The 9 m line thus set off is at right angles to the main line, as, in
a right·angled triangle, the sum of the squares on the two sides containing
the .angle equals the square on the hypotenuse, i.e., 91 + 1210:: 151. The large
wl'Od square shown at R, Fig. 29, is also used for setting out and checking right
angles.
It is necessary to fix the height of one of the floors of the building, usually the
ground !ioor len~l, to which all other heights are rclaled. If pos~ibk, lhi~ ~llOulJ
be a permanent level, such as the top of a plinth or step of a conn:niently situated
existing building; otherwise a peg i~ dri\en in a rosition on the site, preferably
opposite a door opening ",here it is not likely to be disturbed, until its top
coincides with the required level as determined by a dumpy leHI or other meaos
The height that the top of this peg is above the ground should be noted aod
booked in case the peg is surreptitiously or accidentally lowered and a subsequent
check i~ required.
Profiles are used 10 ensure the accurate seuing alit and construction of the
walk These are temporary guides, (;onsisting of boards nailed to wood pegs
which are dri\·en into the ground. Details of profiles are shown in Fig. 29. A
key plan of a building is sho"'n by hroken lines at A, and the various ")r('files arc
indicated at the corners and opposite to di, blOIl walls. Enlargements of thest
profiles are shown in the plan ('; and the sketches Band c. A corner profile is
made of three pegs, wdl driven in, to which two boards art' nailed. One profile
is placed .at each corner (see A and c), with the boards parallel to and at 610 to
900 mm from the outer trench lines The top of the corner peg at least of each
profile is often the le\·el of the grou~d floor. A steel tape should be used when
$etting out these profiles, and the measurements checked. A useful check i~
obtained by taking diagonal mcasurt"ments hl'twl'en oppo:;itc corners, and if the
bUllding is rectangular, these should. of course, be equal. Perman":'\t dimensions
are marked on each board indicating the width of the concrete bed, brick footings
(JS!.uming that these are t8 be proviJed) and the thicknt.:ss of the walt (sec Hand
c). Saw·cuts, aboJut 13 mm deep, are made do"n these marks in the uppt.:r edge
of each hoard [0 re<:ej't: the ends of the bricklayer's line. Each profile used for
di,·i~ion walls consl~ts of two peg! and a oo3rd, and the latter is similarly markeJ
1
 SETTING OUT
and cut (sec c and c). The centre lines of the walls arc sometimes marked.
The position and correct alignment of the trenches, footings and walls arc
obtained by plumbing down from lines which are stretched in turn between
opposite profiles. Thus, assuming that the trenches have been lined out and
excavated, and the concrete l has been placed in position, the bottom course of
footings would be aligned in the following manner: One end of a line (see M
and P at B and c) is passed down the saw-cut at the tOP of the appropriate mark
and wrapped round the board, and after the line has been stretched taut the
opposite end is fixed in a similar manner. The plumb-rule, sometimes stayed as
shown (the stay being nailed to the rule), is held by one hand against the line
near one end of the trench and, when vertical, a mark is made by the point of
the trowel in a little mortar trowelled on the concrete bed. A brick is laid
temporarily on this mortar with the outer face in line WIth the mark; the plumb-
ing of this face is checked. Another brick is laid in a similar manner at the other
end. A bricklayer's line, WIth pins, is fixed between and b,el with the top of
these bricks. The bottom course of footings is then bUIlt, commencing at the
corners, the position of each of which is found by plumbing down at the inter-
section of the rwo lines (see I.. at 8). Similarly, the wall is set off correctly hy
plumbing down from lines r.; and Q shown at Band c.
!-)ometiml.'s 1\'0 profill!1!, like E show" al G, are ..sed for the 1\"0 walls fonni"~ a
qUOIn mstead of a corner profile. Profiles for tli,'islon Wills arc oflen disJ><'nslNl "Ith,
Ihe ri~ht-anJ:tled mter .....'Ctlons lx:in1( Ihl.'n ch~'Cked by Ihe use of the lar~e square 1\
CorneT profiles for sellin~ out s<jumt quoms (s.« Fig. I ,) have their board3 pafllllcl
10 the SIdes of the "ails, and a dln.ion wall which fonn . a squmt junel10n (S« FIR
10) ,5 set out by p!3cinl,( th~ IWO prutil ..... , one at neh end. It righl an"le$ to its len~th.
\\'hJ!st profiles nSI$t ,e. Ihe accurate sellm.. out aod eonstrucllon of walls. theIr
use by no ml'anl IS general. In Ihe 3bscnce of profiles the hnes of the trenches are
pegged out, 1\,"0 peJ:s Dcm~ dnHn m at cHch end of a trench at a dlSlance netween
theIr outer faces equal 10 lU width; the Ime is stTl·tched In ail1(nment WIth these outer
face.; these ptgll, Itke the protilt" arl' placed some 61 0 film o1,Jts,d~ the Imc. of trcnches.
Afler Ihl' trenches hne bftn .."cav3ted to Ihe re<juired depth and the concrete nedl
formed, the alignm..,nt of each ,,;11 IS maint31n~tl by placing the quoin bricks on correct
poSItion, u deSCribed abo'e, and stretchtn" a line lx:t"een,
Circular Work.- This may he set out by using either (a) a t.ammtl or
(b) a templet,
I L"f.·tlli"f( ('orrC'i'le ni'd.~A pelo! is dm ... n in th.., bottom and at each cor.ner of the
ITenchu unltl the top of eaeh II at the r('qulred depth lx:low the floor I""'el: thIS depth IS
obtamed by rnean$ of a I mC11l' rule and the UM' of 0 spirit level and short straight edge
appiled On thl' corner peg of the nearest profile If thIS d('pth IS tn Bccordance .... ah the
lIauge of the bnckwork deCIded Up"n, the !loor In'cl "Ill course .... lIh the bed Joml of the
brickwork Intennediate peg" lTe Ihen dr,,·en In the bottom of thc trenches al convenient
intervals untilthcit \01'5 are at the same I",elils the corner pegl. Thi. i. 355mI'd if three
bonmg rolh (":1' I' 113) of the Jame heIght (~bo\Jt 1'2 m) are uslNl. oneon each of II pall'
of corner pelts and the thIrd on the IIltenned,ale pelf" In lurn. and" slghltnll Ihrough "
from one end The concrete .1 carefull)' depoSIted and brought appro~lmatel)· to the
le\'el of th" peR lOpS. A hor"onlal ~urf"ce IS obtalnlNl bv uSing a strikmg-off board (see
p. 60) On each paIr of adjacent peg. In torn Thne wood pegs must ~ rcmoHd Mfoce
the COnCTele has II<'t, and the holu filled .... tth concrete If allowed 10 remain the pegs
may rot Ind be respon$lble for the On..,t of dr}" rot In floor. CIC., timber~ (see Chap. I,
Vol. III)
(a) TramMel .Hethod.-The application of a trammel for the bay window
indicated at A is shown at H, Fig. 29. The bonding of this wall is shown in Fig. 15.
A trammel is a 13 mm thick board, not more than 150 mm wide, and holed at one
end. A 20 mm diameter metal bar is set up vertically in a slab of concrete at the
centre of the circle; the length of the bar must be sufficient to reach to the top
course of the proposed wall, and must be vertical, as tested by a plumb-rule,
Alternatively, the rod may be tightly fitted Into a ..... ood peg or post which has been
driven into the ground at the centre. The trammel is threaded oyer and passed
down the bar, and the width of the concrete (and footings) and the thickness of
the wall are accurately marked on its upper face. The setting out and construction
of the semicircular (or segmental) wall arc aided by the trammel as it is caused
to rotatc, and by plumbing. As the brickwork proceeds above the ground level,
the trammel, \\hich must be horizontal, is supported at its holed end by a piece
of cord which is fastened under it to the bar, the cord being raised as each course
is completed.
(b) Templet ,1Iethod.- This is often preferred to the trammel on account of
its convenience and the aCCl,:ratc check which it affords. A templet consists of
two wide thin pieces of board, overlapped and nailed to each other, as shown at J.
The outer edge is sawn and carefully planed to the required curve, A wood
tie connects and projects beyond the two ends, and the outer edge of this tie
must coincide with the external face of the main wall. Three wood struts or
stays arc fixed as shown; these make the ternplet rigid and con\'enient for
handling. The templet i;; placed as required on top of each course during and after
its construction, any brick.s not conforming to the curve being tapped in or out
until their outer face~ correspond to the cuneo Plumbing pro\'ides a furth;:r
check on the work.. It is most Important that the outer edge of the tie is in true
alignment with the main wall face each time the templet is used.
General.-In conclusion, it is most important that the following require-
ments be obserwd if best results are 10 he obtained when setting out facing
work : -
I. The narmal fu{t' appearance of tlu reluted band must be maintained 0fJ1'"I'
and IInder optnings. lienee the a\erage length of the bricks should be carefully
nuted amI, as stated in Chap. I, \"01. I, the width of each opening should be
a multiple of I brick for English bond, and for Flemish hond the width should
be a multiple of II' bricks after 440 mm wide; the combined thickness of the
vertical or !.:fOSS joints must. of course, be allowed for.
If these dimensions arc departed from when the above bonds are adopted,
broken bond is inevitable. An example of blOken English bond ahO\'e an
opening is shown at N, Fig. 19; note the stretching course immediately over
the crown. Unsatisfactory fhtures of broken bond are the non-maintenance
of the pCTpends and unbalanced treatment at the jambs of openings (such as
a stretcher at one side and a header or bat in the same course at the other).
2. 1'I1e Itngth of walling betWt't'n opt'nings and the width of external attached
pil'"l'J should be in accord with the atierage length af the facing bricks, Thus, for
'-

5 E T T N G o u T
.....,' '~'llf
....
;*I:t:T:-- T--:-1 U~
·" ..to Pl'DfrL( 'E'

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f~t·i1k~~::~-¥::~::::\-J
'W..... u · 'I

• , y A N

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B
c
~G
MAAAJ

IlS·2~ IOM.D
SKETCH
Ccw.Nf~ 'WFIl£ '0" DETAILS
m .... y~

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PLUMBING FOOTINGS F'-OM UNf M ,

b; I
I'WMBING W....u ''''OM UNf '"
'HII
LAM' -------J7_=,.,.~
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10\.1\

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." CONCUH C,,",O£TE
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o

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1M
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USED INSTEAD Of THE TRAMMEL

SEE FIG.i5.
SKETCH --
SHOWING APPLICATION Of THE
T RAM MEL

-
 SETTING OUT
example. broken bond will be avoided if these lengths and widths are multiples
of whole bricks (plu. the total thickness of the vertical joints) and the bond is
either stretcher, English or English garden wall.
It is usual to mark the above position of door and window openings. etc.,
on the course of common brickwork (generally 65 mm below the ground level)
and when constructing the faced work to make certain that the appropriate
perpends are \"crtically under the reveals concerned.
3. Split courm abow archu and li"ttU (see Chap. I, Vol. I) and IHlow nO/is
must be twOldtt!. Therefore the average thickness of the bricks and the bed joints
must be taken into account when deciding upon the height of most ope-mrs and
73
1
the construction must conform to the gauge rod (see Chap. I, Vol. 1) on which
the courses are indicated . It is good practice to arrange that a slretcher is the
first (reveal) brick in each of Ihe courses immedialely above the sill and below
Ihe arch. To attain tbis, it is necessary tbat tbe number of courses between
the ground level and the sill course sball be carefully ascertained and the bonding
arranged accordingly.
ACCIl,auly ut Qut brnlrwo,k is no ,nou upnuiw than thut whirh is construcud
in a Itaph4%ard/ashion, and whilst the abo\'e preliminaries to actual construction
will involyesome thought and the expenditure of a little time, the results obtained
are well 'WOrth while.
•

CHAPTER TWO
DRAINAGE
SyUabtu.-SurfKe water ....d .ubeoil dnmage, _age dispouI, Sep_tic tank. Chancterillia and brief deecripuon of the nunurlctU"" of drainpIpes, including bend"
JUnctiON, channel•• nd tapers p'p", gulhn and mterceptors. Setling out and constructiOn of dn.ons.
Surface Water Drainage.-Provision hu to be made for the drainage and dis-
and ventilation; SOII'IICh.
posal of rainwater which falls on to roads, including paved arcu, and open spaces.
In the former case, this is arranged by having Btreet gullies (aee below) placed
along the kerbside which discharge into the sewerage system. In country dis·
tricts the disposal may be by means of soalumJays in permeable ground-these
are holes filled with broken stone from which the water percolates naturally;
alternatively I the water may be conducted to ditches and wau:rcounes.
Gullies are made sufficiently deep so that silt and grit can colleet in the
bottom and not be washed into the sewers. For the same reason, surface water
drains should be connected to the sewers through a sediment chamber-a brick
enclosure about 900 mm by CJOO mm by 760 mm deep, with inlet and outlet near
to the top, the chamber collects the grit and sediment which can be removed
periodically as is the case with street gullies.
Subsoil Drainage.-Fields and other open spaces should be provided with
subsoil drains placed about I m deep. The agricultural pipes used for this
purpose are 60, 75 and 100 mm diam., they are without sockets (see below) and
are laid butt jointed to allow the water to enter; it is preferable to cover the pipes
with 25 mm size broken stone 150 mm thick before the trench is back filled. The
main pipes will follow the natural depressions in the ground, and can discharge
to ditches, watercourses, soakaways, or sewers and drains. In the latter event,
a sediment chamber is required as above and an interceptor (see below) can be
used at the junction with the drain. The main pipes (75 or too mm dia., according
to conditions) are fed by branches 75 mm dia., laid herring-bone paltern at an
averagt: distance apart of ... ·5 m, or closer if site conditions are bad. Subsoil
drains are used for several purposes such as round basements (Fig. 20), to prevent
flooding, or to improve the soil conditions for agricultural purposes.
Sewage DiapouJ.-In addition to rain water, the waste and refuse required
to be disposed of from houses and other occupied buildings include (1) liquid
wutcs from link&, lantory builll and baths, (2) excrement and (3) ashes and
household refuae.
,
Dramagr IYltem for tmlU bUlldmgs; Inspection, inlerceplioa
WheR there i. In inadequalc Wiler lupply, luch II in ct:l1ain NI"II diltric:u, the
•
I"Iln "'Iter is utuilly collec:led in gllvanited iron lanks Ind used for houlhold
purposes, Ind fixed nceptacies kno",n as prn'Y ""ddrm, tal'll! clouts or ash dOltts
IJ"(' pro\"lded for ucremenl, ashel ~nd othtr Rfuse, Another objecuonlble but Ie..
insanillry (OnTi of ac:comrnodauon cXltlIn~ in certain d'llriC:U, including I number
of Ilrlfe' 10wnsh'pI, consist. of pall ,lol~tl or lub dolttl In which mOViblereceptlclt'l
for flecal miller an: proVIded, a.hu beIng rec:elved '" smlll dust bini, ThIS II known
.1 the illy or ("OmenalaC)' .f)'IIOft of aamtluon.
Thc best Iy.tem, now In Jlene ... 1 UM', i. know", as the tcatn-ca"'ll/It J)'JtDIII. This
proVIde. for the admission to and removal by PIpeS of the liquid "lIlel from sinks,
bathl, elCo, Ind excrell. Thne combined WISt" Ind exCn:tl .n: called SefDOIt.
A complete It'werll/:f' or dnlinll/:e Iy.tem contini of a network of pipe. conveying
Ie'" Ig.:, the smaller pIpes bemJJ connt'Cled to Illacr OMI and these ultimately com-
binInJl to fOnTi what IS called I ma," out/Dfl 'tf.ur.
The method of dilpo:ul of MWII{t' depends I good deal upon the location of the
di.tncl. ThuI, Ihat from I roast town IS simply dispoted of by continuing the outfall
sewer some dillince on Ihe sea bed and allowing the It'wa~ to dlSChll1fe' into the 1('1
dunng Ihe ebb-udes OtMno'll(' the oUlfall sewer il contInued to the uwagt duposal
_rAIl, where Ihe $C:WI~ i. Irelled Ind Rnden:<! innocuous. One form of tRatment,
known I I the ruln,ol#'d 1l''lwt ,,'lItm, conlilll of plSsInJllhe sewaac Ihrough a seRen
and a Kllhng tank prior 10 Idmiltlnlll: it to a large nctanl/ular link WheR It il alf1tated
by compressed 11r admined It the floor level. In another melhod the KWljfe after
betng SCl'ftned Ind sell led is spnlyed over I Ptrcoia/'''Ilfifu. con.isling of I (,8 m deep
bed of gl"lvel or Slmillr mlleril!. Another method, no" beIng g .... du.Uy .uperseded
by the achvlled .Iudfft' Iyllem, COnlil1l of the .dmiuion of _Ige 10 one or mon:
co,,/ad W, of gravel of broken bneh, etc., when: it i. Illowed to remain for sevel"ll
houtl. If only I campllalIvely Itr.1I 'yltem, the ..,wIge. IflU prellminlry screening
Ind It'lIlInl!" to elImln.le I I much IS posSIble of lhe solId miller (called dlldgt), mly
be dlllnbuted over land. After being tRlled by one of thne method., the purified
liqUId or t/ftllnll is dIscharged into the nearen WllerCOUrIC:. In each of Ihese IYllenu
the lewafft' is n:ndered harmless by the action of bacteria and oxygen.
In the .bsenct:. of a convenieotly IIlulted public sewer (tel' Fig. JO), .nd
where no nUIsance II likely 10 oceur. the seWlge from I country houM' may be con_
veyed to I 1~t1( lalll/. or " cesspool" Ind Ihen Illowed to percol.te Ihrough the soil
(provided it il gnlvel or i. otherwise .uilsble) or pasted over a smlll filter bed or
dinktr, elc.
In some districts the r\in water is kept separate from the sewage, one set
of pipes taking the former and another the sewage; this is known as the leparatt
systnn. Most local luthorities, however, adopt the combined or n'ngk-snDer
syltnn, in which one set of pipes takes both sewage and rain water.
 ORA I NAG E 75
The channels or pipes which convey sewage are called draw or Inllert. The 1'"""""-S::----::E::----::Pc---=T----:--C.,-------r=--A:--:N--:--;"K:---'-"t
essential differtnce between a drain and a sewer is concerned with ownership.
A sewer belongs to a local authority, who is therefore rcaponsible for ill main·
t.nance; • drain is the property and responsibility of an individual. BrieRy,
according to the Public Health Act, 1875. a drain is a channel by which sewage
i. conveyed (:'Om a single house or premises within the same boundary; if it
ser\'e5 more than onc house, the channel is. sewer. Much litigation has resulted
INU T
~~~ ~;;----r.- - -- - - - -T-~k~lou~,~,,~,
in determining whether pipes were dr2ins or sewers, and whilst the abo .. e il a JUNCTION !
P lPl <II.
broad distinction, it may not apply in districts where local authorities have ~
Q
obtained special power. under private acts or h ave adopted provisions unde r the
Public Health (Amendment) Acts.
Septic Tanks.- -These are used to treat sewage from isolated country
~
houses when a piped sewage system is not available; they Ire also used ">
~

occasionally for small communities of abo ut 100 persons. T he Building Regula.

<
tions require a septic tank to be of suitable depth and adeq uate size, having in
no case a capacity less than 2728 litres (this is a suitable size for the average
hou~); it must be covered or fenced in and if covered, adequately ventilated
liS niH:!\. W""'l~S IN
£NGINHIlING &IlICKS
E. CEMENT Mo ... r .......
-
o
~

and hning means of access for inspection, cleansing and emptying.

A t;eptic tank is a chamber wherein sewage is collected and solids hroken
.: ....
::.-
.
down by hacteria into liquid and sludge. The effluent from it should either 1 4 tH ... -------1
Iw: filtered or dispersed by soak-away drains (subsoil irrigation) if the ground is 910_ •
suitable. A septic tank should only receive foul water; rainwater being passed LONGITUOINAL SECTION Tfl~OUGfl SEPT I C T ANK
separately to soakaways. Grease should be excluded from it as this tends to
clog the drains disposing of the effluent and impairs decomposition of the
sewage; hence the kitchen sink should discharge through a grea-.e trap (see
I Iff
~C"'H
I f
• FIGt.:RE 30
.1 i
MEau

p_ 82) which must be cleaned regularly. The o\-er-generous use of detergents

and disinftttants also affec-ts ad\"ersely the treatment of the sewage.
:\. septic tank partially liquefies and hreaks up, hy gasification, the solids
~o that about 70 per cent. of these collect on the bottom as slud~e. AnQtrobi~
(wLthout air) bacteria dc\'clop and particles ri:->e to the surface to form a scum
which, because it assists the action, should be left undisturhed until the tank is
emptied. The hulk of the sludge is pumptd out by the local authority or printc
contractor at about six-monthly inten-als, leaving a small amount to restart
the bacterial action in the newly-admitted sewage. Hence, in addition 10 the
requircments given above, the tank must be (a) con\'eniently placed for access,
(6) not nearer than, and down wind 15 m from, habitahle huildings, and (r)
where it will not contaminate water supplies; also if the ctHllcnt from it is
di~hJrged to a stream or watercourse, then (d) the approval of thc local Ri\ er
Board must be sought.
..\. septic tank will not function ....ell if it has a capacity I~ss thall I SIS litre..
and in order to takc full ad"antage of the reduction of the solids it should allo\\
for .. 8·hrs. Storage of liquid. As the Buildin~ Regulations demand a minimum
capacity of 2;00 limos (i.~. or 1350 htres per day) thLs is equi\'alcnt to 225
litres per penon per d y in a hOJschold of 6 per:;ons; till S i.t adequate and allo\\s
a mar~in of safety bearing in mind that the a\-erage use of water per person is
nfOarer 182 litres per day. Hence as I htre _ 1000 cm' then a 2 700 litre tank
requires a volume of 2700 x 1000 cm' _ 2-7 m'. Allowing for an a\'eragc
depth of liquid in the tank of 1'37 m its area must be 2-7 .;.- 1·37 "" 2 m Z (approx.).
So as to allow an e\'en How from the inlet to the outlet the length of the tank
should he dhout three times its width, Therefore If the width is taken as 9 IO mm
its length could be about 2 485 mm, which gi\"l.!s a surface area of liquid of
almost 2·) mI.
The abo\'e dimen~ions are ohser,-cd in Fig. 30, which shows the longitudinal
scclion of a t~'Pical rectangular septic tank for a house. It is const ructed with
215 mm thick walls of engineering ()tick on a 150 mm thick concrete base. The
top i.. formed of five is
mm thick reinforccd concretc panels set loosely on the
wans to allo .... for ventilation and remol"al ror clean~ing and emptying at about
6-monthly intenal$. The inlet to the tank is made with a T-junction clay
drain pipe set in the wall, thetoutlct is similarly formed; these pro\·isions
prc\cnt the se"a~c from pa~bing straight through and the fOLmer directs it to
the hottom of the tank and preserves inta..:! the l:fust whIch forms on the surface
<>f the liquid.
 DRAIN PIPES AND TRAPS
From the septic tank the cmuent is either dispersed by subsoil irrigation or
first delivered to a filter bed and thence to a ditch or stream. Subsoil irrigation
can only be used on porous ground; it is cheaper than a filter hed and, being
odourless, less objectionable.
The trenches and pipcworlr. for subsoil irrigation are similar to those for
subsoil drainage but the objectives arc different; in the former the idea is to
disperse and aerate the liquid 50 the trenches arc shallo..... er. They arc ;So mm
Wide and deep, and dug to follow the natural ground slope at a gradient not
greater than I : 200. The irrigation length required i~ between 3'7 and 18 m
per person according to the por05ity of the ground. A 150 mm thick bed of
hallast (25 to 50 mm size stone) is spread o\er the trench bottom and 100 mm
dia. agricultural pipes with open joints (about 3 mm) laid on it. To prevent silt
from entering the pipes strips of felt are laid o\"er the joints. A further 50 mm
of bal!a~H is laid over the pipes and the trench filled over with soil. If space
permLts the irrigation area can be duplicated, this allows one area to rest whilst
the other is in use; it can be accomplished by having a limal! chamber at the
septic tank outlet which has two olltiel pipes capable of bcing used alternately by
hal m~ a simple gate vah'e titted to them. .\ further improvement of the septic
tank effluent is to increase thl' ~ile of thL:' second chamber to about 1 mI. This,
10 etfe(:l, then herome;, a settlement chamber and traps small particles which
ma)' tffit:rge frnm the septic tank; the particles fall to the bottom and can be
remmed when the main tank is emptied.
Filur btd Septic tank effluent which is not treated hy subsoil irrigation
mu~t he deJilered to a filter bed before bein~ di~harged to a ditch or stream.
The filter comprises a chamber containing fiher media and is built adjoining
the :<cptie lank; Ib object IS to aeute (hence the action is aerobic) and purify
thc .,lfIuen!, ):::ood vellliialion is therefore essential. It i~ for Ihi' rca,;on that
It should be placed as far away from propl'rly as possible, otheT'Ai:oe it hecomes
a r.melly nUls.ance. Two filters, allo\\ing .alternate use, are preferred a,;, this
prel ents anaerobic growth \\hich \\ould c10fi: the medi... Each ".hould ha'.-e a
("pacity of I m3 of media per 'P5 litres of dRuem . lienee for the above 1350
hires a day scheme the volume is about 3·3 m'; a !uitahle depth is ,·2 m,
,.0 the requisite plan area would be about 1'75 m square. The Roor of the bed
L~ made with l"Oncrete and on this are laid .a~rLcullUral drain pipes; these are
l:t)\ered with 0'15 m bed of stont (75 to tOO mm si~e) topped with a bed 1'05 m
Jeep of 25 to 50 mm clinker. Various means of delivering the effluent on to the
filter bed are 31"3il.able; in one system the effluent discharges o\'tr a tilting
hopper having a cross-section of W shape. Each half of the W is a trough
.... hich when full tilts onr to spill the contents on top of the filter bed; 3lL one
half is emptying the other is being filled.
DRAIN PIPES AND TRAPS
An import.ant consider.ation in the design of drainage systems is the type of
10lnt used to connect the pLpes. It has been found that in certain C3SCi the
tT.aditional cement and sand joint used to join clay pipes (see p. 78) is too rigid
to permit mo\'ement resulting from settlement in ground liable to subsidence
or in ground consisting of shrinkable clay which expands and contracts lIccording
to its water content. The Building Regulations rerognisc this fact and stipulate
that the: joints must rema.in watertight in all working conditions, including
differential mo\"ement between the pipe and the ground or .any structure. through
or under which the pipe passes. The cement-morta.r joint has proved utis-
factory in most cases since its introduction at the st.art of the :zoth century;
prior to that clay w.as used, this has Rexibility but cannot resist the ingreu of
tree roots into the pipes. The cement-morta.r joint is suit.able for pipes laid in
rock, ch.alk or st.able gr.anular materials; in other types of ground a ftexible
type of joint is recommended, this is often che.aper and usually more quickly
formed than the tr.aditional joint.
Dr.ain pipes are made of clay or shale, cast iron, asbestos-cement, concrete,
pitch fibre and pl.astic.
Clay D rai n Pipes and Traps. ;\Iuch dr.ainage work is done with cl.ay pipes.
They arc sometimes referred to as stonnoare, fireclay, tarthenware or simply
ware pipes and are glazed to render them impervious, although the use of
unglued but fully vitrified clay pipt!l is permitted. The terms are often loosely
applied. The clay from which stnneware pipes are m.ade is found in this country
in the south and midlands, and firedays are obt.ainable in the north. Both
produce drain pipes and traps of first quality. Gener.ally, the term e.arthenware
is applied to drain pipes and trap!> which are m.ade from cl.ays used chiefly for
the manuf.acture of bricks, and the qu.ality is \ ari.able. Cl.ay pipes must conform
to either B.S. 65. Glazed \'Ltrified Cl.ay Pipes, or B.S. 540, Glazed (vitreous)
En.amelled Salt-glazed Firecla), Drain and Sewer Pipes. Both these B.S . .are
amalgam2ted into one publintion and specify two kinds of f'i~ ~ .. Rritish
St.and.ard " for foul se .... age anU;or surface water and" British Stand.ard Surface
Water" for surface water only; the latttr being made to a less stringent standard
than the former.
Clay pipes in the form of straij!:hts, bends. junctions and t.apers .are made
and the), may be provided with a socket end for the cement-mortar joint or
polyester Joint (see p. i9), or they may be without a socket for a special sleeve
joint (sec p. 79). Cl.ay traps and channels .are also a\".ailable.
A sound clay pip.:: should be well glazed and burnt throughout, straight in
tht' barrel (twisted or warped pipes cannot he properly jointed), truly cylindrical,
smooth. and free from cracks and bli!.lers. It should ring sound when struck
with.a hammer. Requirements of U.S. 65 and 540 include: (I) the variation in
thickness of the barrels and sockets of 100 and 150 mm pipes sh.all not exceed
1·6 mm, (2) the dcviati"n from straightne~s of a 610 mm long b.arrel shall not
exceed 3.2 mm for British Standard Plpe!I and 6'4 mm for Bntish Standard
Surface Water Pipes, and (3) the deviation of the internal diameter of 100 mm
pipes shall not exceed 3':1 mm for British Standard Pipes .and 4'8 mm for
British Stand.ard Surface Water Pipes.
 D R A N P I
(c l A
P
yl
E s T R A
HOUf'.
P S
"TUII'II/<IOIH ilIH'!
100 TO ,,, INTtfJW. OI.o\,IoOllf~

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IOO~ I N T E It. ( E H8 THfSf ~I'fS l,. flTT ltoK.S ME OF :lAlT-GlAIfO STONfWAAf 01. FIMCLAV
Oil. IIIU,lflfD (LAY
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u v
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SlWN:of LEVIL
ISO 100 J' J NeT 0 N ,
I"'LIO AV.."L ... 'U 'fjITlf(luT 10001t1TSt
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w
Q u y

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150 • 100 G l -100-

L • T H o I H 150~ 100 TWE~ &END CHANNEL SEND

~:.;i'(II\i""-:~!I.
FIGUU 31
WI
...
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kliii0l41"
_
,
-
 DRAINAGE
Ware pipes including straights, ~nds. junctions, taperl and channels are
mown in Fig. 31 and also in Fig. 33 which ,ho"", the various means of jointing;
similar cast iron fittings are shown in Fig. 32, and descri~d on p. So. Clay
Plpt' QlId trap' are described as folio ....., ;-
Straight Cloy Pi/WI (see A, Band c, Fig. 31).- 10 the socketed pipes the
cylindrical barrel has ajfO"Kl or 'ocktt at one end, and the opposite end is called
the 'plgot or /auut. The interior of the flang~ and the exterior of the spigots
Irc grooved to a minimum depth of ,-6 mm to afford a key for the jointing
material. The i"t""of diameter varies from 75 to 1)00 mm. The Building
Regulations stipulate that the diameter of drains conveying soil water must nOt be
less than 100 mm; this size is sufficient for most house drainage systems of
a"erage size, and very rarely arc pipes exceeding 150 mm diameter required for
this purpose. The minimum size of a drain carrying surface water only is 75 mm.
The larger pipes arc used for public scv.-ers and 50 and 75 mm pipes arc utilized
for subsoil or agricultural drainage, The length of the barrel, txclusivt of the
flange, varie~fromo·6 to I'S m, that of 100 and '50 mm pipes being I'Z m. The
minimum thickness of pipes, size of flanges, etc., arc shown in the table at c.
Fig. 31. Plain ended pipes (i.t. those without a socketlare 1'25 m long for the
100 mm dia. size (see s', Fig. 31 and H, Fig. 33).
Radius Bmds (sec 11 and J, Fig. 31}.-Thcse are required at horizontal and
vertical changes of direction of straight lengths of drains. The standard radii
of 100 and 150 mm pipes are shown. They arc described in accordance with the
number of bends required to make a complete circle, thus that at H is known
as a quick or quaTt" INnd, the 1350 example at J is called an tighth arck btnd,
and the slow bend having a contamed angle of 1571 ° (see J) is called a mttnrth
circlt bnld. A bend required to (hange the direction of a drain on plan should
be slow or" easy," and two eighth circle bends are preferable to a single quarter
bend. The latter should nenr be used for this purpose unless the drain conve~
rain water only. A single quarter bend should not be used at the foot of a soil
stack extending through two storeys in height (ace p. 93) but it can usefully be
adopted for a ground floor W.C. where the vertical drain is short in length.
Similar radius bends arc made in the sockctless type of pipe.
Clay Jundjoru (sec u and v, Fig. 31).-Such arc n«essaryat connections
between drains. That at u is called a si,.,h jUIICtio1l and is specified according to
the internal diameters of the connecting pipes, i.t., 100 mm by 100 mm, 150 mm
by 100 mm, 150 mm by 150 mm, etc. The branch or arm of a junction should
be obliquely inclined in the direction of the flow of the sewage. Right-angled or
square junctions must ne\'er be used; a branch pipe which is unavoidably at
right angles to a main drain should be connected by meana of an oblique junction
and I alow bend. A dotJJk JU1ldWn. is shown at v; they arc not advocated, an
inapcc.tion chamber (see p. 88) being preferred; the armJ should be the maximum
distance from each other, and a better arrangement is to use two adjacent single
junctions.
Similar junctiont are made in the $OCk.etleu type of pipe.
Clay Taptr Piprs (see K, Fig. 31).-These are necessary when the size of a
drain has to be increased on account of one or more additional branches which
may be conn«ted to it lo .....er down its length. The socketed one shown is of
the Inlel Im'trt or straight i/Wert type, the invert being the lower internal surface.
Another type has the socket concentric with the !lpigot, and thus there is a slight
fali in the invert from the socket to the spigot. Tapers are specified according
to the size of the adjacent pipes, i.r., 150 mm by 100 mm, 225 mm by 150 mm,
etc. Very occasionally, as for alteration .....ork, a taper pipe is required having
the socket at the larger end. A standard t 50 mm by 100 mm taper bend is shown
at w.
Similar socketless taper pipes arc also made.
Clay Channtl Pj~s, required at inspection and disconnecting chambers, arc
described on p, 88 and illustrated in Figs. 34 and 35. A standard channel bend
is shown at x, Fig. 31.
Clay Traps.- The purpose of a trap is described on pp. 82-83 and 90;
there are t.....o main kinds: gully traps or gullle! and I"t"crpting traps. Clay gullies
are shown at Q, R, S, T and Y, Fig. 31 and their application is illustrated in
Figs. 3~, 35 and 36. A clay intercepting trap (or dtscQ111ltctjng tTap or i"t"uptor
is shown at M and P, Fig. 31, its application is shown in Fig, 3~, and described
on pp. 89 and 90; such traps arc now seldom used- see p. 89. The seal
increa~ from 6~ mm for a 100 mm interceptor to 76 mm for ISO and 225 mm
traps.
Joints for Clay Plpts.-It has been mentioned on p. 76 that joints must be
.....atertight; in addition none of the jointing material must remain in the pipe,
and the in\'ert (the inside of the bottom of the pipe) must be in true alignment
throughout. The following Joints are used for clay pipes: (I) Ctmrnt-mortar
joint, (2) Poly titer and rubb" r'''g joint, (J) SltttJtd joint. The first one is the
traditional joint having gi,'en satisfactory use in most cases O\'er many years
--see p. 76. The other two ar~ relative newcomers and opinion favours their
selection; they are certainly preferable when differential ground movement is
expected-see p. 76.
I. Ctmen'-mortar Joint for Clay Plpts (sec c', Fig. 33.).-The recom-
mended mortar composition is I cement· 3 sand, sometimes 2% waterproofer
(sec p. :.l7) is included. Neat ccment has been employed but this can cause
crackil)g of the pipe sockets, In addition, a piece of yarn is used at the bottom
of the joint.
The joint is formed in the follo\Oo'ing manner. The spigot of a pipe is placed
within the socket of the last laid pipe and closely butted against the shoulder.
A piece of yarn, after being dipped into a pail of cement grout to preserve it
(unless it has been previously tarred) is wrapped two or three times round the
spigot and well caulked against the shoulder by me:ms or II blunt chisd, cement
mortar is packed in by n..nd to completely fill the annular space, and thil is
neatly finished by a fillet splayed by a trowel at an angl~ of about 60°. The
object or the yarn is twofold, as it prevents th~ entrancc of the mortar to the
 DRAIN PIPES AND TRAPS
inside oCUte drain and lS6ista in centering the pipes to maintain a properly aJigned
invert.
Some jointers prder to omit the preliminary pac:k.ing of the joints with yarn.
Accordingly, unless the mortar is of a stiff consistency, much of it will pus within
the drain and a .. dropped im"crt" will result as the pipes, because of their
weight, willaub&ide and squeeze out some of the material. Such I faulty joint is
shown at H'. If the projecting mortar is not removed, as explained on p. 85,
paper and solids may accumulate to ClIus.e an ohlttruction in the drain ; lodge-
ment may also be caused by the dropping of tbe spigot. The unsightly appear-
ance produced by an excess of mortar and the absence of a fillet is also shown.
2. Polytstn- and Ru~ Ring Joi1lt far Cuy pj~s (ct. Fig. 33).-ln order
to give dimensional accuracy for the ring joint both the lOCket and the spigot
of the pipe have special mouldings made of polyester (a type of plastic) cast
on to them during the manufacture of the pipe. In making the joint the inside
of the socket i. coated with a special lubricant, the adjacent pipe length then
has a rubber Joint ring (to B. S. 2494) slipped over the spigot and to engage in
the groove of the polyester moulding. The spigot is then pushed home into
the mating lOCket, this compresses the ring to make a watertight joint,
3. Sle~d JOint for Clay P!~J (Ht. Fig. 33).-Joinll of this kind are likely
to be increasingly adopted for joining plain ended (i.e. socketless) pipes and
the acceptance in modern drain laying practice of such joints will lead to the
declining demand for the more expensive socketed pipe. The one shown has
a slee\o-e or coupling made of polypropylene (a type of plastic) which has an
internal groove at each end containing a specially shaped rubber ring. Also
round the inside of the sleeve there are a number of small locating lugs on the
centre line which ICrve to position the pipes when these are pushed into place;
the lugs ensure that the .Ieeve is placed centrally round the pipe ends. Also
the pipes themselves have a very small groove round-the outside about So nun
from the enda; the position of this groove corresponds to the distance from the
edge of the sleeve to the face of the locating lugs. It is thus poIIible to inspect
the joint after it has been made and check that the sleeve is in the correct place.
In making the joint the fint pipe length can be stood on end. Ita upper
end is then covered on the outside for a length of about So nun with a apecial
lubricant and the coupling pressed on to it. The pipe is then placed in the
trench and held against a stake driven into the ground; the next pipe has its
lubricated end pushed into the other end of the sleeve to complete the joint.
M(nnif~tvr' of Clay Drain Pipn _ Trlllp.".-The pnxeaet vary aecordinjl: till
the c:la.. of c:lly and the plant Ivaillble, but, II in brick manuflCture, they are divtded
into the preparation of the day, mouJdir\l', dl'J'ma and bumir\l'.
The c:lay il fitlely around and ac:reened .. deacri~ on pp. _2 Uld 3. GI'Of (or
powd~red bumt c1.a,--e p. 3--or enIIhed burnt and dan'Iafed PIpes) II Idded to the
dlY to MIM:e the shrinkqe, aorne cia,.. reqWrIDa a5 Pu cent. o( thil material.
79
Strovllt Ptpa Ire m.ld~ by In UltUl-IOn procue whic:h may be ~ithcr v~rtic:a1 or
horizonuoJ. In th~ vertical m~thod the day is fed Into I mlChU1~, th~ p.pe " utruded
downward. Ind cut to lenlfth by a w.re; If llOCk~ted pipe ,. being made tbe socket
il automatically fonned . The end. of Ih~ plpelre trimmed and, in the case of tocketed
P'P" '!""UO'"CS I n: formed ,n th~ IOCk~t Ind " th~ 'F.,got ~nd . Wh~n th~ p.pes Ire
~rarnic glued the Insld~ I. then .prayed With a , au compri.ing IllIca, lead and
borax; In Impoor"lant feature of Ih~ ,I.u II that ill tbennal upllnllon matcha that
of the body of the pipe. Salt.,la«<l plptlare glued during manuflCtu~ below.
Afl~r moulding. tbe plptllre transported Ind placed v~rtlCllly on the dryinJf Roor
and Rraduilly dried In • ternpel'lture of .,' C. for one or two daya.
They are then t .... ~n to the k,ln; th,., In In. older ,nIUIlIIlOftI. 11 of .h" 6rc:ular
down-draught type (see p. 6). whillt the more modem m~thod il to UK th~ tunnel
kiln (see p. 10). Th~ p.pes Ir~ c:arefully .tacked vertIcally upon their soc:ket$, one
above the oth~r, to a h~jRht of from .... to J" mm
Circular DowtI-d~~1t1 Kil,, - The hut i. ,radually Ipplied until I mlximum
tempen-ture of about 1 IOO~ C. il relched; th,' i, known II th~ vitrification stlge.
The pipes are now gla«<l. th~ open-tlon being call~d IlIIiti"l/. II corrunon nit
{chloride of .odium} I. used for th .. purpoae. The Imount of lalt Idded vlries, but
I Ihov~lful of lilt thrown through each firebox four tlm~1 during th~ ulting period
i. U1ual. The heat volatlli1:cl the nit. I nd Ihe sodium combines with the silic:a ofth~
cl ay to form th~ charact~.iuic: brown glued s urfac:e COIling. The m$id~ of th~ soc:k~1I
Ind Ih~ outs,d~ of the ~PI'10t . U~ un~lued (u cept th~ . pigou of the top pipes) II
these are covered in th ,· ' lM ~h. ynd thus. bener key for the jomtmR materill i.
obtained. Burning rn av oc,·upv Ir'lm thre~ or fGUT days , and cooling. which mOlt be
carefully controlled. tal.e_ the '_me tlm~ .
""tf
T .. K,l" (see p. '0). -Th Is II utc:d for the ceramic glazed pIpes wh~re the
glue i, .pplied imm~d la t~l)' .ft~r exttU.ion. The pIpes mov~ Ilowly along the
kiln for II~ngth of lime dependent upon the pipe dilm~tu; in the case of I 100 mm
pipe tlUI would be lbout ]0 h.... The kIln heat II gradually Increased to I maximum
of I 070~ C.
]utl£trMU are mlde from llralffht P'pet. moulded II dtICri~ lbove. Thua. a
smlll sock~ted piece reqUIred for In .nn of • junetion II cut from I freshJy moulded
pipe, il. end is shaped by hand (or by I special mlchmel. the cut edge i. covered widt
liquid clay Ind fitted on to a ucently moulded p.pe. On the followirIR day the re-
quited hole In the l.tt~r pipe I. CUt It thejoining o f the ITm. trirruned with a knife and
smoothed over with the finjten .
Bntds Ire fonned either by • machine, to which various dIes can be fined, or by
hand. 1£ the latter, a uflight pipe .. it emerta from the mac:hine, i . bent to the
Ipproximate .-.diUI, and then fitled over I COte of the <=orH:C:I thape Ind trued up
by hondo
C~U.-Two half·round cn.nntls Ire obtained from I whole green pipe. The
Iltt~r is pllced in I plliter-of.Paria mould which il half·round in sc<::tion Uld the
length o( a pipe, and It is divided lon,.tudinlUy by a pieee of wire drawn Ilona
the top edges of th~ mould. The cut edFi Ire then trimmed.
A three-quarter channel bend, such II i. lhown It G, Hand J, Fig. J5. <=oMia" of a
half·r(lI,Ind chann~1 bend (obtained by dividin,1 ,reen rad,u. bend) together with I
I~h cut by hand to the required thape. Th_ are stuck together with liquid cllY
and the joint n~atlr trinuned off.
Traps Ire moulded by hand in moulda made. of pilite. of Paris. Two mould.
are required per trap. Each mould .. Ih.ped WIth It. mtem.1 $urface ~ rev~ne
of the ext~rior of th~ trap to be moulded. ThUl, for I gully luch II that at T, Fig. J I,
the mouldl would be Ilhaped to the uteriof shown in Kd:ion Q. A clot of prepared
c:llY i. flattened to the required thickness, and this ia tlk~n by th~ mould~r who work
it into the mould to the duired Ihape. When the two pieus n.ve been moulded m
thil rrJ.IntIef, the two mould. are brought tOjtether Ind c:llmped by band. of hoop iron.
When the day baa .ufficiently Je\, the mould. Ire ranoved and Ih~ junction is nntly
trimmed and smoothed off. Int~rcepto" are hand.moulded ill a limilar manner.
JUIICriona, bendt, c:hannels, t1'Ipt, ete., are dried, burnt and ult·alazed II lbove
daaibed.
Whilst moat cha.ftnels 1ft '11t·,lued. they Ire lOIIl~times required to be .';k
- u . L £ - 1 conaiItI o( powdued flint, china day, powdered a:ine,
. . . . O!'
80 DRAINAGE
10"'; . , ,,0:11 m,,,ed log<:th<:r and w a ter .dd~d 10 l o nn .. sl u rry. Gla':..,
I•• aome" h a l o A N PIPES E. T
•" p

-'..
s ImIlar mlxh.f", wIth the .dd,llan of '" h,tLnR. fclspa r and .00. The ch annels mu st be I'.~' , 000"J
tho roujlhly dry before the ename l il a pplied. In best wo rk Ihr~ o r fo ur coal l of
enamel are ti n t brushed on the internal suriace a nd edRel of each channel, and thi s is
follo\\ed by 1\\'0 coa ts of glaze. This film ;. fused when the chann ell Ire heated in
,. ,
,,~~,~,

' G~
~.

•• ,_ '·. " ••• .

/ .,... ,~~""
"0". . . . ""_,
.• """'....
,~ ~ _
... "',,.
..." .. A
the kiln and {onna .. ha rd , durable, ,mpe,,";ou. and "hite coloured l urface.
,O<L,' I ~ '" I " .. T
Cast Iron Drain Pipes and Traps (see Fig. 321).-These are made to
conform to B.S. '1-97. they are coated with a lar based composition for pro· ~. " .~
lection and are mainly used inside buildings or underneath them. They are an
alternative to drains of weaker materials which must be encased in concrete if '' cc .. . I'<
... ~<
• • ~ .
~.,
,
~ " .
~ <"

they pass beneath a building.

The straight pipes are made in standard 2'74 m lengths (excluding the socket
depth) and other lengths and in the diameters shown at A; for 100 mm pipes,
the socket depth is 75 mm and the wall thickness is not less than 9'5 mm,
Radius bends are made resembling the ware range and are of two main
c
types-short or long radius. An example of the latter is shown at B, both types
'"
'00 .... 0
o , ,
are made in the different angles given; there are also similarly angled branches
or junctions. The special long branch at C can be used in internal ducts to In" "" i
serve a range of W.C.'s as indicated at 0, This detail shows the branches con- 10 " . . . .,.00 ... . ", •• 0 " ' . ' " ~ ,, 1 .. -
nected to vertical pipes of varying length with a large diameter socket to recei ve
the W,C. outlet. Both pipes and bends can be made with removable access <0 . ..

plates for inspection or rodding purposes.

A cast iron inspection chamber which can be used inside a building is shown
It G, this is one of many standard typell which can be had with from one to six ~ .. ~ ."
,y". '0'
" .. ,...... t.
branch inlets at 135 0 on either or both sides, others can be obtained with 1)0 or
1121" bend inlet branches. The remo\'ahle cover is fix:ed with gah'anised steel,
u u .. OO< •
bronze or gun metal bolts and nuts and has a greased felt wa!'her. . .. U GM '"
The cast iron gully at E is one of se,'eral available with dilfering angled out· JO' ~ ' F
lets as shown, they can be made with access doors noted by the broken line . ....,
The example gi,'en is jointed to a fnllmoulh back inltt gully top having a grating.
The one at F is used to trap the large volume of grease from hotels and similar
premises; both inlet and outlet are below the level of the water, and there 100 .. 0 I • . , " , ,,,•,, ,
"
should be enough of this to cool the grease which is removed at intervals by ,,, , ,,
0
taking off the cover and lifting the perforated tray, The outlet is fitted with a • •
cap to permit of cleaning and there is a bell mouth back inlet top similar to that
at E. Should this type of gully be used internally beneath a sink, then the 'U ' <.,.. ... L ...... " .

outlet is supplied with a vent pipe connection adjacent to the cap in lieu of the ." "" W.. . ~'L

grating near the inlet,

Another type of gully is that designed to prevent flooding of the building
0.'''''0.00''. ,~ " , '0", 0 o ~ ' '''

by sewage blcking up the drains. This may occur if there is a blockage in the m
system or in coastal Ireu where the drains from low buildings discharge to the iO"~ "
sea and may suffer periodic tidal inundation, Such an anti-flooding gully (or II IfU _ _ - -1"==
interceptor) is pro"ided with I copper ball float which allows outward flow but
\-~L. ____ 'O"I'<"
.. ~ ...... 'n
doees agaiast a rubber seating if the water 'le,'el rises due to back flow, , .... ,.. ..... ,.. .. .. _
o~

H l== :
I By M_n. Bum Bro• . Ltd, JOINT fO" C, tl" I
FICURE 32
 DRAIN PIPES AND TRAPS
Joiau for Cat 1,0IIt ~.-The traditional non-Hexible joint (or cast iron
pipet is either made with lead (molten lead or lead wool) u described in Chap.
VI, Vol. I and abown at 1:, Fig. n. in the same volume; or by a stiff mix of
Mat cement and water. For the reason. given on p. ,6. fJexiblc type of joint
is now prefcrTcd and onc of these it shown at H. Fig. 32.
This joint must be uted with aodet1eaa pipes or with the .socketed pipes u
described above in whic.h cue the socket must be cut off' and so must the
bead at the spigot end. It comprises a oouplinc fonned with a sleeve, two
CJOH.n and two rubber ri... of square section. I. making the joint a coli.,
and • rubber ring art: PUlhed on to the end of each pipe. the pipes arc then
placed inside the aleen and on tightening the nub on the two bolts the
rubber rings are compressed between the collars and the sleeve to make a
watertight joint.
MamlJiKhu. 0/ Clift/ron Pi~•. -Pipes or ,II .iut Ire produced by two method. :
centrifuatl attine (or Ipinninld and nnd mouldina:.
Spun pipet Ire made in either metal or aand-hncd Auk, which arc rotlttd It
high ,peed. Mctll i. introduced Clthcr Ilona: the wail of the rotlti", cavity or from
one cnd. The «ntnfupl foret CJ:crud by the 'pmnlng mould .prelds the molten
metal Cftllly, Jivin,l unifonn .... 11 thicknes •.
Sand moulded pipes Ire made by hand mouldina: or, more u,ull1y. by mtc.hanlc:al
mcthod.; both tech.nKjuet Ire aimilu requinna I nnd mould mto whIch I nnd core
i, placed to Jivc the internal .nape of the pipe. rn the: mechanical nunu{acture I
pattcrn of the pIpe belfl( IJllcit i. placed withm I mouldin, box Ind clly-bonded
aand II thrown lroUnd It by , nnd alintrer (. machine which throwl thc nnd It
high .peed to Jive I rtlmmirll' effect). Whcn the box II full It .. llripptd from thc
pattcrn to leave In I(:(:U"'tc reproduction of the oullide lhape of the rfquirtd pipe
indented in the lind. The inside lhape of the pipe i. produced by mlking I nnd
core which i.loclttd in the mould cavity. The caltina: of the pipe il then done by
pouring molten metll into the mould cavity It I number of poinll limultlneously.
After CIIung the pIpeS cool briefly in the mould Ind lTe then remo\'w, from the
box. Dry nnd Idherin, to the CI.ting i, bruthed off; the caltings are then ground
Imooth and inlpec:ted before being trelted with I COlt of plint or colting IOlution.
Asbeatoa-Cement Drain Pipet. are made to conform to B.S. 3656; they
are plain ended (without. lOCket) and arc available in the standard length of
4 m, but ha1f and quarter lengths of 2 m and 1 mare 1.110 provided. Asbestos-
cement bends and junctions are stocked in sizes similar to those for clay pipes.
Jointr for ArHltus-cmu"t P£pes are of the flexible kind employing an asbestos-
cement sleeve or collar and two rubber rings for each pipe end. One example'
it shown at I, Fig. 33.
The rings are placed on the pipe by using a taper plug one end of which is
placed in the pipe; the other end of the plug, being of a smaller diameter than
the pipe, allows the rin81 to be placed easily over it. The rings are rolled along
the plug on to the pipe; each pipe end is mounted with two rings in this way.
The sleeve is then pushed on to the end of one of the pipes over the two rings
which become compresaed. The next pipe length with its two rings is then
put into position and the sleeve is slid back until it it central over the joint.
I a,.. Tumcn AsbeatM Cement Co. Ltd..
8,
M_lfI(:tIn'~ 01 AsbntfN_t Pipa.-In Chip. III, Vol.. III there is Idea-
cnption or the manufscture of ubcstM-<cment; thil .tltet how, It one .taae, I
thin film of the mlterill i. obtliMd. Thil continuous film, of width sli,htiy greeter
thin the pipe lenrth, i. fed on to I rotlting mandrel; the .uceeuive Ilyen of UbatOl-
cement Ire conlOlidlted by hydnulic preuure Ind the proceN f. continutd until
the requisite thickncu, which form. the pipe wall, i. achieved. The resulting pipe
i. then withd",wn from tM mlndrelle.ving I amooth and well poli.hed bore After
I wven day IJlllUrina: period in • link of wlter the pipe is trimmed to length and. ita
endl turned to I«U",le limits to en.ure correct fitting It the joints.
Concrete Drain Pipes are made to conform 10 8.5. 5911 in lc:ngths from
914 mm to 3-66 m and diameters from 100 to 600 mm. They arc: socl.:etlKl. and
the detail at}', Fig. 33 shows the flexible joint made with a rubber ring. Concrete
bends and junctions similar to the clay range are also made.
MOmlltUtw~~ (JJ C(JrlCftll D'(Jj" Pi~I.-One WlY of mlking the .mliler (100 to
~~5 dll.) pipe. II to ca.t them vertic.lly. The outlide of the pipe i. formed by a
fixed mould in.ide which i•• rotlting mandrel whIch .hape. the mside of the pipe;
the concrete i. charged into the Iplce bctw~n the two. The mlndrel has two lup
filted to It which 'Pleld the concrete Ind t",nsfer pin of the weight of the mandreito
the Will of concrete to conloOiidlle it. The bottom pin of the mlndrelsmoothes the
Inside of the pipe Will I I it rotlte, Ind so the pipe i. lucena",ely built up. The outcr
mould With encloted Pipe. then taken IWIY for .[eam curing I I dtICnbo:d below.
The luacr sized concrete pipes (US mm dil. Ind upward.) Ire produced by I
combmation of ecntnful.1 spinning and \'i b",tion "'h,eh ,Il"" I high degrtt of
conlOlldltion, impermeability Ind strength. A typict.l mlnufacturing bed has .even
honwntllixleaeach with I wheel II each end; one of the outn ules i. motordri,·en.
Rellmfl' O\'er Ind in bet.. Hn the Ixles Ire ."X lleel pIpe moulds, the enllr~ end. of
theat lit oyer the wheels 10 thlt once the dn\'1~ iSlwltched on III the wheel'lndmoulds
rotlte. The mould... hith Ire Iprayed with mould oil before the concrete " placed in
them, Ire shaped to fonn the pipe socket It one end. The carefully batchI'd cement.
sand Ind Il",vel mix il ftd into the rotllinll mould. Ind ,ftu .pmning. centrifuil'ing
Ind vibration (produced by the .. h~ls) the wet concrete i. compressed Igamu the:
mould. Any internll unevenne.. m the pipe i. ,emU_I'd loy th" application of a
long·handled trowel which is cuo'ed to approximlte to the inside cuo'e of the pipe
barrel. The resultinff deflret of complction enable, the mould for I us mm pipe, for
exlmple, to be removed from the mlchine Ifter lbout mne minutes (}5 min •. for
a ?60 mm pipe). The mould with encJoted PIpe i, then taken to a .team eunn,ll
chamber where the tempentl,lre" bet .. een 31'8 Ind SI '6- C .. Ind hwmdlty lbout <)8
per cent. After I curing pcnod of :zl-hrs. for I :1:15 mm pipe (6 hn. for I 760 mm
PIpe) the mouldllre .tripped (they are in (wo hah,es) Ind the pip" t .... rufcrred to the
Itoc:k Ylrd where they curt for 18 daY' after which they Ire reldy for uw.
Pitch Fibre Drain Pipes (sec: B' and B-, Fig. 33).-These are made to con-
form to B.S. 2760 in 2'H rn lengths for the 50, 75, 100, ISO, 200 and 230 mm
dia. sizes and also in 3'05 m lengths for the 100 mm dia. Bends,junctions, tapen
and gullies are available and channels can be formed by cutting a pipe in two with
a saw. Being more flexible and resilient than the above kinds of pipe they are
frequently specified where ground movement is expected such as in coal mining
areas. They may not be luit\hle for factory efRuenta and the manufacturers
should be consulted before they are installed ror non-domestic services. The
ends of the pipe have I. :z0 Uper and the dry joint is made by hammering 1wM~
a pitch fibre coupling, using I. wooden dolly to protect it (in the enlargement at
.... a slight gap is ahown for clarity). The pipe can be cut with a laW and the ends
8. DRAINAGE
tapered on aite with • hand-lathe. An alternative type of joint employs rubber
rinpand a sleeve. Joints between the pipe and Iday one an made with. rubber
ring, a special adaptor being required for connecting to the apigot end of
earthenware.
M-iftxhD" oj Plleh F.bn I\pa.-CelluiOR fibre in the (onn of .... ute piper
(newtpaper cannot be used beu.1.l1e of the print) is milled with water into I .h,IrTY
and fed to • container where it i. picked up by revolving colander rolleR on the
outer perimeter lnd depo.ited on to. pipe mlndreJ. The rollen have I me.h IUrf_
throuP"a ....hieb wlter drain., leavinl I thin IT\.It of fibre which build. up on the
mandrel to the requi.,te thickneu; preuure il applied by rollen to the mandrel to
fonn the white colou~ pipe. The pipa Ire then paued throuah I drying oven and
dipped in I tank oonUtruna bot pitch. By muna of YKUUJn and applied ptalure
the pipes become imprqnated with Pitch before beina cooled, cut to lenath and
bavina their endt machined.
PI.stic Drain Pipe• .-Suitable only for domestic drainage, these aTe made
of p.v.c. (polyvinyl chloride) in 1'2, 3'01 and 6'1 m length.. The pipes arc pllin
ended and the joint ia made by a sleeve and rubber rings aimilar to the sleeved
joint for clay pipes (p. 7(1). Being made of I flexible material they are ideal for the
IOrt of situations given under pitch fibre pipes above. Plastic drama must be
laid on and surrounded by compacted granullr bedding (Q to 5 mm gravel).
Traps include gully traps, reuse traps, intercepting traps and the larger
~troland grcatc chambns. The ohject of a gully is to prevent drain air escaping
from a drain and polluting the atmosphere ncar ground level. A grease trap,
and I petrol and grease chamber arc used to prevent thete aubstanccs from
entering the drain. An intercepting trap can be used to prevent sewer gases
from entering the drainage system; they Ire now rarely used (see p. 89).
Gully Traps or Gullies (sec Q, R, S, T and Y, Fig. 31 Ind A. Fig. 36) arc men-
tioned on p. 78. A gully is used to take the discharge from. waste pipe from a
lavatory basin, bath or sink which is situated at or about ground levcl. (The
Building Regulationa Illow such waste pipes to be ouuide the building; but
waste pipes from sanitary appliances at higher levels (c.g., first floor and above)
must be plactd "'ternaUy (except ror buildings not more than 3 ttoreys high-see
p. 86). A gully i~al!lOUsNl to receive the flow from a rainwater pipe and at the tides
of palhs, roads and in yard, and other paved areas (sec the car wash aU, Fig. 35).
A gully trap takes the form of a bent pipe (sec Q, Fig. 31) with the inner
fold projecting into the retained liquid and 6~. mm below the outlet to form the
Stal. The internal surface is curved throughout, varying from ISO mm at the
inlet and 100 mm at the outlet. It is ofthe ulf-chonn'ng type, II it permits of the
free passage of waste liquids, and th~ absence of angles and corn~rs prevents any
accumulation of s;mall pieces of organic, etc., matter. The Rat base enables the
gully to be bedded correctly, and as shown at 0, Fig. 36, it is set on 150 mm of
concrete.
The clay gully shown at Q, R, sand T. Fig. 31, is suitable for taking the
I Gull,....re not t"tJ1t,al ... hen • up.rat.. KW • .,..tem i. UKd (..... p. 7.).
Bow from a rainwater pipe. The guUy inlet baa a flange: to receive the cylindrical
rim of the square dish (see 5), the joint between the two being of cement and
aand mortar; the dish i. alightly rebated for the cut iron trid or 1'0"", (see .).
If the undercut type of dish i. uaed as indicated by broken line at Q there i.
Icsa danger of water .plashing on to the surrounding ground. The type of
gully ahown It Q with circular top and sepante dish it much preferred to the
'f'UlT1! trid pUy which has a .quare rebated top to receive the grating direct.
A", the latter h .. no separate dish, it is often impouible to fix it aquare with tbe
wall of a building unless a bend (on plan) is provided at the beginning of the
branch drain. The gully at Q can also be used for. wute pipe disc.har~ if the
type of grating which is notched out to receive the end of the waste pipe ..
bsed as indicated by the broken line at R. (Note thlt it is • B.R. requirement
that In utmcal wute pipe can be used in the circumstances mentioned in the
adjacent column provided that the pipe discharge. oboot the water level in the
gully but belOfll the grating.)
Another type of clay gully is shown at Y, Fig. 31; this i. the back in1et plly
used for ground floor wute pipe discharges (note that it complies with the
lut mentioned B.R. requirement) and to receive the end of a R.W.P. When
used for the latter purpose it is preferred to the gully at Q in the di.h of which
leaves mlY Iccumulate to block the grating and cause Rooding in a rain storm.
A similar cast iron back inlet gully is shown at E, Fig. 32. As traps may become
unsealed by evaporation during hot weather, it is advisable that water be poured
down them occasionally during such prolonged periods.
All gullies should be fixed outside the building, but see permitted exception
on p. 80; in order to comply with this requirement in connection with a base·
ment, it may be necessary to construct a small Irea (at least 760 nun wide for
access) adjlcent to an external wall, in the concrete floor of which the gully La
fixed.
Applications of gullies are illustrated in Figs. 34-36.
Intn'upti"l Traps or Disco"tltcting Traps of Intn'ceptors.-One of several
types of this ware trap is shown at M and P, Fig. 31, and a similar trap is shown
at H, Fig. 34. The seal increases from 6. mm for a 100 mm interceptor to 75 mm
for 150 mm and 225 mm traps. The tnp is fixed in an intercepting chamber
(see Fig. 34), and its object is to intercept the sewer gases from the drainage
system. lu adoption is becoming less frequent, and its merits and demeriu are
discuued on p. 89.
Grease Traps.-One type of cast iron grease trip is shown at F, Fig. 32.
I fa purpose is to prevent fat and grease collecting inside drain pipes from Ia.r~
kitchens, schools, canteens, etc., Ind it is described on p. 80. Smaller and similar
models are made in clay and as mentioned on p. 75, one of these should be used
in septic tank instal.... tionl.
P~"ol tl1fd Gr~as~ Chambtrs.-Thesc are both constructed in a timilar way
to a septic tank; their purpose i, to collect grease and petrol and prevent these
from beine discharged into a drainage system. They arc used at gara~s and in
J
 SETTING OUT OF DRAINS
pt.oes havin, large kitchens, such as schoo" and canteens. A typical grease
and petrol chamber is 610 mm deep and 610 mm square formed with :u s mm
brick walb on a ftat concrete bue; the top hu lOOK So mm thick. timber planb
which permit ventilation and can be removed to enable the grease and petrol to
be: taken off'the lurface of the liquid. The inlet to the chamber is just a straight
pipe 50 mm above oudet level; the outlet hal. T-pipejunction like the aeptic
tank in Fig. 30.
SETTING OUT AND EXCAVATION OF DRAIN TRENCHES
GndieDt of DniDa.-A drain must be laid to an adequate indination or
gradient. This is expreued u. ratio between the total fall (or difference in level
between the upper and lower end. of the drain) and the horizontal length of the
drain. Thul, if the raU i. :z m and the horizontal length is 60 m, the gradient is
J in 30. A 100 mm drain .hould have a minimum fall of I in 60 and a ISO mm
drain. ".;,pm,.,," fall of I in 120, these would be adequate for up to 20 and 100
houaet respectively.
Before deciding upon the gradient to which a drain is to be laid, it is necessary
to obtain the depth of the public .ewer (or existing drain or septic tank) and the
level of the ground. The depth of the sewer below the ground level at the
proposed point of connection may be obtained by inspection on the site, such
u at a convenient manhole or chamber (see p. 88), or from the aurveyor to the
local authority; the level_of the ground along the proposed line of the drain is
detennined by using a dumpy level and le\'elling staff or the .traight edge and
spirit level. The longitudinal section, such as i••hown at E, Fig. 34, can then be
plotted. Besides having an adequate fall, the drain should be bid to a uniform
gradient up to the boundary of the site, or from chamber to chamber (sec p. 88),
after which the ran may be increased up to the connection. Thus, at E the drain
hu a uniform inclination of I in 32 up to the intercepting chamber M, from which
point the gradient is increased. In this example it would be uneconomical to
maintain a uniform gradient from the gully to the sewer because of the addtional
e'l{(:lvation which would he entailed.
Unless the drain is a short one the setting out of [he trench is performed in
the following manner: A wood peg is driven in on the proposed centre line of
the drain It cam point where it changes direction. The sides are pegged out,
pegs being inserted at half of the width from each centre peg; a cord is stretched
uut and tied to one pair of side pegs, the side is marked with I pick or spade,
and the opposite side is similarly marked,
The correct level of the bottom of the trench is obtained and a uniform faU
maintained by the usc of two nght rails and a Ixmi", rod. A sieht rail is a wood
board, having straight edges. and about 38 mm thick. It is fixed to a pair of
100 mm by So or 75 nun wood posts, hiving pointed ends, which arc securely
driven into the ground at one end and clear of the proposed trench; each post is
sometimes picked with earth, aravel, etc., within a ISO or 225 mm drain pipe
pllced vertically with ita flange resting on the ground. The sight rail is nailed to
the two posts at any convenient height and with its upper edge horizontal aa
tested by a spirit level. The second sight rail is fixed It the correct level in a
similar manner at the opposite end of the trench; the level of the top edge of this
rail must be such that an imaginary line, called the line of nillt, drawn from it
to that of the other ia parallel to the proposed gradient of the drain; a dumpy
level and levelling staff should be used to fix the height of this second sight rail to
ensure that the difterence in level between the two rlils is that decided upon.
An application of sight rails is illustrated at A. C Ind D, Fig. 33, where the
inclination of the line of sight is I in 60 and is 2'3 m above the bottom of the
propo&ed trench. The required gradient of the trench bottom is maintained by
use of the boning rod. This rod rescmJ;lles an elongated tee-square having a
wood blade with trO$S head attached (see A, B, C and D), The height of the rod
must equal the vertical distance between the line of sight and the predetermined
level of the trench bottom, i.e., 2'3 m in this example.
The excavltidn IS proceeded with until the level of the bottom of the trench
is reached as determined by .. sighting through." Thus, the foreman standing
immediately behind one of the sight rails looks towards the far sight rail so that
he can just ace the top edges of both rails, and the required depth i. indicated
when the top of the boning rod, resting upon the bottom of the excavation and
held vertically by an assistant, coincides with the line of sight. Thi. is repeated,
the rod being held at intervals along the trench. The boning rod w at D, Fig. 33.
shoWi that the required le\'e1 of the trench at that point has been reached and
that additional excavation is necessary further up if, when sighting through as
the rod is held in turn at positions u and v. its head appears above the line of
sight as indicated, Excavation of the last few centimetres may be deferred
until just prior to the laying of the drain, when the earth is trimmed off and the
boltom rammed solid. Alternatively, when the trench is machine excavated,
thi. more e.'tpensive hand trimming which would be necessary, i. avoided by
o\'er excavating with the machine by about 100 mm which is made good with
bedding (see below).
Timbering, as required, is provided as a temporary support to the sides of
the trench (sec Fig. 40, Vol. I, and Fig. 21, Vol. tIl).
Joint •. - These must be airtight and watertight; none of the jointing material
must remain .....ithin the bore of the pipes, and the invert must be in true align-
ment throughout. The Joints for clay pipes arc described on pp. 78-79; those
for cast iron, asbestos-cement and concrete pipe. on p. 81; and (or pitch fibre
and plastic drain pipes on pp. 81 and 82 respectively. For the reasons given on
pp, 76 and 79 the sleeved type of joint which permits flexibility is much preferred.
CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINS
As the Structurtl load-carrying capacity of a pipe depends on its crushing
strength Ind the way it is supported it is important that the pipes be properly
 SETTING OUT CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINS
S~ETCH

SIGHT
SHON ING
AP'LICATION Of
~AILS ~
,••"1..,,;.,,.. JOINTS
JUlY' "HOS-UMO'T

lONING ~OO
I H EXCAVATING
D~AIII T~ENCH

1\
.. ... 1)~~j--SiOHT MIL'S"

...... Of SIGHl,

"0 N lNG' II. E THO D 'G AUG E lOA. D' '" E THO 0 F
E f"" Of.TE~NlNG e. WJNT....NIHCi TIU COUKT FAll OF DlAINS

SIGHT MIL OS'

SlCiHT LUJL .,..
IOHINCi P.oo 'W'
LINE OF SICiHT
~ "'" "H'-1Il--_1 1
r+-----------+~----------++--- ". ------1, +_--------_4~
•
C : CiN:lUNO UVIL
"""""'"'" D
"

"•
"
------
TO II: EXCAVATE ""'kfOO,,,,£olr-ifl(i UlHCH KJT1QII\,
SECTION 'X X' L 0 H G T U 0 I HAL SEC T ION THROUGH TRE N C H
c;:::1..... I I lit.:" :.: "r,.:',:,',,.,. ifl ttl,,,;:; :.,:.0;;:;,... •
FIGUU 33
 CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINS
bedded on to a firm foundation othcnrite Kttlement may occur and caUIe
cnc:ked or broken pipes and an irrqular invert. In most cues., certainly for the
amaller 100 and 1S0 mm pipes, the foundation can be firm ground trimmed to the
correct level; althougb as mentioned above, if trenches are machine cut, it
La cheaper to over excavate alightly and make good with granular bedding.
It is also helpful in wet weather to make use of such. bedding, and 10 noid
diRurbanc:e of trimmed ground by workmen making the drain joints. and laying
the pipes. In the cue of the largtr sized sewer pipes, a granular bed or concrete
belli must be adopted; • granular bed i. allO sometimes used in the belt work
for 100 and ISornm ~rains. Agranulac bedding (known as Clasa B bedding) com-
pritea I part coarte Hod to 2 part. 13 or 10 mm stone; thi.gives a good &eating to
the barrel of the pipe. Class A bedding, used to strengthen the larger sewer
pipes and also beneath smaller drain pipes in weak ground to strengthen the
pipeline, is concrete (see M, Fig. 33). When it is pbced and partially let it
Mould be cut out over the width of the pipe joints 10 as to maintain flexibility
in the pipeline (I« N, Fig. 33). Drains· beneath buildings, if not of cut iron,
should be completely encue:d (see p. 86). Whatever bedding i, u&oed, in the cue:
of lOCketed or sleeved pipe joints, it should be scraped away at the joints to
enaure that the pipe barrel is properly supported.
Drains Adjacent to Wan. of BuildiztCa.-The Building Regulations
stipulate that, except where the nature of the pound makes it unnecessary, if
a bottom of a drain trench is below an adj.cmt wall foundation is must be filled
with concrete to a level not lower than the bottom of the wall foundation by
more than the diatance from the foundation to the near side of the trench leu
150 mtn--tee It, Fig. 33. Where. however, a drain trench is within I metre of a
wall foundation the trench must be filled with concrete to the level of the under4
side of the foundation (sec x). Expansion joinu over the width of the drain joint
mUit be left at 9 m intervata in such concrete filling. Also where a drain
peIICI through or under a building precautions must be taken to prevent damage
to drains by ditfermtial settlement; damage is avoided by using cast iron pipes
or aurrounding the pipes of weaker materials in concrete, using a flexible joint
where they p... through walls and leaving a gap round the pipe at this point
which can be filled with a compressible material (puddled clay or mastic).
w.yinC of' Dralas..-Both the (I) botrittg and (2) ttltlf,·boartl methods are
adopted in the laying of draina.
The following is how thelle methods are applied to a drain which is laid
directly on the ground. After the trench has been excavated and the bottom
formed to the required gradient as described on p. 83, the constl'llction of a
cInin. is proceeded with, commencing at the lower end. In the cue of lOCketed
pipet the IOCkett ahould be facing upwards against the Row, alto with auch
pipes it will be necesaary to form holes in the trench bottom under the lOCkets to
e8IUR that the barrels have a firm bearing (see E and F, Fig. 33). These hand·
boIeI alto enable mortar jointa to be made and are formed u each pipe is laid,
. ' . . t earth beinr ranoved by the pipe byer to enable him to aet his hand
8S
under the sockets to fonn the joints. Smaller handholes are required in the
cue of sleeved joinu. When the socketed or sl6eved pipes are laid on • granular
bedding pan of this is scraped away at each joint.
I. B()tIi", is the more aCQuate method . . The boning rod uaed is aimilar to
that referred to on p. 83. except that it is provided with a projecting wood or
metaJ shoe as shown at a, Fig. 33. It is held on the invert of etch pipe in .
suc:ces&ion, as indicated at E, any adjustment of the pipes being made until the
head coincides with the line of sight. Thus, the position of each pipe is fixed
independently and therefore any erron are not accumulative. The fonnation
of sinking. under the sockets as mentioned above is often omitted, and instead
a brick. is placed under each barrel near the socket; this is an undesinble practice
as such panially supponed pipes may be fractured by the weight of the earth
above or by traffic. The pipes are then jointed. If the cement mortar joint.
as described on p. 78 is used, any monar which l1\IIy have entered the drain must
be removed before it has set. This is done immediately each joint ia made by
using a wood scraper 0 or scraper R (consisting of a ditc of rubber bolted between
two wood discs) or a badt", (having two discs similar to R with a steel spiral spring
between) or a bag containing shavings.
2. Galll,-hoartl (If' Straight·tdt, Mtfhod.-This ia illustrated at P, Fig. 33.
The board is tapered as required. Thus, if the drain i. to be laid to a fall of I in
60, a I 500 mm long board will be nx I SOO - 25 mm deeper at one end than
the other; a thin block is nailed on the splayed edge at each end 10 that the
board will clear the lOCkets. The gauge-board is uaed as each joint is fonned, the
level of the pipe being adjusted until the bubble of the spirit leve) is in the tentre
of ita run when the level is placed on the board as ahown. Thia method should
only be used for short lengths and branches of drains. It is not 10 ac:curate as the
boning method, for, unlike the latter, any errors are accumulative. Also, as the
thickness and bore of pipes m2y vary slightly, it follows that the inven may not
be paullel to the required gradient. Special care must therefore be taken when
using thia method to a drain having only a slight fall.
The puae-bolord il often uaed without blocb, Ind .1 then Ilid upon the lOCkett;
when 10 .pplied, erro,. m.y oceur by irrerullfly In.ped .nd ~entrie s.oc:kett. A
"raiRht edl(e, hllVinl • projeaing .crew It one end which it .djUlted u required,
i, tometimn IoIKd itlltHd of the pup.bolrd. A I.th, having • ..".1\ fillet .ulChed
It one end of. th.ickneu equal to the required diffen'ntC in level, i" furthertub.titute.
The concrete foundation for a drain referred to above is fonned in the follow-
ing manner: The bottom of the trench is laid to fall as previously explained,
additional depth being allowed for the concrete. Wood pegs are driven in along
the trench bottom at about 3 m intervals with their tops JOO to I So mm (according
to the thickness of the concrete) above the ground. The concrete forming the
rectangular bed is placed in positiog and screeded off (see p. 6r) level with the
toj» of the pegs. The top of the concrete is thus given a fall parallel to the line
of sipt. The pipes are then laid by either the boning or gauge-board methods
with their flanges ratinc upon the concrete. The concrete benchin, ia formed
86 DRAINAGE
after the joints of the drain have set, the concrete being well paclc.ed under the
pipes and neatly ftaunched midway up the drain pipes or to the crown (see M
and N, FIg. 33). Some prefer to provide additional room for making the joints
by laying the barrel of each pipe on a brick laid flat upon the concrete bed near
to the lOCket, followed by packing and benching. A better method is to embed
bricks Aat It 50 mm depth and 610 mm centres (or lOCket intervab) in the
concrete foundation during formation; these are remov~ before the concrete
haa set, and the holes thus formed for the sockets are 6.11ed in with fine concrete
after the joints have set and during benching. Gaps must be Jeft In the concrete
at each joint as explained on p. 85.
Teating Drain Pipes.-:-lo drain shan be covered up before it has been tested
and approved by the local authority.
The test most generally applied to new drains is the hydraulu or U14ter test,
the Building Regulations demand that such a water test be carried out. Briefly,
after the joints have set, the lower end is plugged, the drain is filled with water
and allowed to remain for about an hour. Any drop in the water level at the end
of this period (after allowance has been made for slight absorption) indicates
leakage. Examination will show the cause of this. Any cracked or otherwise
defective pipes are replaced by sound ones, and any defective joints are made
good.
Another test, now falling into disfavour because o( the cost entai.Jed, is the
mtQkl ttlt. Smoke from burning oily cotton waste is pumped. by a machine into
the lower end of the drain, the upper end is plugged, and pumping is maintained
until a certain pressure is reached. Any defects are exposed by escaping smoke.
Ball TlIt.- A drain may be airtight and watertight and passeither of the above
two tests and yet be of defective construction owing to the presence of jointing
material within the drain and an improperly aligned invert. It is for this reason
that many authorities now apply the ball test to newly constructed drains in
addition to the hydraulic (or smoke) test. This test merely consists of pusing a
solid rubber ban down each length of drain. The diameter of the ball is 6'5 mm
less than that of the drain . The ball is put into the drain at the top end, and if
it emerges at the lower end it is a sufficient indication that the drain is true in
bore and free from mortar ridges in the case of the cement mortar joint. If the
ball does not traverse the full length of the drain, the cause of the atoppage
is ucertained and any defects remedied . This is an important test.
Refillinl Trencb.- After a drain hu been approved, the trench should be
carefully refilled in 150 mm thick layers. The finer earth it placed with care next
to the drain so as not to damage the pipes and jointa. This ia apread and lightly
COfl8Olidated, after which the remainder of the refilling it completed, each layer
being well runmed.
DRAINAGE SCHEMES
The drainage plan of a building (with certain exceptions) muat be submitted
to and approved by a local authority "before building operations are commenced.
The following is usually required to be indicated on such a plan ; (I) The position
of rain water pipes, gullies, and the various unitary fittings such as lavatory
basins, baths, sinks and water closets; (z) arrangement o( the various drains, the
sizes of which must be specified; (3) inspection chambers, and, if necessary,
the intercepting chamber (see p. 89); (4) means of ventilation; and (5) the
position of the public sewer (or other outlet) to which the main drain is shown
connected.
A typical plan showing the drainage &Cherne for a small house is shown at ",
Fig. 34, and a part system is shown at ", Fig. 35. These are referred to on p. 91.
Principlea of Drainage.- These are gIven be.low, all exc~pt item 4 (orm
part of the Huilding Regulations.
I. Drains must be airtight and watertight under all working conditions
including any differential movement between the pipe and the ground
or any structure through or under which it passes, constructed of
sound materials and workmanship, with an even invert and a clear
borl'; aU traps must remain sdf-cleansing with an adequate seal.
z. They must be provided with a sound foundation, laid with an adequate
and uniform gradient and in straight lines between points and where
the direction changes.
J. Adequate'means of inspection and cleaning must be provided, inspection
chambers being constructed at change of direction points and in
convenient positions to recei\"e the maximum number of branch drains.
4. A drain may be required to be disconnected from a sewer (or cesspool)
by the provision of an Intercepting chamber (see p. 89).
5. Adequate ventilation must be prmided.
6. Branch drains ahoulCl. be as short as possible and laid in straight lines to
the nearest inspection chamber.
7. Bends must be slow and junctions oblique,
8. Rain water pipes must discharge into gullies (unless stormwater drains
are separate from foul drains-see p. 74). Where R.W.P.'s are placed
internally they may discharge into properly constructed soil stacks
.(... p. 9')'
9. Ground floor sinu, lavatory basins and bath Wasl~ ...ipes may discharge
into gullies oulrich (see p. 8z); or be connected to a soil stadt (see
p. 91) These appliances at higher levels in buildings up 10 3 sloreys
high may discharge into an uternol soil stack but the suck must be
jNidI for buildings of more than 3 Storeys.
10, Ground floor water closets are usually connected direct to dnains. W .C. 's
at ground level (or higher) in buildings of more than 1 storeys mUit
w.charge into.an ;"1"",,1 soil stadt; for buildings of 3 storeys and
leu the shCk filly be outside.
II. Unleu unaVOidable, no drain shall pus under .. building. If laid under
a building precautions to avoid damage to it mutt be taken. 11"s
melM either using a cast iron pipe or one of the other pipe materiall
surrounded in 150 mm thick concrete (P, Fig. 33)·
 D R A N A G E s C H E M
GULL\( G'-OI.lHO LIVfL
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Flcu" 34
88 DRAINAGE
12. The plumbing system carrying lOil and waste water inside the building
must be deaigned !IO that the traps to the different sanitary appliances
remain sealed with water (see p. 91).
Several of these principles have been already referred to.
Inspection Chamben.-AII drains should be conveniently accessible, and,
in accordance with principle NO.3. adequate means oi inspection and cleaning
mUlt be provided. The Building Regulations require that there be an inspection
chamber at : (I) changes in direction at gradient; (2) within 12'S m of a junction
between drains and between a drain and a sewer, unless one is placed at that
junction; in addition (3) no part of a drain shall be further than 45 m from an
inspection chamber.
A typical inspection chamber is shown in Fig. 35. The floor is of concrete,
the walls of brick or concrete and a cast iron cover provides means of access.
The minimum internal dimensions are 460 mm square when the depth is
460 mm or less, 685 mm by 460 mm when the depth is 900 mm, and 910 mm
(preferably 1 135 mm) by 685 mm when the depth exceeds 900 mm, the latter
size being necessary to enable a man to pa~ down and do any operation required.
The concrete Roor is ISO mm thick and this need not project more than is
nttes.sary to enable the walls to be constructed, ;.t., 75 to I So mm. The thickness
of the walls need only he 102'5 mm when the depthjs under 760 mm, but Ihould
be 215 mm thick for duper chamben. The 215 mm Engli .. h bonded brickwork
can be of engineering bricks or hard sound common bricks in cement mortar; in
the latter event the inside of the walls must be rendered (see below); the bond is
shown at c, Fig. 35. An ahernati\e form of wall construction is shown at II,
the walls being in two separate half·brick leaves in stretching bond with a
continuous 13 mm thick layer of W2terproofed mortar between which serves as
a watertight lining.
The drains are run in straight lines to the /nttrnal faces of the walls, and the
channels. to which they are connected are jointed and bedded in cement. The
ends of the pipes throug; the walls may be either arched or concreted over as
shown at C, hg. 34 and c, Fig. 35. respecti ... ely; if roughly bricked round (a
common practice) leaks may occur. The Building Regulations demand that
where a drain passes through the wall of an inspection chamber (or Will of a
building) precautions must be taken to prevent damage to the drain by differ-
entill movement; one way of achieving this is to use • Rexible Joint for the
fint drtin joint outside the chamber. The channels are usually of salt-glued or
white-glazed ware, but they may be fonned in the concrete. Two ahernative
forms of branch connections at chamben are ahown at Band G, Fig. 35. These
&how three branches delivering at the main drain. The construction at B consists
of one double and one Single half-round chlnnel junction; the rixht hand and
lower left-hand brlnches Ire gradually curved in the direction of the Row by
the proviaaon of .low half-round channel benda (a.ee allO aketch c). The alternl·
rive plan G SboWi the application of thrce·quarter branch channel bend. which
provide gradual leada and pre\'ent lewage overflowinl Ind fouling the bottom
of the chamber; they are particularly effective when the curvlture i. Ihlrp;
as shown, the inverts of these bends are above that of the half-round main
channel, as their lower ends are supported on the top edges of the latter (a.ee
also sketch H). A selection of standard three-quarter branch channel bends.
alternative to those at G and H, is shown at}. The spaces between the channels
are filled in with concrete and this is sloped or knchtd up IS shown at Band C,
Fig. 34 and c, Fig. 35. The object of the benching is to prevent fouling of the
base from discharges from the branch channels. Sometimes the benching is
given a slope of 45 0 ; this is rather excessive, as a workman can only stand upon
it with difficulty. The form of benching recommended is that shown at c,
Fig. 35. although that indicated at c, Fig. 34 is adequate when the chamber only
accommodates the main channel.
The chamber must be watertight to prevent leak-age of sewage in the event
of the main drain below it be<:oming choked. For this reason, if common briclr..s
are uS'!d, the inside of the walls is sometimes rendered with a cement mixture
composed of I part Portland cement and 3 parts lind; a 2 per cent. waterproofer
is sometimes added to the mix. The thickness of this rendering should be from
13 to 10 mm and it should be continued from the top and over the benching to
the inner edges of the channels IS shown. Chambers o...er 900 mm deep are
sometimes rendered up to that height, above which the joints are neatly pointed
with cement mortar. Rendering is not required when better class bricks,
e.g. blue engineering bricks, are used for the internal lining. In ground containing
sulphite saits, sulphate·resisting cement must be used for the concrete and
mOTtar.
Access to the chamber is provided by a lalt:an;::td cast iron cover with Jramt.
These are of many different patterns and of various strengths and sizes. They
must be large enough to allow a man to pass through, common sizes being
610 mm hy 460 mm (see Band C, Fig. 34, and c, Fig. 35) Ind 6c)o mm sqUire in
the clear. The cover' for this purpose must be lirtight, Ind therefore the joint
between the frame and cover hu either I lingle, double or triple seal. A single
seal joint is shown at (I, Fig 34 , the groo ...e in the frame being fi1led with grease
into which the lower rim of the cover projects; a band of solid rubber. known
as I fll.bbn' n'ng, may be used in..tead of the grease to form a seating for the rim.
Both of these materials may be used, thus a double seal cover may have the
outer groove filled with grease or tallow, Ind the inner groove fitted with a rubber
ring or tarred cord. If required, the cover may be locked, four gun-metal screws
being used for this !"urpose. The top of the brickwork is corbelled over IS
shown, and the frame is bedded in cement mortar on it, the face 6f the cover
being brought level with the surface of the ground or pavement. Unless the
adjacent surface is paved, a 1So mm wide concrete curb, rendered smooth in neat
cement, should be p~ided as a margin to the frtme (a.ee c, Fig. 35); thi.s
covera the Ringe of the frame Ind keepe it in position; I rebated hard atone
curb &erves the same purpose. Inspection chamberS are sometimes nmed
iMide buildings when, in order to prevent ~ of Kwage in the event
 DRAINAGE SCHEMES
of the drain becoming blocked at a lower level, the cover must be bolted
down.
Chamben whkh exceed 900 rom in depth should be provided with st~. or
loot-,',OM. These may be of galvanized cast iron, horse-shoe .haped, as shown at
C and D, Fig. 35. and fixed at every fourth course, or they may &imply oomist of
25 mm by 10 rom aat wrought iron bars (dipped in hot bitumen to preserve them)
fixed at vertical intcrv.l.ls across one of the comers. They ahould be well bedded
in to make them secure and prevent leakage.
A drop insl'«ljOtl chamber is used to connect a shallow drain to a deeper one,
it is constructed as ahove and the shallow drain is joined to a vertical drop pipe
(surrounded in concrete) placed outside the wall. The pipe has a slow bend
at the bottom which enters the chamber and connects to a channel junction at
invert level. The drop pipe is continued up to ground l~v~1 wh~re it is fitted
with a cast iron covcr. a short length of pipe extends latera1l)' from the junction
of the drop pipe and the shallow drain into the inside of the chamber where it
is provided with a removable cap; these provisions allow for rodding of both
the drain and the drop pipe. A drop inspection chamber is thus a means of
reducing excavation depths for drains where these must connect to a deeper
drain or sewer.
Rodding. - -As implied, in!lpection chambers are pro'iided as convenient
means of inspecting. testing and cleansing drains. In the e'ient of a drain
becoming choked. the cause of the stoppage is removed by the application of
tI~alling' roos (also kno ..... n as tI~arillg rods or dra/II rods). A rod consists of a
bundle of malacca canes or Sarawak bamboo canes (or 6'5 mm diameter bronze
rods) in 610 to 91i mm lengths; these lengths are screwed together by means of
locking Joints. Several 'iarieties of tools are available for screwing to the first
length. such as screws. 1)lungers, rollers, brushes and scrapers for the withdrawal
of obstructions and the removal of grease, etc. which tends to accumulate on
the internal surface of the drains.
In small deep chambers cspecial1v, the insertion of a drain rod is facilitated
if a ware drain chutt is provided. An- application of these is shown at II. Fig. J5.
type F being fixed at the exit and type F at the entrance of the main drain,
Intercepting or Disconnecting Chambers.-Principle NO.4 refers to
drain disconnection. An intercepting chamber is similar in all rcsIlCcts to an
inspection chamber except that an intercepting trap or interceptor is fixed to
the drain at the lower end of the chamber for the pUfilOSC of disconnecting the
sewer gases from the drainage system. or course. it also provides means for
inIJpection and rodding. The position of such a chamber should be on the
line of the main drain and ~ near as possible to the boundary. Plan and
sections of an interttpting chamber are shown at B. C and D. Fig. J4. The trap
has been referred to on p. 78. one type being shown at l., M. Nand p. Fig. 31.
and a somewhat similar form is shown at Band D, Fig. 34. The seal in each case
is 64 mm and the water level is 50 to 75 mm below the channel im'ert. This drop
is called the UJJClJdt and ita object is to increase the \'elocity of the sewage during
its passage through the trap. Thil cuade cannot alway. be obtained owing
to the available faU from the head of the drain to the IeW'tr being inadequate.
and thCl'efore under auch conditiona a trap having the outlet level with the inl~t
is used. The latter fonn of interttptor is a frequent cause of stoppage in a drain,
especially if the drain has less than the required minimum fall, owing to the
resulting inadequate scour through the trap leading to an accumulation of solids.
The trap is provided with a ckoml anti (also called a ralritrt IU'M or cktming
arm) through which a drain rod can be paued to clear any obstruction between
the trap and sewer. A ItOpp" or cap is fitted to the Inn. There are several types
of stoppers, including (I) a simple ware disc which is cemented to the socket;
(1) a ware disc having a bituminous rim, which. when smeared with grease or a
non-setting composition. is fitted to a similar bituminous ring on the socket of
the ann (see M, Nand p. Fig. 31); (J) a c,p which is screwed to the socket to
form a bituminous joint; and (4) that shown at L and known as a rtkan'ng stopper.
The laller il the belt form. The bod)' of Ihe filtingll «menled inlO the locket of
the arm; the IlOppn il tighll)' forced in potiuon by mnn. of I lever which engages
In Iioned proJl"Cllng lugt; a ch.in II .ttlched to one end of the lever and palSu
through. staple fixed near the top of the ch.mber. It il In lirtight Itopper; it cannot
be forced out by preasure of pses in the sewer•• nd in the event of the tnp becoming
choked Ind the chamber filled wlIh sewage. the litter I' caused 10 escape down the
nklng arm by jerkmg the chain .nd relealing the stopper; otherwise. unless the
obstruction can be removed by proddma the Inp. the sewage CIIn only be removed by
balin!!: or pumpmfl',
None of the lbove Itoppen (.). (a) Ind (J) can be removed like the releasing
alopper to empty a chamber filled With sewage. In Iddltlon ..... hen stopper (I) II
cemented In. it il dIfficult to remove without caullng danuoge; If lefl uncemented
(I. II gene ... l) .he jomt ., not Ilrtlght Ind Ihe ClP I' readdy forced out. by uc:casl\'e
pressure of se .... er gases, Into the t ... p to CIUse .tOpplge of the dnin. Siopper, (z) II
In Impro\'ement upon (I) II II ,I ellily removed when reqUIred Ind the JOint IS 1,,-
tight; it hll. ho....e,·et. I "mil.r derect In Ihlt it can be rorced out by blck pressure
from the se .... er.
The trap has a ftat base, and it must be set level.
Formerly, most local authorities insisted upon the disconnection of house
drains from sewers by the provision of intercepting traps. 111 many districts
"aw, h()fCft.,". tht USto/ such traps.s optio"al. and all inc"41inIIlMmh" 0/ oMthuritits
advocott thn', abolition for the chid reasons that (I) the trap i. liable to become
choked, preventing the eseape of the sewage and causing it to o\'erfiow at the
gullies; (2) the' air in soundly constructed sewers is not more harmful than drain
air. and disconnection therefore serves no useful purpose; and (3) increased
ventilation of the whole sewerage and drainage system results when interceptors
are omitted. The generally accepted view now is that interceptors are un-
necessary if the sewers are properly constructed and adequately ventilated, but
such traps are essential if the sewers ar~ neither self.cleansing nor suitably
ventilated. An intercepting ttap should be used at the junction between a
drain carrying roof water only and a foul drain if trapped gullies are not used
at the rainwater pipes.
Both inspection and intercepting chambers are commonly referred to as
 N S P E C T 0 N C H A M B E R
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mQnholu. but this term should not be used in connection .... ith hOUK drainage
ov.ing to its ambiguity.
Ventilation.-Drains must be efficiently \entjlated (see principle NO.5).
at It:ast un' \'cntilating pipe should be pro\ided to a drainage system as far as
possihle from the connection to the Sl;:v.cr. The chid aim in dnin yentilation is
to reduce the pressure of the foul air .... ithin thc drains by pro\-iding for ill'i
dischaq~e into the open .... here it will not cau~ a nuisance or endanger health;
otherwise the accumulation of the gases may be such as to unseal traps and
thereby permit of the escape of noxious air into huildings or at tht: grount.lle\'el.
One means of ventilation, generally accepted up 10 within recent years
(!\otc below), wu to provide an inlet 3t the lower end of the drain and an outlet
at its upper end or head. The inlet is usually a short length of ware pipe taken
from near the top of the intercepting chamber and continued by a vertical cut
iron pipe, I·S or I·R m high, fixed to the boundary wall or fence; this is finished
with a head having a louHed opening, behind which ill a hinged aluminium
or mica valve or Aap (see c and D, Fig. 3i). The outlet is a cast iron pipe provided
at the head of the drain. Such an outlet vcntilating pipe is shown at F , Fig. 34;
this would be fixed to the wall of the building and continued at least 610 mm
above the ea\·es and tlistant from dormer, etc., windoW1;. Its foot would be
connected to thc 100 mm by 100 mm Junction in the main drain by means of a
100 mm diameter bend. Thus, air entering the drain through the valve at the
lower end tuvers.es the drain before escaping at the head. /" I""diu, itOfOeWT,
 INTERNAL SOIL AND WASTE PIPEWORK
1M INLET piJH is o/tm /01I1Id to be a1l U1Itatisjtutory f~atlm owi", to tltt va/w
buomjllg nthn stuck or damaged or dttaclud. and tltws acti", at an olltuf. It il
Jor this rtalO/t llult the p,af.1isiqn of vnrtilating ;nkts is no bmgtr advocated, and
uUtUrt mutt au often aiJolUlud, tspmally I] they (IT# adjacent to 1nIildi1ll' or
public footpaths.
The Building Regulations insist that the open end of. ventilating pipe , hall
be protected againlt obstruction. such as a bird', nest, by the provision of a
spherical galvanized iron (or copper) wire cage (see Fig. 36). A soil stack must
always terminate as a vent pipe (see B, Fig. 36).
Drainage Systems shown in Figs. 34 and 35.- A drainage plan of a
Imall one-storied hou~ is shown at A, Fig. H. I t complies with the principles
given on pp. 86 and 88. The gully at F receives a rain water pipe and the lavatory
basin waste pipe, and the 100 mm drain from it is laid with a uniform gradient of
I in 32 to the inspection chamber L. The water closet is connected direct to
the drain which is also taken to the chamber. A rain water pipe and the lavatory
basin and bath waste pipes discharge into gully J connected to I 100 mm drain.
As these drains art laid in straight lines to the inspection chamber they can be
easily rodded if necessary. The ffilli .. Jrain is continued at the same gradient
to the intercepting chamber M,I collects the short branch drains from the gullies
at Hand K, and proceeds with an increased gradient to the public sewer to which
it is connected in the duection of the flow. A ventilating outlet is connected
to the head nf the system at F; 'I rtqu,,~d. a venlilating inlet IS provided at M
(see p. <)0). A section through the main drain is shown at E. In order to
provide additional protection to the upper portion of the drain (which will be
necessary if there is likely to be any traffic over it) it may either be encased in
concrete (see .., Fig. 33 and p. 86) for two or three pipe lengths, or the drain at
the connection to gully F may be gi\"en additional fall. Details of the inter-
cepting chamber are shown at D, C and D and have been explained on p. 89.
The construction or the inspection chamb~ L is somewhat similar to, but smaller
than, that illustrated in Fig. 35 and described on p. 88.
A key plan of portion of another drainage system is sho .... n at A, Fig. 35 .
This has been introduced to show the application of a deep inspection chamber,
detailed on this drawing, and which has been already described.
INTERNAL SOIL AND WASTE PIPEWORKI
On p. 86 it has been stated that the Building Regulations: - (I) permit «ai le
pipe. from a pf'\i~n("f'"'" lit or about ground level to show on the ()JIuide of a
building of any storey height ; (2 ) permit soil and u:alte pip« to show on the
1 Th,s h., ~n .ho",n II In IO t ~ll:q)l101 cham~r 10 " I,sry Ihe nqu,r~m~ntl of thos.e
local l uthonttu ",ho 51111 IJ \"(~CI IC the u ~ of Ihe inlerttptinl trip. As po'nted O UI,
ho"'evn, on p. 8q, many locil l ulhonl,,,, JepTKlte Ihe UK of inlen::epton . Ind ther~fore
,n lhose d,llncts comlOl( under their junsdicllon the trap mil' ~ om lUed It the ch.m~r
" M ",h,ch ",ould lhen ~ n.. e .. In , n~~ct ,<>n chlmber only.
I Thll ,. conlldued 10 ,ruler <.1ell lllO Vol. IV .
91
tnttlide for buildinr of "ot WKNe than 3 Itoreys; (3) for buildings of lIIfOI'e than 3
Itoreys soj/and waIte pipes lexcept UHUle pipes given in (I)] must be jMde. A
main sanitation pipe transporting soil and waste water is called lIm'1 staLk (Fig.
)6) and regardless of the number of storeys it is good practice to have thiaalways
inside ; there are two rn.sons for thia- it avoids the risk of the &mailer waste
pipes becoming frozen and the unsightly appearance of pipework on the eleva-
tion of the building. Ventilation pipes may show on the outside of a building
but IS the top of a soilstaa forms the vent pipe and illtntull soil stacks are
recommended only the upper portion of the vent above the roof is visible
(Fig. 36). from the outside.
An essential feature in the installation of soil and waste pipework i8 the.
trap. This has • water seal like that of the gully and is provided for the same
reason, i.e., to pre,,·ent the escape of drain air into a building. Systems must
be designed so that the water seal is not destroyed. Certain effects, caused by
suction or increased pressure described below, can arise to impair the seals in
waste pipes connected direct to a soillllck. Trap seals to waste pipes discharging
into gullies are not affected because the prcuure is atmospheric above and
below the nap; in such CIlS6 it is usual to emplny a trap with a 38 mm seal. The
trap can be an S-trap as at c, Fig. 36, or a P-trap as at D. Such are, therefore,
used for ground Roor appliances and the waste pipes discharge into a gully
below the grating (&« p. 82 and c, Fig. 36), or into a back inlet gully (see p. 82).
W.C.s hl\'e a seal which is 50 mm deep and in the case of those at ground
floor Ic\·eJ the)' are merely connected direct to the drain, normally the SAtrap
W.C. is used (E, Fig. 36); if the P-trap kind were used part of the soil pipe would
be outside the wall. A W.C. at the upper floors in a building mUlt diiCharge into
an mtemal soil stack for buildings more than 3 ltoreys high.
Pr eservation of Trap Seals.- The effects mentioned above which may
occur to impair trap seals are three l : tt/f-ljp}lOnage, i""uetd siphonage and back
pressure, they are summarised below and described in more detail in Vol. IV.
St/f-lipho"age.- This can h.appen in small bore pipes from sinks and wash-
basins. 1£ the outfall end of a waste pipe is full of water and only partially full
between there and the trap, suction may develop in the pipe length and draw
water from the trap. This would reduce the depth of seal; it is prevented by
having a 76 mm deep stal P-trap (not an SAtrap) and limiting the slope and length
of the waste pipe as described in the rules (see p. 93).
Illduced Sjpho"ogt.-When a soil stack is temporarily and partially filled
by a short column of water passing a waste pipe junction, the waste pipe trap
luffcn induced l iphonage; thil draWl wolter from the seal. The di!ICharge from
a W.C. can be responsible for filling the stack but the effect is reduced by
having a swept junctionJ>etween the Slick pipe and the W.C. pipe (i.e., a curved
angle (y) as shown at I, Fig. 36).
Back PrtSlure. -This is an increase of pressure in pipes. It may happen at
, There 11 InOIMr, (;I\l.M"d by e.... potllt1on of Wlter KII. plnicul.rly in ""Inn ",ulher
In unoccup,ed build,nas.
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d
 INTERNAL SOIL AND WASTE PIPEWORK
the foot of a soil stack near the bend connection to the drain. If the bend is
sharp and the stack is full of liquid at a higher level any pipes conneeted to the
stack between these levels will suffer increased pressure, It is for this reason
that it is preferable to deliver ground ROOf waste pipes to a gully outside and not
connect them to the stack. This effect is reduced by having a slow bend at
the base of the soil stack (see H, Fig. )6).
Rulet for Maximum Slope oC Sink and Washbasin Waste Pipes.-
The minimum slope is 21 mm per m and the pipe should not be longer than
1'7 m measured from the trap weir to the junction of the soil pipe. The maximum
slope for waste pipes I 700, I 1140,890.710 mm long is 21, 41, 62 and 83 mm
per m respectively.
Typical Soil and Waste Pipework for a Housel (Fig. 36).-The detail
at c shows a ground Roor sink with 38 mm deep S-trap joined to a waste
pipe which delivers below the grating of a gully. A similar arrangement
applies for a ground Roor bath (see D) or lavatory basin. At £ there is the normal
detail of a ground Roor w.e. with So mm seal S-trap connected direct to the
drain.
The remaining details are of first Roor appliances connected to a soil stack;
the plan of the bathroom which contains bath, washbasin, and W.C. is given
at~. The soil stack is placed at the end of the bath where it can, if desired, be
boxed in to form a duct. The bath has a 76 mm deep seal P-trap connecting to
the 38 mm dia. bath waste pipe which delivers to the soil stack. A similar arrange-
ment applies for the washbasin but it has a 32 mm dia, waste pipe (the minimum
size demanded by the Building Regulations).
, S~" Vol. IV for pi~ .... ork in larger buildinKS.
93
The W.C., with a side outlet P-trap. has the usual So mm water seal; it has
a 100 mm dia. soil branch pipe connected to the stack. Note that the foot orthe
stack (see p. 78) has a slow bend formed from two 135" angle bends of clay
drain pipes. The top of the stack is protected against obstruction with a gar-
vanised iron (or copper) wire cage. The top of the stack (which is actually a
ventilation pipe for its length above the top waste pipe- connection) finishes
610 mm above caves level to ensure that foul air cannot enter the house. The bath
waste pipe connection to the stack should be either above or zo5 mm below the
junction of the w.e. branch with the stack to avoid siphonage effects on the waste
pipe by discharges from the W.C. and prevent such discharges from backing up
into the bath waste.
It is good practice to have an access cap in the stack. near to the waste pipe
connections to simplify cleansing in the event of a blockage. For the same
reason the usc of a w.e. with an access cap (or connection for a small dia. vent
pipe----sec Vol. IV) at the back of the water seal is advocated; this enables the
soil branch pipe to be rodded-if a blockage docs occur it is usual1y in this
branch pipe.
The materials for the above pipcwork are described in Vol. IV; brieRy, cast
iron, galvanised stef'l, copper and pitch fibre, but, more often nowadays, plastic
are used for the soil stack; with the same materials for the soil branch pipe
and copper or plastic for the waste pipes and traps.
Tests for Soil, Waste and Ventilation Pipes-Such pipes must be
capable, according to the Building Regulations, of withstanding a smoke or
air lest (see p. 86) for at least three minutes at a pressure equivalent to
38 mm of water.
•
 CHAPTER THREE
MASONRY
S)'llobuJ.-Form.-lion .nd dauilkation of Ilonl'1O; chlnclerilllQ, leili. QUlrrying, mimng Ind machme drnsinl. Slone dreuinp
Comio.:el.
BS 5390 Cod" of Pra<:tltt for Slone Muonry i. rdt:'ilnl.
Formation and Classification of StoneI.-As stated in Chap. I. Vol. I. roch
art: divided into thre~ principal clalIIIoCS. i.t., (I) igneous, (2) sedimentary and (3)
metamorphic. These arc I.:onsidered in greater detail ill this chapter.
GL'Olo){),. ",h,eh ,~ the sen:ncc conc.. rned "Ith Ihe composItIon. IlruClure and
hinory of the rl\.Ilui.1t of the ... rth, is hnefl) r.,{ur ..d to h"re al an mtroducllon
to a lIudy of 11K' rocb u!IIe\I for bUlldmJ.l pul"JlOSl"S.
The bUll'; rocks of th .....a"h·1 CrUll .... re f<Jnncd from mat"nal molten by mtcnse
h ..al III th ... mtulor 01 the earth. Some of thIS m.l .. till, such .1 ~ramtc (I-« nnt
column). " •• con~hd~l .. d a,. K~.t depth belo" the lurf.et:, .. hllat molten palle
.. rup'~....J from ,·ol.... no.:, solidified on the ..,"h'l lurf.ce to fonn rock., luch II, for
.,..mpl.... Ih<nc contamw m Ih<: mountam. oftlK' La!.:e D'lnict. Nonh Wain and the
ScoIl15h 1-"l!Ihland~. O,hu tocl.:s ..... rr fomwd from fn~m"nll of m,ncnl. d,l.
Inh·j.(tmt.. tl from tht: nnrmlll)' fonn .. d rocl.:~ by nllunl agcnc, .... such .. tM cxpanllu
Kllon of frosl and ,h.. e,"panllon and C\lracllon du .. 10 altemlt .. hu, Ind cold .•nd
rcmO\'"tl h)" IU'''lm, to foml ~UCC~I\'e la)'"" of ... nd. In,·d. etc.; the pr~u~ on the
Im.e. ""l'n "'-!uee:ted out the ''''<'r .nd mt ... rloc!.: .. tl the Knml, and, m .dd1l10n,
.... " .• charjtC<.l .. "h .uhllanc~.. luch II carhanll\' of hmt' and I.lica .cted al ctm.. nlln~
~gcn'. ,md h.,rdt"'ntd the m~,.. <Jf such lW.'d.ml·nllry roc'" durin~ ~.collllon; " .. mple
of Toch fonn~-d LO th •• manner II .... undslonelaml J,meltonn(1-« PI'. 97-103). Marbln
(se .. p_ 10~) and II~tel (II« Ch~p. V. Vol. I) art namplH of another el... of rock
fnrlo"tl from billC or sed,mentlry rock. IIhich h.,· ... been metamorphosed (ahurd)
LO llructure I •• mull of I ....nl (SIde) p..,.,.u." u. h" •• or bt.. h. Yt"" .no.h.... cI ...
of rocb " fonned from th .. r....... n. of marHW 0rR.mlm., and cenaLO hm"tonH
(1oC<.' p. 103), con.llnn. of ,hi'll., conll, ... tc .• are e:<lmpl ... of Ihn-e.
Arlaslljicali01l O/tllt.NOWN rocksu/lhttar/I!'urust isput1l;,. Tabl, J., 0,. p. ¢.
I. Igneous Rocks.- These have been formed of material which has been
molten by the intense hrat within the interior of the earth and become solidified.
They are divided into (a) pfu/un;c rocks, (b) hypalryllQ/ rocks and (c) volca,.ic rocks.
(a) P/wt01l1c Roeks are igneous roc:ks which ha~'e been consolidated at a con·
siderable depth below the carth's surfacej the elOlion (wearing away) of the
upper and softer strata has caused 'uch rocb to appear at the earth', surface.
Consolidation was gradual owing to the extremely slow rate of cooling, and
such rocks are thereforecompletcly crysu.lline and ha,'e a coarae·grained texture.
These rocks con,ist of silica in combination with bases such as iron, lime.
magnesia. potash and soda, and they are cl:uaed as .at/. i,.tmrttdiatt or bUJ·,.
10 door and 't'jndow openingll.
Siont .I ..p' and SI.ln.
according to the percentage of silica content. Thus, acid rocka ha,'e o\'er 66 per
cent. of silica, intermediate rocks ha,'e ftom 52 to 66 per cent. of silica. and the
,ilica content of the basic group ia lell than 52 per cent.
The (i) gtQllilU are included in the acid group of plutonic rocks. the (ii)
syt1liltJ and (iii) diorittl are of the intermediate group, and the (iv),abbro family
forms the basic group. These are described below.
Constituent Minerals of Igneous Rocu.- These include quartz, fdspar.
mica, hornblende, augite, diallage. magnetite and pyrites.
Qua,l-Z" 11 pure liliCII. Tht' ,nln' are hlrd .nd UI,""tl)' du,ohft; they.n:
commonly colourl...... although those of ~nnit" ",.peelall,. may vary in colour from
pmk, ytllo.. , purplf, red and brown to black .
Ft'I./Xl' il the group of min .. nl. which II u.u.Uy the IIIOit abundant. Th.. ,nins
Ire sllu:atn of alumml combined wlIh one or more of the ba",.--hme. potllh Ind
~I. Pota.h fclspar;s kno .. n u ""hoc/lUI': lod. f.. llpar or slb,tt .nd lOda·hme
fd.par or oI'6fKfm, Ire Clllled pl.,oclmt f.. llpars. The colour of the plaJlochun il
ulually whItt or h~ht ~rey, Ind that of onhoclaK cryaliis may 1M- ytllo ......h.pmk.
red or IIreen
.\f'cs.~Thtir Cry51111 are .lIiClltH of Ilumina wilh potash or ma,"Hia. The
potash mlC •• Ire .ilver whIle Ind have. bri,ht IUllrt; Ont of the mOlt Imponant
of theK II kno\O n I' trtlllroni<'. ~h'" mlgnallm mlcn Irt dirk bro..·n or bl.ek. Ind
the pnnclpal of the", I. called 61"tltt. M,ca appeln .. shon. ahnenn, _In or
Rakes plnlltl 10 the nll ... nl bed; thfK fllkes are tMrdore .n indIcation of the
position of tM nllun' bed. Th". whi ... mica i. vuy durable, but th. b.'>tltl v.rit"'ty
il aoftu and hable to decomposItion. •
H",rtbttlfdt I. of the QJlCfJlribolt ,roup Ind .. a .111C8te of magnnil, hme. aluminium
and iron. Tht colour il green. brown or blac!.:.
A • • lt i. a modifia.tion of hom blend .. , it bein, IImll.. in eotnpariaon Ind colour
but differinll aomewhlt in the .ha~ of the ery.tall.
Dudls,.. ila vlrit'ty of ....aitt, ,reen in colo ... r tht cry.c.1a In: uluilly laminated.
M~';tt, or mlgnetic ore, has • blul.h·bl~k metallic luttn:; it inRuenCft the
colour of .tonn.
p)·.. tn il another iron ore. It occun a. small yellow .pecks. Cryltll. of the
.... hite iron pyritn" nriety, c:-lIed MBrCIUIt,. ~adLly deeompow, II the pale yeUow
chang" to .. hite eft\ornc:encr Ind the sulphuric a-cid fonned m th .. pr«eu KII ... p
dtcILy .n the Itont.
(a) (i) GraNite.-Thete are leveral kinds of this crystalline granular rock
..
and these nry in colour and texture. The chief constituents are felspar, quartz
and mica, the former being predominant; horneblende and augite are IOmetimes
J
 CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA
repr~nted in addillon to or in place of mica. If the mica pr~nt is the "hite
variety. the rock is called a muscat'lt, gromtt; a biot;tl' gramlt contains the dark
mica only; when both micas are present, il is known as a mlls<f.11:ltt-blotllt
gr~nrtt. A hOrfllblmdr-blolllt grollitt has a hornblende and dark mIca conttnt ,
and if hornblende without mica is present it is a horllbfntd, granl" .
The colour of granite is infiuenccd chieAy by that of the fclspar. The texture
is also estimated by the size of the fdspar crystals; thus. It is con!\idered that
granites containing fclspar grains which exceed 10 mm in length are coarsc-
grained, those ha\'ing fdspar! betw~n 5 mm and 10 mm are medium-.-:rained
granites, lind fine-grained granites han!: fdspar! less than S mm long.
Gramtes are extremely hard, durable Jnd strong. Those .... Ith plagioclase
felspars and dark micas are relatively less durable than granites having orthoclase
felspars and light micas. As described on p. 114., granites are capable of laklllg
a high polish and are therefore easily kept clean when employed In polluted
Atmospheres. Owing to their great hardness, gramtes are difficult to .... urk and
arc:: thus expensi,-e . ThiS accounts for their restricted use for building purposes.
Their very high strength and durable qualities render granites the oot natural
TABLE V
95
stones for resi$ting high stresses and severe exposure; in addition, the rich
mouled or sl>cckled coloured appearance of certain granites make them most
suitahle for decorati\'e use, as (or wall and floor covering5, pillars, etc. Granites
ha'-e been used on many important buildings (for plinths, external walls
of lower storeys, and drr-ssings to principal entrances, etc.), for memorials, and
for enginr-ering .... orks (including docks, :.ea walls, embanilmr-nts, lighthouses
and hridges). In districts near the quarries, granitr-s have ber-n used exclusively
for the construction of external walls of buildings; thus, the external walls of
many of Ihe buildings in Aberdeen are constructed of this material. Granite,
because of its hard-wearing quality, is used for kerbs of streets, and for the ume
reason it has been exttnsi,-ely employed for road setts, although this form of
road pa\'ing is not now favoured on lIccount of the noise from traffic which resulls
when streets are laid .... ith setts. It is also used for coarse aggregate.s.for concrete.
The principal centres in Engand where granites used for building purposes
are quarried are COrn .... all and Cumbria (Shap) , Scottish gnnites are worled
chielly in Grampian Region (the most Imponant centres being Aberdeen and
Peterhead) and Dumfries and Galloway. The principal granite district!. In

GRANITES

Ru NAME or N"'-'E ASO AonftE$S

CRUSH INC WEICHT
No. (~
CItAl'iITE SITI.:"TIOS or Ql:ARRY STIt£NCTH CHAKACTI:RISTICS
OF OWNER loll: m'
Fill; 37) MNm'
, CORRENNIE Alford, (jnmpI~n Rell!)n John Fyfe Ltd., Blalk,e' 0'183 ,600 A muscovltc.blotit('. :-ialmon r~'1i :

8 CII.RTO.... '" Fdl HIli and Siher HIli Quuoa.

Quay. Aberdeeo, Scotland
Ste".. n & Co. Lld_, lS FrllSer o-I~I
I ,,~
m('dlum IIr.inl'1i
A blot,te. \\'t-I1IV ("h"n hammcrcd )
CreeIO" n, DumfTlfund u,lIo ..-.) Road , Aberdefn .nd blul~h· .... hll" ("hen poh5h~'1i) ;
tine !lralnN.
Cornlth D.
6. DE LA .. K :'IL .'ER
G~
0- Lank. St Bre"'lrd, Bodmln.
Corn..-.II "'"k Cranite
QUlrnel Ltd., D. Link,
0· 136 1. 640 A musco' Itc·blOtite. Llllbt p:n:cnlsh-
IIrey : me<.iLum p:ralne,J .
, KL... NAY Nur Aberdeen. Scolland
Bodmin, COm.... 1I
)0,," Fyfe Ltd. , Blilkir'.
Qu.y, Aberdc:en, Scotland
0'a 13 11.6.0 A muscovlte-h,ot ile. Lip:hl '1Iver.
j.!rc:y .p~klcd .... llh black mica;
mNium IInined.
• Lowu; I1:ItIUY Near Aberdeen, Scotl.nd Crorae H.n, 17 B.ck Hilton
Road, Aberdeen
o·IJI ,660 A mUlCOvilc.b.otlte. LI~ht bluish-
IIrey; fine p:nined.
• PETElI.HEAO, REO Smiln, HIli. Boddam. PClcrhe.d,
Gramp,an Region
HHlop Wilson & Co. Ltd .,
Petc:rhe.d Cnnlte Works,
0 · IJ8 ,800 A blollte.
le-nincd.
Brilli.nt red : ~=
Boddam, (jramplU Relion
6 Rullls ..... w Aberdeen, Scoll.nd Rubi.l.w Cr.mte Co; Lid. 0· 118 "~ A muscoYlte·biotite. Blulth-grey;
, SC..... TTIE Buekabum, near Aberd«n A.
Queen'. Road, Aberdeen
• F. M.nuelle Lid., 59
Mlrlschal SlIft!, Aberdeen
0·09' , ,60
fiTlC' ,:r:found
A mUKOYlt,,-biotlte. tilthl btuish
lITey: mrdium J(TIlUM.-d.
.6 S~, Slup. CumbrLl The Shap Cranite Co. Lid., 0'16, .6,,0 A blOllle. Greyish·pink (" Lif!ht
Slup, CumbrIa Ship ") "rul rL-ddi.h-brown
.. O.rk Ship "}; medium "nined .
6, TOM BRAU .nd St Brew.rd, Bodmin, Cornwall Wm. N.nki~·ell & Son. Ltd., 0 · 161 a 610 A mUlCoYltc-hiotite. SIIYery-.IIrey ;
6, TOR DoWN SI B~"'lrd. Bodr.lIn. Com· medium I(rainrd.
wall
'-----
 MASONRY

TABU VI

ClASSlfIC"'TION OF STRATA

This classification of the known rocks of the earth', crust shows the com- Group SYl tem nr Senel or Epoch BUlldin!! 1)ton8, Slatel, Marblu,
plete geological history divided into three great nas, the Eozoic (mt:aning or En Penod Granll", Limes. etc., Found
" dawn of life "), Palaeozoic (" ancient life)" and Neozoic (" new life "). --------~------I-------------I
Upper Permian S.",dstonu, mcluding Luonby
The eras arc divided into ~ and the latter are divided into epochs. Middle Permian MIRnelan L,mestones, ,n(.lud,ng
The mass of rock of an era is known as a group. the rocks of each period Anlton , Linby and Pule, Nook.
a system, and those of an epoch are referred to as a sn-its. The strata are Magnesiln Slndtlonet, ,ncluding
Red and White Mlnsfield,
shown in correct sequence, the oldest (those in the £owic group) being at Co.I Mea. urn Sinduones, including Appleton,
the bottom of the table. Appley Dodge, Dn(.kenhill,
o
Hewonh Bum, SprinlfWel1 ,
Thornton Blue Ind Woodkirk.
o MilI. tone Gnt Sindscones, in(.luding Berrillll1,
G~p :S)'lIC"n or Series or Epoch Buildi", SI<>nes, Sl.,.. , MublH, "
o

••
or Er. Penod C ... n,IH. Limes. CIC., Found Dolton Wood" Bramley Fill,
Dungeons, Dunn HOUle, End.
cliffe, Guisely, Longridt{e, Sun-
P~'·pl_". } Recent Stnlta ~

••
GlaClll Bed, (.hffe, Stanton Pirie Ind Wellfield.

•o
PllOttne

M,oce:ne
t Forell Bed
Norwich Cnlg
Red Cnlg
Canllhne Cng
Z
Yoredlle Bedl
Cuboniferou,
Limestone
Upper ~vomln
Old Red Slnd.tone
English Mlrbles, indudinll Hopton-
Wood. Limestone yielding lime.
Slit", induding Carniln (Dellbole).
Sandstones, u.ted 1000lly In
"o HamlCead Bed. Glouce.tenhire, No"hum~rland,
•• Ikmbrid~ Bed.
o
Devonian J etc. (see p. 94).
o.bome Bed. "
o Limntone., including Radford .
U
Hudon Bed.
~hot Bed.
Banon CIIY
•
•<
~
I Lo",e r o..-vonian
Englilh Mlrbln, including Ash_
burton .

Brlckleshlm Bed. i.udio" Bed,

o Eocene CIIYI, ..ndl Ind IJnvels. Wenioc:le Bed. Welsh Slltes, includlnll: Corwen Ind
o London Clay
Wool ... ich Bed.
Silurian
{ Llandovery Bed. Llln~llen.

~ Thanet Sind. o

l
o BaJa Beds
z Upper C rrtlttOU.'
L1andello Bros Welsh Slltes, '''dudin" Ft'SciniolC
•"
Cretlceou. Middle Cretlceou. Beer LImestone. o
Lo ....er CretlCfll-U' KenCl. h RIR Stont. Ind Precelly. Like District
Upper 06htel Portland Limntont Limutone Slltn. inciudinlC nunermere,
yieldmg lime. ~ Ordovlc'ln
Homster, Elterwlter, Kemmere
Ind T,Ibc:nh ...·I'te; IISll Burllnt.!_
•o Middle 06lit"
Lo... er 06litn
Lime.tone., mdudm, Blldon.
Limestone., Including Ancuter. ton Quarry.
• Junuic Clipsham Ind the Bath (Monk'. An::ni8 Bed,
~ Plrt, etc.) Llmtltoncs. Olenu. Bed.
• Lin Limetlone., includlnlr Blue Lil. ClmbrilUl P,nldoxidn Bedl
~ Stone Ylleldin.ll lime (see p. Oienellu.1 Bed. Wellh Slltes, ,ncludlnM 8anllor,
{ Dinorwic Ind Penrhyn
10).
Rh.:t,c
Keuper Slnd.tonn, indlldin.ll" Hollmgton Jl.hlnly '.II"I"ICOU' (inciudinR Granite.,
Ind Red Runoom . 8CC 'I'.hle III). &:alli. h SiIIL'I
Bunter SandlIOl\a;, lncludina Corwhill, SI, from A~lI , Dumba«on Ind
Ben., Shawk Ind Woolton. Perth.
 SANDSTONES
Ireland are in counties Down, Dublin, Wexford and Wicklow. Norwegian
(grey) and Swedish (grey, red and black) granites arc also imported into the
United Kingdom, much of it being dressed in Ihe Aberdeen district. The dis-
tribution of granites in Great Britain is shown in Fig. 3i and listed in Table V.
As indicating the composition of granite, that of the De Lank Silver Grey
Granite (see Table V) consists of quartz 46 per ccnt., orthoclase felspar 30
per cent., plagioclase felspar 6 per cent., muscovite (while mica) II per cent. and
biotite (black mica) 7 per cent.
Ca) (ii) SJtIUlt.~Nonc: of the true syenite quarried in Ihis country is used for
building purposu. II occurs in Ltlcutenhire, G "'ynedd, the Highlands of Scotland
and the Channel hllnds, wh~r~ ,t ,s qUITTied and used for road mal~Tlal. A ,,'dl-
known liyenil~, called "Purl Granile," i$ imported from Norway and used for plinths
10 shop fronlS, elc.; it has a motlled appearance, with dark green m.. ~ings and lighl-
coloured p • ..,h... Syenite ,. hard, dunbl~, ~ .. onll" and mo." u<.Iy wnrhd ,h.n
granlle Quartz is usually absent, felspar is Ibe preulent mmeral, hornblende ,s
presen[, and Ihe mica conlent is uSIlllly Ius than in gran,le.
(a) (iii) Dllmu,-·This occurs in LciccslenhlTe and Gwynedd It iii d,Hkuh
[0 work, and Ihis, in addilion 10 its dull green or black colour, renders it UnSUllable
for building purposes It is somelimes known ",rUtHIO"t, and II u.cd H road mcul.
Wlt,,,,,.,,t is the name .pplied in Scotland to Ihis Slone, although in eeTlam locaIJlie5
thili name is gl~en 10 any $tone wh,eh is diffieuh to work or to stone used 'n road
construct,on Fehipar, hornblende, aug,le and dark mica arc present, .nd qUU!lIS
usually.bstnl
{Il {ivl Gabbro isquarned ,n Corn"all. certain pan. 01 Wales. anu In Ih~ :-Ocott,.1i
HIghlands. It 15 rarel y used for hUlldlnl( purpose. on account of 1t5 had weatheTlnl(
qualit,es and lIS dull appearance Fclspar, hornblend~ , IUl(,te or dlallal{e an.' Ihc
chicf mm('rals of l(ahhTO
(II) H.I {Illh.lUo/ UOCRs,- Thl.'!ic ''l're masses of molten mat",ial "h,ch penetrated
the o"eriyml( 'Iralm, and erosion of Ihe latter hu ex posed [heSt: rocks at Ihe surfac".
Coolin~ of the masscs "as more rapId Ih3n "'Ihlh" plulonlc rock~, and their I"~ture
IS Iherefore finer H\"pahys.... l rudis, like plutol"llc rocks, are cla.,..,d as aCId, IOI('r-
mediale. and basic. The roCks of Ihe ac,d I(roup lTe called '1"0": (l(Jrph""if•. Ihose
of the mlennCd,llle KTOUI) arc /'<)'1,11.1'''''. aod {><I'''''-'''''.'' and dulrril<J and diohou.
H" of Ihe lIa~,c t(rnup The quartz porphyrll"' and porphynles occur 10 (;orn\\all
and Oc\'on (" hen Ihe\" ar" kn"\\,, as ,·1",,,,.1, :\"orlh and South Wales and in Scotland;
50mC 01' th"m ruddy lakc a pohsh anti ha'e hceo used (or ornameOlalpurp"'...s and
I(encnl "0111101(; Ihey arc no" used ch,eHy for hreak,nK up ,01" "I.:I.:Tl'1(1IIeS for conu"l"
and roa<.l pUrpOSe$ The porphlrith are '1uarTl<d:n I.",cesler, Some""I. (''''0(<.1<.1,
CIC .. Ihe)' arc ,er} lough and are cllmmonh ~sc<.l lur ro~<.I me,,1 I he <.Iolerlle~
,IOd dlal"',e~ han: a ",de dl'lnhul,oo Ihroul(hout (; .... al IITI[.m and are '·mplm·... d
e\l"n<i,'\'l\" for roads (tn ... stone nclOl( ,omcllme. cTU,hl'd, scr('eoed. dried and coaled
,nth h,tu':',en to fonn larmacadam ) ~nu roul(h ''''Ilhnl(; thi~ slone i. kno"n 10 Ihe
nonh as" "hmsl"ne."
(e) Volcl>"ic Rodu hne been formed fTOm :a"a pou.cd OUI al Ih(' surfac,' from
,·olcm"'''~. lt3p,d coolLnI( nnd har,kn;o[:! cau~,",J Ihc m~te.;al t o he tin.· l!ta,n<,J ~nd
of I(l~ssy ch~raeler. The .. "rour cla§slficatlon arl' ,In'ohles (ac,d). Irtuh.l'i'J and
,md1'$I'u (lnt"rmed,ate) and homlt (b~~,,). Th(';' at<' qudtned 10 Enlll~ntl, Scotland,
\\'alc~ and Irelaod , and an' l'mrlo)'ed fo. r('ad con~lrucllon
% Sedimentary or Aqueous Rocks.- 'I'his di\ision comprises tho~e stone'>
which ;He chiefly employed for building purposes. :\Iost of these rocb are
, Only '<Gme of Ihe impOrtant quarTIc. ptoduclOll "rani Ie for h",ldlOl( purpo~ ... ~ ar~
,nJ"':oted heT~ A numn.:-r of ""lI·kno\\n Iluar"". h. ,·e heen closed do"n hecau." of the
ab,~ncc of demand, and a larlle numher of Il(n~'Ous ruck qua/TIcs produc" non~ \\h"h
,s ~""d sol"ly as road metal and for concrele agllrella!U
97
formed of fragments of igneous rocks which have been deposited by water in
layers or strata, As successive layers were formed, these sediments became
hardened and consolidated by great pressure and were cemented together by
sandy or clayey paste or by a chemical substance (such as carbonate of lime)
conveyed by the percolating water. Other rocks of this division are formed
from the remains of marine organisms (shellfish, etc,) and chemically by pre-
cipitation, The principal sedimentary rocks are (a) sandstones and (h) limestones,
(a) Sands/ont'S.-These consist of grains of quartz (sand or silica, see p. 94)
held together by a cement or matrix. In addition to quartz, sandstones may
contain such minerals as mica, felspar, hornblende and oxidt'S of iron (see p. 94).
The texture of the stone is influenced by the size and distribution of the grains;
thus, a stone may vary from fine to coarse-grained, and be either compact or the
grains may be more ~parsely distributed in the cementi ng material. As the
quartz grains are practically indestructible, the durability of sandstones and grits
(see p. 98) depends chlcfly upon the cementing material. With the exc~ption
of freestones (see p. 98), sandstones are highly stratified, the bedding or natural
bed being clearly visible as a general rul~. The beds vary in thickness from a
few em to man\' metres.
The principal cements, the composition of which \aries considerably, are
siliuOIIS, ca/caTrous, InTuglnoas and argillaceous; two or more of the~ substances
may be present in the cement. Sandstones are classified according to the nature
of the binding matcrial, thus ( i) si/iuous sandstones, (ii) calcartous sandstont1,
(iii) jrrru,l(lnous sands/onl's and (".) a,glllauous sands/onts. They may also be
da~slliL"J. as (v) m'{Quous sands/ones and (vi) It/spathic sands/onts, if either mica
or fdspar respectl\'ely is present in fair quantity. In addition, sandstones are
cla!;sificJ. according to the character of the grains and degree of the stratification,
t.~ ., (, ii j grilslOntS, (viii) jlm:slonrs, (I X) IlIntonts, (x) 1If.'I" stonts, (xi) Irll'slonts
and ( ~ii ) Vork slont'.
(a) (i) Slliuous .)·onds/fJ/ln. The grains of these titones are held together by
siliceou~ cement (silica deposlIed from solution 10 "ater). Such sandstones are
exceediflj!:ly durable, as the silica l1as good cemenllng properties and is not attacked
by aeids in the atmosphere. They are \"Cry hard and are usually difficult to work.
Examples of silict'Ous sandstones arc the gntstont's (see p. 98 and Table VII).
(a) (ii) la/currous SandrtollfS. The grains are hound together by calcareous
cement,,, hich is composed of calntl' (crystals of carbonate of lime) or a combina-
tiun of lC;uuotl<lle of IIII'l' ,lilt.! <;<lrbUl1dle uf tIla~'l(:sja ant.! kilO,", n as dolomite
(when Ihcy :lTC called dr,/omllic umdslonn). Whilst both calcite and dolomite
ha"e ~ood bindin.g qualities, they are not durable if exposed to polluted atmo-
spheres owing to the acids attacking the matrix and loosening the grains of
sand whIch gradually become removt'd by the weather. These stones are easily
wnrked White :\Iansfidd is an e'(ample of a dolomitic sandstone (see p. 101).
(a) iiii) Ferruginous Salldstones. The cementmg material is largely ferru-
ginous, i.p., oxides of iron deposited from solution. This influences the colour
(such as brown, red, brownish-yellow, etc.) of the stone. These are good
 MASONRY
weathering stones, although thq may be affected by frost action in very exposed
Situations. Red Runcom and Woolton are of this class (~Table VII).
(a) (iv) ArgilloutJlts .<IoMlto"" are of inferior quality and unsuitable as
building stonts owin'l: to the argillaceous (dayey) cement becoming soft when
wetted by rain.
(a) (v) Micaceous Sandstonu are those in which white mica (muscovite,
see p. (0) is prominent. The mica is clearly visible as glittering flakes lying
with their longest faces parallel to the hedding planes. The presence of mia
thus .,sists in indicating the dire<:tion of thf' natural hed of a stone. An example
is Red Corsehill (see Table VII).
(a) (vi) Fdspathir: So"dsto"~J contain fdspar in subsidiary amounts. Stones
of this class are quarried in different parts of the country, including Hereford &
Worcester and Salop, and are used locally.
(a) (\iii) C;rI/ltfJ7lts or G,;tl.- These are strong, hard and durable stones.
The sand grains are often coarse and angular, giving a rough texture, and the
cement is siliceous. Examples are Berristall, Bramley Fall, Dungeons, Dunn
House, Stanton Park, etc. (see Table VII).
(a) (viii) Flagsto,m are strongly laminated and are therefore readily splic
along the bedding plants. They are used as pa\'ing or Ragging !ltones, treads of
steps, etc. l\1any quarrie!l in Yorkshin: produce sharp , annular.~rain~d, hard-
wearing and dearly laminated stone suitable for these purposes.
(a) (ix) Tlltslonts.- These are thinner-bedded stones than flagstones and
are used for coverin~ roofs, t.g., traditional in the Colswold District (thin bedded
limestone) and in Yorkshire (thin bedded sandstone). Stt \'01. III .
(a) (x) UI.'tr ur Kntll Sfonts,-These are known as" thick-bedded," and, as
implied , large blocks of the stone can be obtained. l\lany sandstones and lime-
stones are in this class
(a) ()Ii) Frustofltf are those which are fine-grained. They ha\e no well-
defined hedding planes and can he ea"Lly dressed Examples are Red Conehill,
Locharbriggs and Woolton (see Table \ ' 11 ).
(a) (xii) Yor. Slant. This is a term applied to sandstones from Yorkshire, and
more particularly to thos: from that county which are specially hard, strong and
durable, and specified as bcingsuitable for ~teps, sills, lintels, copings, landings, etc.
Whilst the present demand for e\'ery de:;cription of stone for huildinR purposes
is less than formerly, tho!l.e of the sandSlOne class form one of tht;: IHu~t \aluahle
wallin,e: materials. The weachering prollCnies of stones are dist:ussed on p. 106,
and reference is made 10 the se\ere test Imposed on stone b) sul phuric acid from
smoke polluted atmospheres. It has heen poi.ted out that the durability
of sandstones depends '-cry lugcly ul>Oll che cementing material (sec p. 9i)
as the quartz i!l pra'tically indestructihle. Siliceous sandstones (p. 97) are
therefore generally conSidered to be the most durable of the sedimentary rocks,
as the bindinf!; material of silica IS highly resistant to acid attack. The excellent
state of preservation of man)' ancient buildings built of this stone 1:- e,-idence of
this. l: nfortunately, city bUildings constructed of sandstone often a5;lume a drab
appearance owing to the dark discoloration which results. Many sandstones are
exceptionally hard, and for this reason are selected for steps, Iills, etc. Some are
difficult to work, hut others of the freestone (see prtceding column) clasa are good
chiselling stones and are very suitable for moulded work. Sandstone is an excel·
I
lent and frequently used materia] for road construction and concrete aggregates,
Sandstones are very widely distributed throughout the British Isles. The
distribution of some of the more important quarries producing building stone is
shown in Fig. 37. This does not include the large number of small quarries whieh
are worked, often intermittently, to supply undstone for building purposes locally.
A !\election of some of the principal quarries producing sandstones used for
building purposes is listed in Table VII. The chemical composition of a few
building sandstones is shown in Table IX. An enlarged sketch showing
approximately the structure of a sandstone such as is seen under the mi~roscopel
is shown at A, Fig. 38. See footnote J,O p. 103.
Wh,lsi RraOllel and eenain ,lale. are ob.. ined rrom Ihe Pre·Cambrian and
Clmbnln I)-SIemS re.peCllve!y (au Table VI), mych of the 1I0ne i, eIther Inleee,_
•
sib le, or tOO dlfficull to .... ork or I' or unllllsf.ctory .ppe..... nee. The Ordovici.n
S\'ltem d"". not proVIde bu,ldlng •• ndstone. bc,yond beds of fI.gstones .... hich .re
Qunrn:d for loc.1 Ulle Fl.gstones .nd gnu are Quun\'d from the S,luri.n 'y-'em
and u le<.llocllh Good bUIlding IInd5l0nesue Quarried from the Old Red Sandstone
<crlCI of thc Dc.onian system Ind used 100Illy in coynt," Gloycuter,h,rc, Hereford
&. Worcutu, Salop, O ... cnt, Norlhumberlud Ind Grampian Relion; nnd'tonel from
Ihe other lierlU oflhllayJlem Ire uRlmporttnt. Several ,ood quht)' buildln, sandstones
haH ,n the pUt been qUlrnes In the "'orlh of En, and and In Scotland from Ihe
CarbonlfcroYJ Limestone and Yoredale Bed. scriu of the urboniferoy s.ystem and
used on Important bUIld in, •. bUI they are no ... chieH) used 100ally
The mall prohfic fOuree. of bc,11 IIndltone employed for bUlldlnJ[ pUrpose. .re
nblllned from Ihe (i) Millitone Gnt and (it) Coal :\1cuy,,,s series of Ihe C.rboniferoYI
systtm ($ee Tables VI and VII)
(i) ,\f,/lJlo"I' Gri,.-Whilll Ih.s serie. of llrall, consistin" of regular bc,ds of grll_
Slone, has • ,,,de d,unbYllOn throughout the counlry. ,I h... been most extensively
dc, doped In DerbyshIre, Laneuhlre and YorkshIre, ... here much excellenl bUIlding
. tont IS quarrIed
(,i) rool MMJUrn,-Th,s formation IS "Idely dlStnbuted The chIef qu.mel
arc Sll ulIed in Durham, Glamorlan, SITllhcJyde lAd LOlhlln RegIOn The swnc
I~ quarried in other eounltcs and l,I5ed 10(111), In ,enenl, thIS stone IS hard, durable
~nd ot a good coloYT
SandslonCl for building purposes from the Permian s~"e m ue qUIrTled In
Cumbria (L I£Onby); local slone II also used fum this systcm in the soulh-",elt
01 Ihts country The Bunter Ind Keuper series o[ the Triassic !i)'stem )'Ield load
bUIldIng sanlhlonC'S In (heshlre. Cumbria, I .• ncuh,.e, Salop, Suffnrdshlre, \\aT-
""clsh're, Herefnrd & \\OreCSlCT, Ind DUII>(IIC> & (.,.llo'",~·
Bu,tdlnll II nd stone. are rare In the lu .... uie ~~'lIcm Thc:re IS nonc ot much
Importa nce In the Cretlceous llrall, and stOne in the ClInO>:OIC IlTOUP II 100 soft for
hUlldmll purposes
, A Ihm pIece of lhe none, approxImately 16 mm lQulre \\ Ilh smoothed flcel, II
mounted (~cured by .n Idhe" ..e), on • pu~<:e or gl.ss kno ... n IS I tl"it. The 1pe<:lmen
II then reduced to Ihe reqUired thickn~s, \\ hlch mlY be not more than 0'0"5 mm; Ih" 18
done b,' rubbtnR II on a p't<'e of RI.u on ... h,ch "lItr .nd .n .b.... II"e {carborundum} I.
Ipplled An ex.mmillon of Ihe silde under Ihe mlcro$COpe "It! show the Slrueture of the
none
J
 MASONRY 99
TABLE VlI
SANDSTONES

Rl', GWLOC1CAL
CIIU1l>UNQ POlloelTT
No. NAM! 0' SITUATION 0' NAM' MolD AoolIISI 1000TI'ICATION WIIGHT (per cenl. ) SATlIIlATION RDULT 0'
(ue STONE QIiAIIIIY OF OWNIlIt.
STUNGTH
(kl/ml) CHA ... CTtlt'STlct:
(He p. CoPTICIDOT FIIOST TAT
(MN/m) (IOU p. loS) II~)
Fig·lll SElIID
I S~. loB)
<Ke p.

,0 ApPLETON Shepley, Wm. Hampwn &: Co. C..,.l I Carbonif- 0'014 Z 370 Blue and brown; durable. very Und.ml,cd
Yorkoh,rc Ltd .. Shepley. n .... MUlures crou' h.ro I.ronl; h'" " 0'70

,. Huddc ..ficld
.. .. work
GtZ
'"' " , ..
A"L!Y BJillOOI
BLI1I NC~n~:hi~~ \V,lle. Manl.nd LId..,
¢.IipLey Bridle, nc ..
:a ..30 to blue; .,.,ry hard and
unblc; fine texture; f.irly
0·8,

Pot! Shri~ky.
'I'ln
A,hlon & Holmn Mill.tone .. "allY 10 work
Cream; durable; fine texture: S ..
".,
BERRI5TA!.L O'OJ 24 20 0'95
Derby. ir.. Lid .• M.cdcdirld. Grit fre .. workina
Chuhir..
BOLTON WOODS NUT Bf1Idford. Bolton Wood, Quarri.. :lI 370 Bro.... nish-Irey: h,,' and dur_ 0'55
Yorkshire Ltd .. Bolton Woods. " " able; line texture " "

,. BIIACKENHILL . Ack ....orth.

Yorkshin:
Bradford
Ackworth Stone Co.
Ltd .• Ackworth. nur
C~l ..
Measures
2110 Lilht Irey to brown; both fine
and co.r'" telfture; durable
..
., BRAMLEY FALL Horndonh. uee!.
Pontefract
A. Lt~·.. Bri'1'1o!fo~::
MiIlltone
Grit
.. o·o·n ,,80 Grey to buff; my h..d
durable; to coane '"'
.u- .s 0'70 Und·nu.a~d

nUr Leeds '"'

ture; rather difficult to work

"
BIJT1_U DELPH Ncar Blackburn.
Lancashire
John Greenwood. Rai l-
.... ay Street. Glouop " I .. 16.0 Buff; my hard
CNne ""ned '"' durable;
,,80
" CoItSEHLLL.
R,"
Annan.
Oumf" ..
John Murray II< Son ••
6: .~ .. non,
•
Bunter
Dumf';.. I Triassic 0·0684 Pink pastel; durable: dOIle
I!I'Iined; aood .... orkinl " 0 '" Wuthered a
litlle
GallowS1 I GlllowlY ' ,,.
... ilft "
..,
.S CROStJ.N1I HILL Huddus6.eld. CrQlland Hill Qu"T)' Millstone C ..banif_ 0-06IS C",am1-brown: vny hard .nd o·ss Undamaled

' DUNGlONS
Yorkshire
Birchover.
Co. Ltd .. Hudde"-
"ld
J .ma Akeroyd II< Soru..
Grit

..
,ro~

.. 0'06S7 .... dura Ie ; medium grained:

aood workin!.
Pink; very urable:
'"' "
"
., 0 ·66 ..
DUNN Hovs! .
Matlock.
Derbyshire
Darlinr,0n.
Our sm
Ltd .• Buchovu.

I N;:!"''D~"::''bli~~:
Quarry Co .. Winlton.
D ..linaton. Co.
" " 0'05 03 " . medium texture
Lilht brown: very dunble:
......di~m
worklni'
grained: very fru
., 0·66

, EAIINOCK Auchentibber.
Hillh Blantyre,
Durh.m
HUlh B. Kerr. Station
Rn.d. Blants.,".
.. .. 2 '40 White Ind lrey; ve~ hard and
durable; aood WOr inl
.S 0'7S ..
Scotland Strltltclyde 01-
EDG!FOLD Ncar Bolton.
lind
J.cklon', Stone c..l Ca.boniC_
,- 0'059 White t~ bi..,uit; very dursble; , 0·67 UndlUm.red
" Lancuhire • Qu..nes Ltd .. Farn_
1Hen.,.
wonh Nu, .,,'"
Meuuru
'''- fine grained; euily worked
ENDCI,' ..... Stanton Leet. Deeley Ltd .• Mill.tone 0'_ 21 40 Pink .n<1 brown; very durable; ., 0 '67
"
..
"
Darley Dale, Dirchover. Mltloclt Grit line to COl. .... tuture

•• GUIUUY
Derbyshire
Gui.teley. Leeds A. R. Bri~ II<;~
Ltd., Hon onh, DC
.. .. " White ond n.riell"ed: "ronr.
durable; even texture; free
., 0 ', . Undarnaa: cd

., }hWORTH G"elhnd.
Loom
Tale. B_"
He ....onh B,m •Co. Cool .. 0',., 1)10
worki"lj:
Bluish-grey; very hard snd
" 0·80 ..
..
B~ Durham Me..u." dursble; fine rn;o; not euy
Fellin. Quurie •• '"' to ....ork
Gatnhe.d-DII-Tr:,e
.,
HOt.J.IN(lTON Holhngton .nd
Great Gate.
Stolte-on-T.ent
Stlnton o!t Bettan,. td..
Rocnter. UttOlleter.
St.fJOt'dahire
Keuper Triauic 0'018
(W. and S.)
O'OJI (Redl
1 '30

"2210 . White ..,d ..Imon : very duro

able: fine tnlu,e; free work_
inl. Red and motttled : very
0 '75

,-
o'olS (Mon cd) dursble; harder than above;
Ku.RIDG. Macclafit:ld. )0,," Welton
• """ MilI,tone Carbonif- 0'062J 245 0
free workinll'
Buff: .... ry hard ond dursble; , Undamalled
" Derbyshire
;:;· M~~fJon. Gril fine ,. medium IClflur~; ~
womn,; obtainable In ......
0'"

block.
 TABLE VII-s AND S TON E 5-COfItintud.

R•. .
• G.ou>oICAt. CIIWHIHC
. PO_lTV
N •. NA_ NAMII ..,.D Aoo..- W.,CMT SA"!UTION RauLT 011

...... ........
Of' SllVATION or lDC/TI,.c...T10N S_~ (poo:t~nt.
CNAllAC'TtAI,TICI CO","ICIEI'<T F-.- TaT

.,
{- Sro~ QuAIUlY or OWN.. (kl/m'J (-p.
(MN/m')

..
Fit-·n) s~ 108) (tee p. '08) (tee p. 110)

Luow •• P'ufillI.
<"~mb,,,
H~n.,. Gnlva 4: Son..
Ln0w., Lwmb".
Upper
Penni.n " " Red" (h,hl 'trn-cott.) and
" Whilt • (hlhl ytllowi.h.
•• 06J UndamfCtd
W. Ik . Gr.Yn. 4' pink) : very hlTd .nd dur-
Chi .... ;c:k Slreel. .ble: coane Inllnrd; dlAl-
,
'. .
Cublle cult to work

..ca..ow.•
Loa<.uoo.~ Ownf"'''''
Scotllnd
8,,,,1 SIe¥mt«l
100.rry..... telll)Ltd .•
BuntEr T .....ic 0·0+4 ,- Pale u.lmon pink; dunble;
medium IUlur~; f.u wo.k.
.,. WUlhen.d.
IIIII~
Bo!.hwdl Slreel. inl ; obuin.ble in large blockl 'rnses
C.:.
•• l.oNGIllOOI Ncar Pr",on
Lancuhire
T ' - - Croll " Sona
Ltd .• Blackpool ROid.
PI'ftIOfi
M""'-
Gnt
Cubonif·
,~.
zpo Grq ar:d brown; _ry dUnlblf:;
~Ium-a:rlin.td;
workinl
r",crllenl " 0" Undamt;ed

MID~D Ou~htibnda:t, .. .. ..
..,
JOieph Turnrr Lid .• Whll~ 10 .nuff brown: dur.blt;
" S dfield ~htibrid~. She(. ~dium 10 cmne IUlurr

"
RUNCOIlN. REI

Scour STON.
WeilOn . ne.r
Runcorn.
Cheshire
Halifax.
Th.

>.
Runc:orn
Co.. Waton.
R,~
s._
nur
Keuper Tn"',c:

Carbonif.
0·OZ7~ ,.so R,' mottled, dUnible.
coaf"K 10 tine IUlure; euily
worked
"
..
0·6$

..
Weathered',
IIl1lt
'rnon
.
" Y.,..1uhilt
Riley "
lQuarr y Own~ .. )
Son. Milbioot
Gril ,~
z 750 Li~~:d ~';:';dU::b~nYilh-whll~;

.. SHAw", ThurlbE'
nur Ilrl..le
Id .. H.lifu. York •
• ltire
W . • W . Gtlvn.
Chi,wick SIr~tI.
C.ni.le
,. Bunln Tri ...ic a ZlO ""rd. while
dUnlbl~;
,.,
'0'
flecked; "ry
leXlur~; '.n,,, •• 068 ..
WMkln, ; ~'~ry u",.bk

" S'IlINOWIU. Gutthud.

Co. Durham
Ric!J&rd Kell
Lid .. Sprina:"'ell •
C•. CMI
Mr.lurea
C"bonif-
erou.
.. ,." Clrvonll"
Yrllo~;
glll.n~d;
v~ty durable; med.um
fa,dy n.y 10 ...'ork
..
Qu.rri~ •• ne.r
., S •. B_. .~ S •. Bees.
Clllnhud-on.Tyne
To.. ''''''':oy " '>"no Run'el Tri .... lc .~, "g, Bril/h. ted; \"ery dunble; ,.,
."
Cumbrl' Lid .. S. B.n, Cum. glll.ned. 1:<><><1. ....ork"'lI"
b',.
STANa.IFPlt SIInc:hff~. Thf Sllnchlfc Ella,,,, Mililione Carbonl(' 0-069. a )10 Honey 10 very liJ:hl dlllb. very
" "
..
1). . I~y
Dtrbythlle (;0. L.d. Gnt hard Ilnd dUnlblt; u",form
.-
,~.

Ollr. Duby.h ..·.. tnlur~ . d....,-,nI'n~d ;

.....,IIr.",,,
.. .. ..
...
STANTON Pux B,rcho..~r. J.m ... Ahroyd " So... I'onk and brown; Hty dUllblt;
" 006 45

..
~

o. STANTON
WOODIiOUM
MatloclL

SI.nIOll Lett.
Dllrley D.le,
LId .. Buc:ltovrr.
M.tlock. Dtrilydure
Hrnry Dee'e
SlIcnover.
LId ..
M
Iltlock.
.. .. o oss " Brown;
IntUre
...,.
fine 10 COOIrIoe lutun
durable; ,., .,
" TIfOIUolTON
Derbythlle
Nu~ Brtdford. C.
Inrby.b,,~
Cockroft LId .. Cool .. , ,,. U!ulSh.,rey; very h..d
'"' .. ." Undlm'lf<'d

...
BLtJI Yorblure BlICk Dyke Quanl«. MCllurH dUllblc; fine a:rI",~d: cos.ly

" WILl_'llLO Hudde ... fitld.

Thornton. Bndford
S.mu~1 Johneon Ik M.llltone .. '
10 ...·ork
, .,. ..
YorbhLrc Son (M,meld) Ltd .• G.it
DOn Brown; vtry durable;
I/ninrd. frre ...·orklnl/ '"'
.. W..,. ENo
K~~'iih;rt
Cro,llnd Hill.
Hudd~llItidd
Chu. Blne'll
• ..... .. .. z 450 Bro...-n; _ry hard Ind dunblr , 0-9J ..
..
Ltd .. Ollenhopt. fine tCltlUte
IItllr Ke .... ley
WIl<OTWAT MlCClttfield.
" Derbyshin:
Jolon Wt1lon " Son.
;:'~·~1!:1~~ton.
0065] 1450 Bluilh-lrey; du .. bl~;
medium m,ned; aood ,",'<Irk.
,. '"'
" WOODIUU
BLUI
Morley.
nUr Lecdlc
G~",
.....
Hood.
tld..it~om~
Wakefield.
Cool
Meuurn
Carbonif-
,~
0·07>1 z 340
.....
blocks
obl.. n.bl~
Bluc; dUrlble;
IfOU'd ...otklnl
1"'1e

'"'
llrained; . 06 5

.. .,
...
Yorbhile
'7 WOOOILUIII;X .. .. .. .. o'oSP "g, Brown; dUrlble; fin~ knl.nrd, 065

"
W=_
8~~
Wool"...
liverpoOl
Morriaon '" Son. Ud ••
W._rtnt, Livet-
Bunter Tria..i.: 0-0514 ,.so
IfOU'd work.n,
R~d; durllble;
pod wotkina::
,., Rnlintd;
" Wuthued •
pool. IS I illl~ Il'
,~-
 TABU VIlI-L I H E S TO N ES
....
...,
G.,LOI.lIc.u. Po_ITT
N •.
(~ I NAM'CW
STON '
SITlLlTION
QuAMY
01' NAM. AND ADD. . .
OI'OW!<UtI
IOKNTIPlCATION
C.tJaHING
STllENGTH
(MN·m') I W.IOKT
(Ila
m') CHAIV.CTUIITIC!i 'r:e'
ctnt.)
tet p.
SATtI....TIOH
eoDPlcutfT
(_p. rol)
Fi, 37) Su, .. SVITI. ,
,. AN<:.t.nu BII()w!< An.cuter , Lincoln-
,

The Grqory auHrin Lid .• Lowu Junuic: 0-0.63

,
.,~ Brown wilh !rl,. .nd buff monful" ..

.
WU1'llD Bm Ancuter, l...inl'oiluhU'-e O6lites not du .. b e on polluted .~

-
ahire

,. ... .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. I
.phern; o;o.ne enined ; fret
wod",...; I.kes N.b poI,-"
•
.
~ 0'0'97 ,~ Crnm 10 bfO"lll"n: dunoble in 0"3
~" palluled .Imo.pnetft: fin. n.,
lalure; free worlcinf
A$H'VIL~
-~
Abbot, W. W. 1enkin. &. Co. Lid .. Middle Devon"n ..
" 7
20 (See p. 10J). ..

" .......
B~
0..00
B<u. Devon
Cude Cil"(:ua Haute.
Torquay
Beer Stone C••
Snlon. Devon
LId ..
Devonian

Middle
Crn_
C,el'ce.
'"
0' 01 7' 18 70 While; ... dursble in polluted
.tlnotphe.n; fi •• a-rsined an4
J' ..,.,
Bladon, Benfield &. LoI1ey Lid .. 106 ="'
Middle 1uI...iI: a 4$0
compacl; Ye~ eu,. ,",orlun,
Li,ht brown Wllh I...., ... a billt; 8
" I
nnr Oxford Bullin,don Ro.d. Odo.d O61it" du .. ble in non.polluted " " -
sphere.; in thon bed. onl,. (.80
0'91

>
mm.ve~)

.
"
CLIPSHAM B,.
Pm O,""UY
CLIr.HAM
QUARltY OC. I
Oipt.bam

..
{hp'~.m

.b,n
..
Qu .. "
,h om . O.U.. ",. I
t. .... I.h p.
~",,,",'.

..
Lower
OOlites

..
..
..
0'03'4

O'Ojl, ..
2240

~
P.le en .... ; du .. ble in non-polluud
IImotphere.; medium ,r.ined;
free workln,..
Buff. m.ny I lIy (..,menll; dUI_
able, tapedally on non.polluld
•• .10

..

·.,.
llmotpher.. ; COIru ,rained; frtt
worl"n.
eo..h.m. .. .. .. ..
..
59 CORNCIIIT Th. ...h •• d Portland 0 '0 ~12 Li,hl erum; durable in non·poUutt.:!

·...,..
I Wiltshire Stone Fimu lAd .. Abbey 'Imot~..... ; LUlie COIne • •"int.:!

c.~ 00_ ..
Yard.. Bath
.. .. .. .. 0'oa11
,han ham; flff work",.
Li,bl erum; du .. ble in non_pollutt.:!
atmotpheru; fine a-rsined; fr ...
..
., HOPTON_WOOD' Wirk.wonh,
Derbphi ...
Tho Hopton-Wood Stone
Fimu Ltd .. Wirbwonh,
Carboni!-
.ro~
Carbonif-
.ro~
.. ~
worki ...
(See p. 105). ..
Derby.hitt Limutone
.S,
., ...
1l0mlGO Qu.rri.. Lid .. Brown. blue .nd mi.ture of bodl;
,6 HOIlNTON ' [dfc HIli .
D.lo.d.b"c Nonh Bar.
Chtn.d<lmc
B.nbury-.
Low"
OOlites
JU"H'e
I a '20
cloM .tlmed;
tlk,.. • ,ood poh.h
euily worked; "
.,.
Coraham. Th< ",h •• d Ponl.nd .. .. Liaht ere.m to while; du .. ble in

.
Mas .. •• P..... 0'01'
Stone j.·;mu Lid .. Abbey non-polluted Itmotphern; fine "
..
Wiltshire
• """"""' hie of Ponland.
Oo~
Yard. Buh
.. .. U.,.,
06btn
.. o'Oj08 ~ 110
.nd even enlned; free workin •
pUr;
Whllbeci mott .u,table for &'tneral
bu,Ld,n, I",hl bro ..... Ir "
..,
(tee p. 110)
while; du .. Ie; med,um ,raIned;

6, RAD.OIID Oreston. I F. Houte,

J. M~n L.d., H,~I... MIddle Devon.. n .. .,,, aood .....rkln~
Grey to red; urable; fine ,rained; ..
,8 ST, AI-I)Hau.< Bo.
nur Plymouth
Ilo;c, Wiluhin
TothIIi RCMd.
Pl)'f"Ou,h
The Bath and Ponl.nd
Devoni.n
Lower JuT ....e 0'01'5 2 010
(ree wo.king

Cre.m to h,ht b ....... n: mot! du .. ble •6 ....

"
GIIO\!ND
W~. Weldon.
Not1h.ant.
Stone Fimu Lid .. Abbey
Yard, Bath
F. St. 8 . .0:1:"'"
Weldon,
Kenen.... onnanll
oolit"
.. .. .. 19ao
BalNtone ; medium ,rsined; I~
worlu,...
l'inloioh-brown ; ~
ponuted llmotpru,ru ;
,..;ned; ellii}' worloed
d .... ble
~~
'" .. I
.."
.... ...
~

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES
ANtTON Analon. lima Turner I.
Son Lid .. M,ddle Pennlan Rieh dHp en.m; du .. ble in non • .,
" W. R. Yorklhlle K,velon Par • near Sl>ef. Permi,n • J90 polluoed IImo.pheru; (ine

,. L~, Linby, Nottin,-

Mid
M . McCan~ &. Son. Lid .• .. .. .. 23 ao
,rained; fru work,n~
B~wn;.h_ydIO'lll'; dura Ie, .. peei.11)' ., o ' So

.. PUll: NOOIE
"""'bon
Park Nook.
Skelbrook.
Nnr Done..ur
Bul""en, OIl1nKh.m

•• F
" ",ooL, " .... Iu, Shl -
DO. ~OIlU , So... 10
.. .. 037 .. 10
In non_polluted .I...... phe.".
COl ..... pined; free woRm,
Cream; du .. ble 10 noon_polluted
atmoaplM:ru; fine anined and
romptet; easily worked; luiubLe
'J .10
lo.hh>.c
for ~~d work I
.. I.... O~. Manafield, I The Grqor)' au.,ri.. Ltd .• / Low"
HAGNESIAN SANDSTONE

I
Penn ....

I
0·~9S

I
s I~O I ........
Creamy·yellow; not du .. bI~ In I .. ..

.I I
WMJTI.· Nottinaha .... hi... Ancuter, Lincol.n.hire Penniln polluted atmo.pheres; fi .... evm
 o 5 P 0 5 I T ION OF 8 U I L 0 N G STON E 5
I ~ E LAN 0
I N G R E AT 8 R I T A I N l-
oN

LIMESTONES SANDSTONES

{;I
$I. AHCA!TI. ettOWN WEATH . . lED .lO. AfPl£TON f'OAA)H1-.J
$I. "NCA TEfl,. FI'.nSTONE UIICOUISH'IU 32 . ...,'U'I WOCi( 8WE LA,."
... ASH'UII.TON blYOtUltlAl J6. 6fAAISTAll (MISHI'"
". tEE. ~_u 1~. BOlTON WOODS YOAA~U
31. 6MCl!.fNttiLl '1'OI'.II.SIIIA,

:R Ctl=W!:.~Q~ :U. &AAMlfY FALL YOAAJHIIU

!P. 6UTLfft. DbLP~ lNolQl1HlIU:

6Q.
_So.rrm,.u
#. ~Ok .ILTJ.II....
10. (Ol'lSft1IL ~fO _
a cWSLAN
..... _ '
HILL JIONIJHUI.f
.n - OfUVJHII\,I " . gUNafONS IU\.YSHIM
1'), UNN HQUS OU~
:t: Me
...
n
~.~:.::
""'~D IIOIUnMAI
DI'I'C»f1HIAJ
y" ~# , . fA~NOC'" lAMUojHIM
3J,. EOOEFOlO L,uKJroJHI,u
Aot. ENO(LlFFE OU.6vSHUU
1+ GiUISELEY 'tO~"JHIIU
.. ST, ""'" LM eo>< OOOUNO ' Ll. HEWO~TH aU~N DU.~HAM
.u. 'NtLDON ~ON1HIAI
4'. HOLLINGTON n .... fFOUl}ll1U
MAGNESIAN lIMElTONES ~ .n I<.E""IOCiE CHUI1IIU
.... ANSTON YOIU.JMIq
jQ LlH6Y NOrnM'i~I'"
.'
" ~O""~"UM"""""
9. L HAIl ~/(j('jS 1IUW.tIIUtlIQ
4Q. PAPJI... HOOk ~IIU
... L '"G~' n~'H'"
.)9 MIDDLE I'OAAIH'''f
MAGNESIAN SANDSTONE .» ~UNCORNb 0 CHUH,It'
... MANfFifLO. Wttrff HOm. 11. SCOUT ST NE YOAAlH''-f
It . SHAWIf.. CUMlill.lA/'iO
G"A"'ITES ". SPRINGW~f
1.5. ST. BEES '"~
CWUE~
2. CO~:Hlf ..... IUIII.... IU .... ITANCLIF
e.
"'-
Cft.f TOWN ....." t1IGWTltoIIU
Of SILVEIt. G Y COo\HWML AJ. TANTON P
IIt,VIHIIU
NUnHl1I.l
~ "'MHAY ~~'~I"
... TANTON SE·
4. LOWE'" PE",Sltv ..... ""',..»II~I l::1. THOmTO BLUE ~IIIJI
I. NTEIUtEAD. IUD .....lYNfNIHW N. WELLFIELD yOlt"IHIU
•. OWI"U\W ... ~.. _.-t\..c _ 2Q WEST END VOMIHIIt.I
J. SCLATTIE .........~I.f\ ~ .Jl. WINDYWAlCHUHUU
16. SHAP ,.."~ 26. WOO~K.I" aLUE 'fOu.s.
n. woo '~N
..
...,' U
ro.llW<f_
TOI'.DOWH_ .34. WOO T~
Jt..1
,-,),,+CMH'U
'JQW

=
w
~

,....', 722i~~"~~
.r.""'.'i 11 --2t"""19 ~
.~~~.J£;",: .-~o
4' ..
....... ~ .... w lt ~' .. IUOOI, ...... ,f.D......
".. ~
- 4'
I....r '
J1.-" ...~j>I'.48'"
49 .....--''"__
4'/"'1

."
.".

51'._
lOtU:lOH~

11\1 SH GAANrrES II\ISH IMMLES

MOM: DOWN FIiICIIII\. : <.AII.LOW
oueuN 'O<J<.

J
WfXrOO.D GALWAY
MCOUOW f(ILKfNNY
~
11\1 SH SlATES
ft'.all:DClNEGAL
"MY
IIJLlUNNY 111'1* I I'> .... D 2 ....
TI"EAM.Y SCALE kill

Non: 11iIS DOES NOT INCWOf MAif'I QUM,fliU ftt..ODUClHG STONE USED FO'" fV:»D PAVlNCi, CQ\"SE t\GGtt..EGATES,
t.TC. AND atJlLDlNO STONE WttIOt IS CHIEFLY uno LOCALLY.

• •
 STRUCTURE OF STONES
(b) [im~Jto1U'I.-These ar~ called (QltQrtfJ~s (" iimc:t' ") f(Klu, as they con~lst
mainly of carbonate of lime They afC formed tither by (.) orgame or (II) chem-
ical agencies.
(b) (i) Those of organic onglO are formed of the ro~~il remainS of mulluscs
(minute animal organisms, such as snails, furnished .... lth :o;hells \\hich consist of
calcium carbonate), corals, etc., that hall' been depoMlcd In lakes or In S('a basins,
.nd the llccumuLations suhse~luently hardened Into rocks hy prf'ssure and cemen-
ting material. Thc$C: are kno"" as shflly Iimn/rJnf'J, .... dl-known examples being
Ancasm, Clipsham and Weldon (sec Table \'111 and 0, Fig. J8).
(b) (ii) Limestones of the chemically formed group consist of grains, each
hal'ing a central core or nudeus (probably a sand gram or a fragmen! of a shell)
round which concentric layers of calcium carbonate ha\c bten deposited from
water. These grains, having the appearance of eggs or roe of a fish, are called
oiJiltn, and tht slone is somelimts reftrred to as " egg stont "lor" roe stone"
(sec Band c, Fig_ J8). The grams \'ary in !>ize, stones having large J!;rains being
called PU/O!IU. Fragments of shells may be present. Portland Slone and those
quarried ill the \'icmity of Dath (t.g., Corshllm Down, i\lonk', Park and St.
Aldhelm Box Ground) are well-knov. n examples of oolitic limestones (sec Table
\'II! and Band c, Fig. 381).
The grain!> are cemented together b} a matrix consisting of carbonate of
lime, called coicitt. or a mixture of carbonate of lime, Silica, alumina and magnesia.
In some cases the grains lire only cemented together at their points of contact
(see 8. Fig. J8), m other types (set c and D. Fig. 38) the cementmg material
completely occupie< the spaces hetween the grains.
Carbonate of magnesi;! IS present m most limestones (see Table Xl.
Stones containing a relatnel)' high proportion of this carbonate are called
mog1ltsilJn limtst(}fIts. If the magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are
present ITI approximately equal proportions, the rocks are called d%mitts or
dolomltl( "",tstunts; Anslon and Park :\ook are examples of dolomites (see
Tables \'111 and XI. A magne~lan stone containing a large proportion of silica
is claued as a calcarUlUS or dolomItIC or magntsiau sandstone; White Mansfield
stone is of this type (see p_ 97 and Tables \'III and IX).
Limestones are used c"en$ne\y for building purposes. Their weathering
properties are referred to on p. 106. :'\lany are excellent for internal work on
account of Iheir agree:;lble colour ~nd frPf wnrking qualities, and for external
..... alhng in districts free from atmospheric pollution. Whilst certain limeston~
are well estabh~hed as suitahle building stones and ha\'e been widely used for
this purpose, others are quite unsuited for external walls of buildings in districts
where aCid gases are produced by the burning of coal (see p. 106).
A limestone generally considered to be well suited for elternalashlar work
I O6h", I. denved from Mil _ el:''' and 1,11101_ st~-
• II WIll be observed that, m order 10 pro"'lde a useful complnson, A. I, C Ind D, Fi,.
38. have bn.n sketched on the Hme sule. I ponlon of each prepued .lide bemg mlgnified
Ind projected 10 ptnnit of this.
103
subjected to, acid attack is Portland stone. It has been employed during the
past three hundred years for many important buildings in London and the
pro\'inces, and whilst the external faces are liable to become affected, the eh)sion
is u~ually so slight (sl'oeltered surfaces being possibly an exception, sec p. 107) and
uniform as not to be detrimental. Another reason for its popularity is the
attractive appearance of light and shade produced On the .....eathered surfaces
of this stone. As mentioned tTl Chap. I, \'01. I, there are three l btds in I
Portland stone quarry whIch YIeld stone used for constructional work, t.g.,
the roach bed, whitbed and basebed, the whitbed being most suitable for general
purpose~. The Structure of whit bed stone is illustrated at B, Fig. 38.
:,\Iany limestones are fine grained and easily worked. Those from Bath and
Beer especially are so soft immediately after bting quarried that they can be
readily sawn and chiselled, and their fine grain and even texture render them
particularly suited for delicate carving. It is because of these characteristics,
together with their agreeable appearance, that. they are selected for internal
eccl~istical work such as pulpits and altar screens. Kentish Rag, a hard
siliceous limestone (see Chap. I, Vol. I) is not easy to work.
The distribution or certain important limestone quarries and mints is shown
in Fig. 37. These limestones are listed in Table VIII. The chemical composi-
tion of some of them is given in Tabl.e X. Some idea of the structure of lime-
stones may bt obtained by reference to the enlarged sketches at B, C and D,
Fig. 38.
The Pre-Carobn.n, Clmbrian and Ordovician ')'1lem. do not contrib\llc .ny
bUilding lime.tonu of imponlnc:e. The Siluriln .ystem yield. bul]ding hmcslonc.
;n ShropshIre when: II is used locally. Good limestone is obtained from the Mldd]e
Devonian senu Ind i. qUlrried in [)evon, Aahbunon (I« p. lOS) Ind Radford being
example., IOme.n: finely "eined and ue of. rich colour, the fonner i. used for
ill deconti\'e qu.lities .nd thc R.dford lIone h.u been extenli"'cly employed locally
mcluding Imponant buildmgs In PlymoUlh, TOrqUioY. IIrncombe, eiC. The Carbo,
nlferou. Limestone terie. furnIShes hil\hly deconu"'e limestone in Derby.hin' ('_1_,
Hopton-Wood); Ihi. tlku I hIgh polo.h Ind i. c1..Kd commerci.lly I I I mlrble
(I« p. lOS); 1I0ne from thl' series i. used locally in Somerset lind South Wllu;
local use is .Iao mlde in the We.t Riding of Yorluhin' of limestone obtlintd from the
Yoredlle (or Wen.leydlle) Bcd •. MIROesiin limntone OCCllI'I in the Penn;an.y.tem
in Noltmgham Ind Yorkshire. The Tri....ic .ystem duet not yield .ny building lime_
rlonn.
The Ju .....ic .ystem, espe<uUy the 06lila teria, fumidles many important
bUlldml1: IImestonu. A few Ire from the Li.. series. including thoIC qUlrried .nd
employed loc.lly.n O"ford.h, .. , Hertford II Woreeller, W ..... iclrohire .lId libmor,an_
.hlrc Ancultr, Clipsh.m and Ihe 8.1h lIoncs.re from the Lower Oiililn, and Portl.lld
none i, from the Upper 06l1tes series.
Kenlish R." used for rubble maaonry in the South of E",RIand, i. from lhe Lower
Crel~ tenes .nd the white Beer stone is from tbe Middle Cn:taceoUi senel.
A. mentioned on p. 911, none of the rock. in the C'lnozoic: group i, .ufficiently
h.nt for buildin, purposes.
, At two of the quarriu warted by the South-Western Stone Co. Ltd., I bed of 'tone
below the _hitbed baa b«n ditcO\'ered which yield. I hi,hJy decontive hard Ind compact
limestone, known II "Penycot." Thi, i, HWIl into 'as mm thick ,lib. and i, used for
decontive wall limn"" etc.
 10 4 MASONRY
~
2

'" ~

~
~
..... ~
0

z 5
--'
-<0
.....
VV') g
0
2
~
•
0..

>-~ ~
I- "~
~

0
\:I
--'
Z

:;::::::I
0'"
l:
....
"'0 Z
0
~
Vl
~

::;;'"
-<~
..... •
oi.
:::::I ~

\:II- 0
-<V
:::::I
00<:
.....
V')
§
FIGURE 38

•
 DEFECTS IN STONE [05

TABU: IX 3. Metamorphic Rocks.- These are either igneous or sedimentary rocks

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES " 'hich have been altered or metamorphosed by heat (from the earth's interior)

-.. .•::- d,£~.. oi or pressure (caused by the weight of superim~ layers of material or to the
o~
Z ~
~
~
0
e ;
~

~
~ movement of the earth's crust) or a combination of both. As a result of this
mt:talllurpbism, the original structure of the rocks haa been destroyed. the
e 1& •• .-
',
~ I ~
Name of Sto ne ,E ~ e
! , ]~ ••
~ti:
'5~
~-
:l:
I ;;: 6- I
U
~~ I :;::e Eo u~
• ? .~ ~ •·
~
arrangement of the particles (or stratification) being changed. The chief
metamorphic rocks used for building purposes are (0) marbles, (b) slates and
(c) quartzite.
I (a) Marbles.- True marbles are metamorphosed limestones consisullC of

I'" ..,.. ,
J. Appleton 9'-21 , 1.6 0 ' 30 0 '7' 1'65
Appl"y 11m!!:" Hlut ,8' 83 ' 93 0 3"36 .90 ,'08 aggregates of granular crystals of calcium carbonate (cakite). The composition
,
2-~

,..,
J' l"OJ "99
J' n..rriSla1J 8,"00 ' ~' lO J " 10 .68 "00 '"11 varies, but some marbles comprise approximately 98 per cent. of calcium
'.' BT'lIml..) Fill 96 58 ,"0 O'H .. ("49 carbonate with traces of magnesium carbonate. silica and oxide of iron. Many
l 'orsehill, Red 9S "lJ o ' _~9 ,-18 149 I 'JI .. .
,8 Crosland HIli .-6S • 2')6 019 286 hard, compact limestones, capable of taking a good polish, are referred to in the
0'''1 " ..8
Dun~n. trade as marbles, although the metamorphosis has been only partial; examples
I""
96'4 0 '"3 D 0-)6 '"94

..,
"
'J
Dl..nn HOUle
Htworth Burn
H ollln!:lon
I...o<.:hnbnJOl'
Mlnsfield, Wh,t e
97")0
8 6 50
86'6..
';17-88
~I -6 1
~93 1 1"9
iI'78
0 -)8
0'8s
..01

"5 8
0·80
O"JO
1"11
0-72.
0':15
16-S8
O ' l~

0,...
0 '9'
0-10
.8.6
... 1'95
0'40
"3 0
"00
'00
0-59
.·06
of these so·called marbles are obtained from Derbyshire and Devonshire (see
below). Marbles are obtained in a great variety of colours, some of them being
richly marked or \'eined (due to the presence of iron oxides) and others are richly
[ 12 "IS ~pTlng'o"dl .
SI. B~ Red .
86-0"
85'10 '"00
880
I '00
0'6,
0"10
0- 19
0 ' 30
1)0
3'30
'00
:Ina
fossilized; many are finely grained and can be elaborately carved. Because
of their. delicacy of colouring and capacity of taking a high polish (p. 113),
46 Sunchlf.. . 9(.... 0 '-3 D 0'3 6 ... "94 marbles are chiefly used for decorative purposes; they are thus employed u
~W'''fi'ld
26
17
Wood],mk Blue. '
Woodkln. Drown . "" ''' I
8n8
8300
6 ·88
8-02
"73
J86
J-4J
0'7)
"00
o·u.
0 -]0
0-07
0 "7 0
0'55
'-57
0 ' 19
06 5
]"U
-4H
.4'1 6
....-all linings (the slabs being usually 20 mm thick-see Chap. VIll, Vol. IV),
pavement or Roor coverings (of 20 to 25 mm thick slabs), staircase treads,
, --- ---L risers and balustrades, internal columns, shop fronts, fireplaces, etc.; they
are also in demand for ecclesiastical work, such as ahan. screens, fronts and
TABLE X statues.

..I
CHEMICAL COMP-OSITION OF lIMtSTONES

• . ., ••
The best kno ..... n so--called marbles quarried in thi. ~uulltry (and known as

..
.~-

I 0: .....
z~ -!E •• '-2'0
~.
~
.. English marbles ") are Ancaster Bro..... n Weather Bed (Lincolnshire), Hopton_
Wood (Derbyshire) and Ashburn (Devonshire). although none of these are
~3
•
~
.~
- Name of Stone
.8~ ]:
,:;: E'
~
~
Rem.rlu true marbles .
~~
"~
;jo U'o
,~
:(d -; Allcasttr Braum lVealhtr Bed is of the Lo.....er Oolites series (Jurusic system).
~-
.... It is bro..... n ..... ith grey and buff mottling. It is coarse grained, free .....orking and
takes a high polish .

.' .
AnClster Fr~ltone . 93"1 9 • 80 2"7 1
" Anllon H ' 8 .n- oS 0'13 0 ' 56 0 ' 75 A magl'lC"'ln lime. Hoptott-Wood Marble.-This Derbyshire marble is marketed under fh"e
,. classifications, i.e., (I) Light Hopton-Wood (cream-coloured ground spotted

...,
I rone.
II,,, . .
,.
6,
Clipsham Old Quarry 97'5 6
0'5 0
o-H
O",u 2 ' 25 0 ' 10
o·2.J with small light brown crystals ; suitable for both internal and external-if in
, Conham Down
Hopton. Wood
9"'95
911' ..0
2-26
0-31 ."
0 ' 8)

0-1'
0'8..
...
0""
1,8,
Refer~ to •
dean atmosphere- purposes); (2) Dar. Hoptoll-Wood l (similar to (I) but

..
, 0"20 Q
more densely marked with slightly duker patches); (3) Bloch Bird's"ge (black
m.rblt.
6, Monk'. Park 9n6 0 ' ''0 "52 "20 "J2
with slight brown cast having light coloured fossil spot markings, hence the
PlITt Nook 56 ' 10 ,,2"1I0 0 '50 .. "20 A m.lgnn.ln lime- name; only suitable for internal work); (.. ) Grey Bird's-eye (similar to (3) but
68

:1
Portland
Radford .
S,. Aldhelm 110.
:r',.6
94'5 2
1":10
0"17
2'50
0 '50
0-10
1 ' 20
....
1"20

...
'-94
O',.,Oi
.tone. of grey-brown colour); and (5) Derbyshjre Fosn'[ (deep grey colour, richly
fossilized, lOme of the fossils being So mm long; only suitable for internal
work).
Ground

"
Weldon . 9)-4] ] 'S5 '09 . ·80 1'1 J
I I Both L"htand Dark Hopton-Wood Itone .... tre UKd after the Fint World
Imperial War GtIIVH Commiuion for 1"10000 headstona.
Wsr by tbe
106 MASONRY
AshburtOrl !\1orbll- This De,-onshire marble has a most atl ractil.'e appearance,
it being dllrk grey in colou r, verging on black, with bri~ht red and white crystal-
line ,-eins, together .... llh fossik
Irish Morblu in demand in this country include: Blodt. (quarried in Kil-
kenny and Carlow); Ctmnn1lora Irish G,un (quarried in Galway, gretn ground
with grey and black patches and ,'eins); J'jctorio Rtd (from Cork, mottled light
red with thin dark veins).
!\Iany foreign marbles arc imported and used for decorative purposes in this
country. and the following arc some of these :-
DEl.el""· Brllllan Blacl! (dup black); Br/x,a" Fo",1 or p,/;, (;,m,lIr ('-rry dark
~rey II Ith
IIRhlc:r RUY .pots-fossd.-and Icin.); BIllt Bl'lgl (black ordec:p blue-bllck
Rround ",Ih "hilr, lill'hl or blullh-g~y Itruh); RolIgr (vuious, loghl reddlsh-
hrown Jl"round '\llh \lhilr, grr)' or dark bro\ln Irrrguiu \fons); SI Am.r (dark grry
,\I,h \lhll~ doudy puehr-s Ind IfH'IIUlar ,-r,n.,.
F"'''''Ck B,ornrrllr Jarm, ()·rllow \11th brown .nd \l1-lIle \"/:onl); BnKrJlrllr
V,a/rtf" (purplish-I{uy \11th brown Ind yrllow palchr.): COl"'lbiMIChien (lIght bro"'n
lIith (ossili); JiJlm, Lama,'m, (rIch }rllow lIuh fine brown. RH'y and rr<l "cin.):
£"m,1 (11RIlI fl"n \luh frll markongs); NaM:,"''' (I,gh, fawn ,,·,Ih brown .nd ffil
Irons); Holt (~d lIuh bla<;:k ,ems).
encc,,,,,, C,/>/>O/""o(pmk •• h-... h,'e ... i,II d.,,1o; K~n III1Vy bandt); Sltj·,~ (e~tmy_
II hitl' or drllatl' yrllow IIround vnth lI"old and purplr nm,): T,,,ol (dirk gr~n fifround
\llIh IIl1hlrr If~en slruk. and nllfrow irrrfjfUllf bllek Ind \\ hltr lein.); V"dt A"lieo
(lIghl .nd dark fifrftn miXlure wllh oo.::ui')nll "h'llIh p.tehes).
hAU,,'" B'fCC/tJ (R~y, purple and yellow ml'tlure WIth IIhlle ,·em.); Dm:e
(I...endtr a. dark Rrey, .I'lIhlly veoned): FIt1ic, de Pre}" (rith purplr \\llh "hile
motlhnj{); Ln-a,,'o Rono (dark rrd, purple .nd Rr~n mIxture): Pm'ontJ:;::;:rllo (,,·ory
Rround ,,"h Irrrgular onngr .nd rusty vrm,): PtJt'tJ1fal;:O b,m!!" to Plvonlurllo
with purple ,·rml: K.rer); StJn SI'/tlM (d.rk buff \I·,lh stippled d.rker Recks);
Srctntd S,tlfutJry (whIle "ilh II"rey or lI"tq'iih-lrftn vrmmga)~ Statlltlry (pure whitr
• nd uptn$1vr:, 10 callrd II II II pnnelp.lIy used for IUtun): S,olltlrt (wh,tr with
bluilh call): Slt1lrtO (.11 sh.du of yellow WIth purple Ind bllek ve.ns); T,t>t.",t ...,'
(IInw, Imhrr Ind 5!olden ground wilh irrrgular darkn graining; binds o( ImAll
poru chlraetrristie)
NORWIICIAN: B,/d, Rou {pllr rose_pInk ground wllh "'hlte lWI'tionlll: NtH"llr
['Itt" (\\'hilr).
SWI!OISk: S ..,tdl$h G,,,,, (p.le g~en ground with darku gr~n ribbonmg Ind
\I h,lr mOIlI""g).
Afokslv, uKd for om.ments, el«lric \iRht bowell, rte., is sulphalr of IImr. It i.
while whrn in III purr form. Thr true II,buter COrnel from Aliena and hu bftn
drposlted u stllaclTles and It.l.gmltes." So_lied. lllbutrr 11 found in Dnbyshi~,
Somrrset and olher panl of thil country.
o..yx Ma,birJ from Algeri., Brazillnd Mn.ico arr of cai.:.:ium arbonllr produeed
.. 1IIIIttliei Ind tullgm.les. They .rr richly figured .nd .re of rnlny (:()Iou ..,
V'TYmS (rom whitr 10 yr11ow, the ch.arac:lrriltie nininl bring due 10 the prnener
of metallic oxidH.
l\hrbln Ire obtll~ from the Devonoln Ind Carboniferous Iy.lrml.
(b) S/olts.-A true Ilate is s metamorphic sedimentary day rock_ OngtnaUy
the clay was deposited as a fine .ill; lhit was compressed by vertical preuure
I T,_t.", 0' Ctlka,tfIIU TN/a CORItSIl of hardrned. maSitt of aorbonlte of lime
deposiled. by Ipnngw: Ihe c:omplet v.rirty il known .. " tnvrnmr " .nd the light Ind
'POfll)' Iype .. ealled " lufl."
" These .~ proch.lC:ed by the droppinl of Wlln contllninlaorbonlle of lime Ihroulh
fi"uta In the roob of c.Vft. ladt-hlr.r It.h,ebtH (..-..- hlngtnl from the. roof) and
"al'gmitH (drposiu and .... Uy built up tin lhe floor) of c.lcium .ulph.te (or aolcium
carbonate) ,~ thus formed.
into shale, which, .... hen subsequently lubj«ted to enormous lateral pressure
Iccompanied by intense heat, was converted into sllte. The forces producing
this side pressure contorted the original horizontal btdding plafUl, and, in
addition, rearfll.ng~d the particla into inclined CUtrfJagt plants. An example
of this formation is .ho..... n in Fig. 69, Vol. I, and, as there descnbed, a block. of
slate is readily converted into relatively thin roofing slates by splitting it aJong
the parallel planes of cleavage. The preparation, characteristics, etc., of slates
are described in Vol. I.
Welsh silln are ob",ned (rom the Clmbriln. Ordovieiln Ind Siluriln .ystrml.
Thr Bangor, Dmorv.·,e(ot Vel,nhrli) Ind Penrhyn .llIrllre worked from the Cambrian
(Olenr[[ul Beds) rock.; Ihe FHl mlOfjf (or Portmadoc) and Pl"C«lly II.IH Ire minrd
or q,u'rri",d from lhe O.donelln (Ll.ndello Ikd.) rocks; IIIIH from Corwrn and
L1ln.lt(lllrn Ifr obtamed from Ihe Wrnlock Bed. (S,lunln tYllmo) and a~ softer
Ihan most o( those menlloned .bo..", (ICC Tablr VI).
Lake D,striet IIrren .Iatcs (Bullrrmerr, HOn'"et, Eherwaler, Kentmrre and
Tilbenhwlile) and Ihose from thr Burlmgton quarrin a~ of the Ordnv,elln Ijle
(L1andrllo Bfib)
CornISh (Del.bolr) Iialn Ifr obulnrd from thr Upprr Devonian Ioeflel.
ScolllJlh ~Iaf"" rrnm A'lIyll (Balilchu".h .nd E ..d"le), Dumbanon .nd renh
Ire from the Pre·Cambnan Iyurm.
Irish .Ialn from Tipperary, Donellal, Kury Ind Kilkenny arr of the Ordo\·ieian
." (e) Q...",::", il a ,-cry tompact, hard and dunbir mrllmorphic roc:k. L,kr SIIlH,
,t II rudy spht uuo Ihm .Iabs, but II IS very dlffieuh to nw to panrl ...es. When
eonverted, Ihr ,:.b. h.vr I vrry plrum!! Ir"lured BUrfl(:(: Ind attraetlve colour,
rlnllin~ from IIrty. oli,'(" 10 I:olden. Whilst for cenlorir. Ihis h.1 been used u I
bu,ldmg matrrial m Itll y, "here It is quarried, ,t hi. only rt«ntly been r":,ployed
on Ih .. counlry on bmld,nJl1l as a Roor and t.'ttrmll and 1nlrrnll ...-all eovrnng, the
10 to 10 mm thH:k .llbs brmj:t bedded. in mortlr .
DEFECTS IN STONE
Certain defects in stone are mrntioned in Chap. I, Vol. I, and include c1av-
holes, moule, sand-holes and vents.
Decay of stone may be due to (I) incorrect bedding, (2) atmosphe ric im-
purities, (3) careieusel«tion, (4) association of dissimilar stona, (5) efflorescence,
(6) frost action and (7) corrodible metal fastenings. Regarding dec.ay caused by :
1. !nror,ut Btddi"g.-Scrious weathering defects occur if stone is incorr«tly
bedded (see Chap. I , Vol. I), and especially if face-bedding (t.,., with the
natural bed vertical and parallel to the face of the wall) i. resorted to. Blocks
of stone must be built with the natural bed perpendicular to the pressure (see
,,110 under 6 on pp. 107 108).
2. Atwwsplu,ic ImplUitits .-A polluted atmosphere i. the principaJ cause
of dccsy of certain Itones. Those containing calcium carbonate, such u lime-
stones (ordinary and magnesian) and calcareou. sandstones, are especially liable
to attack.
The chid IOUrcea of atmospheric pollution are domestic coal fires and
industrial fumaces. Such pollution occurs principally in the vicinity of large
town. and manufacturing centres, vrhe products of combustion of coal maioly
 TESTS APPLIED TO STONES
responsible for decay of stone are acid gases, such as sulphur dioxide and trioxide,
and soot; sulphurous acid and sulphuric acid arc formed when the dioxide
and trioxide respectively come into contact with water, such as rain. Although
the acid gases are most concentrated in cities and industrial areas, they arc
readily carried by air currenU ~d do damage for a considerable distance from
the source of pOllution.
When these sulphur acids descend with the rain, snow or fog upon the calcium
carbonate of ordinary limestones, calcium sulphate is formed and carbon dioxide
is liberated. The rain washes away the sulphate, causing erorUm (wearing away)
of the surface of the stonc. The action of these acids on magnesian limestones
haa a similar weathering effect, the small quantities of magnesium sulphate and
calcium sulphate produced are dissolved by the water present and tend to form
a surface skin when the water dries out. Such erosion occurs chiefly on those
external walts of buildings which are exposed to the prevailing wind (which
in this country is from tbe south-west) and the washing action of the rain. The
defect is not serious when the erosion is very gradual and uniform, and is con-
sidered by some to be an advantage on account of the different texture of wall
surfaces which results. This natural washing by rain is responsible for the attrac-
tive dark and light appearance of Portland stone and similar limestone buildings.
Serious decay occurs when the sulphur acids cause the formation of a hard
layer or skin on the outer surface of limestone, which subsequently blisters and
flakes off, the latter condition being known as exfolation. Such layers consist
chiefly of salts (calcium sulphite and calcium sulphate). When the skin scales
off, a fresh surface is exposed and a new hard layer is formed. Constant repetition
of this process results in a weakening of the wall, and the appearance is, of course
very ugly. The decay only occurs on the surfaces of external walls which are
sheltered from the washing action of rain; exposed surfaces are not affected,
as the rain removes the salts and thus prevents the formation of the surface
skin. Some limestones are less liable to this form of decay than others.
Soot is a product of combustion of CQal and is largely responsible for the
discoloration of stone. It may also cause decay. That from domestic fires
especially consists of a large proportion of tarry matter and this causes the soot
to adhere to stone surfaces. Sandstones are very liable to become discoloured,
and in cou rse of time most sandstone buildings in industrial towns become black
and usume a drab appearance as the pores of the surface of the stone become
filled with soot deposit. Limestone buildings are not so disfigured, except
those sheltered walls which are not rain-washed and on which the soot is allowed
to accumu late.
DealY of Itone ..... ork cln be effectively retarded if lOOt and tlirt Ire removed at
lufficiently frequent intervlls by .....ashing or cleaning by meanl of jeu of ,team or
Ib""ve.
Stonework is ....... hed with wlter from I ho~ pipe (such IS I fire hose) conneeted
to the wster main; a pumping machine il uled if the preuure of the Wiler il in_
adeqUlte. lAddnl, IClIffolding or suspended endles are required, .. the Itone mUlt
be scrubbed by hind with bristle brushes. An effective method for limestone build-
'07
jngs i. to _pply Wiler in the fonn of I fine Ip"y through noule. 10 the stonework
for one or two hours, and Ifter a lhort interval the surface is lightly brushed with
compa ..tively 10ft scrubbing brushe •.
Steam cleaninll:" very effective when applied to Will. which are much discoloured.
The steam, gene ..tt-d by I. boiler, i. passed up I flexible lube from which il emerJteS
on the atone. A wire brulh fined on the nozzle of the tube is used to scrub the
black lurfaces.
The villue of thHe processes in mllint8ininll I clean IppellranCe of buildinll"l and
nrelting decay is being Ippreciated by In increasing number of property owners,
Ind some buildings In towns where Ihe atmosphere is hi,:lhly polluted are washed
yearly; other buildings only require such lre_tment every five Or lilt years.
The p ..ctice which is sometimes Idopted of u,in,:l specill cleaning prepatations,
such .. caustic soda and other alkalis, is condemned, IS such chemicals damage the
stonework.
3. Cartlus Selutitm.-Stone obtained from soft beds in a quarry or mine
will weather more quickly than that from the harder beds. A wall becomes
unsightly if it consists of SlonC5 which do not weather uniformly. Careful
selection should ensure that only the hard~t and most durable Slone is used.
i. Association of Dissimilar Stonts.-Decay of sandstones may result if both
limestones and sandstones are used together in a wall. Thus, for example, a
limestone string course or limestone dressing to door and window openings
in a wall mainly constructed of sandstone may be the cause of decay of the
adjacent sandstone; plinths of sandstone have been known to decay because
of the limestone above them.
The following is the reason for the decay: When salts, such as calcium
sulphate, are formed (see preceding column), they may be washed from the
limestone on to the surface of the sandstone. These salts may be absorbed and
crystallize; as an increase in volume occurs when these crystals are formed,
the resulting pressure just behind the surface disintegrates the stone; such decay
may become extensive.
Similarly, when ordinary limestone is associated with magnesian limestone,
decay of the former may occur due to the absorption of magnesium sulphate
(see preceding column) from the magnesian limestone.
5. EjJfQrtsctnct (see p. 13).-Decay may arise from unsuitable jointing
material. The salts in cement and lime mortars may be absorbed by the stone;
cryslalization of the salts may occur and either set up decay of the stone (due to
the resulting pressure) or cause efflorescence on the surface. Such defects are
especially likely to occur if the jointing material is a rich impermeable cement
mortar, for, in wet weather, water will be absorbed by the stone and not the
mortar; as this water dries out from the stone surface only (and not from the
joints), the salts are either brought to the outer face of the stone to cause efflor.
cscence or they crystallize in the pores immediately behind it.
Brown or yellow staining of limestone walling may result from alkalis in
the mortar. Discoloration of th'! limestone facing of compound walls may be
caused from brickwork. backing which is bedded and jointed with black mortar.
It is desirable, therefore, that either suitable lime mortar (see Chap. I, Vol. I) or
asphalt be used to back the ashlar blocks, the latter being preferred, as the water-
 .oB
proof material effectively prevents the salts from Ihe badung mortar penetrating
the stone.
6. Frost ActioN.-This is described on p. 15 and is also referred to on p.
MASONRY
which may be of value when selecting a stone for a specific purpose. Studenu
should refer to the footnote on p. 14 for brief definitions of absorption,
permeability and porosity.
1
110. Poruus and laminated stone is especially liable to decay caused during
I. Raft 0/ W'oto AbsorplloN or Pt"NtQ})'/I/), TIst.-Thls is described on p. 14.
Ihe winter by the absorption of water, which expands in the pore spaces and the bn" CO\'H bc:ulfl fittl:d 10 lhe Itone lpeclmen.,.1\O$C'! fourl"nlcal rlcesare rendered
bedding planes when it becomes frozen, and thul disintegmion of Ihe stone Impermeable by the Ippllcatlon of wa" As already explained, the ICiI condllloniite
occurs. Copings, unprotected cornices and siring courses, ",ails of unsuitable not likely to be ""eceded, e'·en In the mOSI exposed position., by Ihole met with in
pnctlee
materials and inferior workmanship below the ground Ic\'eI, and retaining walls 2. Pnrt'll"lfC PO'OJlly Tnt.-In order to undeT1t1nd the lillnificance ohheexprH-
::Irc most vulnerable to damage by frost action. Blocks of face-bedded slone are sion .. perc"nta!!e porosity," th .. student should rel·'1e the defimhonl of blliit dIN,,'Y
particularly liable, as any water penetrating the slone and becoming frozen will 100 Joltd dnlJll)" .,. h.ch he would hlle conlld.. red In hll lIudy of Buildmll ScIence
and for which con"~nience arc repealed here.
cause patches of the skin to spall off.
Demity (in kl'm') _ .,.elghl (in kg). therefore the built or IOtol dtfl"'Y
7. Cor,odiblr Atdal FasUlIIlIgs.-Reference is made in Chap. I, Vol. I, to the volume (,n mIl'
damage caused to stonework which is secured with corrodible metal, such as weight (I~
(in kg ml) - b":'lk 'olume {m mil" If the lpecimen 10 be "'Imined il of ,rregular
wrought irof'. The expansion which occurs when embedded wrought iron
.hape, the hulk volume is obtained by u1ink In Ipparatul such IS the IIVC,jfOfO 10,,,\1
corrodes is sufficient to split huge blocks of stone, such as cornices, copings Iho\\ n at A, Fifl. 39- The specimen IS carefully lo.,.e«d Into the link which has been
and upper spire stones. I Metal which does not rust, such as bronze, gun.metal pre,·,oully filled WIth wlter to the" .,.elr" lel,,1 mdiated; the wlter dllplaced
passe. from the oUllet .nlO a I'uscl of convement ~ize and tnln!ferred to I fllan
and copper, dwmld be used for these fastenings. measuring cylinder; Ihi. RWes the volume of the WII .. t, wh.ch II equal to thlt of the
Preservation.-The best method of preserving stone IS by washing or specimen.
steam cleaning (see p. 107)' Most so-called" preservaiives .. have proved to be .,.e./!:ht (in k,)
The sohd or powd .. rtd denSIty (in kg,'m') - solid volume (in mIl" Actually,
unsatisfactory. the solid denSity of mOSI 1I0nes, In addItion to bricks Ind concretes, II IpprO:.:irnalely
the same. nlmely, 1660 kaim'. The Idoplion of thIS figure therefore limplifiu the
rouune. as .1 obviatu the neceuity of po"derln8 the lpecimen Ind obUlninll its
TESTS APPLIED TO STONES volume.
The pn,,,,,~,, po,o",y il found after the bulk and IOlid densities hl"e been
It is recognized that the most reliable indication of the durability of a stone determined, thus:
volume of void.
required to "ithstand certain atmospheric conditions is obtained by a careful Percentage porosity - bulk volume >( 100
inspection of that used in the construction of buildings which have been subjected
bulk volume-solid volume
to similar exposure for a lengthy period. Such is not, however, a conclusive x.~
bulk "olume
guide, as the quality of slone obtained from different parts of a quarry may
t _ solid \lolwne >( we./!:hl)
vary considerably, and it dou not therefore follow that the characteristics of ( hulk volume >( . . elaht 100
recently won stone are similar to that obtained from older workings in the same
IOlid volume weight)
quarry and which was used for the inspected buildings. Further, the quality (J - weight >( bulk \lolume 100
of stone from a ne" quarry cannot be judged in this manner. Laboratory tests bulk denail Y)
are therefore valuable for supplying information which could only be otherwise ( 1- tolid den.ity 100
obtained by trial and error methods. bulk deMiry)
The follo ....·ing are tests which may be carried out for estimating the durability ( 1- :1660 100

of stone: (t) Rate of water absorption or permeability, (2) percentage porosity,

(3) saturation coefficient, and (4) resistance to frost. They provide information
which un be compared with Itonet whMe durable qualities and other properties
are known, and whilst such comparative tests are not decisive, they do give data
I The ape' of a Itone Iplre conllill of block. of Itone .,.h.eh Ire u,ullly connected
tOKether by • centnl ""rtlal metal rod. It I. falrty c:ornmon e"perlenee to find that
these bloch Ni,·e Je\leloped crack. , and ml'cstlJlallonl hne loo...n that the defecll we~
cau...,J by the cnrroa.on of the roJ~, The .,.ork of IUtoralion is co,l1y, .. KIIffoldml{
• M. to be er«:ted, and the .,.-hole of Ihe defectwe stonework must be ~moved 100 repllCCd
"'lIh new block..... hleh Ire" IhrClJcd .. ol'er a non-con-od.ble "Mical rod.
The percentage poroltUes of the "one ipecimel1l {Ipproxunate IIze, uS mm by
,~ nun by somm),!I\leninTlbIH Vlhnd VIII canbedetennined byullngthilformull.
ThUI, Ilkong the Appleton ItOne: whu:.h heidi the hit In Table VII, Ihe bu.lk deru;;ly
bemg :I 370 kg/m ' the percental" porOilty - (J - :
~:) too _ I I appro... , the
figu~ liven In 1M Ilble.
3. SD"',O/'ON C~Jfinnlt TIJI.-Oll1Ulge ClulCd by frosl i. referred 10 lbow
Very ponNl IIOnH will ,btorb more water than othe,. leu poTOUI and Ire the~­
fore more vulnenble to darnlge due to frot! ICllon. If the voicb a~ completel,.
filled WIth Wiler and thi. water freue., the muhina pm.u", will tend to di.Npl
the cell wall. by mtemal prellure. If, however, the inter-connecced pora (ICC p. 14)
 MINING AND DRESSING '''9

A p P ~A T U s F o ~
F ~O S T ACTI o N T E s T WWT. IroN COVER
srtClIolIN~ Mi. Fl'OlfN FOR IIGHTEfN HOUI<.S HOU","
THE FREEllNG MIXTURE CONSISTS ~ TWO

"*_
PMTS IJY WEIGHT) ~ KE TO
SALT. tHI~
srfClIUN COI/TAINER
Of BAG FILLED WITH SAWDUST
·VAlIYI>'" \.~'f1...c.::""'-_'1"'--t--_-:-:~1r:..
F'-DJA -10 TO - "., .-

A ....~'~'UT

5~fCIMEN

SECTION
SEC T I 0 N
o v E F L o w w o 0 6 0 X, I E CONTAI N f
T N K. SPEC I M E N ONTAIN E R.
I""i 6001
,.",
FIGU8E 39

are only partly filled wilh "Ittr, there 01<1)' Ix> lu!fie1"n! space within lhenl to allow
(or ,h,. e~plnllun, amI damlRe 10 the stone Itn,IClure w,lI not occur H"nce Ihc
"110 of water absorbe.! 10 the ,'olume of, Old spice ml)' be laJ.en II. meuure of Iho:
capICH)' of 1M lIont' 10 Tell" fro!ll Ict'DI'I; thIS ""0 is kno,," I t Ihc sa/llrat.o"
CfNJJklnll. It IS ... IUllI) t"preslCd U £0110\0-1 -
l;atural,on coeffic,ent _ wlter absorbed .rter lw~nly-four hour( ~klnj(.
lotal ,.-alec Il»o'1'tlOI'l .f"~r 1'- c houn' bollm"
ThiS lest IS carned out as (0110"* ' The llOne specimen II dned In In O\'en,
11110'''''<.1 to cool. "eI6[heJ, soaked
In cold "Iter for t,,·enty-four hou .... remo\'ed and
""!M'U 'nth I cloth, Ind re-"e,~hcd. The dIfference bet"een these two welghtl
11th" "h,ch 's pl~ced In Ihe nU""l'1l10r (p, loS). The specImen I' then returned to the
"llrr and "",ieU for ti"e houn; it II then .Uo"ed to cool under wlter, n:mo,·ed,
"',ped and "ell/hed; the d,fference beilleen th,. Iluer "eIght Ind the dry "eo,l;(ht
II the figure "hlch .p~ln on the denominator
The satUT1lhOn eoeffieients lupphe-d In Tlbll!'$ VII and VIII "ere obtamed In thIS

•
 110 MASONRY
manner. Thut, ukinllhe Portland .tone lu,ed In T,ble VIII, Ihe dry, _kina and
IXllllng .... elgh" .... ere 1028, 1,08.. and "111 kg respectively, 1i:IVln,' saturation
c:m'fficil'nt
_ ~-.ttr .btorb« .fler twenty-four boun' _kin,)
(tot.1 ",-.ter absorbed .fter five houn' boihng)
_ ~elKhllrter lOakini (I -084 kJ) -dry weiBht ('"028 kif)
weight Ifter bollin, (1'111 kg) dry weighl (l'olB kg)
- ~t .. 0-67 (ue Table VIII).
ThIS coefficIent hu • prflcuo.::.l ....lue .. It II conSIdered 10 be • helpful 1I\lIde to
the ctp.cuy of the itOi'll' to wnh,und froll ICllon. A. I general n.&le, ;1 II ~lIlrded
thai. none hlnng I IIIUl1ltion cocfficlcnl of 080 and under should not be li.ble to
damagt from frolt action. As, ho ..... ever. there arc exceptions to this, It It dCllTl.blt
to .ubm!! I Itont of unkno\\ n fro.t ~lilUnce to I frc-uing lest (see below).
.. f"TOJl R~mt(Jn(t TI"It.-The apparatus used' for this pul'J'OSot i. Illustrated at II,
Fi)! 39. It con."u of a .... ood bol( (560 mm by 560 mm by 530 mm deep of ~5 mm
Ihick limber), • llnC ,ce container (Js6 mm by 356 mm by JJO mm deep) with lid. a
\I rou)!ht .ron .pecimen contamer (167 mm by ~54 mm by 130 mm deep) with co"er.
Ind a big filled ....,ith .. wdull (or IImillr insulating matenal) al a cover to the wood
b."The teSt ,. performed .n the follo\lmg manner; Sawdust (or granullted cork)
u). deplh of .bout 100 mm is placed II the bottom of Ihe wood box; the icc cont.mer
11 placed on lOP of Ih •• u .. dust Ind Ih •• or limilar Insul.tlng mllen.1 " p.cked II
the ,ide, III sho\ln In the &-eCI.on; Ihe 1I0ne spec.mens Ire placed In the speCImen
conumer, the melll cover •• 1Ighd}' screwed do .... n to enlure Ihat the rubber p.cked
JOInt " wlltenJ!!,hl, Ind Ih.s COnl •• ner ,s pl.ced Wllhm Ihe ice «mlllner_ The freelmg
miXIUre .~ Ihen placed m the ,ce contllmer, the l.d •• filled on .t and, finally. the
sawdust bag ia placed o\"er Ihe oUier box (see section). The freez.n!!' m,xture consi".
of l parIS (by welRht) of ,c.. 10 I part (by welllht) of common sail. Thl. produces a
temperatur" In Ihe specImen contamer "ar;,mR from -9' to -,. C. approx. The
Speclmenl.re subjectN 10 th.~ temperalure for ei8hteen hoUri, ,fl". "h,ch Ihey lTe
remo ...,d and Mradual!. Ih~wed m .... ater for .ix hours; after e'(lmmillon. they Ire
replac"d, a)!ain froze.., for eJj,ihtccn hours, remo\'ed, lhawed for ,'x hours and e'l;-
Immed Thll cycle II rc-pealed until Ih~ samples hl\e under)!one len frffzinl(!!.
Th" .pecimens h$led In Table \'11 "ere telted m Ihis manner. It \1111 he seen
th~1 lOme were unat'ft'<.:lw and <>,h",. ~howcd damaRe ., Ihe Irr,«o SU'"P or poor
qUlhly" unoull)" damSReo.! wh"n lubj«ted to thiS tetl. &orne lphn,"~ Ind ahowm~
simd ... 'I!n5 of d,srupt,on .flH onh- t~e firsl or second fret'~U'I!.
The \leather ('ondlUo", e\peneneed m thIS country Ire not sufficiently ""ere to
caU5l! fro~t daml(!r n ' stone\lork '" I/"neral" IlhnR, unless Ihe Slonn are face-bedded
and th .. stone "of m'enor quahly, but cnplng, etc., lionel are lilbl" to di~intellnllon
if $ubj«ted tn prolollRt'd pconod~ of nln followed hy frost (see p_ loS).
Other tnU Indude I chem,{;Ilt ... t (~uch as subjec1lO8 the spte.mens In a elO5Cd
t:lOk to h)'drochlonc ac,d fumes) and Ihlt for determining the compTe.. "e urenRth;
• machme uK<! for the litter IS shown It E. Fill". 9. and d"scribed on p. JZ
QUARRYING AND MINING
A description of quarrying appears In Chap. J, Vol. I. Opcn quarrying
.s not resorted to when building stone is at a considerable depth below the
surface, as the remo\'al of the oH~rburden would be too costly. Beer stone and
most of the limestones (including Congnt, Corsham Down, :\lonk's Park and 51.
• 'AI 1M Dep.rlment of Bu,k!.nR. !'1anchC$ltT l'ni,ersll}, inltll"le of Sc,ence I nd
Tt'Chnology
Aldhelm Box Ground, see Table VIII) obtained in the Bath district are mined,
A typical stone mine consists of an adit or tunnelled opening made in the side of
a hill at the level of the best stone. The adit is continued as the stone IS removed
and follows the bed. Branch tunnels are formed from this main gallery. In
the Box Ground mine the underground workings pass from one side of the hill
to the other, a dist2ncc of S kilometres, and the galleries in some places are
nearly 30 m below the surface. The height of the tunnels is at least equal to the
thickness of the good stone beds, which may be up to 3 m, and the width may
exceed this.
The roof and Roor of a tunnel consist of hard coarse !lone. The first opera-
tion in winning the limestone is to pick out the top 230 mm of the stone just
below the roof; this is called the picking bed, and the tool used is a long. handled
pick. When the picking has proceeded some I'S or 1·8 m, a long hand saw is
employed (which is operated at the handle by both hands) to divide the rock by
vertical cuts extending from the top to the next bed and al about I'S m horizontal
intervals; this operation is comparati\'e1y easy as Ihe stone is very SOfL A block,
having three free sides, is removed either with large crow bars or by a crane, the
rope from the latter being attached to a lewis bolt inserted in the face of the block.
The blocks. which may weigh from 6 000 10 8 000 kg, are squared up wilh saws.
and then lifted by crane on to bogies which run on lines along the tunnel to the
surface depot. The roof is supported at intervals by strong cross-beams sup-
ported by props at the sides; falls of Ihe roof are also nerted by the insertion of
oak wedges in any vertical cracks or vents,
When Bath stone has just been removed it contains much quarry sap; it is
soft, and if used immediately it would weather badly, It is therefore allowed
to season for a period before being fixed. The time allowed for the blocks of
stone 10 remain in the stacking ground depends very largely upon the demand,
but normally the stone is seasoned for sc\'eral months before being dressed,
If necessary, the Itone C:ln he dressed soon after minin!!: if obtained between the
late spring to the end of September, but that mined during the winter months
is stored underground till the following spring before it is worked. Damage
from frost is thus pre\ented.
MACHINE DRESSING
A brief description of certain machines used for dressing stone is given in
Chap. I, Vol. I. Some of these arc illustrated here in Fig. 40.
Frame Saw (s« .... and o). - Th,* machine, whIch IS ",SC'1.I for SI"lOR 1"8e bloch
into 5evcralsmal!er Ilabl, has. ,"mit frame "h.ch holds the duired number of lIeel
saw blldes The fram" 11 Impended bv four rod!, and oprralet WIth I blckward
lind forward mot,on by m"ans of • connt'Clmg rod, secured to tM fnme Ind the
crank.haft of th" /l".het'l "hlch ,s d",,,n by d«lric or olher power. The blade.
'are e,ther corruRlteJ (set' (' ) or wavy or plsm m section, the fonner he,n)! commonly
used for sandslOne. Ilme.lOne, s[lte Ind gran'le. I nd Ihe plam Iype for mlmle;
they Ire 7S, 100, IlS Or I_~O mm wide by J-l mm Ih,ck (fo. marble). S mm Ih,ck
(for sandstone and IImntone) Ind 6 mm th,ek (for Rranilf). This machine is made In
 MASONRY MACHINES
nnoul .iut, the maIunUITI aiu of .tone thai can be dell! with vuying (rom :;a'4 to
42 m lonJ 1-:1. to 1'" m wide and I·a to 1,8 m thick.
The block of .tone 10 be convened II placed on I OOIJlC or trolley, picked finnl,
.nd level, and wheeled In po&Iuon under the IlO,ms fl"U'M The required number of
blades d fixed In the frame at the nec.euary distance apan. The m.:umwn number of
blade. .. hieh mIIy be fitted to lhe (nlme depend. upoa Ihe hardncH or the "one
• 00 the PO"""t-r of the macrune; It'nc ..lIy the number doel not u~ t .....ch·c, .nd Ih.,
mly be reduced 10 four or five hilda If the .tone i. very hard; for marble ,labblng
wht:n the t}"ckneM of the ,l.M mly be only I J rnm. the number of bladH (whu;:h ,re
KeUred by JpeCI.1 finmgs) may reach thinr. The m.:h.Lne i. let Into o~ratlon
aU'Ln, the at'" frame to descend lhe long '"'onn Kro:w, In the four ICI' .t I pre-
dClcmllned .peed , ... d rcaul1ted by the ratchet arrangement ool'llrolled by the le,'en
• ho"l1 II It. The nle of the downwud f~ i. ugulated .ccordln/j: 10 lhe lu.rdnell
of the 'Ione, Ihe numbcr of bl.do used, elC,; u . gULde, the CUlllftg .peed. of one
3'7 m long mlChlfte, h.vlIl, I..... ellte bl.des, .re u, 30 .nd 76 em per hour for hlrd
IInd.tone, Portllnd lIone .nd Balh 1I0ne respecti,'coJy; • Ilmilir machlfte, wllh
fOUT bllde., I'LII ....... grallLle II Ihe rale of from -z,S to" em per hour; for CUlling
thlft II.btL of m.rble. Ihe speed LI reduced to .boUI "cm pu hour In ordcr 10 secure
thc dellred ACCuUCy.
An .bnll\·c m.ter"I, such u cholled .bot htetl pellell), .hlrp land or Clr_
borundum, In Iddillon to W'ler, mUll be used to fac,htate the III' Iftg operllllon, The
wSler II Iupplied from a lank "lUlled above the machLrIC and It .utom'lic.II)· 0.111_
tnbuled olter the 1I0ne IhroUllh 1m.lIt'pl fixed In IWO InnnerK pipe. whLch elthH
,wlngb.ckw.rd. snd forwards wilh the frame or are kepi .1.llOnny, The .brni,·e,
pI.ceQ II requLred over the cuu or kerfs III the stone by the laW)-ef (min In chlrge
of the machlfte), I. CIIrned by the w.tt"r do ..... n the cut. 10 the lower edllU of Ihe hllde. ,
.nd thul dupenl the CUll dunna: tht" re<:iprocalmg action of the bl.de.; 1ft .ddillon,
the wllt"r cool. the bl.de. and thus pre"enU undue Wtlr of the "eel Steei.hol II
I(t"nt"rli!y used for corrugated blldes, except for limestone, .. hen lind Ihould be
used, IS ,hot rust •• nd would cause d'M:OlontlOn
The crosl-Kcllon II A .how. I block of .tone partoany lI ..... n IIltO Ie,·t"n .lab•.
On compltuon of the" .I.bbmg,'- the fnme .. ItopP"td .nd n,sed, the bogie
.. run clear of tl'le frame Ind the nonc IS remo .. ed
The frllm~ ..w II the most uaeful mlchLne for cutllng hard 1I0n~,
ArotMr mlchlM, knol'n II the rip S.....•• I.J somewhal Ilmllir to the abo .. t" 1'-lIh the
exception that III Width I. Rn:alU th.n Ita length Ind the Wide bogie run. on I track
II Tll/htlnl/ln to th.tshown 1111; Ihe swmg frllme has thus. tnml"erae r";lprocatlng
motion The np III' IS UKfull}' employed for crolS-cu:tlnj{ block. Ind espe<:I~I1}'
thole .. hlch are too ",de for the ordinary frame hw
Diamond Saw (see Dl,-ThLs machine js used for rapidly Ind accurately CUllln10C
rl'lll,,~I~' .mall block. of Slone. such 1$ slabs from the frame IIW , It has a clrcul ..
lleel III' bl.de .... hich 11 caused to rotlte by In ele<:lnc motor al I high speed to cut
the Itone "hlch tu,'el. towlrd, It on I mo,'mg table. The "U of IIW blade ,'ule.
from 0,6 to 2. m S.W blldel mUSI be carefully tcnsloned (Chip, I, Vol. III), Welded
to the nm of the: bllde ue U_sh.ped 11",,1 socket. or dips into each of I'hlch a half
Clnt doamond II securely fixed; In enlargement of. panlon of I bl.de i. Iho" n It
I; the da.mond •• re "'llIlered. I' IndlC~ted, m order that the "Idth of Ihe cut II fully
C(werw. four lOCke" per 2.5 _mm diamell'r of bl,de arc proltjded, thus It- S m blade
II fitted I' IIh 2..0 lOCkets pro\'lded With the lime number of dl.mond,_ The mU:lmum
IP.,.,u u{ th~ 1.>1...1" ~.n" .. nh III diameter; Ihal of I 1'5 m L,hameter bllde It 575
re,'I, rc" mm, l"hLI .. I I '8 III dllmctl'r blade has I maxImum velocity of .. 80 re .... p..,r
min Thl' speed II reJlullied accord Ill!! to the charllcter of the stone, It belllg much
leu for. hlrd IIndstone thin for I t<)ft limeslonl'; In order to '''old d~maRI' to the
arnSC'o of the 110M, Ihe 'pHd of the blade IS 10l'esl "hen the blade II just enlenng
and lu,ma the block. The deepest Cut thai a III" bladt" I'll! make IS leu thaI'! half
the dllmeter of the blade, thus, for clllmple, the maximum depth of eut of In 2. r m
bllde ,.,pproXlmately 0'9 m and the ThIckness of stone I'-ould b.I, futricted 10 thiS
A '",lIer feed, nKI'U'ry to cool the blade, is pro\"lded I •• hol"n II D, The PIpe
can be raISed or lo"ered II requIred to deIL"l'r Wiler on top of Ihe Itone_ A RUlrd
" fillcd 10 the upper half to pre"ent Iplashmll
TIt I\onl' II pl.ced upon, but not nKesunly fixed 10. I cau Iron "ble I'hlch
• blade, "h,ch IS dnvclailed to pro"lde a key. Clrborundum blades (lve beUI'T finished
III
moves on ronera. After the blade has been hrou,ht to the required position by
tra\'erslng th" framl', the table IS ad.'anced 4ulckly to bTln!;" tht" I!on" up to lhe bilUc
Ind proceeds It the desm:d spee.! unlll the cut has been formed, aher whIch the
tlble IS qUlcL:iy returned The machone has (I)ur chln~es I'll fCi.'J fl)r CUll on", on
Iddmon to the quick _dunce Ind return, Ind these chin"," an: readt1~' cif•.'ctcJ by
the ..wyer operating a le'·er.
The CUlling speed depends upon the horK-l""l"er, hardness o{lhc Slone and depth
of cut A 2.25 k..- m.chonl' Will 13..- II 0-9 m thick block of PonliUld ."m~ at th~ r.ote
of I lOO em' per mln_ ofll\O'n lrea 1111. rate IS much hlJ,(hcr Ih,n Ihlt of Ihe fr.ome
III', but whll~llhe Illterc.an deal I'lth all trJX'~ 1)1 stonc, Inch,ldlnl:" J,(ranlte, I diamond
"" II only SUItable for relah,-el)" soft stones, su"h as lim",tonM, ... huu stonl.'S would
qUickly dama~e the blade and "ear out th" lock..,u .
The machine can alto be pro\ldcd "Ith t\\O tabl.." "hlch can be cIThcr used
togethcr or one c.n be loaded "hilst thc stone on the "th..,r " bclnl:: CUi
ThIS machlnc rna)' also be pro'ided I'IIh t"" circular U" blades, "hen It IS called
I tK'" blade oc d""I~x ",admft It h:u tLther one o[ t\\O I~ble., the bller mo.-lIlil on
Kp'rate Irach parlllld to uch other The bbde" "'l1h It lal~ral mo,ernent, are
lI'Idependent and may be IrnHM:d III thc same or opposite ullecllon as rcqulred.
These blades can be raIsed or lo..-en.'d (kno" n I t I ¥lJ"'fl and /nllml! mOl/on) anJ 8fe
thus lI'I.-.lulb,e for fomlln,lt cuts los than the thld"..,,, of the Hone 'In op"nllOn
called cllnk"I;) as reqUIred for Ilrom'es III wlIlliow ~dls, Ctc., for '!.m",~I1",!! (["n10val
of portions oflhc backs of Slones su"h ;ot ar" .e'julred tn be fi~l'd to st..,d beams and
pdl..-, of sted-fnlmed bUlldllll/S, cIC.), r/'C"IJIII~ (",J(-, J~mll stnne. ) and for "n"'"1::
mouldlll,ltS of cornlcel, etc. The ma'lll1um \I'rllc,,1 monment" 0-1) m The ,Irea I)f
u" n surface of Portlanu slonc" hen the CUtl~ o-y m deep and both b!dd6 I ..... I)p"r3lLnJ,(
I~ .ppro"mald~· 5160 cm' pcr mm Thll machme has lar).!",l), repl~c..,d Ihe smilie
bl.d" type
Cl'05$ooCut or Beam Saw,-Th,,, con~"t. ot" Ii Ion/.( '"m"-..,,,, ClSt ,ron heam,
supponed by I pillar at each end, dlonlC" hlch ~ Clrcul .. sa" blade" """,u",,..J 10 tra"d;
"I' nblalOable 10 two SI~".alln"'nl1 a mll"mum tTd'en" Ilf hb..:" '.If 2-.. and l"7 m.
Thc lalll:est SIze of blade IS 15m anu Ihl' /.(1'-" ~ ma~Imum depth of cut of .ppmxi-
maldy 0-6 m A ,,,de tabl.." mounted on "h.....,ls or m')\'IO" on In"..,[\eJ ...,e-shdes
fa, shown II J), IS usuall~ pr"nded. alth"ul/h Ildc-b)·-..de t" In tabl •• Ire al.ol\lIl.ble
The table, ""h the noll(.' In P"'I~ltI'lIl, I' brnUlo:ht unJer Ih., hbde, adJu51N and
locked; Ihe b:ade IS Ihen made 10 tran''''' Ind cut the IIone 1J..lth fi"J J"'-~I,, and
'"~ arrJ jal/mm','m.n( Iyp"s are hallable, the f"nn~r beLnll: u ..:lul for pl.JIl Ul'ln\l:
and JOlIlhnll: (wch "SQuaTln\l: end. of blocks 01 "one, ed,," of mArble slabs, etc.) and
thl' lalll'r, "hlch permllS of, m",,,mum '-I'[\leal mn"emcnt olthe hl.de nf )80 rnm, LS
In,-aluab!e for che<:klOl(, channellmloC and rKe'll$lnl(
The bladt" may be of t"Ith"r the dl.mond I)r earoorunJum 1«« below) Irpe A
typIcal CUll1n\l: spc<:d h.- a dllnlflnd .a<\ " I ~IO cm' per mln_ (or Putland llOne; thiS
spc<:d IS r<"<iuced to from one_lhlrd 10 one-half lithe bl.Je" of the tarborundum Iype.
Gravity Saw (see Ij.-Th" Iype IS so (llbl as the "hit" ~upportlllg tht" stone ..
pulled fO'""'rd panly by th~ force of IoCr.. II,' A counll'r-"~II/ht, .dJuJted according
In the "elll"ht of the stone, is sUlpend~ b)' a "Ire toJX' which passes o,-er pulley
" 1 .. (Ih" block of "hlch II .ecured to a mo( elC_, beam), under the 10l'er pulley
.. -z" Ind j~ an.ched to th~ fo", •• d end of the mO'1n1C "bit" Thu.,. smoolh pull.
,,"h .. d,snnct .:conomy III po"er, .. obt~JIled throulo:houl the CUI. The backward
mowment of the rahle 15 accomplished h)" operatJllR the hlnd"hecl ,. I ..
The- Cast Iron table has Iran~\'frse IInJ 10nICIlUdai slou to recewe clamps for the
a~cutale seltlnj.! and CXpedltl()Ub faslcnll'll/ do"n of Thc .tone; It hu I dup longi-
ludlnal ,101 10 allow the hlade to pu, belo" the under lurfac~ of the stone. One
Iype. of mn,mum Size 3 m by I m, IS kno" n as I (rOIJ ("'n'fft lab/t, as II c.n be given
11 IranS,'I'r<e mO>.£ment b.- opcrallnll the h~ndle of .crew .. a ", The maXimum cr055
movement IS 076 m A number of parillel cuts can thus be formed With one placing
of the Slone The other Iype, called a p/lll" lablt', cannot he mo,·td tranS\·crscly.
ThIS machine ma .. be pro,',Jcd "-Ith elthcr • diamond bl.dt or I ca,bo,u"dum
biud, , The lauer I~ • bled blade" IIh a 50 to 7S mm WIde TIm of carborundum <an
Ibrn"',, malenal. bclnl( I c..,.SlIllme compound of carbon .nd ,,!tcon); Ihe carbor-
undum. mlxcJ ... "h shell:oc, II huted .nd pressed round Ihe penphery of the steel
~
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MASON R. Y MAC H N E s ~

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JENNY LIND POLISHE~ PLANE~

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 S TON E 0 RES SIN G S TO OP E N I N G S
.urile" .nd finer cuts ,h.n those fonned by d,amond blades, and they can be used
for t;.oth hard .nd fOft 1101'1"_ Tht.r cuthnM Rpt'cdllrt, ho,",cvu, not more Ihlln half
lho:»e of diamond blades; thus. tYPical ~peed. Ire zoo rrun pcr mm. for ISO mm
LIat:. of Ponland stone and 100 nun per mono for JOO mm lIab., and the$e nles Ire
.pproJ:lrn.u,iy doubled If d.amond blades are used.
Gn",!y &IIWI are made of threto' types, namely, II) fiend heighl, ,uluhlc for plai"
..",i.nt and jointing. (2) ,lU oNllal/ for chC'CkmIC, channdhnQ' and Ilnkin.'!, .nd (])
"rtnl('Ful, which CulS the alone II Iny anglc from ¥ut.cal 10 h"nzoo'al, II II h •••
1-,.n",c1hnr head which can ..... dj"" ..<l '0 • ~'''rlICIII Or ",d,n~ plane II requu"d.
The lautr can be provided wIth. carborundum .... heel (,.00 mm d,ameter and from 25
to So nun thic:k) in lieu of the circular blade, "h,ch roules In a \erllcal spindle and
(trind. Ind mould. Ihe ~ge. of the stone or mlrbl~
Planin, and Mouldin, Machine •• ~As Implied, thue are ulled for mlchlnlng
the cxpoKd flc;e or facn to the desired finish and for mould inK blocks of atone,
One of the sunplell, 1<nO"'11 as Ihe tON/'''K arm or r~"J,blt p{a"t', is shown It J. For
lurfacing, the flone (of I maximum length of l 7 m) I~ fiud upon the ,odt•• Ial!{t
ber..·een Ihe t ... o ",en, "'lIh the face to he dres!oed uppermost Wide bloch of stone
filled on the rockin(t table (",h,ch may 1:).., only t6s mm Wide) arc lceommooated by
lup;>ortlng the o\'erhanKlnJf portlOnl by ... 00<1 resllnll upon ... cdltes on the main
lable. One or more 10(11. are fixed by ... edlle. In Ihe /1')(,1 bo:r .nd the latter is moved
alons the' r,on.JouJd 10 the' required POSltlon b)' m3nipulatino.rlhe' hlnd ... h«1 tho ... n;
the crou·hcad 15 10... cl"C'd by po ... er or by the olKllIlur pulllnJ,l do ... n on Ihe rope
until the' edge of IhL'! tool IS just be'lo\\ the lurfa(:e of Iht: atone. A. the ma,n table'
which IUrpanl the loaded rocking lable moves forward on In"frled ,'ee·slides, Ihe
lumce 0 the Slone' ,I cut II Indicale'd " H; the cross·hnd (or ta"/If'll! arm or ' ... ·"siblt
Mad) ''''lngs oVe'r on the ~'urn '","e'l of the .tooe ... h,ch lutomahull) occurs ... hen
Ihe' ,top, Idjusled n reqUired al Ihe .,,11' of the main I.bl<", COrnU on contact", Ilh the
IrlrlttT ... hich mOH'$ tbc dnvln!: bdt fmm on~ pulley to Ihc other It thus cuts In
both directions, Ind for th., rCOlSOn II ~coll",,~d 10 be th~ bc~1 machone for lurfacinu
The cross·hud .. lowered a~ reqUired after nch CUI The rate of lurfacln~ stone
il dependent upon sevenl cond"I<>n., bUI In appm>;lma!" .\'<"n~ speed .. 0'9 m'
permm
Whil" csllentllUy used for ,urfaCln!!, Ih" machine can ~l$o be' used for moulded
worlr. l't!.U$, for corniCes and ~Imollr membe ..., a plait box lOin ... h,eb II fitted I
plll~ or tool ha'iong an edge sm,t}w,d 10 the re'ecse of Ihe reqUlretl mould il fixed In
the 10(>1 h"" The rocicinll lahle I. rolate<! .,.,'" "';lui II .he: ..h'kHCtl In"le 10 IS [0
bnng the surface oflhe Itone to 1M: moulded onto I con\'('nienl position relatl"e to IhL'!
tool which cuts the $IOne tlurlnlllhe forward nlO,'erne'nt of the' table. nefo,e I Slone
il placed on the machine: for mouldlnl!', OrlC' .. nd il "CUI In .. to lhe requil1"d $I!CliOn
by hand by Ihe mlton
The rockinl( Ilble c:an he remo,,~d 10 that large bloch Can be machined by fi>;ing
them directly on to the mlin table
For c.n;:ul.r work, lucttas column" IUminR." 1'1'0 melll bnclcell In': fixed 10 the
nuI;n IIble'. The block Q( Ilor..., IS .upported by NoO hO .. ~onlll met.1 " cenlre...
which Ire .ttlehed 10 the bnockcts and are let Into the enda of the Itone'. The cuttin"
proceu is IB deacribed lbove, tbe: main lable movinR fonurd lowa rd s the tool box
fixed ,n the middle of the crOlll·head and the Itone rottted afler each CUI by meana of
l(C'anng fixed on one' Side of the bIllCkel.. Flul" are formed, afler Ihe IUmlng hal
been eompleted, by specially 'hlped tool. fixed In the 1001 bo>;. A column lhaft
up 10 1· .. m long Ind I·" m dilmete' can be worked on ,hil mlchine.
Circular column lhafll, ClIPS Ind buea, balUIle'n, eIC., art: al.o turned in I UJtJot
Lib Ihe wood·worlung lathe dncnbed in Chip. I, Vol, JII, the alone il fixed 10 IWO
a:ntta, Ind aa II rolltCl it ia cut by I tool fined in a holde' which Inve'nes the' Ie'ngth
of the .tone. Flutes I", formed by the pl.ninR machine or by hand
Other m.chinCl cut Ihe 1I0ne in Ihe forward d,reclion Qnly, and Ire known la
''6it1 htati pia".", rouxlo,M,. They hive I quick >1:lum They are l!Ipt<:lIl1y In'
vlluable for fonninR intnCllte moulded wort. No hind fimlhing il necuury, u the
mld'llned-cut IUrflCel Irt: excelle'nt
.One' Qf these riRid lw!ld pl.ninl!' machinCl, CIIned an op.n·ndt pIDr'~', h .. two tool
boxH, (1)1': within Ihe crou·head (or crou'lrm) and the other I t the lide' of the lirl8le
pat.. The upper tool box Inve'1"ICI t:hC' c:ro.a-IrTII Ind the tools can be made to
113
mO'e vertlc.lly; thL'! lide tool box hIS a rise Ind fall mOllon and the hOrllontally
titted tool. Cln be moved hontontilly. The lap toola cut the upper lunlee of the
110"'" ",hlln Ihe ..de' 1001. mould the venlcal lurflCe at Ihe' ,Ime opcontlon. A big
liVIng of tlm~ Ihereby reloltl. Th" mlchme II panlcularly e'ffKllve for deep
COmlcei. UnlIke the cantlng"rm planer (lee J), It hn only one pillar .nd It can
the'refoTe dul With wide (up to 1. m) bloch; it " empJoyC'd fot fomung return
mouldings on Slonel IUch II quoin cornices Imd llring COUI'ICI. Iqulre pIlllr Ind
pll.Her butt and capl, etc
A"ull,,:r rigid hud plamng machme I' Ibe' /ow·~d pla"n. AI ,mplied, Ihil
has four tool boxCl, lot., t.... o In the croll·head Ind one It the Ilde of each of the two
pilla,.", Like Ihose in Ihe opeo'Slde planer, the'tc tool bolles Ire independe'ndy
operated Ind the' mlchin~ I. therefore CIIpable of mouldin, and lurflcing the top
Ind side flces of t ... o block. of Itone at the lime lime.
For marble, granlle and IImilar brittle $lone, clrborundum wh«ls of the requlrC'd
,hlpe may be fitle'd inlO the tool box~1 in lieu of .lied tool.. The' Ibn"ve Iction
of Ihes~ wheell, 1"'lIed by wlter delivered on the Slone, {omu Ihe desired aec:bOb
.. they rot lIe I' I hlllh ~peed
Polishing Machines.-Thelle include the (a) Rubbing Bed, (b) Jenny Lind
Polish.,r and (e) nit.<: Polisher.
(a) Rubbl"lf BItd.-ThLl conSI5U of I clrcul .. mel.llible, 1·8 to ,,·1 m dilmeter
and ,Q to 6~ mm thick. which re'''olvCl on I '·ertICiI spmdle It I lpeed vlrying from 10
(the larllut ~IZ") IQ"5 re'·I, per min. It hll I clrcul., trough round Ihe rim to any
IWI)" th~ liqUid slurry produced during the rubbmg operation.
This mtehone' IS now uSC'd ehleRy in marble Ind aranite' worh, and whil.t il was
formerly tmployed for surflcmg hmCllone Ind IIndstonL'! bloc.... , It ,I now nrely
uKd for Ihll purpose, 15 the Circular IIw--e.pt<:lIlIy the carborundum ..",,~d
pllnt,." II'''~ a surface' ... h,ch il 1IIIIfiCtOry for mo" purpose. al I cheaper COli.
The block or slab of marble, etc., II placed on the table, tnd lharp I.nd or lleel
.hot, togclher ... ,th Wiler, II apphe<1 II Ihe I.ble rotales The frichon created by Ihe
acl.c.l of the IbraSlve be't .... een the table lOp Ind the 1I0ne prodUCCl I Imooth .unace.
Larll<' blocks Ire ke'p! In POSitiOn by a .... ood bum fixed JlCfOII and .Iiahtly above the
table. SmlU bloch Ire controlled by hand.
(b) Jtll")' U"d Pahsht,.-One of sevenl t)'ptl, known .. Ihe "" aruJ/rJ/1 mood,
,I shown II c. It II uaed for Imoothmg and polilhing flit IUrfaces of marble Ind
1I",",le block. or .I.ba. The mlchine, which la fi:lCd to I pillar or w.U, .-onlilll of.
metal fnme CI'I'}IOR.n ann Ind I venical rollting poli.h,"I .piMlt 10 which il con·
necttd a rllb/J,"lf htrul or. po/llh,"lf diu. the dllmeler of the hnd II 150 mm and that
of the dilC i! 300 mm; the ditcl of larl(l'r machlOCI are up 10 750 mm diamelC'f. AI
shown, the f",me WIth Inn i, In two ttCllona and Ihe ..... ivel joinll .lIow the held or
diac to be" Clsily guided In any direct.on: each acetion of the ann .. 0'9 m long Ind a
1·7 m by ' ·1 m , I.b cln be" cove'red by thL'! hnd" ont filtina. The frlme hiS I 0·6 m
vertical Idjualmenl by melru of the hind whL'!el .,.,d acrew Ind, In addilion, the
polithing 'Pindle' can be vert,Clllly adjuSle'd through t7S or :!oo mm. The rubbing
held revolves II a lpeed of :!so reVI. per min.; some machines have two lpeed., one
for smoolhlng Ind I qUlcke, one for paliahong.
A smooth surflce .. imparted to the mlrble or 1I0ne by carborundum blockl,
which I,e of four (tndes, '.1'., COlrse, medium, fine Ind finilhing. These are filled
In turn m th,. Orde'f 10 the rubbing head; the' abruive ICllOn of 1bnC' bloc1r.l II
they rotlte, tOllether ....,Ih the ..... tcr ... hich il dehvered through the hollow polilhing
spiml1e, glvClthe ,mooth lurflce. Thil il followed by the finll polishing proceu, the
fine carborundum block be"on, replaced by the poJisfri. dIY:, which II a metll pllte
faced with fe'lt; oxide' of un, known u I"ftty pauJtJn, il Ipplied, in Idd.tion to ""ller;
the rotlry aet:ion gtaduIUy Imparu I high poh'h to the 1I0ne.
A ml,ble Ilab, Ifter being Ilwn, i. smoothed and polilhed (or" glOiled ") in the
following manner: The' sllb il act on Ihe Itone bench, the CQlrse c:arborundum block
II fitted to Ihe rubbing held Ind the IplOdle il .cjulted to the required height. The
motor ilataned, the water ia turned on Ind the openlor, holding Ihe guidlOg handle,
araduIUy directa the rolllmg bl<>clr OVe'r Ihe whole' ,urf.ce. The prellure of Ihe
carborundum block il incrcued or dimlnllhed by the opentor lowering or nilina'
the' hindIe'. When the aurface h.u been rubbed down to an e'Ven IUrface, Ihe COU'II
carborundum bloclr. ia Jq)laced by t:hC' medium block and the pfOCell is repelled.
"4 MASONRY
After the fine .nl.l tin;shin" blod.:. h.ve been applied In I limilar ITUInner, the .urf.ce
should be very Imoolh. Any ~nl on the mtrble must now be ,,,mo,-ed., the poh.)ung
dill: " fiud, puny powder is Iprmk;eJ over the ,l.b, .nd the .urface i, travened I I
de..er,bed unlll • high pohsh II obl"nw
A tplnh·board, nollOO"n In the sketch, II used to prolKt the operator from the
Ilurry; II " fined to the bench bc' ....'ttn the .Iab .nd the openlor .nd with ,tt upper
cd~ .bout I SO mm ,bo'-c 11K top of the .I.b.
Slab. Jongcr th.n 2,-7 m musl be ~·tc't on the bench 10 allow the untuned ...nf.~
to Ix- de.1! ","h Thi~ '" ol\vi'loo If, .""cad of the .fixed bench. I boRic-which
runl on I track-II .,-,il,hk.
AjIJrN.h~ld modd of this machino;, chelper than the one described, hit no nit
and f.llma," adjustment, b1..It the polishing spondle has. '7S mm vnhcaJ movemtnt.
(e) Due Pofuhcr.-This hiS I IonIC H:nlcal rotary spIndle Inachtd.t lis upper
tnd by • univtrHI jOint to the motor abo\'t Ind "'Ith I )80 mm d"mettr diSC .t ItS
10llltr end The Ipmdle IS teiesoof'lC 10 .Ilow for Ihe .djustmtnt of the disc at the
ret,Julred height, and Ihe unlvenal JOInt permIt! .n arel of Ipproxlmattly a'l m
dlameltr of marble or Krani!e to 0., por.shed
MoulJ~tI ,urfacel of marble cannot be smoothed and pohshtd by thue m.chmes
and art dul! "nth b> hand Such ",orlllOlOmoothed or "grounded" hv usinlf different
gratin of carborundum p<>w<1er; a piece of ",alt.. "one (Water of Ayr Jlone) Illhen
applied to complete Inc smootnlng proceu, ,fler wnich the lurface II polishtd 1».
IpplYlnlf putty powder on • felt" jack" or pad.
Gran.te IUrfac:t'l, especilily wh~n Ihey hive been IXed (see below), are tome-
lime. amoothed by tM appilcal10n of lied lhol Ind emery powder .n.tead of the
urborundum block,. Dunn~ the fir.t or lholm,. procC'N, lhe rough .urface II
rendered perfectly flat by tnt Ibnln'e achon uf the shot Ind "ater and the rotary
call Iteel plate of the Jcnny Lind Polisher Mad. The second procen i. calif'll
......,.".."', as emery IS uwd In lit'\! of .hot; th .. oompletC'S the RnndltlR Openl.On.
All Inces af the emcry are remo\ed, anu Ihe ,lOUlng or pollshmg openllon .. per-
formed .... lIh the felted disc and puny pD.. der. Somel.mes 011 .1 rubbed mto the
granIte to gwe I tlch 1<:1055.
Inlteld of hanu !(nnJmlf and poh~hm.IC moulded gnmte lurfacel, these opentlOI'll
mly be performed by a !>n,d"IIIm ur ,lid!', A metll casung of Ihc re"c~ shipe of the
ret,Juired Rnn.te secllon il made and alfached to one end of a long rod .. hlch i.
connect"d lit the oppos.te end to ~ \'en;cIII membc:r wh.ch il caused to ... inR IIdewlys
I,k" , pendulum. Arta the ""lin): hn. b,:~n corrcelly plllt:C'd on .h~ moulded jtran1te,
il il cauM'd to ... mll to and fro .. thc pendulum ''''"1(11; shot, emery, putty powdft
and ..... ter Ire .ppILCt.! in tum dunn~ Ihe pTOCnl
Pneumatic Dressing and Carvine Planl_-Th.s compnscsan IIr eompre.sor,
IIr rece,,·er, calt Iron mam a .. PIpe. flc~lble branch lit pipes or hnee., pneumllcc
hammer. and chlM'ls. The laller 1001. Indude the punch or punch~n, pilln, broad
or Itlt, tooth (hl"mg serrated cJI.,'C1) and bush chIsels; the bush chl,eI oonl.. " of
sevenltteel blades, hnlnJ: 5h3rpo.~ tdl.,_, bolted t~tht'r. Ind II used for drnlu:1r
the roul[hnl block •. The 1001. I re fitted InIO Ihe pneumallc hlmmer. Ind lhe IItttr
are anltChed 10 the flexible air how.; a cock 11 fitted nelt the end of each hose by
.... hlch Ihe compreued lir an be turned an or aff by the op<:notor. When the .ir;,
adrruuw to the hammer, Ihe pinon '\I,h.n tht litter llrikes In nlp,t.! 'ucceillon the
head of Ihe .hank of the tool; Ihe fffect af Ih" perCUI500n lellOn .. Ihe~(ore I1mlt.r
to that obtained by the mason \\'hen he strikel II chisel wllh a ml1lel. Hence the
dreuIn.IC openol,on il oomplrat,vei)' .impl", n Ihe opentor il only requIred 10 turn
on the air, plltCe the tool on the I"rf'ce of the lIone Ind lfUide 11 .n Ihe reqUIred
direction. Those tool. a~ \cry rapid III action and Ire caplble of doinl[ \\'ork nnjj:ing
from Ihe heavu::11 drenmR to ""abonte 1'1 ....·'"11. They are elpec1IL1y effective for
dreMlnR Intncuble .tone, such II JnonLte and certl... marble. The llze of the pl.nl
varin, the larae.1 bemll caplble of opentm" fifteen h.mmen Ind employ,", Ihe .ame
number of muon.
Pneumatle hammer. Ind machmcry, .uch .. the fnme Ind carborundum IIW',
have II.-gfly .upetlt'<ied hand-drestlng of Rnmte.
Where the litter I. 11111 employed, the openllON Ire ... m"",hlLt limilar to thole
dac:robed In Chap. I, Vol. I TM ICIpplmg hammer or pIck i. uRd for hammer.
raced and picked ...·ork; fine plded .... ork .. produced by a fine-polnled pIck or a
hammer having a sernted edge; punched work II obtarned by I punch or puncheon
wh.ch unlike lhat thown at N, Fig. 19, Vol. I, II m Ihe form of a hammer resemblmg
a blunt pick. Smgle axtd wark il done with In axe or hUlgi)nll headed hammer
after the lurflce hn been picked; thi. produces plnllel linea an the lurflce which
ar" barely vilible in fine axed work_ The finnt 'Urfl" given to I block of gnnlte
before being .moothed Ind pol1Shf'll i. produced by a hlmmer called a piJlnll /Ut
after the face hn been dressed .... Ith the ordInary llIe; the head of the patent lxe
consilu of lharp lleel bladn, one end of the head h. . . larger number and finer
bladn thin the other Ind I. u~ Ifter the end "1m Ihe th.cker bladn has been
employed.
Helicoidal Wire Sawing PlaaL-Thit it used for q..anyi"'8' stone Ind fo:
reducing large blocklto I IIze luit.ble for the frame IIW. It consisu of • long ....in
(of S 10 6's mm diameter) which tnve1. over and under 1C\'enl pulleys It • nle of
approl1:imltely 60 m per mlft. IS it produces a yemcal CUI in the lIone. The .ystem
hIS nol been commonly adopted 1ft this country.
STONE DRESSINGS TO OPENINGS
Examples of dressing to openings additional to those illustrated in Vol. I
are shown in Figs. 41-46 inclusive_
Six elevations of entrances are shown in Fig, 41. The same treatment may
also be applied to window opening5. Those at A, 8, C, D and E show semi-
circular arches, and that at F is segmental. All of the arches ha\'e stepped
extrado5es_
The youssoirs forming the semicircular arch at A have ears or crossettes.
The keystone extends to a string course. A satisfactory proportion of opening
is obtained if the 60 0 diagonal intersects the top of the transome, as shown
(see also c). The ashlar consists of ahernate thin and thicker courses, that on
the left having rusticated joints (such as the channelled joint at A, Fig. 45) and
that on the right being Rushed-jointed.
In all of IhOl" .. '(~mples, broken diagonal lines indicate the size and shape
of each voussoir, etc. Ambiguity is thus removed and the bonding is made
clear_ A working drawing should also have the amount of bed of each stone
specified by ringed figures (see Fig. 24, Vol. 1)_
The treatment at B gives a bold appearance which is particularly effecti""
for large openings_ Plain courses alternate with those consisting of blocks
•
having a large prOJection. The latter, detailed at S, sho"" a rock-faced middle
portion of each block which is emphasized by the contrasting smooth or plain
finished mouldings_ With certain exceptions, the joints are channelled; the
exceptions include the plain vertical joints necessary to limit the size of some
of the voussoirs. The courses above the springing are wider than those below,
and a moulded course at the impost, such as is shown on the left, may be
preferred to separate the two. The broken construction line!; show that the
channelled joints and cyma mouldings of the voussoirs are parallel, and thus the
rusticated portions are tapered.
The opening at c .hoo,\'S a recessed jamb (see plan K). The arch is .imilarly
recessed and consists of two rings-note the value or the broken diagonal lines
as indicating this, The voussoirs of the outer ring Ire moulded as shown at M.
The bold appearance i. here shown of the steps detailed in section at M, Fig. 49.
 DOOR

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FI GU RE 41
116 MASONRY
Another enmple of • t ...."-ringed arch is shown at D. This differs from c
in that the inner ring is moulded (ICe 0) and the bed joints of its vounoirs
coincide with alternate bed joinu of the outer ring voussoirs. The voustou'$
course with the ashlar sho\Oo"T1 on the left. For brick walls the voussoirs should
course with the brickwork as shown on the right.
The arch at E differs from the two preceding examples, as it is only a single-
ringed arch, each vouuoir being moulded as shown at R. The general jointing is
chamfered (lee p) and the vertical joints of the voussoirs may be also chamfered
as an alternative to the plain joints shown.
The application of a stepped eXlradosed arch to a segmental headed opening
i. shown at p; the voussoirs arc shown coursing with brickwork on the Jeft and,
•• an alternative. with squared rubble w-alhng on the right. The bed joint of the
lower voussoir or springer is below the springing line; this is necessary in
order that the springer may be of satisfactory proportions.
Each of the openings shown in Fig ..f! may accommodate a pair of folding
doors and a transome light, such as arc faintly indicated at A and c.
E:umples of six square-headed door openings arc illustrated in Fig. 42.
Enlarged details of this stonework arc shown in Fig. 43.
The height of a c1assie door openin~ is at least twice its width. but this
proportion ia not habitually followed. The example at 8 and c, Fig. 42, is in
Iccordance with tradition, whilst £ and It show the height to be 1'31 m greater
than the width, a proportion which conforms to that of most of the standard
internal doors listed in Chap. IV, Vol. I.
The doorway shown in eienLtion llt A, Fig. 42, suitahle for a house, is provided
with an entablature. The latter consists of a moulded archItrave, fTleze and
cornice, The student is recommended to study a classic entablature, such as
that shown at AInd B, Fig, 47. in order to become conversant with the proportions
of the traditional type. Whilst these general proportions arc often departed
from in current practice. such di\'ergenct: should be strictly limited, Two
alternative details of this entablature ilrc shown at A and 8, Fig, 43. That at A
conforms most closely to the ele\"ation; because of the cushion-shaped appear-
Ince of the frieze, which is said to be plllt;inQI~d. the centre of the arc forming
the pulvination is obtained as shown at L. Fig. 45. A Rat frieze is shown at B,
Fig. 43; whilst this is of the ume height as that at A. it is usual to make a
pulvinated frieze three-quarters of the heip;ht of the architrave and a plain
frieze equal to the architrave. In accordance ",jth tradition, the width of an
architrne is aboUl one-sixth the \\idth of the opening. and the cornice is from
one and a quarter to one and II third the height of the architrave. Thus.
the classical proportions of this doorv..ay would be as follows: Architrave,
~ x 1'07m - 180 mm wide; frieze.! x 180 mm = 135 mm high (if pulvinated)
and 180 mm (if plain); and cornice.: to: x ,80 mm or about z30 mm (see liso
C, Fig. 44. and Land roi, Fig. 45).
The elevation at A sho~ ashlar walling on the left and brickwork as an
Iiternative on the right. The moulded jambs may be courted as shown on the
left, or the number of bed Joints in the architrave may be reduced as indicated
on the right; I bond stone in the IIchitrave, sho"'n by broken lines at S, may be
used, or a good bond may be obtained if alternate jamb stones are shaped as shown
by full line. at 0, Fig. -+8. In order to minimize awkward cutting of the brickwork
at the cornice, the latter may be finished square as shown by broken lines at T.
A pedimented d~rwayl is shown in elevation at c and in section at B, Fig. 42.
A pediment is a triangular feature which crowns a doorway. window, gable, etc.;
its lower boundary being the horizontal corona and bed mould, and iu sloping
boundaries being the complete cornice; the triangular space between these
horizontal and raking members is occupied by one or se\'eral stones and is
called the tympantun or core. A modification of this triangular pediment is the
segmental pediment. the cornice being curved to the shape of a segment.
The pediment il often midI' uc:cu"'dy high. Th'1 is .voided, and a "!'iflctOry
proportion obtaLncd if the geomelTlCllI construct,on .ho\\ n u c IS adhered to. Thus.
y, ,th one end" (l .. of the fillet of the corona as centre and ,11 y, hole lenl:th .. ab ..
all nd,uI, an arc II dnwn to inters~~t the centre l,ne at .. c "; with" c" as centre and
.. ch .. as radiu, In Ire is Sfruck mtersectmg the centre line.t .. d"; the !aUI'! .hould
be the pomt of mtl'rse<:t,on of I'llher the OOllom of the rakmg corona IS shown or the
bottom of the rakmg bedmould.
It ",;1\ be observed that the raking cornice consists of the crown mould
comprising a cyma recta v.;th fillet. the corona and bedmould. This is shown
more clearly in the enlarged detail at c. Fig. 43. where P equals Q. The Jointing
of the stonework should be carefully studied. The lower end stone or spring"
comprises portions of the cornice. the horizontal corona and bedmould; it
courses with the adjacent ashlar, forming top and bottom horizontal bed joints,
a venlca] Joint at the end of the cornice, and the founh boundary consists of a
vertical joint at the horizontal corona and bedmould which is continued as a
normal joint at the raking cornice; this latter joint coincides with the intersection
between the bottom of the raking bedmould and the fillet of the horizontal
corona. The apex stone is also coursed in ",;Ih the ashlar, the cornice being
stopped against the wall face and the upper bed coinciding with the horizontal
bed joint of the ashlar. A departure from the latter bed joint is usually made
if the stone pediment occurs in a brick wall; here the projecting sloping Burface
of each stone of the cornice is continued to the back and the brickwork is cut
to intersect this raking surface.
A detailed section through the architra\'e is shown at s, Fig. 43. and I portion
of the elevation is shown at R. The stonework at the principal entrance of an
important building may be enriched by carving. Many existing examples ahow
very elaborate enrichment, but owing to the high cost of luch work, the present
tendency is to economize in this direction. Where such decoration is applied,
it is usual to limit it to the bedmould. one or two memben of the architrave and
occasionally to the cro\\'1l mould. An example of ornamentation is indicated It
R.. Care should be taken to provide adequate material in the member for the
I Thi. type is ulually deferred to the third year of a eoUIX, and the pediment i. there.
I
foce ellborated in Vol. IV.
d
 CORNICES
carver to produce the required ornament. ThuiS, tht;; uead u at s, Fig. 43. IUrIlIO;:;u
by the moulding machine (J, Fig. 40), is suitable for the carving of the bead and
reel ornament shown at R; similarly, the ovolo bedmould. is suited to receive
the egg and dart ornament indicated in Fig. 46. An alternative at this architrave
is detailed at T, Fig. 43. Whilst some of the close grained sandstones can be
finely carved, the limestone class is generally most suited for this purpose.
The architrave of the entrance D, Fig. 42, is detailed at D, Fig. 43. Note
that it outer members are returned on the plinth block, which latter must, of
course, have an adequate projection to receive it. The head of this architrave
(like that at E, G and H, Fig. 42) is formed of th~ee stones with secret joggle
joints (see 0, Fig. 2S, Vol. I). An additional feature may be provided either at
u or v in the form of brackets or consoles similar to, but much shorter than, that
detailed in Fig. 46 and placed below an increased projecting cornice.
The entrance at E, Fig. 42, has a wide architrave which is detailed at E, Fig. 43.
The broad outer flat band is continued to form the upper member of the plinth.
The shadow produced at the deep sink i ng emphasizes the rather bold curved
member.
The detail of the architrave at F and G, Fig. 42, is shown at F, Fig. 43. The
prominent moulded member is effective, but see the note below regarding pro-
tection of projecting masonry. It will be observed that the stonework courses
with the brickwork.
Principal doors of bu,ldings of importance are frequently of bronze. The door.
w,th ped,ment and entablature, shown at F and (} is an nample. Briefly, the blom:"
of the entablature and pilaster is of 6· 5 mm thick cast bronze, and, for best work, the
external face of the door i$ formed with 6·5 mm thick bronze cast in the form of panels,
~nd an 3 mm thick shee! bronze backing; the door is So mm thick, with a space
between the facing and backing.
An example of a very wide architrave is shown at II, Fig. 42, and detailed
at Fig. 43.
G,
The necessary leld covenng of cornices has hew purposely omitted in ordn to
make the stone details as clear as possible. It clnnot be 100 stron~ly emphasized
that all projceting slone members should be protected as shown in Fig. 76, Vol. I.
This is especillly necessary in smoke- laden districts (see p. 106). Thus, for eumple,
in addition to the cornice shown at Rand c, Fig. 42, the upper surface ufthe hori~omal
corona should be given a ,·ery slight weathering and be covered with lead. The value
of the drip and throltlng should also be apprecIated (see Fig. 47 and p. 124). The
modern tendency of omitting projc<:ting courses, ,uch as cornices, string courses and
~ills-wi(h their drips and throatings-has resulted in many recent buildings becoming
horribly disfigured withm a very short time after ~rection. Such disfigurement is
very pronounced at door and window opCninl{5 whIch have been finished SImply
..... ith wide, plain but slightly projecting ba,:,ds of finets. Referring ag~in to some of
Ihe entrances illustrated in Fig. 42 and detatled in FIJ. 43, ,t ,s Seen that certain of the
deta,ls should be shji:htly modLfied unless protecuon by string courses, porticoes, etc.,
is afforded. Thus, for example, a small throat could wilh advantage be formed at E
(sec broken line. II x) Ind F (y to be widened to allow for the small throat), Fig. 43.
Additional doorways are shown in Fig. 48, and, as already pointed out,
these door dressings can also be applied to windows.
Six examples of the stone treatment at windows are illustrated in Fig. 44
and detailed in Fig. 45.
"7
Tin: UptUIUg: al "', Fig. 44, accommodates a pair of metal casements (sec
Fig. 62, Vol. I) and a hopper light. The elongated channelled bed joints,
detailed at A, Fig. 45, arc an effective contrast to the adjacent plain jointing.
The double-hung sashed window shown at c and 0', Fig. 44, has a stone
segmental head backed with a two-ringed rough brick arch, and the architrave
consists of alternate moulded and projecting plain blocks. This is detailed at c,
Fig·4S·
The opening at G, Fig. 44, shows an entablature. Traditional proportions
are indicated. Two alternative details are shown at Land M, Fig. 45.
The metal casement in a wood frame (see Fig. 62, Vol. I) shown at J and L,
Fig. 44, is detailed at I), Fig. 45. The latter figure also shows two alternative
details of the window sill at J and K.
The openings at M and 0, Fig. 44, are detailed at E and G, Fig. 45.
An elevation and vertical section of a double-hung sashed window are shown
at 1 and K, Fig. 46. The stone dressings include an entablature with consoles
or brackets. The latter are often elaborately enriched with carving and usually
take the form of a scroll (resembling a partially unrolled scroll of parchment) or
'tJ(}lute. Detail ... shows the side view of a console and one of several methods of
contrasting a scroll is there shown and explained at II. The elevation is shown
at B and t~e architrave is detailed at N. An application of consoles to an entrance
is illustrated at H, Fig. 48.
CORNICES
Several cornices are illustrated in Fig. 47 as alternatives to those shown in
Vol. I.
The plan and elevation of a classic (Corinthian) entablature are shown
at A and B; Fig. 47. i\lany important buildings have been completed with
entablatures of proportions which conform very closely to those indicated in
this traditional example. I Students should study these proportions very closely
and be guided by them when designing stonework for upper features of buildings
and dressings at door and window openings.
The cornice may he provided with a gutter as shown by broken lines at A,
or be similar to that at N, or it may be weathered in the more usual manner as
shown at L. The outlet from the gutter, such as a lead branch pipe, would be
connected to a rain-water pipe fixed in an inconspicuous position; in order to
avoid mutilation of the stonework, the outlet sometimes takes the form of a
swan-neck bend copnected to an internal rain-water pipe. Enrichment, in the
form of a carved bedmould, cymatium (occasionally), modillions (in the form of
horizontal scrolls) and sunk panels (often rose-shaped and therefore known as
rous), may be provided.
The sections at F, G, Hand J show cornices having a small projection. They
, The proportions of a clauic entablature are based upon the diameter or a column
just above ill base. Detai]s of an order, comprising column" entablature, ete., are
given in Vol. IV.
 118
STONE DRESSINGS TO DOOR OPENINGS

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VOLUME 3. r;:r;:J~1

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 120

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 121

DETAILS OF MASONRY AT WINDOW OPENINGS

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I
124 MASONRY
could <1lso be usee.! <1S string' courses. The section :Ind c\c\-ation at c show a
fllltcll b'lnd. A somewhat simil<1T motif is used at the cornice... Cornice L has
a relati\"c\y large projection; the soffit of this type ffi<1y be relicycd by raised
panels or !ll1I/lifes.
The section at;-.: shows a cornice complete with parapet, etc. An economy
in stone results when a cornice is of this compound type, as a rclali\cly small
block is required:lS a crowning member.
:'\ote Ihm all the cornices are throated to prevenl staining' of the mOlsonry
below.
STONE STEPS AND SlA1RS
The design and construction of wood stairs arc introduced in Chap. 1\',
Vol. 1 (Fig. 65), and fully described in Chap. II, Vol. II I. As !le terms,
essential requirements, proportions of steps, etc., arc dealt with in these volumes,
and as they apply equally well to stone steps and stairs, il is unnecess:Jry to
repeat such information here, and students arc therefore recommended to
defer consideration of the following until they have studied the principles of
wood stair construction.
The stone selected for steps and landings must be hard, slrong and durable,
and it should not readily wear to a smooth and slippery surface. Certain of the
sandstones best satisfy these requirements, and" York" slOne (see p. 98) is
usually specified.
Steps are either (1) rectangular, (2) built-up, or (3) spandril in cross-section.
l, Rectangula, Step$. - These are illustrated at n, J, K, L, M, Nand 0, Fig. 048,
Fig. 42 and in Vol. 1. They are the strongest type. A flight of such solid steps
may be constructed with the front lower edge of one step supported on the top
back edge of that below (see L a}')d N, Fig. 48), but the rebated or checked joint
(similar to that at G, Fig. 48) is the best. These steps may be provided with
moulded nosings (see G and H, Fig. 48, Fig. 41, and Fig. 42).
2. Built-up Steps (see E and P, Fig. 48).- The tread and riser of each step are
formed of relatively thin sawn slabs, and the construction is therefore economical.
They are not so 1trong as solid rectangular steps, and whilst occasionally used
without any bedding or backing (see p), they are more often applied as a facing
to concrete steps (see E). The minimum thickness of treads which are only
supported at the ends is 50 mm and this should be increased by at least 13 mm for
every extra 300 mm of unsupported length beyond 915 mm. Slabs which are less
than 50 mm thie . . can be easily fractured, even when being han41ed before and
during fixing, and thin treads constructed as shown at E can readily snap by a
weight suddenly applied unless solidly bedded throughout.
Steps formed of stone treads only, known as skekton stone steps, are sometimes
employed for short, narrow Rights, which are not subjected to heavy traffic and
where the absence of risers is not objected to.
3. Spandril Steps (sec A. B, C, D and E, Fig. 49}.-Excepting the ends which
are built into the wall, these steps are approximately triangular in cross-se<:tion,
and arc Iherefore lighter than the solid rectangular type. Such steps add greatly
to the appearance of a stair and the maximum headroom is obtained by their
usc. The soffit may be flush (see A and B), broken (sec c) or moulded (see D).
A splayed reh.lted joint is formed between each step, the splay of the rebate
being normal to the pitch of the stair. To avoid weak construction and damage
to thc stcp at its back edge (\\ here it is th innest), it is usual to have a 50 mm splay
(see A) for stairs nOt exceeding 1'2 m width, and this is incrcased by 13 mm for
e\'ery additional 300 mm in \\·idth.
T hreshoJds.- In addition to thllie illustr,lted in \'01. I, there are several
rhTfOsholds shown in Fies, 41. 42 and 48. An cxample of One in which built-up
steps are employed is shown al .'\, B, C, 0 :lnd E, Fig. 048. The treads and risers
are solillly bedded and wen jointed in cement mortar (I ccment to 3 sand). The
treads of all external steps should be gi\'en ,) §light f~ll to throw off thc wcather;
the fall show!) at E is 3 mm. The top edge of the nosing should be slightly
rounded off (it is sometimes chamfered), olher\\'i8e it maybe easily damaged. The
nosings may be moulded; seYeral exmnples of moulded nosings are shown at 0,
Fig. 48; A, B, C, D. K, t and M, Fig. 49; Figs. 041 and 42. Solid rect:lngubr steps
may also bc uscd aS:ln alternative. AhernOltive Llcings to the wall 3re shown, that
on the left being of ashlar with a brick backing, ami on the right a brick c<lvity
wall is shown, having a Flemish garJe:1 wall facing (see u, Fig. 18).
The application of solid rectangular steps forming an unimportant entrance
is shown at I., 1\1, Nand 0, Fig. 48. The stcps are built solidly into a wall ,1\ one
end and supported at the other by a dw,uf ..... all (see L an~l ~I) . The front lower
edge of one step is bedded in cement mortar on the top back edge of the ~tep
belo..... (see 1"). Whilst this form of a joint is good enough for a flight of this
description, it is not employed in first-class work as open joints appear if the
mortar beddIng becomes defcctivc. Note thnt the going (254 mm), plu~ twice the
rise (178 mm) as shown at N, equals 610 mm (sec Ch;lp. IV, Vol. I).
The detail at P shows the construction of built-up steps which could be
adopted as an alternative to the above. The Ire.lds and risers arc connected
together by means of three pairs of copper (or slate or other non-corrodible
material) cramps or dowels bedded in ccment mort,lf.
The.simple balustrade consists of 25 mm square wrought iron balusters to
which a handrail of similar material is screwed (sec No, Fig. 49), holes being
drilled through the handrail and the ends of the b;llustcrs (which would also be
tapped) to receive the screws; one end of the r,lil is also built into the wall to
ensure greater rigidity. The balusters are secured to thc steps and landing in a
manner shown at K and M, Fig. 49; dovetailed mort ices <lrc formed to receive
the ends (preferable ragged to give a key) of the b,dusters; molten lead is then
run in, well caulked (consolidated when cool with a blunt chisel) and covered
Rush with cement mortar to exclude water from the lead and thus prevent
discoloration of the stone. Grouted cement is a cheaper alternative to lead.
As an alternative to the metal balustrade. Ihe wall may be continued to a con-
venient height and finished with a coping.
1
 5 T 0 N E 5 T E
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"V". ALTEI\NAr,YE TO
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&UllT-UP 5 TE P 5 ~E6ATED ~ECTANGUlA~ STEPS WI TH UTUi<.NED NOSINGS "
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MoC,""S, TI* JOINTS ..... nit MOtITI\J'I1Il CQJAJf wmt n.mt
UK)\. Tl+t aNo..-...
~1JI'"::h~ ~ ~""~r-""'T""',,"' CJI' THf "IML..toA l'WIIT 001 TIff un CONSl'IT<1tO: (ttilfl" or fOUItol ro..,uu Co T.....~ otf "'"
or p
,:z6 MASONRY
Another application of rectangular .teps is given at H, J and K, Fig .•8. The
elevation is that of the f~de of a .mall public building. such as offices or a bank.
Whilat this i. not a corrunon arnngemcnt of steps for an entrance, it is given here
as an alternative to the more usual form shown at C, and it haa an advantage in that
the balustrade is useful, eepecially to the infirm and older members of the public
who may visit the building. A detail of the steps is given at G; these are of good
proportions, with the bottom of the front edges square rebated and the tread
nosing. moulded; these nosin~ are returned on the outer ends of the step
(set Hand K). The steps and landing are built 150 mm into the main wall and are
lupported on a wall at the outer end.. The landing consists of three stonE slabs
(AU: Hand J) connected together by joggle joints (sec the section at H and also thc
dctail at F, Fig. 49). Each bottom step consists of an cdging of stone blocks cut
to thc section shown at G, with a 50 to 75 mm thick flag solidly beddcd on a
concrctc bed (sec section at H). Thc mctal balustrade is secured to thc steps as
described on p. la4. Altern;!.tive designs of the laiter :are ahown in Fig. 1').
Stairs.-Stone wu commonly preferred to timber in the construction of
principal staircases of municipal and commercial, etc., buildings. This material
hu been largely luperseded and such stairs are now chiefly of reinforced concrete
construction (see p. 121). Where Blone is still specified for this purpose, it is
generally in districts where suitable local sandstone is employed.
A stone open well stair is detailed in Fig. 49. The plan II shows twenty
steps, including landings, arranged round a 710 mm wide well. As shown in
the sections G and 1, these steps are of the spandril type already dcscribed.
·They are also known as canti/novr or hanging steps, as each is fixed at one end
only, the other being frcc and finished with a returned moulded nosing as
detailed at A. The sketch at E shows the built-in end of a spandril step; the
spandril soffit is stopped at the face of the wall (or plaster) and 11 square seating
is formcd at the end which is built into the wall (which latter is prcferably
constructed in cement monar), the wall hold \arying from 102·5 to 215 mm. Thc
ends of thcse steps are bedded in cemcnt and solidly fixed all round-cspecially
at their lOp surfaces-with sound pieccs of slate, etc. set in cement; the steps
are also jointed in mortar.
Each of the alternative spandril steps shown at B has its returned nosing con-
tinued to line ..... ith thl' facc of the riser of the second step above it. Of good
appearancc, they are stronger than those at A because of their increased thickness.
The steps at C form a broken soffit. thc appearance of y,hich is less satisfactory
than the abo\'e. The moulded soffit formed by the steps at 0 is attractive.
Alternative nosings are shown at C, K, l. and '01, the bold appearance of the
latter being especially cfftttive (see c, Fig. 41 and H, Fig. ~2). ~ote that thc
proportions of these steps agree with the rulcs stated in Chap. tV, \'01. I.
The half spacc landing consists of four slabs, joggle Jointed, v.hich are
solidly built into thc walls. The thickness of this landing may be either 165 mm
or 210 mm (sec R); whilst the latter gives a satisfactory finish on the underside
wherc it joins stcp 19, it results in a large increase in weight of cach slab. The
joggles are stopped at the free ends at leut, and thUB only butt joints are uposed
u shown at F. Each of the quarter space landings may consist of two slabs,
joggle jointed, to facilitate handling and fixing.
The .teps m.y be built·;n .. the "alb are bein!: constrUClcU. or fixinfl" may be
deferred untIl the 1'0.11. h.ve been bUilt .nd th{' b •.IIMong IS ncar.·r complellon. The
I.ner la the u.ual course sdOplcd .m.! rI.k of dama).:e 10 Ihe steps I. thereby mlnlmizl.'<.I;
the pockets which reee,,'e the end. of the steps arc fonn{'d and lempononly filll.'<.IlI\
with bnek. laid 11\ n nd ., the \\alllnl! proceed •. y,hleh brick. arc therehy easily
removed y,'hen required. A IlOrey-ro;J II UIt.'<.I to cnsure that thc stCP' Ire bUIlt in at
the eorrtc:t hetght. (Ihe bonom one being fixed firsl) and the free ends of th" slep.
are secu rely struned down I'> the Hoor; th~-sc '-enlul ,,00<.1 struts mUll not be
rema'ed untillhe work h., "'t. If bUIlt_in as Ih(' ICCncral work proccc<.il, the s tep.
mUll be adequatdy protected w,th rou~h wood caSIn~I; Ihc$e must be well &ttured
and .hould be frequently exammcd, as a dlSlooL""J Ctsing may result on • damaged
nosing.
Thc weight of wall tailing down the fi"cd ends of thc steps must bc ade(luate
to ensure stability of a cantilevered slair. The strength of thc stair shown in
Fig. 49 would be considerably incrcased if, as sho"n at S. a mild steel beam was
pro\'ided to support the half space landing at its outer edge .wd a sleel channel
or beam was introduced at the soffit of each Right and nCJr to the free ends of
the steps. The details shows the connection betw('en the \;tndin~ beJm (which
would ha\·c a 215 mm bearing on thc \\dlls) and the top Ai~ht channel. Such
steelwork is neccssary for \\ ide stairs, especially if subJct:lcd to hea,} traffic.
Incidentally. it assists in prevcnting a total collapse of the stair in thc case of
fire. If desired, such sted\\ork mOl}' be encased in concrete and either pLastered or
finished "ith thin stone slabs bedded 10 the concrete, as sho\\n al B. Fig:. 50.
Balustrade.- Two altcrnati\-e dcsigns of wrought iron balustrades arc shnwn
at c and 1, Fig. ~9. and altcrnati\'c detOlils of the~e arc shown at K. Land 't. The
fi"ing of the bdlusters at K has been Ikscribed on p. 12~; as indicated, thedo\'ctail
mortice ,'hich receives the halustcr mu~t be set hack from the end face of Ihe
step (unless the nosing is of the type ~ho\, n at \1). This reduces the etfective
widlh of the stair, and to avoid this the balustrade may bc of the design shown
at c and 1 whcre balusters of small S(.'Ction, connected at thcir lower ends to a
38 mm by 7 mm bar. al!ernate at internls with 25 mm squarc br(llkl'l balllsl"s.
The latter are so called because they arc connected to the ends of the steps in a
similar manner to that dcscribed, the haluslcrs being cun-ed 10 dear the nosing"
(see also detdil L); the co\er plate shnwn may he used to prO\ide d good fimsh
and It may he eithcr bedded nn cemcnt Of ft"ed b~ smdl! scrc"s secured to plugs
dri\'en into holes dnlled into the stone. This detail also sho\\5 the method of
fixing a wood handT'1I1 to a meral ba!ustrJde; the upper cndsof the balu~lers are
scrcw~d 10 a 32 by 7 mm wrought item har and the handrail is secured In thi~
with screws, the latter being fi"ed from below at intervals hel\\een The lulu!'t!'rs.
An alternati\'c wood handrail, fixed in a similar manner, is shown at \1. The •
balustrade may be of bron2c as an aitematl\e to wrought iron (!'tC dlso H, Fi~. 50).
,
Thc Building Regulations make certain rules about thc hei~ht of baiustrddes
•
 5 T o N E o p E N w E L L 5 T A R C A 5 E
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SOHIT STEP - SEf DITAI!. 'f'

LONGITUDINAL SECTION 'CO' SECTION

AlTE~NATIVE MLU5T~DE DETAILS

SPflNDllll STEPS
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&1l01l.EN SOFFIT
I SECTION

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MOULDED SOFFIT
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 ~E I NFORCED

NON-SUP TILE NOSING

~lnIlNAlIVE TO -ttl)
CONCRETE
It 40 THKI<. MAMlE
T;-:--------,~,---......:......~
T~fAD
MAI\BLE
l STAIRCASE
lCI\EW MlWEEH
8MUSTE~
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32"32_6 THICK ~
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~ 80.38' b TIIK"-
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MILD STEEl MI'.
38"0 CONTIHUOU$
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IIIIII 51'" !Ioo m;D 7@", luo I<.EY PLAN OF POII.TION Of STAI~
SCALE FOil. A£.6 ~

FICUA. S0
 STONE STAIRS
and handrails to " private atairways " (those in a building used by one family)
and .. common stairways" (thoae in buildings used by morc than one family).
Briefly, the rules aTC as follows. Both types of stairway are to be guarded on
each .ide by a wall or balustrade placed not len than 8,..0 mm above the pitch
line (the line joining the step nosings); those stairways less than I m wide
require a handrail on one side and those J m or more wide require a handrail on
hnth ~ides. The side of a landing must be guarded by a wall or balustrade
900 mm high for a private stair and 1'1 m for a common stair.
The brick walls of this staircase may be either plastered of raced with ashlar
of similar stone to that of the steps. If left esposed, the brickwork would be
finished with flush mortar joinu. As shown, the floor covering can be of stone
slabs bedded on concrete.
If there is not sufficient width available for an open well stair, it would be
designed as a dog. leg type (see Chap. II, Vol. III).
Reinforced Concrete Stain.-It has been already stated that important
stairs, especially those required for public buildings, are now constructed of
reinforced concrete and that this has largely replaced masonry for this purpose.
The reasons for thia are; A reinforced concrete stair, suitably finished, (I) has
a more attr2C:tive appearance, (2) it may be more fire-resistant, (3) ill width i,less
restricted, at it can be designed to take heavy traffic over a large transverse span
without resorting to any intermediate support (such as walls which encroach
upon the ball), (.) the treads can be rendered non-slip (stone treads wear smooth
and may become dangerous), and (5) it can be more euily kept clean.
Although reinforced concrete design is deferred until the advanced yean
of a course (see Chap. II, Vo!' IV). a stair of contemporary construction is briefly
referred to here in order that a comparison may be made between atairs of
traditional design and those in which newer materials are employed.
A key part plan and cross-section of a portion of a flight of a Iypiud open well
reinforced concrete stair are shown at c and D, Fig. So. The section shows the
structure to be built into the wall at one end and supported by a string at the
other. The details show that the concrete (which resists the compression strcsscs)
is reinforced with 12 mm diameter mild stet! transverse bars (which resist the
tenaion streHeI) at 175 mm centres; 8 mm diameter longitudinal bars are placed
immediately over and wired to these transverse bars at 230 mm centree; the
thickness of the concrete at K is 115 mm; the upper surface of the concrete is
shaped to suit the riaers-t ....,o alternative forms being shown at Ii. The concrete
string is reinforced with four 25 mmdiameter steel longitudinal (tenlion) bars and
two similar (compression) bars near the top lurface; 6 mm diameter lleel
stirrups ue wired to theac. bars at 230 mm centres and at right angles to the pitch
of the stair. Nott tJu ahow mtl vary tUcording to tM width of 1M Ita;, a" tlu
loU to bt ttlpporttd, and arc determined by calculation.
129
Because of its unattractive appearance a stair constructed entirely of
reinforced concrete would not be suitable for a public building in which it was
to be In important feature. Hence the structure is covered or veneered with
marble, tiles, terrazzo or other suitable material.
Detail" shows alternative forms of risers, one being vertical and the other
inclined. These risers are formed of w mm. thick slabs of marble bedded to
the concrete. The tread at H IS formed of a 40 mm thick slab of marble, solidly
bedded. As polished marble, especially when wet, has a slippery surface, non-
slip tile nosings, which are artificial products, are often incorporated with the
marla; that shown at J is grooved 10 give a key for the bedding. Care must
be taken to use a mortar for bedding which will not stain the marble.
The string and soffit are also shown cov~red with marble or quartzite (a
natural very hard liane, imported from Italy, and obtainable in several attractive
colours-see p. 106) ,I,bs. The walls may also be covered with 20 mm. thick
marble, etc., Ilabs.
As these covering materisls are costly, the soffit may be finished with
Keene'. or similar cement.
The string shown is of the" open" type; .. close strings (see Chap. II,
II
Vol. Ill) may be employed.
Expensive veneers are only applied when the appearance is of importance.
Reinforced concrete stairs, such as are required for warehouses, etc., are often
left uncovered, the treads only being proviced with non-slip nosings.
The su,r shown in Fig. sO ,I CU I '" 11111. I.r., II II oonliruCled on the lile II II
Iherefore necea..ry to provide. temponory wood IUPPO". c.lled !ormwo,1t or .1I.. tu._
i"" for thll pUrpoH. BrieRy, thiS OOnl1"l of bun·jolnted bolrds or Ih«tI for Ihe
aoffil, fixiO'd II Ihe correCI le...,1 Ind pil<;h Iv l>ene ... Iupponcd by &trull. ThIS would
be continued to fonn I IUltlble fn,me Or box for Ihe arring. Ind Ihi. would be Itrulltd;
riter bouds, etc.• would 11.0 be fixed. The roncrelt il pl.c~ ,n potlllon afltr the
reln(on::nnent has been fixcd, .nd Ihe fonn,",'Ork II nOI remo""d unlll Ihe concrete
hilt adequ.tely let. Fonnwork for reinforced concret~ IS d~tlLled ,n Chip. II, Vol. IV.
Concrete Itepa ror
narrow stairs are often pre-calt, i.e., are separately formed
in wood moulds of the required shape. These, when lufficiently set, are removed
and fixed u described for stone steps.
Details of the bronze balusters and handrails are shown at B. Theu are
alternative to those illustrated in Fig. 49 anri are fixed as previoully described.
NO'n.-The .ectlon through the string.t. hIS been liken" I nonnll from the
intelWClJOn betw«n the concN:te treld .nd nscr (botlom). The bslullet hilt been
thown in *«t,on 10 ,IIUlll1lle more delrly the oonltrucllon; IS lhit would be in the
centre of the lreld, the dlllinee L would be IpproXlmllely 100 mm, and therefore the
bottom of the btluste.r 11 well delr of the top milO reinforcement.

CHAPTER FOUR
MILD STEEL ROOF TRUSSES
S)'llabul.-Mtld neel roof uunes up to IZ m' spin, with altelTUltive detallt.
Mild steel' is much stronger than timber, it is more fire.resisting and its
&eCtions can be readily assembled to form comparatively simple connections.
It is principally for these reasons that mild steel is now employed extensively
for roof trusses of small and medium spans and for its supersedence of wood as
a material for truues of large span.' Whilst wood is still preferred to steel for
trusses of open (unceiled) roofs of certain buildings, well-designed steel trusses
for large Ipanned open roofs of buildings of the industrial, etc., type have a light
and satilfactory appearance, chieHy because of the Imall lize of the member,
and the simple joints. Mild steel roof trusses mUlt be painted at intervals to
prevent corrOlion.
A steel roof truss, like the built up roof truss (see Chzp. Ill, Vol. I), is a
tnangulzted structure. The principal rafters (abbreviated to "rafters ") are
prevented from spreading by connecting their lower endl by I tie (main tit) , and
Struta and lubaid;uy tic:. lue pruvided lit intermediate poims to afford adequate
bracing. Struts should be kept as short as possible . The centre line principle
is adopted throughout (see p. (31), and thus the point of attachment of each purhn
coincides with the intersection of the axes of the truss members. Secondary
Itreases, such as bending moments in the rafters, are thereby avoided.
All of tJu mnnbn-s of a modern wutoJ roof t1lm are of ",ild steel, and most, If trOt
all, of thnn art angles (see D and E, Fig. So, Vol. I). Angles effectively resist both
compression and tension stresses; they can be conveniently attached and they
are produced economically. Thus, whereas formerly T·bars were used for
rafters, either a single angle or two angles placed back to back are now em·
ployed. Struts consist of either lingle or double angles, and either one or
two angles placed back to back are used for a main tie. Until comparatively
recently, it wu a common practice to use lingle or double ftat bars for a main tie,
III they were luitable for resisting ten lion Itresses. However, owing to wind
pressure and l1>e abnormal strain imposed during the tranlporting and ereClion
of trusses, members msy be lubjected to changes of Itresses, and ftatl will not
I In mlny Iyll.busa the Ipan II hmlted to 9 m .
• The mlnufaCture Ind chltlclenillca or mild ncel Ind other meUtI. are dHCnbcd
In Vol . IV
t An excc:pllon II the bow-lInnc or ,unillt I,nun.ted wood type of tru •• wh,eh " .hll
oeeasaoNlly adopted for brwe sp.na.
'J.
•
resilt compression. Flat main tits thertfort tend to buomt buckled. If a ceiling
is to be provided, ceiling joints can be readily fixed to a main tie of double
anglCll and this is an additional reason why they should be used instead of flats,
which lalter are useless for this purpose unles!! metallic lathing is employ~d in
the ceiling plaster. Flat bars are still used, but less frequently than formerly, for
subsidary tie members (see Fig . 54); angles are preferred.
The mem'xrs of a truss are connected together normally by means of bolts 1
and thin plates, called gusstts; sometimel the members are welded I to the
gussets; formerly rivets l were also used.
The pitch of rivets is the distance between their centres. Accordng to the
British Standard Spttification for" The Use of Structural Steel in Building,"
(0) the minimum pitch shall be not less than 2i times the diameter of the
bolts (b) thr maximum pItch must not excttd 32 t' or 300 mm and ( c) the mini·
mum distance from the centre of any bolt to the end of a member or edge
of a gusset shall be 28 mm and 32 mm for 16 mm and ao mm diameter
respectively. The size of the bolts depends upon that of the members to
be connected, thus 16 mm diame1er bolts are commonly employed for angles
and Rats up to 60 mm wide and ao mm diameter bolts for larger members.
When making a joint, a member, even if subjected to a small stress, should be
connected to a gusstt by at least t .....o bolts,
The thickness of gussets theoretically depends upon the bearing value of the
bolts employed, The minimum thickness is 6 mm and these have been used
for the small truss detailed in Fig. SI i 8 mm gussets are used fo r roofs of larger
span up to at leut 12 m and the thickness rarely exceeds 10 mm even for very
large trusses. The size and shape vary according to the pitch of the bolts,
I Weldinll II· In Iltern.tive to boltin!, \I described in Vol. IV. GUlsetl .re
somellmci dIsPensed WIth Ind the membe", II In,lel, Ire welded logether. ThUI, refemnll
to the dna.1 at r , Fill. p ., the , trut could be connected dmectl y on to the titter
by mun. of fillet welds. An eleCt"c COlnnt or g.. (In olCY_Itttylene flame) I~ employed
to melt I "eel rod ur wIre (ClUed.n ,/«lTOIk) Ind the adJ'''''"' edges of the members
in .uch I mlnner thlt the mollen metll from the electrode II depo~"ted , long the
points of contlct Ind fllkd InIO them.
• t= th LCkne .. of the th.nner QUIet plate.
 MILD STEEL ROOF TRUSSES
size and inclination of the connecting members and the appearance desired.
Se\eral examples of gussets are given in Figs. Sl-S3and will be referred to later.
If. member consists of double angles, gussets Irc always placed between them.
5111,,11 truNQ arc: fabricated (welded or bolted together) It the worD and
transported to the site. Owing to the difficulty of conveying larger trusses,
these are fabricated in parts at the works and assembled together on the job
(see the reference to Fig. 53 on p. 136). Sometimes trusses are made "piece
small," i.e., the various members, cut to length and holed for the bolts are
conveyed to the site and the trusses arc there a~mbled.
Trusses are erected by a crane (or sheer legs) and connected by holding-down
bolts to the building (see below). The distance between trusses up to 12 m
span varies from 3 to 4'5 m. Wider spacing results in heavy purlins and un-
ei:onomlcal sizes of members. The pitch of steel roof trusses, like those of timber
construction, depends upon the nature of the covering material and the archi-
tei:tural effect desired.
Details of roof trusses up to 12 m span are given in Figs. 51-53. These
are typical only, and several alternative details are provided for reference. It
is Ippreciated that the sizes of the members Ire i;'lfiuenced by the weight of the
co~ering material,' the distance between the trusses and purlins, the provision
or otherwise of a plaltered ceiling, and the degree of exposure of the building
to wind pressure. Briefly, the sizes of the memben, number and sizes of the
bolts etc .. are dependent upon the forces in the members. The trusses il1ustrated
in Figs. 51, 52 and 53 have been designed to supports ceilings, and in each
example the covering material is slates.
Truu suhablc for a 6 In Span (lI« Fig. SI).-Thil II I silted roof,
hiving I pitch of 30°. The effei:tive span (distance between the centres of
bearings) is 6 m and the maximum distlnce between the trusses is 3'7 m. It
is alsumed that the building is of the single Sloried workshop type and the
external walls are only required to be 215 mm thick (see s). Increased bearings
for the trusses are provided by internal pien, as shown. If required to prevent
the transmission of moisture, the walls would have to be rough-casted (or similarly
treated) externally, or be built In cavity construction as shown at c, Fig. 52
Sound concrete pads of sufficient thicknCH and area must be provided to
gi"e a reliable and Inel bearing for the ends of the truss and to recei\'e the
Sltel fixing bolts. The pads course w;th the brickwork. The bohs are called
rau~d 1~f.Cis bolts or rng bolts.' A sketch of one of these holding-down bolts is
shown It B; its thickness is equal to the diameter of the upper threaded shank
and the lower portion is tlpered in its width; its edges are jagged as shown to
I The .. eight of Isbellm-cement corrugated shutl il Ipproxlmllely .67S "m'
and th" of dly Illes mlY be II much n 69s N'm'_ Thus. Ie the nUSla Ire 37 m Ipan
and the purims a~ at :1"4 m centres. the dIfference In welahl of these coveTIng matena"
(ianonnl thlt of the .pan necessary for the !llu Ind not reqUired for the IhUIS) o~'er the
ana concerned .. approximately ~ k!'>l'
t A " rig bolt ". unlike I lewis boh. II not tapered. and resemb1" In ordinary bolt
Ih'nk, pIn of .. h,ch II jlaaed Ind pin threlded
'3'
afford a key for the fixing material, which ts usually molten lead run in to secure
the bolt when placed in the hnl,. in the padstone. The lead should be well caulked,
otherwise water may enter and set up corrOSIon which may split the padstone.
These bolla, which :are provided with nuUI, are obtainable in ovt'ull lenglh ... of
lOO, 150, a30 and 380 mm and of 16, ao, 22, 25 and 32 mm diameter. That
shown at B is suitable for the truss illustrated in Fig. 53, but aI indicated at c,
Fig. 5', smaller bolts will serve for this small truss. Two are required at each
end and these are fixed in readiness to receive the truss.
All 0/ the mnnbers consist 0/ Wigle nttglts. These and the gussets are only
6 mm thick, the minimum thickness stipulated in the aforementioned B.S.S.
449. The preferred maximum unsupported length of the tOO mm by 50 mm
wood span iU.34 m (see Chap. III, Vol. I), and so only one purlin IS required at
each SIde.
The centre line principle has been observed in selting out. and, to prevent
confusion, these lines have been shown to be those of the bolts.
..o.I:houllh the ttntrt lone. of member~ art tahn ",hen Jr.",.oJ;[ forct d,al/raml. II
lhould be POlTlled out thlt the deta,l. of I Itruetural fn~[lnet'r'. "'orklTl~ dn,,,,nj:t. on
.. h,eh the POSlllon of neh boh hole I' e'·en.· oonn«II(.... IS .odlealtd .•hu" th~ on'~r·
KCllnk linn of mnnbtn 10 be .. hal are termed /("utt I,"",. '00'(" ""(lOr I(",alln,
·n.ew are 1M ..,11111.11 OUI Imn .. hieh .,e '·scnuehed·· on 1M burl" 01 member-. al Ih~
f.bnC2ltng shop and Iionl! "h,eh lhe «ntrn 01 ch., holu for Ihe boles jI~ 'r~ttd rh~
follo",m" bnoekel.,d figl.l~sII"'" Ihe poJluon (measured do .. n Ih~ bMLk from Ihe mlfr,
~""on be",.,.,n 1M two le~s) of tht jl:RUgt ],n.... for anlllf' ha' mil ~o mm 128 mm
V<' H. hll. Sl). 6 "un Usmm)- k., ('. hjl: 5:1. !!o mrn (._~mm~"""'l·l.
'10 mm (so mm). 100 mm (St! mm). fie .. Ifj,:$. I"he ..,lIInjl: OUI .. t Iht dtta,ls In hi! ~o
.how~ th., mtnlt'Cllnll Imn 10 be Ihos<e of tht !lenlner lines
It Will be observed that at A, Fig. 51, in order to obtain symmetry, the rafters
and Indined tension angles (known as diog07lol tit's) are fixed to the gusset plates
on one Side, and that the main tension angle. called the mam lit', dnd the strull
are fixrd on the other. This results in a better balanced truU than if all the
members were fixed on the same side.
Details of the foot or shOt' of the truss are shown at c. p and E. A short angle
clt'at is fixed at each side of the gusset and these rest upon a btnnng platt or
bnse piait' or sole plnte. Both the cleats and the bearing plate are holed at a
distance apart equal to that of the lewis bolts . •. t'., 96 mm (see E). The plates are
placed in position and the truss is hoiSied and lowered unul the holes in the
cleats Ire engaged by the shanks of the lewLs bolts. The cleat holes are larger
than the diameter of the bolts (see D) to facilitate fixing and allow a slight margin
for an)' error in the setting out. This obviates an erection difficulty which
would be otherwise caused if such an allowance was not made and a slight in·
accura(y occurred in either the sening out of the ltwis bolts or the position of
the holes in the cleats. The nuts are finally tightened with I spanner. The
section at E shows the rafter at one sLde of the gusset and Ihe main tie at the other.
The details at the apex are shown at rand G. The ends of the rafters are
mitred and those of the diagonal ues are MJuare cut. The wood ridge is secured
by two 12 mm dLameter bolts to two bent plates or Rats which have been eilher
 ' 32
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«
 MILD STEEL ROOF TRUSSES
bolted or welded to the rafters. the former being preferred. A detail of one of
these plates before bending i. shown at H. Care must be fohn! '" setting o"t
IIUlI tire bolts C01l1l«1"'1 thtu platts to tht ra/ters dtJ lIot /oul the bolts fixing the
iattf!r to tlrt gussd.
The purlins are of wood, and each is bolted to a clrat holted or wedded to
the rafter (see K). A detail of the cleal is shown a! J. JOints betwren purlins
must occur at the trusses, and (or luch conn«:tiomi the cleau are JOS mm
long to enable two bolts being fixed at the end of each purlin (see Q, Fig. 53).
The bolts now commonly used for fixing these ",ood member! aTe called carriage
bolts or coolh bolts. As shown at K, a carnage bolt has a flal cup head and
a square n«k (portion of the shank nut to the head). Washers arc not
required. l Square nuts are used. Alternative purlins are shown at N. S. T and
0, Fig. 53.
The detail at L .hows the connection between the main and diagonal ties and
the .trut.
All the bolts are 16 mm diameter. The pitch of the bolt!; is figured on the
drawings. The "32-58 mm" pitch shown is CO"Ilmon for this size of bolt. It
will also be noted that the sizes of the gussets are figured. A Structural engineer's
working drawing shows all of these dimensions. Many of them have been
omitted in the following drawingl in order to pre\'ent a mass of figures from
obscuring the details.
Trus. suitable for a 9 m Span (see Fig. 52).-An outline of the truss is
show:'l at A, the rafters being equally divided by two purlins on each side, and
the main tie also equally divided.
Like the previous example, each member i! II. liingle angle, and to obtain a
suitable balance some members are fixed at the near side of the gussets and others
at the far side.
Details of the shoe are given at C, D and E. The main tie extends for the
full width of the base plate and It'curt'<! to It by a welding. A short c1nt IS
provided at the opposite sideof the gusset and welded to the base plate. As shown
at D, two 20 mm diameter hole. are formed in the plate to receive the lewis bolts.
Unlike that shown at c, Fig. 51, the gusstt does not prOject below the main tie.
and this arrangement is therefore more suitable if a plastered ceiling ....i.thout
cornice. is to be provided.
The details at F and G are those at the heads of the struts.
The connections at the apex are shown at H, and those between the gusset,
main tie. struts and diagonal tie Ire .hown at K. The section at 1 shows I strut on
each.ide of the gusset. The size of these .trut. and the diagonal tie is that of the
smallest angles used in roof construction, i.t .• 50 mm by So mm by 6 mm.
I A hole. of diameter cqualto thai of the bol!. la bo..w .n Ihe ",'ood purhn The boll
" u\Mn~ .nd the lqua~-ned:C'd ponlon dn"en home The laner pre,·enl. rotallon of
the bol! ... hen the nut .. hemr t •• htened.
133
The purlins In this example are of steel (lee I' and G). These are sometimes
preferred to the timber purlins shown in Fig. 51. It .... ill be noted that the purlins
are fut'<! to the rafters by means of bolts. It should also be observed that the centre
line principh: has been complit'<! with and that the nut comes centr2l1y between
the pair of bolts below. Wood plates, calledfillm, must be bolted at 760 10915 mm
interval. to I he purlins as shown to pf'Ovide fixings for the spars. They atc in short
lengtha. An alternati"e arrangement is tho ...·n at B. whue Ihe purlins are
re\'er&ed Ind the fillers are placed against their backs. WhilS[ this is as sound as
the type sho.... n at f and G, the fillers are not so readily fixed. The ....ood plates,
not heing in conllnuous lengths, can be laid on the purlins if fixed as shown u
F unlil tequirt'<! to be boltt'<!, but such a temporary support is not available if
the purlins are arranged as shown at 8. The latter detail is adopted if soffit
boarding IS required and which is nailed direct to the fillers. The form of end
Joint ~tween steel purlins is described on p. IJ6.
The detail at the ridge shows an alternati\'e but more costly arrangement
to that detailed at G, Fig. 51; this is usually adopted for the direct fixing of
asbestos-cement .heets (see Chap. lll, Vol. III). The IIteel members are con-
tinuous and the spars are nailed to the fillers.
The usual type of tapered gutter is detailed at c and the external cavity walls
are 378 mm thick.
Truss Suitable for a I2 m Span (see Fig. 5J).-The outline e]nation at
A show. the setting out. Each rafter is divided into four equal parts. The
struts are normal to the rafters and the foot of each malO diagonal tie scratter
line meets the intersection between those of the 80 mm by 80 by 8 mm
main llrut and maIO lie. \\'hen :nriving at the &izel of Ihl!' members it WItS
assumed that the roof cO\'ering was slates, that a plastered ceiling had to be
supported and that the distance bet .... een trusses was 3'7 m.
This is known as a Fink, French or Bt/Kla" truss and IS of good deSign, each
half consi.ting of a symmetrical tnangulated frame. The king tie is only neces-
sary if a ceiling is required and serves as an additional support for the main tie.
As stated on p. 131, the gauge or seratter lines and the the centre lines have
been drawn when setting out these detaIls. This is in conformity wllh the usual
practice adopted by structural engineers when preparing .... orking detatls sho .... lOA:
the position of the bolts, etc. The spacing of the bolts is fully dimensioned.
The rafters, main tie and diagonal ties, consist of double angles placed back to
back and between ..... hich the 10 mm gussets arc fixed.
The shoe is detailed at N, 0 and P. The padswne is 215 mm thick (or equal to
three courses of brick.....ork). as it has to accomodate two 20 mm lewis bolts ..... hich
are 150 mm long (see B, Fig. 5 I). Two cleats are bolted or welded to the gusset
and these are welded to the bearing plate in which slotted holti for the fixing
bolts are provided. The section at p sho ...... the double rafter and main tie
bolted tu the gu~t.
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FICUR! S3
 MILD STEEL ROOF TRUSSES
Trusses of this siu cannot be conv~nicntly transported as complete slruclUrts
from the work. to the building lite. Each truss is therefore fabricated in t ....o
halves at the works and con\'cycd in parts to the building. Thus the left half
detailed in Fig_ S3 would be boiled together with the gusset plate at Ihe apex.
connected as shown and holed in order that the right half may be readily bolted
to it on site. The gusset at the bottom of the diagonal tie will be fixed
and holed similarly, and thl: detached Middle main tie will have I. holed guutt
plate bolted at its centre to rtcdve the lower end of the king tic. On
arrival on the site each truss is quickly assembled by (a) connecting the upper
end. of the rafter and diagonal tie (If the right h~lf to the apex gusset, (h) bolting
the middle main tie to the gusset at x and to the corresponding plate on the
right half truss, and (c) connecliog the king rod to the apex and middle main
tie gussets. \\'hen the joints arc being made, the nuts are not finally spannt:rt..-d
until all the bolts have been inserted. II will be observed that the diameter of
the holes is :1 mm larger than th.1t of the bolts shanks.
As the stren in the main tie decreases towards the centre, the middle portion
conlists of smaller angles, as sho .... n at x.
The k.ing tie is sometimes omitted if the roof is to be open, i.t., no ceiling
is required.
The detail at z is somewhat similar to that at W, and, with exception of those
of the purlins, a description of it and the remaining details is unnecessary.
Four different types of purlins arc sho.... n at N, s, T and u. That connectlflg
the feet of the trusset (N) is similar to that detailed at F and c, Fig. 52, described
on p. ']3. Members such as Ihis may be provided at the shoes of each of the
trus!>eS shown in Figs. 51 and 52 if preferred to fixing the feet of the spars •
to ....all plates.
An alternative to the above is shown at u. Here the purlin is reversed and
the short plates are bolted at the back. For the reason stated on p. '33, this is
not 50 com'enient for fixing the fillers.
The lar~e wood purlin shown at S is fixed in a similar manner to that illus.
trated at K, Fig. 51, but the cleat leg fixed to the rafter is shorter, as the required
two bolts are provided when one is fixed to each of the angles of the
rafter. The purlins should be sufficiently long to span across two bays (1'4 m)
to allow their ends to come over alternate trusses. The cleats will be 300 mm
long at the purlin ends (seeQ)and 150 mm long at the intermediate trusses. These
purlin joints should be staggered to ensure that all the joints do not come
o\er the same pain of trusses. The type of end joint used for steel purlins,
like those in Figs. 52 and Nand u, Fig. 53, usually consists of a 80 mm
by 80 mm by 10 mm angle cleat, twice bolted to the back of the rafter, to
....hlch each purlin end is twice bolted.
The steel purlin at T is bolted tI) an angle cleat bolted or welded to the two
angles of the rafter. A 75 mm by 50 mm 'Wood plate is c:arriage-bolted or coach-
screwed (see Chap. IV, Vol. I) to it at 91 5 mm intervals to provide a fixing for the
spars. This type of purlin. without the wood plate, is commonly employed for
fixing asbestos-cement or corrugated iron sheets (see Chap. Ill, Vol. III).
 HOMEWORK PROGRAMME
TUE! following schedule follows closely that provided in Vol. I; a suggested guide
to foding has been added. For the reasons there stated, it is not possible to
compile a programme of homework which will suit every class of student,
especially for such a comprehensive subject as Building Construction. A lec-
turer will, of course, select subject-matter for homework which will be of most
value to his students, having regard to their capacity and specific needs. The
following subjects have therefore been selected to meet what are considered to
he average requirements.
Although the proposed guide (or reading covers the whole book, it
will be appreciated that much of the description, especially that rdated
to materials, is for reference purposes, and students will therefore concen·
trate upon those sections which have special reference to their own particular
syllabuses,
As stated in Vol. I, it is assumed that the drawing sheets will be Az size and
that the maximum number of sheets which may be produced varies from
twenty.four to twenty·eight, according 10 the length of session.
The homework programme for the second year of the course is continued
in Vol. Ill, and deals with carpentry, joinery and roof coverings.

Sheet Number

Number of Lectures Subject of Drawing RudinII' (Pages)

~r Seuion

., ., •• '7
-- --- ---
, , , , C"VITY W"I.UI.-Duw one·fifth full .,ze details II, D (indudinj! proper damp prO(lf course), A (lower portion) a nd J. Fig. IJ. 1·'1, J6-44.
• • •1 •1 REINFOKCEt> BRICKWOIIK.-Sitetch details showinll the application to walls II, pillars and lintels. Fill . • 6. '1-19, #-51 .

• • • ,
1 1 AIiCIlES. - O u w. to I : 10 Kale, A, II, C and J (half), F'II' 19. and P. 14. (half). Fig. 2.. 19-17, SI-Sl.
DA\lP P/l:OQFISG.--{D) Dr.", to 1 : 10 scale, detlils c and E, Fill. 20. 28.36, 51-58.
STEPI'EO FOUSDATIONS.--{b) Draw, to a scale of I : So, eleV1Otion of a J18 mm Will, 12 m long, with step ped foundltlons, aSluming 59-60
, , , , the Ilround to have a n irregular fall of 1·8 m (see Fig. u).
FIREPUCE, a'TC.--{tI) Dnw, to I : 20 scale, A, 1\, C, N, 0 and P, F'II. 2S; (b) draw I ; 10 scale dl'ta,ls v, wind x, FIg. 15. 6o-64,64-7J.
• • • •
7 7 7 7
DIIAINAGII.-Sketeh: (a) A, J, Q, U I nd v, Fill. J l ; (b) c, n, 1', G' Ind 11, Fig. 3J.
DII ... IN ... CE.--{a) Draw, tn a scale of 1 : , 0(1, bl(K:it plan of a d etached house and show the drainage scheme to meet the require-
me nu of {he Buildlflll Regulations Thue are three nlln wlter pipes Ind the sanitll'}' fitting,; include a smk, IWO lavatol'}'
74-86 .
8J-9J·
basml, bath and two wate r closets. T he aewer, boundaries, etc" must be sho\\ll. Refn to Fig. 34. (b) Draw 1 : 10
scale plan anu cross-section of an iOSI)CCtion chamber. Refer to Fi~. Hand 35.
8 8 8 8 M-'SOsRY. -Draw : (0) I : 10 scalc plan, vertical U'1;IIOn and elevation of entrance ... , Fill'. .f1, assumin,ll' a J ,8 mm ca,'lty wall 9,,-106, 1'4. 121
, "ith I~O mm a[one outer le ..f; (b) half full-s ill' ueta,l at ... ," ". Fill' . .fJ.
M ... so ... ItY.-llraw (a) I : lO scale ("lc"ltion C, seCtion II anu plan of enrrance, F'II. ""; (b) full-sin detail of head of architrave
at S (JT T. F,g. "J.
,06.

• • • '" M-'SONRY.-Dra" : (a) I ; 10 Kalc elevallOn J, section I. and ele,'at ion M of "inuows, Fig. H ; (b) full-SIn dela,ls It D and E,
Fu.!, 45.
STEEL TRllS!;.-l)raw: (tI) I : 10 scale elevation .... Fill 51; (b) one-fifth SI>;C details at C. C, K and L, Fig. 51
106-116, 121·129

IJO-IJJ.
"'"
'" '" " STEEL TKuss.-D.. ,,: (D) to a scale of 1 : 50, elevat,on ". Fill. 52 ~ (b) une·fifth full s ize detills It c, 1', Hand K, Fig. 52. lJl-l)6-
" " " STIlI':L TRuss. - Dnw : (a) to a scale of , : ,000 1'1"\ltion "', F,g. 53; (b) one-fifth full sin detaIl! at N, II, S, T, ll, v, 1.1'. X. Y and:t, 136.
" " " '1
FLg. n.
I
'37
 INDEX •
A Aahbunon marbl~, 96, 101, 102, 105 Bond--conld_ Bncks--contd.
Aah clo.eu, 74 o:huru»ey, 6.,., 66 circular, 18 ......
Ab.orplion, '4 Au.u, :16 o:ircular work, 44. 'I damp-burnt, II
Accrin&1on brick., ., A,h1u, 114-114 d~corated quoin., 6:1, 63 classlficallon, 15-19
ACliViled Iludge Iy.tern, 74 A'r. h,It.S2-SS dilper work, 6 4 oolour,:I, 12, 13.61,62, n.
A",*c, ,6 At .. eem~nt. 25 Dutch,49 conunon. 15
Allng'ta, 17,25.26, 28-J6, 60, 96 Au,er. 3,13 Entllish cros., 49 copmg, 18
uhn, 26 AUll1t~. 94 faCIng', 49, So cownoae. 18
blill-furnace ,I.,. 2S, 29 AutocllV~, 17 prdtn wall. 40. 49. 114 def«tI,13- 14
b~e, II, 12, 18,29 Engiiah. -to. 49 dogltg, 18
broken bridt, 28 ~h. 40, 49. 114 ~namtlled, 16
Ilone, :a8 B h~rring bone • ..s.62 tngi~ring, 15- 17, 88
burnt ball.." 29 Bidger,8s hoop iron, .¢ f_cine. 3. 7, 11-16, 36, 40....... 49""52,
cltnlu:r, :n., 26, 29 &g_wllI,6 longitudinal. 4S 01-64,6<,1
crushed Iione, 26 Ball 1~1t. 86 monk,49 fu~d.y. 2, 16
upanded .iIle, 29 Baluslrad~l, n4-n9 pi~n, J9, 64 Fletton, I, 2, 10
foamed ,I.g, 29 Barrow-lift. 35 faklng',48 ganial~r, 16
Inding.29 BaKm~ntf, s.-S8 dugonal, ..s, 61 gault, I
If1Vl1:I,29 Bath Itone. 44. 96, 101 - 105, 110 herring-bone. 48. 6a glass, 19
puml«,29 B.IM. 'P. 9J .... 1 trap, 49 gland,6.16
..nd, 2S-J6, ¢
whm.tone chipping.. 60
B'Ullil~, 16. :IS
briclu:, 16
rcinfor«d brickwork, ....
Silvulock'•• 49
-..s grooved,46
hand-m.ad~, ]-5,13.15.6 1
Air brick., 17 Bead .nd I'ftl orna~nl, 116 .pecial, 49"""50 hollow, 19
AI.buter, 106 Beam laW mao:hi~. II I squint junctions, 36, 37 H u.o"lktr, 17
Aluminous CffI'\cnt, 25, 28 Bunng plale1. IJI, 13l, 137 quoilll, 36, 38, 39 keyed, 19
Anclllcf ,Ione, 96. 101-103, 10,5 Be~r 'Ion~. 96. 101-103. 105, 110 .. ~tching, 40 kilns, 6-12
ArtavoOic,75 Belgian Fossil marblt, 106 Suuex, 49 London lIotk. 2, Ii
Anile, "eel, 130-IJ7 mllrbl~s, 106 Bonded arch, 50 magnnil~, 16
An.ton Iione, 1)6, 99-103. lOS roof In1S.I. 136. 137 Boning rods, ,0, 83, 85 ntlInufsctu~, 2-13, 16, 17
Applcy Bridge Blue atone, 96. 99.102,10,5 Ben<:hing. 59, 88 Box mould, 4 bwnmg proc~p, 6-n
Arc:ha, SO-P:, 62, 114, 116, II' Bending day. 2 Brackmhill.lont, 96, 99, loa dunPI, II, 12
bond"d, ,50 Btnd., drain. 77. 78. 88, 93 Bnmky Fllllton~. 96. 98, 99, 102, 105 kilns. 6-11
circular, 51 Bernstall $Ion~. 96. 98. 99. 102. 105 Brt..u, chimney, 64, 65, 66 drying procep, 5-7
drop, 52 Biotitt, 95 Breccia marbl~, 106 moulding proto:.., J-S
ciliplic.\, 5 I Birdunoudl buo:lIs. 18 Br«M Rose mublt, 106 hand, 3-S
equilateral, 52 Hiseuil burning, 16 Brtnt, II, la, 18, 29 sand-moulding, ., 12
"*1, 116, II' Bitumen. 5:1
Hlao:k oo~, 13
I labs, .8
Drick Irch~l. 50-52, 62, 64
slop-mouldin&:, 5
machine, 1, 3, I]
•
Florentine, 52
lancet, .52 marbl~, 105 ClppIngt, 66 prnKd, ]
POinted, p.
ren:, 5 I
tegmental. ,52, 116, 117. 120
mortar, 27. 61. 62. 107
Blad~, 6
Bladon llooe. 96.101, loa
ItICU, ~. 66, 67.
parapets, 61
,0
chimney bru,... 64, 65, 66 WI~-cut, J, 13

plutlc procna. "

prtparahon proctH, 1
aemicit'(Uiar, 51,~, "4 BI..t_runuo:~ eemenl. :IS. :IS pi~B, 39, 6. Kflli-pl..tl<: procru, :I
tldlCd, 51 , lag. :IS, :19 Brick-on-o:d~ bonds, 49 stiff-pl..lic procns, "
.... Ith ordcrI, 5 I
temi ..dhptical, 5 I, 51
Kmi.hu.agonal, 61
BICNlllng.IJ
Blu~ Sllffordshl~ brio:k., 17
Bodying, 16 I'
Accrington,
all',
I'
Bncks, 1-19, 36-52, 61-66, &, multi-coloured, a, 12, i3 61,62,6.
nicktd. 19
ornamcnlal. 4
Itone, 114-!'a:a Bohon Wood, .ton~. 96, 99. 102 baullitt, 16 paving, 17
III~d, 62 801ft, brick, 7 birdsmouth, 18 perfont~d, 16, 19,46
Tudor, 5:1 Bond, batk~twHV~. 62 blue Stlffordlhirt. 17 pistol, 18
V~netian, 52 brick-on-td~, 49. So bul!nOH, 18, 39 plinth,19
Arcllltravn, II&-n2 .... t-trap.49 c~m~nt and concrtt~, 18 P!tsKd,2,J, I], 15.18
Ar(iJlKeOUI landUooH, 98 Silv~rlock' •• 49 characlen5lics, I., IS purpose-mad~, 17- 19 •
Anow',7° c..vlty ",111',17,39-45, 124. 125 ch romut ,16 rubber. 16
'J'

s
 INDEX 'J9
Bncb-eontd. Buildm, Re""lttion.----contd. Cherrucal rompolltion--contd. Compreuion atrength---contd.
... 1I·al.zed, 16 .oil and w ..te p.pet, 81. 86, 91, 9) nurbln, lOS hmeltonu, 101

.and·hme, IJ,
und·moulded, 4, 1:1
I,
und·faced, 4.111, IJ .tall"" .. ay., 11.9
thermal ,raulatton, U
Built-up Itone ste....., 11.4
undltonel, lOS
.hale, 1, 12
ChllTltley bar, 66
undllonu. 99. 100
ICltlOg mach,nel, IS. Jl. I to
Concrete, zS--)6, 59, 60
lilica, ,6 Bulk dcn.tty, 108 breau., 64, 6$, 66, 67 aggreglln. :lI~l6
lue., 1:1 Bulkina, )0 Ruu. 64. 65. 67, 68 blocka Ind bnckl, 18
.Iop·moulded, 5 BulinoK bricka, 18, )9 helrthl, 65, 66 compacllng. 3S
Southwlter, 17 Bull'.-eye arch, SI polt, 65. 66 compotJt>on. 18-33
SpeCIIl, .6-19 Burnt ball..t, :19 lIac;b. 6 .. -61>, ft'] curing, 36
sqUint, 18,36 Burri"" I ) Chromite bric;b, 16 derectl, 19-)0
atammg.n Butler Delph "one, 99. 101. Chuff., 13 ftoort. S9-t"
alock, :I, 4. II Chute, dnin, 89, 90 roundatlonl, 31. 53-59
atrenath, IS Ciment Fondu, 15 grading, :lI9
I~U, 14. '5. J:I Cippolino marble, ,06 helrthl, 65. 66
compreulon, '5.)' c Circular ar<;h, 5 I ho;'t. 35
dflon:scence, IS bnckt. 18. +4 11itanC(',61
fro.t rC:ll.lallce, IS Calcareou. "ndllone, fI7 work, 44, 71 levelling, 60
penneability, 14 tufl, 106 settmg-out. 70-71 light-weIght, 19
1C:J(IUn:, 1].61 Cantilever atepl, 126 Ciampa. It, 11. nullS. 18, )$
V. " Cantina arm planer, III Clay. blendina. 1 matrrx, 18
...-ire-cut,]. 'J, '5. 17. 18 Cappinp, chimney. 66 chem,,;;al contt,tullon, 1,:lI, 11 muu. 18, )0, )1, 34
Bm:ktor, 45 Carbonation, 1.0 cleanma, :lI mixing. 34. 35
Brickwork, '-73 Carborundum,98, 1I0, III, 1I3 de-airing, ) plKmg. JS
archu, so-p" 62-64 Carrilge bolt., I)) fireclay, 1, 16 remforced, :lI3-)O, 1:lI6, 119
bIo~ments, 54-58 CIICllde,89 gault, I ......dull.18
cavity wIlb, '7.39-44. 12"', I:lS Cllt iron covcn, 88 Knottl, I, 1 lite, 59
cin:ular work, 44. " Cav,ty Uet, )9, 41 lOAmY. I strength. )0-32, )4
decorated,61-6" ..... 111, 17, )9-++, 124. 115 maim, I ttllt,- )1. 34
arches, 61, ~ Ceihnajoillt•• 130, 1)7 marly. I compacting factor, )1
d,aper work, 64 Cemcnt, 1.1-15, 1.7, 18, )0-)6 plltt'c, :lI compression, 31., 34
pien, 64 .lummOUl, 1.5, 18 nd, • slump. Jl, 34
qUOin_,62 Atlll,15 reduction, 1 tower, )5
dry acus, 58 coloured, 15 Kr~ning, ) wlter-c;ement ralio, )1
firepbc:a, ete., 64""70 Medira, 1.1 IOUtlna, 4 waterproofed. 36. 5'6
jointina: and pointin,. 6" 61, 6. normal Portland, 23-1.4 weuheri"" :lI Cone c;ruaher, 31.
junction_, )6, 37 nun..,facrure, 11-1.4 Cleats, 1)1-134, 1)6. 1)7 Connemara Inlh Gr~n marble, 106
pien, 39. 40. 6.+ talt, 1)~ Clinker. 11, 10, :lI9 Con",rvaul,;Y IYAlem. 74
rak1I1f boncb, 411. 49, 6:1 Portland billt-rums«, 15, 18 Clinllenna, I) Coruolel. 117. 118. 11.1
uinforced, +4-+1 npid-hndemna Portland, 14, 18 Cliplham Itone. 96, 101-105 Conllruction, arch. 51
.ettin, out, 70-'73 ROOlan, 11 Closed drum m,xer, 35 draml, 85-86
..,ee'11 boncb. 4B--so .ulphate-rai.tin,. 23, 15 Coal IIICk, 6, II Contact bed. 74
IqUinl junction., J6, 37 .upt:r_.ulphate, 1.1 Cold·pu tell. 14 ConllOuow kilra. 6-10. 19
quoinl, 36, 38, 39 wlterproof, 1.1., 15 Coloured asphalt, 56 mlun. )5
stepped foundltionl, 58-59 white Portland, 15, 1.7 c;nnent, 15 Coping bricks, 18
ItHnath. 'S Cement Ind concrete bricQ, 18 COOlblanchu~n marble, 106 Comgnt 1I0ne, 101, 101, 110
Broaolelle: Jaunt marole, ,06 moru" 17, 44 Complc;ting fac;tor test, ]:I Cornice., 116-115
Violette marble, 106 ::ementone, 18 Compo mortlr, 17 Cornish 1111n, 96. 106
Broken briclr., 18 Centrll batchina pllnt, 35 Compolition, c;ement. 21,1), 15 Corona, 116
atone, z8 Cetspool, 74 day, 1.:lI. 11 Corrennie aranite, 95. 101
Bronu baluatnde, 119 Chamber dry-cn, 5 concrete. 38. )0, 31 Cortc:hiU red Iione, 96, 911, 99, 105
door, 117 Cham ben, inlpection, So, 86, 88, 90 grlnltn,97 Conham Down 1I0ne, 101-10). 105, 110
Buildina paper, 56 intercepting, 87, 89-"90 limel, 10 Cotswold Dillric;t Itone, 98
Buildm, RelfUlataona- Channelled joints, 1'4, 117 limntonn. 105 Co .... nose brlckl, 18
balu.tndu and handnii., 126, 1~9 Chlnnell, drain, 78, 79, 87, 88 m&rblea, 105 Crazing. 13
CllVity _III, )9, 40 Chelillcal competition, C('mtnt, 11., :lI), 15 ... ndnonn.los Creelown granite, 95. loa
dnina, 76, 85, 86, 88 claYI, I, 2, 11. COOlpreuion llrength. brickt, '5 Creosole, 54
IinpiKe conttNction, etc.., 6 4 , 66, 67, 68 grtn.tet, 97 c;~ntt, 3). 14 Crou-c;ul taW, III
,""phC tank, 75 itmo,10 c;oncreln, )0. J I, 31. )4 Croullnd Hlllltone. 99. 101. 105
,"e concute, ]0 hmutonn, tOS grt.met, 95 Crouilng, I)
 INDEX
(;~ush~d .tOl'l~,
:16 Dramap:e.74---9) EfIIl.lrHCence, I, 13-15, 26, "7. 107 French marbles. 106
Crushmg rolli, 1 prmclpln, 86. 88 Effh.. ent, 74.76 roof trusa, 136, 137
Crypto-AorclCen«, ''I
Curing concrete, )6, 6.
Curtin, uble, 3
M'plle tank, 75-'76
.1,1'*>,1,74
DraIn pIpes. 74-93
Ellg and d.rt ornam .. nt, 116
Electric py.ometc ... , I I
Electrode. 1)0
Frlez... 116-111. la3
Fratt sction, 'S, '07. 109. 110 •
Cymattwn, II, ubnta.-«ment. 81. s.. Enamcll.. d brock., ,6
beddm8. 8), 85 Endehffc "one, 96, 99, 102 G
bends, 77. 78, 80, 9) Enltnee.inl briCks. 15- 17
Cllt iron, 80-8, Eng:"h ITUIrbt"l, 96, 101, lOJ, IDS G.bbro. 9 ... 97
D ch.nneb. 78, 79. 87. 88 Engobe, 16 Gal .... mzing, 45
c:hllte. &g, 90 Entablature, 116-114 Gamller brickt, 16
Dunp proof coutset, 40 c:t.Y.76-80 ErmlOn, 107 Gaule board,s.., 85
De-aknnll clay, 1 concrete. 8 I. 84 Edoh.llon, 10'] tin... , '31. 137
DKonl~ brickwork, 61-6. jomls. 76, 77. 78, 79. 80. 81. h, 83. 84, Exmel, 44, 4S G.ult br,,~b, I
arches, 6:1 8, Exp"nd .. d melal, 19, 44, 4S, 56 d.y. I
d.aper ...·ork, 6. pitch fibre, 81-h slate, 29 Geology, 94, 96
joinun, and point;nr. 61, 61 plalllc. 81 Glul brldu, 19
plen, ~ rool, &g Glazed bricks. 6. 16 •
qUOIl", ba .'U., 78. 8J F pipe., 76. 77. ,8
Defect. In bricks, 13-105 Inp_, 76, 77. 78, 79, 80. 8~-8J. 86. 87. Gradmr .ggr"(IItu. 16. 29
hlack tore, I J 91, 9~, 93 Face-bedded 1I0ne. ,06 Gnm'n. 94-1)l1. 110, 114
blo,ating, 13 grtatt:, 7S, 80, 8~ Faucet, 78 biotite, 95
burring. IJ !tully, 77. 78, 81,82.86.91 Fehpar,94 c:DmIXllIIIOn,97
chuff., I) mterceptor, 8:. 87, 89-90 F .. bp.thlC ..ndston.... 97, 9B diSlnbution, 95. 10:1
..,rIll:,n•• I) pelrol, 8J Ferrocret.. cement. "5 hornbl .. nde, 94. 95
crozzling, I J Dnml. conllrucllon. 8J-86 Fnruginoul undlton .... 97 mUlCOvtt".95
efflorncence. I, 'J-15 ad,.cent 10 buildings, 8s Fib:-ous uphalt fdl. 54. 55 rnu.covlI .. -biollte,9S
,rizzlm!,: •• 4 dllConnectlon. 89'"1}0 F,lle""I33 pollshmg. 114
Iron apo'l, 14 effluent. 74. 76 Fillet I'>cld •• 130 Granolithic finish. 60
lamin,"ona, '4 e~lng, s... 8S, 86 Finen..... ''''', 2) Gnv .. l, "9. 96
lome nodules, 14 foundtuon Sit "Found'lIon." Fink roof lrusa. 136. 137 Gravity uw. III
lICunvmnl, 7, 8, '4 in'pection, 86, 88. 91 Flffel,y. 2, .6 Gree"n marblet. 106
Defee" .n concrele, 19-30 mterception, 87, 119 bricks. 16 Gre .. nsto ...... 97
frOBt Ict.on, J6 scttmg 0111. 83. 85-86 pipeS, 76-80 GntIlOnu.97- 100

..,
Defects In lIOOC', .06-110
due to usociauon of d,uunilar Iionn,

atmotphetic Impurmn •• 06
carelc.. selection, 107
• y,,"ms, 74
Int •. 86
H'fmhmon, 86, 90, 92, 93
DrHollng Slone, 110-1'4
Drop arch, 52
Fir.. column., 7
Firtplll('.... 64-70
heartN. 65, '66
Int .. nl.ln. 65, 67, 68, 69. 70
Flagstones. 98
Grlullng. I..
Grog. 3, 16.79
Grooved bricks. 46
Gu.sel .. y lIone, 96. 99, 101
Guill.... Su "Drain InpI"
corrod,bh, metal fancmr.gt, 108 Dry ~real. s8 Fla5h-I'>1I1l,6 GUSUI •• IJO-IJ7
efflo~ence •• 07 dipped proc..... ,6 FI.,lnchmg. 66 GYP,um, 22
frost Kuon, 10'}, 109. 110 h)'draled hme, 20. 21, 27 Flenon brIcks, I,~, 10
Incorrect bedd.nr. 106 p.nl, 1; Fleur de Peche marble. 106
De Lank enmte, 95. 97. loa Drymg bncks, proc.. un, S, 6. 7 Floors. concret.. , 59"-#" H
Density. bulk, .08 Dumpy I.-,·d, 70, 8J f-lor.. nh ... e arch, 51
solid, loB Dung"l.Inl IIl.In ... 96. 98, 99, 10~, lOS Flu .. brIck, 6, Habla kiln, 8
Di.lROnal bond, .8, 61 Dunn House: 'ton", 96. 98. >19, 11.12, II.IS lining, 66, 67 Hacks. S. 6
D.IIIIge, 94 Dupl.. , sa", machln .. , III pipe, 66, 67, 68 Hand-float, 61
D,amond "w, 111 FI ..sh joint•• 61 Hand-made brick" 3-5. I), '5
Diaper work, 64 Foam.. d II.g, 29 Hang ..... , 137
Diorites. 94. 97 Foot Ironl. 89 Hard core, 60
DIM: poli.her, 114 E Fo~"ork. 119 HUTlhl, 65. 66. 69, 70
Doglea bnc:k •• 18 FOCindalionl. 40, 41. 43. 57, 58, 6~ Hurllng.IJ
DolomitK: lime. "1 Earnock IIone. 99, 10:1 chimney, 64 Healing appliances, 64. ~o
hme"ones. 101. 104. 105 Ea~h d~u. 74 concr.. te, 41. 4J. 57, 58, 6.t H .. hcold.1 WlTe_It"mg plant. "4
morun. "7 Ed~fl.lld "l.Ine. 99, 101
Edge runne .... a
s..,
droun. 76, 83. 85. 86 Hel'>orth Bum lion .. , 1)6. 99. 'o~, 10~
aand"ones. 97. 101, 104 Itiling 01,11, 70-73 Hoffn'lln ktln, 9, 10, 10
Door lap., 7. 8 dry panl, :I. lI .. pped, 58 Hollington lion ... 96, 99, 102, 105
Dove marble, 106 pan mill •• 3 FTlme II", 110 Hollow bTlcks, 17. 18, 19 •
Down-dnlllht kiln, 6. 79 .... et pan •• 2 Fr...,.IO ...... , 9B walls, 17,39->1-4,45.114

s
 INDEX
Kilns-wntd. Limeltones--<:ontd. Machines-contd.
Homework programme, 138 grinding mills, 2:1.
Hood mould, 51 down-draught, 6, 79 defectl, 106-.10
distribution, 101-103 helicoidal wire pw;ng. 114
Hopton-Wood marble, 96,101-103,1°5 Habla, 8 hydralor, II
Hori~ontal draught kilrl, 6 Hoffman, 9, 10, 20 dreasing, .1D-II4
hOfll.Onlal draught, 6 fonnat;on, 94 Jenny Lind polisher, II), 1104-
Hornbl~nde, 94, 95 lathe, ")
mlermittent,6, 19 magnesian, 96, 101-10), lOS, 107
Hornlon stone, 101, 102. Le Chatelier, 24
I lot-dip procCA, 4S Manchester, 7-9 omitie, 96, 101, 105, 107
shelly, 96, 101-105 open+s.de planer, II)
Hot Hoor drying,s muffle, 6
Newc*>st1e, 6 structure, 103, 104 pendulum, II';'
pat lest, 2.4 reRts •• 08--110 permeab.lity, 14. ,08
Ilunl.,ku Ini"l<., 17 mtllry, "" planing and mouldmg, II J
H}·draled hme, 2.0, 2.1, 2.7 score, 6 Limmer asphal!, 52
Scotch, 6 Linby Slone, 96, 101, 102 pneumalic drcS$mg and arving, 114
morlar, 27 Lintell, reinforced brick, 46, 47 polishmg, II), 114
H}dntlOrl, 20, 21 semi_continuous, 6
sunk-draw, 19 Liver 'IOnel, 98 pug mill, :I., 3
Hydrator, 21 rotary table press, ), 4, 17
Hydraulic hme, 2.0, 21 tunnel, 10, 19 Loading Hoor, S5
up-draught, 6 Loamy clay, I slump, )11, )4
mOrtar, l7 Locharbriggs stone, 98, 100, 101 , lOS tempering mill, 2
test, 86 lipag,8 lensile tetting, 2)
Hypabyssal rocka, 97 K.ln_white, 7, 8, '4 London clay, 1
KnOllS clay, 1,2 Siocks, l, II tower, 3S
Longndge stone, 96, 100, 10l vibrstors, )5
Loo--boards, 6 Vicat, :1.4
L Lower Persley gnnile, 95, 10l Magnesian lime, 2,1
Lunel marble, 104 limeslones, 96, 101-10), 105, 107
Igneous rocks, 94, 95, 97 mortar, 27
Inspection chambers, 88--<)0 1.. ,tance,61
Lake Distnct Ilates, 96, 106 sandstones, 97, 101-105
Insulation, 43 Magnesite brickl, 16
intercepting chambers, 82, 87, 89-90 Laminalions, 14 M
Lathe, II) Magnetite, 94
Intermittent kilns, 6,19 Maim, I
Insh mubles, 10l, IDS, 106 Lavatory basms, 92, 9) Machine dreMing, stone, 11D-114
Lal.onby stone, 96, 98, 100, 102. Machmes, apparatus and plant, Manchester kiln, 7-9
81ates, 102, 106 Mansfield stone, 94, 97, 101-103, lOS
Iron spots, 14 Leadwork, .17 uphall felt, 54
Lean lime, 20 auger, ) Manufacture, asphalt, 54
halian marbles, 106 bricks, 2,-13, .6, 17
Le Chatelicr apparatus, :14 batch mixers, )4, )5
Levanto Rosso marble, 106 beam saw, III cement, 1:1., :1.5
Levelling concrete, 60 brick, cutting table, ), 4 drlin pipes and trsp., 79, 8.--8::1
LeWIS bolts, 1)1-1)7 moulds, )-5 fibrous asphalt felt, 54
Lightweight concrete, 29 presses, ), 4, • 7 lime,IQ-:1.2
Jambs, moulded, 116 Marbles, 94, 96,10),106,110, II), 129
Jaune Lamartine marble, 106 L.me, 19-:1.' canting arm pllner, II)
clanlficallorY, 110, II central balchmg, )5 Bdgian, 106
law crusher. 22 oomposl1ion, 105
Jenny Lind polisher, II), 114 COmposition, 110 chaser mill, 11
hydraled, 110, 21, 2,7 compacting factor, ):1 Engli5h, q6, 10', 10), 105
Jogglejomt, 126, 127 French, 106
Jointing bnckwork, 61, 62 hydraulic, 20, 21 compression testing , 15,)11
kilns, 19 concrete hoist, )5 Grecian, 106
Joints. ~hamfered, .16 Inlh, 105, 106
channelled, 114, 117 magneSIan, 21 cross-cuI saw. III
mortar, 115-:17 crusher cone, :1.:1. Italian, 106
cramped, 124 Norwegian, 106
dram. Su "Drain Joints" black,27 jaw, :1.2, 28
colour, 27 rolls, ) polishing, 113
josgle, 126, 127 s tai r, 129
rebated, 124 compo, 27 kibblers, 3
hydrated. 27 stone, 2, 2,9 Swedish, 106
splayed rebated, 124 Marly clay, I
hydraulic, 2,6 diamond saw, III
lime-cemenl, 2,7 disc polisher, 114 Mlsonry, 9-4-1:1.9
K magneSian, 116 dl'1lin p,pe, 79 ashlar, 114-1:1.5
non-hydl'1luhc, 26 duplex saw, I I I eonlOlel, 117, 118, 122
pure, :1.0 edge runnefl, 2, cornicel,II6- 124
Kemnay 'granlte, 95. 102 d!'Cu;np 10 doors, 114-1::1::1
Kenush rag, 96. 10) urcngth, 2,5, :1.7 dry pan, l
walerproof, 27 pan mill,:I. windowl, 117-llO
Kerridg~ stone, 9S, 98 spITe, 108
Keyed bricks. 18 noduln,14 wet pan, ::I
L,m.,.t"n.,., 9-4, gh, 98, .0'-'0), lOS, fnur_head planer, IIJ squared rubble, liS. 116, uS
Klbblers,3 ltairs, u6-u9
Kieselguhr, 6 111-114, ,,6 £nome saw, 110
chemical composition, 105 frost reSistance, IS, 109 ItepI, U4-U6
Kilnl, 6-11,19,20, n Mlt.ritt, ::18
conunuous, 6-10, 19 clUSlficltion, 96, 10' gravity law, III
 INDEX
Medusa, 28
Metal balustrades, '14-129
fallenings, ,08
Metamorphic rocks, ~, 10), 105, 106
Punds, brick, 62
P~flIpets, 6::t, 63, 117-1l4
Purging, 67
Quarry sand, 26
up, 110
Quartz, ~
.,
Sandstones, 94, 96-100,

argillaceou" 97, 98
lOll, 110-114,

P~rk Nook stone, 96,101-10),105 Quartzite, 106, 11I9 calcareous, 97

Mica, ~ P1\vingl, 17 Qu:cklime, 1,20 chemical composilion, 105
Micaceous sandstones, 98 Pavonuuetto marble, 106 Qu()ins, 36, 62 classification Ind distribution, 96, 98, 99,
Middlewood atone, 100, lOll Pavonauo marble, 106 TOO, lOll
Mild steel roof trusses, 1)0-1)6 Pedim(nts, 116-119 def«u, 100-110
Mining atone, 110 Pendulum mllchine, 114 R dressing, 110-114
Mixers, concrele, )S P(nning,60 Ra~ks, 5 f"lspllhic, 97, 98
Monk's Park stone, 96, 101-105, 110 Percent<l!!,e porosilY lest, 108 Radford slon", 96, 101, 102, 105 ferruginous, 97
Monara, cement, 27, +4 Percoluting filter, 76 Radius rod, 5 T Aags:ones, 98
colour, 17, 61 Perforated bricks, 16, 18 Rait~n, common, 131 -13<1- fOm13lJon, 9<1-
fire-re,i,wnt, "7 Permeability test, '4, 108 Rag bolts, 131-137 fr"eston~s, 98
jointing and pointinJl', 61, 61 Perrico! none, 103 Rain water pipes, 86-92 gritslones, 97-100
lime, 15-27 Pel"rhelld granite, 95, 102 Raking bonds, 48, 62 liver, ~
black, 27 Picking !).,d, 110 Red day, I magnesTan, 97, 101-103, 105
cement, 27 Pius, 39, 64 Reducing atmosph"re, 13 mic~ceous, 9B
hydl'1lted, 1I7 Pipes, drain, 74-93 Reinforc"d brickwork, 44-48 silic~oul, 97, 98
hydraulic, 1I7 noinw~ter, 86, ')1 Reinfotc"d concret",::t8-30, 56, 11I6, 128, 129 IIruetur", 98, 1G.4
maanesian, 1I7
II non-hydraulic, 1I6
strength, 2S, 27
soil,91
stack, 86, 91, 9l1, 93
'·"ntilalion, 91, 92, 9)
floor, 56
stair, 126, 128, 129
Rendering, 67, 88
leau, T08- . TO
ti1"slon~s, 98
San Stefano marbl", 106
waterproofed, 27, 56 waste, 36, 91, 9a, 93 Retaining wall, S8 Saturalion coeffici"nt l"lt, 108, 10<)
Moulding bricks, )-S Pislol bricks. 18
II drain pipes Qnd traps, 79, 81-82 Pinolil", 103
Ridi"I,131-136
Rip saw machine, III
SawdUSI concret~, 28
Scintling, 6
Muffle kiln, 6 Pitch,54 River sand, lI6 Selattie granite, 95, 102
Muscovite, 95 rivets, 130 Rivets, 130 Scor" kiln, 6
I Mutule., 117 Pil sand, 2b
Pia"" bricks, 14
R()cks, 94-106 Scolch kiln, 6
RCKls, drain, 89 Scottish slates, 106
Pinning and moulding machin", 113 Rooftrusses,s,,,el, T30-1)6 Scout Iton", tOO, 102
N Pl~slic clay, 1I Rose marble, 106 Scralten, 131, 132, 134, 136, 137
Plulonic rocks, 94 ROlary table prns, J, 4, 17 Scr«ning elay, 3
Napoleon marble, 106 Pneummic dressing plant, 114 kiln, 22 Scroll, 117
Natural bcd, stone, 97, 106 Polishing machines, I I J, 114 Rouge marbl~, 106 Scununing, 7, 8, '4
Neuehatel asphalt, S2 Porosity, 14, T08 Rubber brIcks, 16 S.,. sand, 26, 1I8
Newcastle kiln, 6 test, loS Rubbing b~d, I I ) Seasoning stone, 110
Norge Clair marble, 106 Portland c"m~nlS, 211-24, 25, 28 Rubi,law granite, 95, lOll Mdimentary rocks, 94, 97-105
Norwegian marble., 106 SIon", 96, LOI-IOS, T07, I I I Runcom stone, 96, 97, 100, 102 Sedim"ntalion test, 1I6
Pr,,-c"l steps, 129 Mgar cones, I I
Preparation, SIon"., 110-11. Septic tank, 75-'16
o
Pressed bricks, 1I, 3, 13, IS, 17 s Sening, bricks, 7
Privy midd"ns, 74 cenent, 24
Profiles, 71, 711 Salt-glazed brieh, 16 01,11 brickwork, 70-'13
Onyx marble., 106 Proportioning concr"te, 1I8, 30, )1, 3<1- drain pip"" 76-80 drains, 83-86
Otilitie limestones, 86, 101-IOS, 107 Pudlo, 28 traps, 76, 77, 78 Scwus, 74, 75, 85
Open areu, 58 Pug mill, 2, 3 Salting, 79 S"yud asphalt, 54
mould, • Pulvinated fri,,:U, 116 Sand, 1I5-311, 96 Shale, I, 2, III
.ide planer, 113 Pumic~, 29 blasting, I) Shsp granite, 95, 102
Omunent.. l hricka. 4 Pur~ lim", 1I0 bulking, 30 ShBwk ston~, tOO, 102
Overburden, 2,110 Purlinl, 133-137 "ul"\lr, :1.7 Shed dry"ra, S
Overflow tank, loS Putty powder,.113, 114 faced bricks, 4, 12, 13 Shelly limestones, 96, 101-105
Pyrit"',94 grading, 1I6, 28, 29 Shippers, 14
Pyrom~ters, I I lim" bricks, 15, 17 Shot, II I, 114
p moulding, 4, III Shr"dding plate, 3
pit or quarry, 26 Shuffs, 13
Pads, Ill-137 Q proportioning, )0 Shuttering, 129
PUI cla.eu, 74 riv,,!, 26 Sieihan marble, 106
Pallet boudt, •• 5 QUlrTi", ~103, lOS, 110 $ea, lI~, 28 Sienna marbl", 106
PIU! mill, :I Quarrying, lIO t".tl, 26 Si"vn, 22, 1I9
 INDEX
'43
Stones-contd, Twin blade machine, II I
Sight rail~, 83, ~4 Stul roof tl"Wllel-'COntd, Tympanum, 62, 116, 118
glUscts, 130-136 thresholds, u4, 125
Sika, ~8 tympanum, 116, 118
Silica bricks, 16 purlins, 133-136
rivets, 130-136 Stool pallets,s
SiliceoUs sandstones, 97, 98 Strata classification, 94--9 6 v
Site concrete, S9 shoes, 130-136
washers, 133 Suength, hrickwork, 15
Skeleton stone steps, 124 cements, 23, 2.4 Val de Travers asphalt, 52. .
Skyl'Oll marble, 106 Steel shot, Ill, 114
Step irons, 89, 90 concretes, 30, 31, 32, 34 Venetian arch, 52, 53
Slabbing, 110, III granites, 95 Ventilation, drain, 86, 90, 91
Slag, blast-furnace, 2S, 29 Stepped foundations, 58-59
Steps, 115, liS, 124-127 limestones, 101 Verde Antico marble, 106
foamed, 29 mortars, 25 , 27 Vertical damp proof courses, 52-58
Slaking lime, 20 built-up, 124, 125
cantilever, ll6-u9 sandstones, 99, 100 Vibrators, 3S
Slate damp proof cou{Se, 57 Stretching bond, 40 Vicat apparatus, 24
Slates, 94, 96, 106 marble, 128, 119
non-slip, IlS, 129 Strike, 4 Victoria Red marble, 106
Slide glass, l)3 Striking-off hoard, 60 Vitocrete, 25
Slip, I, 16 precast, U9
rectangular, 118, 124-1l6 String, stair, 129 Volcanic rocks, 97
Slop_moulding, 5 courses, 62
reinforced concrete; u8, U9
Sludge, H Structures, stones, 94, 98, 103, 104
Slump test, 32 skeleton, 124
Subsoil drainage, 55, 74
Slurry, I, 16,22 spandril, 124, u6, u7
Stippling, 13 Suction, 14 w
Smoke test, 86 Sunk draw kiln, 20
Snake stone, 114 Stirrups, 46, u9 Walls, brick, 36-39
Stock bricks, 2, 4, I I Surface vibrator, 35
Soil pipes, 91 Sussex bond, 49 cavity or hollow, 17, 39-44, u4,- U5
stacks, 86, 88, 91 board,4 circular, 44, 71-'}2
mould,4 Swedish marhle, 106
Solid density, loS Swelling, 13 compound, liS, 120, 122, 123, 125
Soundness test, 24 Stockings, 21 rtinforced, 44-48
Stones, 94-1l7 Syenites, 94, 97
Souring, 4 stone, 114-124
Southwater bricks, 17 arches, 114-U7 Wash bank, I
Spade-finished concrete, 61 architraves, 116-1U
classification, 94-101 Washers, 131
Spandril steps, 124 Wash ,nill, 1
Spars, 131-134 cleaning, 107 Water_carriage system, 7-4
Special brick-bonds, ...a-50 consoles, 117, 1I8, 122 Water-cement ratio, 31
bricks, 17-19 cornices, 116-125 Water dosets, 91, 92., 93
defects, See "Defects in stone" Talc, 5-4
Spigot, 78 Tamper, 60 Water of Ayr stone, 114
Spire, 108 details,114- 129 Waterproofed concrete, 36, 57
discolouration, 107 Tar, H
Split 'orick counes, 73 Tempering mill, 2 mortars, 27, 56
Springer, 116 dressing, 110-114 Weathering, 2
dressings to doors, 114-122 Tensile testing machine, 23
Springwell stone, 96, 100, 102, 105 Terrazzo, 61, 129 Welding, 130
Squint bricks, 18, 36 windows, 117-120 Weldon stone, 96,101-103, 105
entablatures, I t6- 122 Thornton Blue stone, 96, 100, 102
junctions, 36, 37 Thresholds, 124 Wellfield stone, 96, 100, 102, 105
quoins, 36, 38, 39 face-bedded, 106 Welsh slates, 96, 102., 106
formation, 94 Throat, flue, 66
Stacks, chimney, 64--66, 67 Throating, I17 West End stOlle, 100, 10~
soil, 86, 88, 91 friezes, lI6-1l3 Wet-dipped process, 16
mining, 110 Tiled arch, 62
Staffordshire blue bricks, 17 Tiles, gla:zed, 65, 68 Wet pan, 2
Staining bricks, 12 natural bed, 97, 106 Whinstone, 97
pads, 131-137 Tilestoncs, 98
Stairs, reinforced concrete, ub, 128, Tinos marble, ,06 Whitbed, 103
parapets, 122-1l4 White Portland cement, 25, 27
"9 pediments, 116-I2S Tor Brake granite, 95, 102
stone, u6, 1~7, U9 Down granite, 95, 102 Wickets, 7, 8
Stalactites, 106 preservation, 108 Window sills, 119, UI, uS
quarrying, 110 Tower, concrete, 3S
Stalagmites, 106 Trace holes, 8 Windyway stone, 100, 102
St. Aldhelm Box Ground stone, 101-103, seasoning, 110 Wire-cut bricks, 3, 13
selection, 107 Trammel,71
105, 110 Traps, drain. Set "Drain traps" Withes, 64
Stancliffe stone, 96, 100, 102, 105 stain, u6, I~7, 118 Woodkirk stone, 96, 100, 102, 105
stepa, 115, 118, 114-127 waste, 91, 92, 93
St, Anne marble, 106 Travertine marble, 106 Woolton stone, <)6--<)S, 100, 102, 104
St, Bees stone, 96, 100, 102, 10 5 structure, 98, 103, 104
test, 108-114 Treads, 124-U9
Stanton Park stone, 96, 98, 100, 10~ Trinidad asphah, 52, 54
Woodhouse stone, 100, 10~ compressive strength, 110
frost resistance, 109, 110 Trowel,61 y
Statuary marble, 106 Tub closets, 74
Steel roof trusses, 130-136 percentage poroaity, loS
permeability, loS Tudor arch, 52, 53
bearing, base or sole plates, 131-136 Tunnel dryers, 5 York stone, 98, 124
cleats, 131-136 saturation coefficient, J08, 109