Guide For Asphalt and Paving

PROGRAMME MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY (PMC) SERVICES
FOR LOCAL ROADS AND DRAINAGE PROJECTS
Prepared for:
PUBLIC WORKS AUTHORITY
Guide to Asphalt and Paving
February 2016
Prepared by:
Parsons Brinckerhoff International Inc.
PMC-GD-CON-010
February 2016
Revision Approvals
Reviewed Authorized
Rev
Date By
Name Signature Name Signature
0 05/09/2013 Robert Overett Gordon Shaw Gordon Shaw
1 04/02/2016 Bill Short Charles Nunoo Khattab Shammout
Revision Description
Rev
Date Pages Details
0 N/A Initial Issue

1 04/02/2016 All pages Updated references to reflect QCS 2014
Prepared by:
Parsons Brinckerhoff International Inc.

5TH Floor, Faisal Tower 2
P.O. Box 23103
Doha, Qatar
Telephone +974 4495 1601
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Asphalt Concrete Paving: A Brief Description................................................................................ 1
1.2 Safety.......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Plans and Specifications .............................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Traffic Control .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 General Guidelines for Inspection ................................................................................................. 2
1.6 Asphalt Concrete Inspection ......................................................................................................... 2
1.7 General Responsibilities of the Inspector ...................................................................................... 3
1.8 Record Keeping ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.9 Authority of the Inspector ............................................................................................................. 4
1.10 Relationship with the Contractor ................................................................................................... 4
2 Asphalt Mix Production............................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Responsibilities of the Inspector ................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Batch Plants ................................................................................................................................ 5
2.3 Dryer Drum-Mix Plants ................................................................................................................. 7
2.4 Plant Operation............................................................................................................................ 8
2.4.1 Stockpiling 8
2.4.2 Cold Bins 9
2.4.3 Cold Feed 10
2.4.4 Bitumen Binder Storage 10
2.4.5 Batch Plant Dryer 11
2.4.6 Drum-Mixer Dryer 12
2.4.7 Dust Collector 12
2.4.8 Screening Unit 13
2.4.9 Hot Bins 14
2.4.10 Aggregate Weigh Hopper or Box 15
2.4.11 Bitumen Binder Weigh Kettle or Bucket 16
2.4.12 Pugmill Mixer 16
2.4.13 Finished Asphalt Temperature 16
2.4.14 Hot Mix Storage and Loading 17
3 Preparing for Asphalt Paving.................................................................................................. 19
3.1 Responsibilities of the Inspector ................................................................................................. 19
3.2 Prime and Tack Coat Logs ......................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Preparing an Aggregate Surface (Prime Coat) ............................................................................ 21
3.4 Alignment, Grade, and Compaction ............................................................................................ 21
3.5 Surface Preparation for Prime Coat ............................................................................................ 21
3.6 Prime Coat ................................................................................................................................ 22
3.7 Blotter Material .......................................................................................................................... 22
3.8 Levelling for Existing Road Pavements ....................................................................................... 22
3.9 Surface Preparation for Tack Co ................................................................................................ 22
3.10 Tack Coat .................................................................................................................................. 23
3.11 Spray Tanker Distributor Vehicle ................................................................................................ 23
4 Asphalt Pavement Construction ............................................................................................. 27
4.1 Responsibilities of the Inspector ................................................................................................. 27
4.2 Records..................................................................................................................................... 28
4.3 Checklists .................................................................................................................................. 28
4.4 Plant and Equipment.................................................................................................................. 29
4.4.1 Delivery vehicles 29
4.4.2 Pavers 30
4.4.3 Rollers 35
4.5 Spreading and Finishing............................................................................................................. 38
4.5.1 Machine Laying 38
4.5.2 Hand Raking 39
4.5.3 Echelon Paving 39
4.6 Joints ........................................................................................................................................ 40
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4.6.1 Transverse Joints 40

4.6.2 Longitudinal Joints 41
4.7 Compaction ............................................................................................................................... 42
4.7.1 Temperature 43
4.7.2 Initial or Breakdown Rolling 44
4.7.3 Intermediate Rolling 44
4.7.4 Finish Rolling 45
4.7.5 Hand Compaction 45
4.7.6 Traffic Opening and Control 45
4.8 Spread Calculations and Control ................................................................................................ 45
4.9 Inspecting the Finished Mat........................................................................................................ 47
4.10 SAMPLING AND TESTING ........................................................................................................ 48
5 Recycling Pavements Overview ............................................................................................. 49
5.1 Recycled Asphalt Pavements ..................................................................................................... 49
5.2 Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) .......................................................................................... 49
5.3 Hot Asphalt Recycling ................................................................................................................ 49
5.4 Cold-Mix Recycling .................................................................................................................... 49
Appendix A - Problem Solving ....................................................................................................... 51
Appendix B – Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................... 64
Appendix C – Examples of Checklists ........................................................................................... 85
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1 INTRODUCTION
The Guide to Asphalt and Paving is a reference document for inspectors and supervisors
involved in the production and installation of asphalt pavement. It has been prepared for
those working on projects in Qatar and specifically for the Local Roads & Drainage
Programme, to ensure that best practice is adopted and a quality product is delivered to the
satisfaction of the Client, the Public Works Authority.
The Guide is not a specification and does not replace the Qatar Construction Specification or
its revisions, however it may be used as a reference guide as to the practices and operations
involved in the actual construction of an asphalt pavement, the processes, the equipment
and other factors which requires some detailed knowledge. In this respect, the inspector or
supervisor can refer to this document in case of doubt or to increase their knowledge of the
subject. It will not hold all the answers and is not a substitute for asking questions of other
asphalt professionals.
1.1 ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVING: A BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Contractors or their suppliers make and install asphaltic concrete on roads and similar
trafficked areas where it provides a smooth driving surface, seals out water, and controls
dust. The design service life for asphalt pavements is generally 20 years, designed
accordingly to the type of traffic and loadings it will experience during that time, however the
surfacing will most probably be replaced during the course of its design life.
Asphalt concrete normally has three basic components: bitumen binder, aggregate, and air.
Chemical and natural modifiers may also be used to enhance and control various properties
of the asphalt either by adding direct to the mix or by modifying the bitumen binder. Asphalt
concrete is manufactured in accordance with a mix design that defines the mix proportions,
temperatures and end performance characteristics.
Bitumen, sometimes referred to as asphalt cement or asphalt binder, is a residue of crude oil
refining. It becomes fluid at high temperatures but is relatively stable at room temperatures.
These “thermoplastic” properties make it an excellent construction material.
Bitumen binder is graded in various ways according to the country, regional or other
specification requirements or needs. In Qatar, binder has typically been classified according
to penetration or ‘straight run’ grade and 60/70 grade is most frequently used. However, with
a change of design method from Marshall to Superpave, Performance Grades (PG based on
maximum and minimum pavement temperatures in degrees Celsius), and typically 76-10,
are being introduced, which at this performance level requires polymer modification; hence
polymer modified binder or PMB. Asphalt concrete gets most of its strength from the
aggregate, which makes up most of the mix however it’s the binder that holds the aggregate
together that significantly influences the asphalt concrete performance properties.
Asphalt concrete or “hot mix asphalt” may be produced at either a permanent central plant or
at a mobile plant set up at the contractor’s site. Trucks haul the hot mix to the construction
site location where it is placed by a paving machine. The paving machine spreads and
partially compacts the asphalt mix before a series of rolling operations provide further
compaction. Immediately behind the paver is a “breakdown” roller, which achieves most of
the required compaction. It usually has two steel drums that may be equipped with vibrators.
“Intermediate” rolling, normally done by a rubber-tyred roller, follows the breakdown roller.
Finish rolling is done by a static (non-vibratory) steel drum roller, which removes roller marks
and surface blemishes.
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1.2 SAFETY
Asphalt concrete is mixed and laid when it is hot. There are specific health and safety
requirements for those dealing with these types of operations and it is therefore important
that anyone involved in the mixing, installation, sampling and testing and inspection is fully
inducted in the supplier/ contractor’s health and safety requirements in accordance with the
Qatar Construction Specification or its revisions, and has the required personal protective
equipment necessary before commencing any operation within the asphalt production and
paving works.
1.3 PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS

The contract will generally contain all of the documents that describe what will be built on the
project and how it will be done. The inspector will need to be familiar with the specification
for the works, the design of the pavement including dimensions, thicknesses and the
material designs being used to construct the pavement, which will differ from project to
project.
1.4 TRAFFIC CONTROL

There will be traffic control requirements for the project, both for site traffic and traffic on the
public highway. Whilst the inspector will not have responsibility for this, it is well to be aware
of the traffic management in place in order to navigate the site and to report any unsafe
situations.
1.5 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION
The inspector’s primary duties are to help ensure that all work on the project is performed in
close conformity with the plans and specifications and that payment then can be made to the
contractor for the work carried out to the required level of quality.
This requires that the plans and specifications for the work to be inspected are understood,
the contractor’s activities are monitored, and that accurate records are kept by the inspector.
Problems must be recognised as they occur but preferably anticipate them whenever
possible, and exercise technical competence in resolving them with the contractor. Any
problems or difficulties must be raised with the contractor immediately so that subsequent
work is not affected.
1.6 ASPHALT CONCRETE INSPECTION

Asphalt concrete inspection is a team effort that consists of the following jobs:
Inspection of aggregate preparation and stockpiling
Inspection of plant and equipment prior to paving operations
Pre-paving receiving course joint survey and inspection to assess where rectification
may be necessary prior to paving operations
Prime and/or tack coat inspection
Paving inspection
Ensuring materials testing is carried out as required by specification and the
inspection and test plan
Ensuring site testing is carried out as required by specification and the inspection
and test plan
Traffic control monitoring
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The inspector may be responsible for any of the jobs listed therefore it is important to have
the inspection responsibilities clearly defined before work starts. If you are not responsible
for these duties, you should know who is.
1.7 GENERAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INSPECTOR
Know the plans and specifications for the items to be inspected, including
specifications and construction drawings specific to the project (special provisions,
etc.).
Be alert to any potentially unsafe conditions, or any situations that may delay
construction, and report them to the contractor and supervising engineer.
Identify nonconforming work or materials as early as possible; anticipate problems
where possible. Notify the contractor immediately and make a record of it. Follow up
on corrective work and make a record of it too. If the contractor cannot or will not fix
the problem, notify your supervisor.
Avoid involvement in any activity that is the contractor’s responsibility otherwise the
contractor may not be held accountable for his or her work if there is a claim or other
contract dispute.
Be prepared to inspect and test promptly. Do not make hasty or premature
decisions. The contractor is expected to give adequate notice of inspection and
testing requirements.
If specifications don’t cover a particular situation or tolerances seem unrealistic, seek
further advice. Report problems you can’t handle and see that they get resolved
before an expensive and time-consuming correction is required.
1.8 RECORD KEEPING

Complete and accurate records for the amount and quality of the work performed are
required. They document that work is performed in accordance with the plans and
specifications and ensure the contractor receives proper payment for the work. Records also
provide a means to maintain control of the work during construction and document the
reasons for decisions and actions taken.
Project records must be sufficiently clear and complete to be understood by people

unfamiliar with the details of the project, and to sustain audit. The importance of maintaining
adequate and proper records cannot be overemphasized. Memory cannot replace valid
permanent documents. Records of the amount and quality of work performed should include
the “four W’s” as follows:
What
Identify the item involved, i.e. tack coat, joint cutting and sealing, surface course, and the
quantity involved.
Where
List the project name and number as well as the specific location, such as chainage and
lane, or offset.
When
Note the date and the time.
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Who
Print name and sign the record. Initials are not acceptable unless your signature also
appears in the record.
It is particularly important to have a record of any problems on the job (such as

nonconforming work or changed conditions). This record should include any instructions
given to the contractor, or agreements made with the contractor, to resolve the problem.
Remember that the records have legal importance if there is a claim or other contract
dispute.
1.9 AUTHORITY OF THE INSPECTOR
The authority of the inspector should be clearly defined by the supervising consultant and
may differ according to the project, type of inspection or the supervising engineer’s site staff
needs. Always confirm the level of authority before work begins.
1.10 RELATIONSHIP WITH THE CONTRACTOR
The inspector must maintain a professional and cooperative attitude with the contractor and
the work force. It is a project team effort to help build a good facility within the contract time,
and good relationships between the parties within the construction activity are beneficial.
Do not let personality or differences of opinion of the contractor interfere with
working relations. Don’t pre-judge the contractor. Begin with the premise that the
contractor is fair-minded and intends to do a good job. Honour commitments made
during partnering with the contractor.
Criticism on or off the job of the contractor or the contractor’s employees by the
inspector is unwarranted and hurts contractor relations.
If you make a wrong decision, admit it. No one is perfect.
Be courteous to the public and respect their rights. The resulting good public
relations will benefit all concerned.
Never get involved in the contractor’s labour relations. This is the contractor’s
responsibility.
The contractor should demonstrate the collaborative effort with supervising
engineer’s staff for the successful completion of work package
The objective of the contract is to build the project on time, within budget and to the required
quality standard. The inspector can make a significant contribution to achieve these aims by
checking the quality of the work in a timely expeditious way ensuring that construction
progress can be made to complete the task in hand and that accurate records are kept.
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2 ASPHALT MIX PRODUCTION

The specifications for asphalt mix production are found in QCS 2014 or its revisions. The
Contractor should produce a quality plan for the production of asphaltic concrete, including
the quality procedures that will be used for controlling the incoming component materials, the
in-process materials and the end product conformity.
Asphalt plants heat and dry the aggregate and mix it with the appropriate amount of bitumen
binder, in accordance with the project mix design. There are two main types of asphalt
plants: batch plants and dryer drum plants. These are briefly described below.
The Asphalt Institute’s Manuals MS-3 Asphalt Plant Manual and MS-22 Principles of
Construction of Hot-Mix Asphalt Pavements contain more information on asphalt plants.
2.1 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INSPECTOR
The asphalt plant inspector is responsible for ensuring that the production of the asphalt mix
conforms to the approved mix design and will comply with the specification. To do this it is
critical that the asphalt production plant is well maintained with a good clear schedule for
maintenance, is managed and operated by trained staff and that all calibrations are current
and available for inspection.
The inspections should include all aspects of the aggregate and bitumen binder
procurement, delivery and stockpiling or storage. The asphalt plant is a complex collection of
machinery and it is necessary to inspect the various parts, from the cold feed through to the
hot asphalt load-out, and therefore it is necessary for the inspector to have a good
understanding of the process and the potential problems so that corrective procedures can
be actioned as soon as possible. Defective asphalt production will never make a satisfactory
pavement when laid; therefore there is no benefit in dispatching poor quality asphalt mix to
the paving site. The inspector should examine production quality records and maintenance
reports weekly to ensure the quality plan is being followed.
Appendix C has a series of check lists to enable the inspector to ensure quality production is
maintained.
2.2 BATCH PLANTS
Batch plants make asphalt concrete one batch at a time. This is done by weighing amounts
of different sized aggregates and bitumen binder in a “pugmill,” where they are mixed. The
pugmill is then emptied and the process repeated. The aggregate and asphalt cement are
heated before they are placed into the pugmill.
Aggregate at the plant starts at the cold aggregate hoppers or bins (see Figure 2.1). There
are usually at least 6 bins for different sizes of aggregate. The aggregate empties through
the bottom of the bins through feeders (most operate with a small belt or a vibrator). The
feeders are equipped with adjustable cold feed gates. Aggregate in different bins is released
at different rates to form the proportional combination of material for the mix design. The
correct proportions are obtained by calibrating the gates and adjusting the variable speed
feeder belt. Aggregate from all the feeders is deposited on a main cold feed conveyor.
The cold feed conveyor carries the proportioned aggregate to the dryer, which heats and
dries it. The dryer consists of a revolving drum or cylinder, a large burner, and a fan. The
revolving cylinder is lined with long vanes called “flights,” which spread the aggregate into a
curtain to ensure proper drying. The burner is located at the lower end of the dryer, so while
the aggregate is moving down towards the burner, the hot gases are moving up away from it.
This is known as “counter flow.”
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The exhaust gases from the dryer contain dust that is removed in the baghouse before the
hot gases are released into the atmosphere. These emissions are regularly tested and a
permit issued by the authority responsible for the environment. The fine dust, called mineral
filler, is recycled into the hot aggregate or are imported as mineral filler. The hot elevator
carries the aggregate from the dryer to a screening unit.
The screening unit is at the top of the plant and comprises a set of screens or meshes,
usually on 3 to 5 screen decks, which sort the heated aggregate by size which falls into
aggregate bins underneath called hot bins.
Below the hot bins is the aggregate weigh hopper or box. The weigh hopper is filled and
weighed successively with aggregate from each of the hot bins in turn usually ending with
the finest sized aggregate. If mineral filler is used, it is taken from the mineral filler storage
silo which is normally measured into its own weigh hopper at the same time.
The amounts are controlled to produce a batch of aggregate with the correct gradation,
which is then released into the pugmill. The aggregate is “dry mixed” briefly before the
bitumen binder is added.
The bitumen binder is continuously circulated from hot bitumen storage tanks through a
piped system. Both tanks and the piping are heated and insulated. Bitumen binder can be
drawn from the tanks into the asphalt weigh kettle or bucket, which measures the amount
needed for a single batch of asphalt mix.
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Once bitumen binder from the weigh kettle is added to the pugmill, the batch is “wet mixed”
just long enough to coat the aggregate with asphalt. The mix is then discharged into trucks
either directly or through temporary storage in a “surge or hot storage silo.”
2.3 DRYER DRUM-MIX PLANTS

Dryer drum-mix plants combine and heat aggregate and mix with the bitumen binder
continuously.
The aggregate at a drum dryer plant starts at a set of cold bins, like at a batch plant. The
gates on the bin feeders are calibrated and adjusted to release the correct proportions of the
different sized aggregate onto the cold feed conveyor. (See Figure 2.2)
The cold feed conveyor has an automatic belt weighing system, which includes a belt speed
indicator. The weighing system is interlocked with the bitumen pump and flow meter so that
(when properly calibrated) the correct amount of bitumen binder is added to the aggregate in
the dryer. Since the bitumen must be delivered in proportion to the dry weight of aggregate,
the metering system must be adjusted to account for the moisture content of the aggregate
and also the specific gravity of the bitumen binder at pumping temperature. There should be
a procedure for accurate monitoring of the aggregate moisture contents which are input into
the plant control system. The hot bitumen storage tanks and circulation system are similar to
those for batch plants.
The drum mixer consists of a revolving cylinder lined with flights, a large burner, and a fan,
like a batch plant dryer. Unlike batch plant dryers, bitumen binder is added within the drum,
where it mixes with the aggregate. The asphalt is added roughly halfway down the length of
the drum. The aggregate and hot air flow move down the drum together and this is known as
“parallel flow.” The flame in a drum dryer should be short and “bushy” which is the most
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efficient for combustion of the fuel and creates sufficient radiant heat with which to heat and
dry the aggregate before mixing with the bitumen binder.
New drum mix plants operate a counter-flow system where the aggregate flows towards and
past the flame, which is shielded from the mixing section, where the mixing occurs, before
falling out of the drum and away by conveyor to the hot storage or loading facilities. Most
drum-mix plants have an inlet, near where the bitumen binder is added, to allow the addition
of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). Counter-flow and “double barrel” drum mix plants are
more fuel/heat energy efficient than parallel flow plants.
As with batch plants, the hot gases leaving the drum pass through a baghouse to the
exhaust stack. Some of the fines from the dust collector may be recycled back into the mix
as mineral filler.
The asphalt mix leaves the drum and is carried by a hot mix conveyor to the “surge or hot
storage silo”, from which it is discharged into trucks.
Dryer drum plants do not have aggregate screens, hot bins, a weigh hopper/box, a bitumen
weigh kettle/bucket, or a pugmill, and mix consistency critically depends on the gradation
consistency of the aggregate components, the accuracy of the plant feeders, and the
continuous weighing and metering systems to produce the correct asphalt mix blend. Being
a continuous production process, the plant is best suited to long production runs of the same
asphalt mix otherwise contamination may occur.
2.4 PLANT OPERATION
The best and most consistent asphalt concrete will result when it is produced steadily at the
rate needed by the paving operation. Start-ups and shutdowns, as well as constant alteration
of gate openings, feed rates and other controls, are signs of a poor operation. Major
adjustments should be made before a production run or during trial or calibration runs; only
fine-tuning should be needed during the production run.
The plant, and particularly the baghouse filter, should be preheated before the start of a
production run. Running the burner on low flame to dry and heat the bags in the filter for 10
to 15 minutes may be necessary in humid or wet conditions. It may be necessary to ‘waste’
the first batches of aggregate before the start of a production run in order to achieve the
required mix temperature. Running heated and dried aggregate through a plant without
coating with binder results in heavy dust emissions so care must be taken to avoid violating
environmental permits.
2.4.1 Stockpiling
A good asphalt mix will not be produced from a plant if the aggregates going into it are
inferior. Many problems in mix production can be traced back to the cold aggregate.
Degraded, contaminated or segregated aggregate during stockpiling or cold bin loading will
affect asphalt mix quality. Proper stockpiling is the responsibility of the contractor. The
stockpile site must be cleared and levelled prior to stockpiling. Stockpiles of different
materials must be kept separate to prevent contamination, either by clear separated
stockpiles or by dividing walls between stock bays which are not overfilled which will then
cause contamination. Improper stockpiling must be reported to the contractor and the
supervising engineer. (See Figure 2.3)
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Poor stockpiling techniques such as high stocking and shear faced stockpiles can result in
larger particles rolling to the bottom of the stockpile. This separation of different sizes is
called segregation. Segregation can result in out-of-specification asphalt mix and therefore a
potential pavement weakness as well as possible non-conformance of site test results.
The inspector must watch for and report segregation any time the aggregate is handled or
moved. Stockpiles should be built in layers to prevent segregation however heavy machinery
should not travel on the stocks as this will cause a deterioration of the aggregate gradation,
which again will affect asphalt conformance. Steel-tracked equipment will severely crush
aggregate, causing excess fines and should never be used for stockpiling aggregate.
It is perfectly acceptable for excess aggregate from the asphalt plant hot bins to be put back
on the specific aggregate size stockpile however as this will be hot and of slightly different
grading. It must be fully mixed into the cold aggregate to minimise possible temperature
variance when reintroduced into the dryer again when reused.
2.4.2 Cold Bins
Cold bins or hoppers are used to feed in the individual coarse and fine aggregate
components for the asphalt mix. The cold bins are loaded by a loading shovel from the
stockpiles and each should be labelled as to the size and type of aggregate it contains, or be
numbered so that it can be referenced to the aggregate component. It is important to check
that each bin is contains only one size/type of aggregate, is not overfilled so that it spills into
adjacent bins and it does not run empty during production.
The gates on cold bins openings should be initially calibrated to determine how much
material they feed at different settings. Proper operation of the cold feed is crucial to the
entire plant operation and depends on the gate settings. Calibration charts, rather than trial-
and-error methods, should thereafter guide any adjustments to the gates that may be
needed. In normal production, once the gate settings have been established, they are
seldom changed as the delivery of aggregate from the cold bin is determined by the feeder
setting. Frequent adjustments may indicate improper initial setup or variation in the
aggregates due to crushing or stockpiling problems. The cold bin gate setting calibration will
relate to that bin only and the size and moisture content of aggregate used when calibrated.
It is therefore important that cold bins are not swapped about without recalibrating and the
moisture content, which affects bulking and flow, is typical of normal production parameters.
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The level of material in each bin should be maintained so that there is no danger of them
running out. Overfilling or careless loading, however, can result in one aggregate size spilling
over into a bin from another.
Cold bins need to be watched to ensure material is flowing smoothly from the gates.
Aggregate, especially fine aggregates can block up or “arch over” in the bins. Cold bins
should be fitted with ‘no-flow’ paddles or ultrasonic sensors to determine if the flow of
aggregates stop however these can malfunction or completely fall off therefore regular
maintenance of these is required.
2.4.3 Cold Feed
Varying the feeder belt speed or feeder vibrator controls the amount of aggregate fed into
the plant, not the bin gate openings. The gates should be pre-set so that during normal
operation the belts run at 40 to 80 per cent of their maximum speed.
Feeder belt (or vibrator) speeds are usually adjusted to match plant production with the
demand for the asphalt delivery schedule. Cold feed adjustments must be coordinated with
adjustments to the burner on the dryer. As cold feed rate increases so the burner setting
must also increase in order to heat the increased aggregate volume throughput otherwise
the asphalt will not be fully dried and will not be hot enough. Similarly, if the feed rate
reduces, so must the burner reduce or the aggregate may ‘superheat’ and the asphalt mix
may burn. Watch for loss of calibration due to spillage or drag caused by misalignment of the
feeder belt.
On a drum dryer plant, the weighing system and belt speed on the main cold feed conveyor
control the asphalt feed rate. It is important to check the belt speed indicator for slippage,
especially when a plant first starts a production run. Watch for loss of calibration due to belt
tension errors caused by build-up of aggregate at the tail roller, misalignment of the belt, and
seized rollers. Locate the belt weigher and check for aggregate build-up obstruction of the
load cell mechanism. The belt weigher on a drum mix plant is probably the most critical
apparatus on the plant therefore this must be checked carefully, and should be calibrated at
least weekly, and maybe daily if operating in dusty conditions.
2.4.4 Bitumen Binder Storage
Most plants have at least two bitumen binder tanks, and may be either horizontal or vertical
tanks. Tanks must be level and fitted with level indicators to determine the quantity
remaining in the tanks. Older horizontal tanks may be fitted with dip stick holes for tank
content determination but this is not good health and safety practice. Both the tanks and the
circulation system piping must be heated and insulated, including the valves, pumps and
flow meters. Heating may be by hot oil circulation systems or by electric trace heating. If oil,
watch for any oil seepage or leaks as if this goes into the bitumen binder it will affect the
asphalt mix.
Bitumen binder oxidizes quickly at high temperatures, so exposure to air needs to be

minimized. For this reason the circulation return line should discharge below the surface of
the asphalt in the tank.
The bitumen binder in the tanks must be kept at the correct temperature for the grade stored.
Harder grades will be higher than softer grades, and polymer modified binder (PMB) possibly
hotter than non-modified straight run grades. Check that the plant operator/contractor has
the storage temperatures recommended by the specification or supplier, and a daily record
of the actual tank temperatures. As a guide, for non-modified straight run grades the stored
temperature is likely to be between 150°C and 165°C, whereas polymer modified binder
maybe as high as 180°C, however always check the supplier’s recommended storage
temperatures and the specification.
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Temperature correction is also needed when calibrating asphalt pumps and flow meters on
drum mix plants and this is normally an input setting for the binder specific gravity at 20°C or
25°C in the plant control system. This should be checked as incorrect values will affect the
binder content of the finished mix.
Where bitumen binder deliveries are regular, the recommended storage temperature should
be maintained. Where deliveries have not been received and production has ceased
temporarily the storage temperature should be reduced to prevent binder hardening by
oxidation, or with Polymer Modified Binder (PMB) both oxidation and degradation of the
polymer phase within the binder. The plant should have “long storage” procedures for both
straight grade and PMB binders. Before using long stored binder, it should be tested prior to
use to ensure it is still of acceptable quality.
For PMBs stirrer tanks are normally necessary. These are slow moving motor driven paddles
inside the tank to keep the binder mixed so that it does not separate into polymer and
bitumen phases (called phase separation). However, these must be operated according to
the PMB supplier’s recommendations and normally only used for a few hours a day.
Check the contractor has procedures for the safe delivery, storage and use of bitumen, and
takes daily tank temperature readings as significant temperature fluctuation will affect binder
quality.
2.4.5 Batch Plant Dryer
The temperature of the aggregate leaving the dryer is affected by the feed rate, the time the
aggregate stays in the dryer (dwell time), and the burner setting. Dwell time in the dryer is
usually three to four minutes but will depend upon type of plant, length of dryer, speed of
dryer and aggregate flow rate. Dryers are usually tilted about 3 to 5 degrees from the
horizontal so that the aggregate flows from the high end towards the burner at the low end,
heating and drying as it goes. (See Figure 2.4)
For even, efficient heating, the dryer should spread the aggregate in an even curtain across
the centre of the drum. This is affected by the arrangement of the flights or lifters and the
speed of the drum (usually about 8 to 10 rpm). The drum, from the high end, will have screw
flights that take the aggregate feed into the drum, lifters will lift and turn the aggregate
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forming the drying curtain, the hot air from the burner and fan being drawn through it. Nearer
the burner, the flights change again so that the aggregate tumbles underneath the flame, still
being heated by radiant heat before falling out of the dryer into the hot elevator.
Burner and exhaust fan adjustments are also important to dryer operation. In an efficient
dryer there is complete combustion of the fuel and the exhaust gas thermometer should
indicate a temperature less than that of the aggregate leaving the dryer. If aggregate falls
into the flame, it will adversely affect fuel combustion and heat production of the burner,
causing a costly increase in fuel usage, potential for unspent fuel in the aggregate and air
flow which could cause an explosion in the baghouse, and possible damage to the burner.
At the chute exit of the dryer there should be a thermometer which maybe a non-contact
infrared pyrometer or a contact thermocouple or probe. This is to monitor and control the
aggregate exit temperature and therefore the final asphalt mix temperature. If the exit
temperature is wrong then so will be the asphalt temperature. Check that it is working, there
is a cleaning routine or schedule and is calibrated.
A defective exit chute thermometer is sufficient reason to stop production until it is

repaired as there will be no control on the asphalt mix temperature which can affect
the asphalt performance during and after paving.
The production rate of the entire plant is dependent upon the dryer’s efficiency. Asphalt
concrete cannot be produced any faster than the aggregate can be heated, dried and
screened.
2.4.6 Drum-Mixer Dryer
The information about batch plant dryers also applies to drum-mixer dryers. An exception is
that exhaust gases in drum mixers are much hotter than the mix produced, due to the lower
efficiency of the parallel flow system. Dwell time in the dryer of a drum-mix plant is very
important since it is also the mixer. If dwell time is too short, the aggregate may not be
completely coated with the asphalt.
Common problems with a drum mixer dryer include asphalt build up in the mixing zone
around the drums walls and mixing flights which needs to be cleaned out periodically as it
will reduce mixing efficiency, coating and can contribute to segregation.
2.4.7 Dust Collector

Good operation of the dust collection system not only reduces air pollution but also helps
produce a good mix and the usual type of system utilises a baghouse filter. The airflow for
the plant is primarily produced by the exhaust fan which is situated on, and operates from
the clean side of the baghouse. The purpose of the exhaust fan is to generate airflow to
create a slight negative pressure (vacuum) in the dryer drum which pulls the dust generated
in the drying process from the drum, through a pre-skimmer into the baghouse and then
emits the hot wet gases as steam into the atmosphere. Too high an airflow draws too much
dust and increases heat energy usage but too low will allow fugitive dust into the atmosphere
before the baghouse and reduce drying efficiency.
Airflow from the dryer passes through a pre-skimmer or knock-out box which slows the air
velocity allowing the coarser particles to fall from the airstream to be collected and returned
by a screw conveyor to the aggregate hot elevator. (See Figure 2.5) This fraction is usually
between 75 and 250 microns, and dependent upon the velocity and pre-skimmer setting.
The airflow continues to be drawn by the exhaust fan into the baghouse where it is sucked
through heat resistant bags to which the remaining fine dust clings whilst the steam laden air
continues through the bags to the exhaust fan and up the exhaust stack. Periodically, the
bags are either shaken or have compressed air pumped from the inside which shakes the
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fines into the bottom of the baghouse to be conveyed away to a silo, the mixing plant or to
waste.
The pressure drop/vacuum in a baghouse is typically 2 to 6 inches of water. If the bags

become ‘blinded’ or blocked, the pressure drop increases and the airflow will be retarded.
This results in poor fuel combustion and a poor asphalt mix due to incomplete drying and
possibly excess fines. Watch for dust emission from the stack. If the baghouse is operating
properly, it should be possible to see clear air space above the stack for about 1 metre
before the steam starts to condense and flume.
If fines from the dust collector are recycled back into the mix, the feed must operate
smoothly. If the flow of fines is uneven, the plant will produce a poor mix, with alternately too
many and too few fines.
Most modern plants return (reclaimed) fines from the baghouse into a separate silo for re-
feeding back into the mix. This is in addition to an imported mineral filler silo. Both reclaimed
fines and mineral filler should be fed into the mix via a separate filler weigh hopper/box, not
to the aggregate weigh hopper/box due to the difference in weigh requirements and the
accuracy of the weigh gear.
An alternative type of collector is the wet scrubber system, which instead of using filter bags,
uses water sprays in a venturi cyclone to coat the dust and convey it away to waste. The
disadvantage with this system is that the collected dust cannot be recycled and returned to
the plant for use and has to be disposed of.
The following items from 2.4.8 to 2.4.12 apply only to batch plants
2.4.8 Screening Unit

Proper, consistent aggregate in a batch plant depends on the hot screening operation. The
screen system may comprise 4 or more screen decks, dependent upon the number of hot
aggregate bins, with various sized aperture meshes to separate the aggregate fractions. A
six hot bin plant may have screens that separate the aggregate fractions into 0/4mm, 4/6mm,
6/10mm, 10/14mm, 14/20mm and 20/28mm sizes however the sizes and number of bins will
often depend upon plant configuration for the intended asphalt mix designs. (See Figure 2.6)
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Motors and bearings must be in good condition to ensure adequate screen speed. Worn
screen meshes develop holes, which allow oversize aggregate to fall into the bins for smaller
material. Screen meshes can also become warped or unclipped from the frame or deck.
The opposite problem can also occur. Screen meshes when used of a long periods without
cleaning become blocked or ‘pegged’. This reduces the mesh area and therefore screening
efficiency. As aggregate must stay on the screens long enough for the small material to
pass through them, a reduction in efficiency will allow smaller aggregate to pass over the
fine apertures and through the larger meshes, fining the grading of the coarser sizes and
causing a gradation problem with the asphalt mix. This can also be caused by an excessive
feed rate resulting in “carryover” of smaller particles into the coarse aggregate bins.
The contractor should have a regular screen inspection plan, possibly daily on high output
plants, and regular checks on hot bin gradations to ensure screening is both efficient and
consistent.
If there is any doubt with screen condition, an easy check is to draw aggregate from
each hot bin in turn and visually inspect to check for undersized and oversized
aggregate. Weekly hot bin samples should also be taken to ensure screening
efficiency is being achieved and maintained.
2.4.9 Hot Bins
The aggregate in the separate hot bins are the components for the asphalt mix and will
require accurate re-blending through the weigh hopper/box. In order to do this they must not
only have been dried, heated and screened efficiently but maintained at a usable level and
correct gradation in the hot stone bins. This means the bins must be in good condition, the
walls must not have wear holes or weld seam leakage which will allow contamination
between bins. Holes often occur, particularly in the lower part of the bins and therefore
require regular maintenance inspections. Similarly the bin doors/gates must not leak when
closed, and should open and close rapidly. (See Figure 2.7)
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Bins should not be used to hold aggregate for long periods unless they are specifically
designed to do so otherwise temperature will be lost and the mix will not be suitable for use.
Some modern plant bins have thermocouples to monitor aggregate temperature. The bins
should be kept at a constant level if the cold feed is correctly calibrated and the flow rate is
consistent with the mixing rate however the hot bins should have high and low level
indicators to confirm this. If a bin empties prematurely, mixing will need to cease temporarily
to allow the bin(s) to refill but if this situation continues, production should be assessed to
determine the cause.
When bins discharge aggregate into the weigh hopper, the computer control system should
monitor the individual weighing’s and then compensate on subsequent weighing’s for the
material falling from the bin and not weighed as the bin doors close. This is called ‘in-flights’
or ‘tailings’ and allows the system to maintain weighing accuracy. This should be checked to
ensure this correcting procedure is operating in order that the individual batches are of the
correct blend and total weight as any deviation will also affect the binder content of the
asphalt mix.
Overflow pipes on hot bins must be kept clear to prevent material from one bin from spilling
over into the next, which results in an improper gradation mix. Aggregate overflow usually
indicates improper aggregate gradation blend entering the plant, i.e. a problem with the
imported raw aggregate gradation, the stockpiling or stockpile contamination, the cold feed
bin loading, or gate settings. It may also result from problems with the screening unit (worn
screens or carryover).
2.4.10 Aggregate Weigh Hopper or Box
The Weigh Hopper/Box operates in a dusty environment, so the accuracy and cleanliness of
the system should be checked daily. On older plants, scales may become inaccurate if
fulcrums, knife edges or other parts become dirty or if moving parts rub against each other. A
weight indicator (dial or beam), which does not move freely or positively tares within 20kg of
zero when empty needs immediate attention.
On modern plants, or those with retrofits, the aggregate weigh hopper (and the other
weighing equipment) will operate on load cells or strain gauges. Check that these are free
from aggregate and they allow the weighing device free and clear movement both when
empty and full. Make sure the wiring from load cells is clean and in good order and if the
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electrical signal has been checked for each load cell during the calibration through its full
capacity, for example where the weighing range is 0 to 2500kgs the electrical signal that
drives the weighing mechanism might be 4 to 20 mA. An electrician is able to check this
during the calibration procedure.
Weigh hopper gates must not leak when closed. To check, hold a batch in the weigh
hopper/box for 1 minute and check the weight does not decrease or increase.
The mineral filler weigh hopper/box will operate similarly to the aggregate weigh hopper/box
therefore the same checks apply.
2.4.11 Bitumen Binder Weigh Kettle or Bucket
As with the aggregate weighing equipment, bitumen scales and meters need to be checked
and calibrated for accuracy. Bitumen and builds up on or in the kettle/bucket, so its empty
(tare) weight must be checked often. Cut off valves must not allow excess asphalt to drip into
a pugmill batch.
Breather pipes should be regularly checked and clear on the bitumen weigh bucket/kettle
and, where fitted the delivery pipe to the mixer. This is particularly necessary for suction type
charge and injection pump systems where a vacuum can occur and affect the final weight of
the binder.
Bitumen weigh kettle/bucket, or the charge pipe valves, must not leak when closed. To
check, hold a batch in the weigh kettle/bucket for 1 minute and check the weight does not
decrease or increase.
2.4.12 Pugmill Mixer

Mixing time should be the minimum needed to adequately coat the aggregate with bitumen
binder. Over mixing leads to oxidation (premature aging and embrittlement) of the bitumen
binder and can affect mix performance. Wet mixing time is usually between 30 and 50
seconds dependent upon the type and age of the plant and the condition of the pugmill
mixer.
Missing mixer paddles, paddle tips and excessive clearance between paddle tips and the
pugmill liner, result in “dead spots” of unmixed material in the mixer. Paddles wear with time,
so the clearance needs periodic adjustment to remain efficient and, with the liners, will
require periodic replacement. The clearance between paddle tips and pugmill is generally
12mm to 18mm.
Poor mixing will result if the mixer is overfilled, higher than the reach of the paddles or,
conversely, if there is very little material in the batch. This is avoided by following the
manufacturer’s recommended batch sizes.
2.4.13 Finished Asphalt Temperature
On discharge from the mixer, where on a batch plant or drum-mix plant, there should be a
thermometer, normally an infra-red pyrometer, which measures the finished asphalt batch
mix temperature as it discharges into the truck, or a slat conveyor or skip which will transport
the hot asphalt to storage. The temperature should be recorded by either the plant control
system, a data logger or by the mixing operator as part of the quality record for that batch of
asphalt which also includes the mix proportions, time and date, and which is used as part of
traceability of the asphalt through to installation. The thermometer must be calibrated
regularly and checked against a laboratory calibrated probe at least weekly.
The absence of a working final mix thermometer or pyrometer to measure the discharged
mix from the plant is justification to stop production. In this situation, laboratory checks on
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each load with communication to the mixing operator would be a suitable temporary
alternative in order to maintain production.
2.4.14 Hot Mix Storage and Loading

Hot mix asphalt when mixed is normally transported by a skip and track way (See Figure
2.8), or for a drum-mix plant a drag slat conveyor (See Figure 2.9), to hot storage silos. The
silos should be insulated to prevent heat loss and will often have heated doors and
discharge cones as well as top insulated doors to seal off the silo to minimise heat loss and
oxidation.
The skip or drag slat conveyor must be kept clean to avoid mix contamination and to ensure
they continue to work effectively. Any build-up of asphalt must be removed. Release agents
may be used to clean and maintain condition however diesel or gas oil is not permitted. If the
skip is an incline system, see that the ropes are in good condition and report any obvious
damage.
SAFETY NOTE: Never stand behind a skip or by the winch when in operation in case the
rope does fail and the skip overruns or the rope whiplashes.
Drum mix plants can be particularly prone to segregation especially on large aggregate size
mixes and the baffles on the drum discharge to the slat conveyor, the transfer points on top
of the silos and the batcher on the silo must be working effectively. However, drum mix
plants are very efficient and if well controlled will produce a good asphalt mix Asphalt
segregation is the biggest problem in storage and loading. It can be minimized during silo
loading by baffles or for drum-mix plants, batching mechanisms. Trucks should be loaded by
dumping the mix in a series of overlapping heaps. Dropping the mix in short bursts when
loading from hot bins leads to segregation and should be avoided.
Segregation in a silo is more likely if it is completely emptied several times during a shift. It is
best practice to keep the silo at least third full at all times during the production day which
keeps the mix fresh and mixed together. It is best practice to visually check the last loads
from the bin to ensure the asphalt is of good quality and the contractor should have a
procedure to do this.
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Asphalt mix segregation can be a significant cause of pavement failure if it goes unnoticed.
The production of the asphalt is as important as the laying operation and therefore all checks
must be carried out at the plant before asphalt material is sent to site for paving.
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3 PREPARING FOR ASPHALT PAVING

The specifications for paving preparation, prime and tack coating are found in QCS 2014 or
its revisions. The Contractor must submit the method statements for carrying out the works,
together with the quality and inspection and test plans well in advance of the works
commencing so that these may be reviewed by the supervising engineer. The method
statements should confirm that the Contractor has considered all of the operational aspects
for delivering a compliant constructed pavement.
Pavements deteriorate with time. Oxidation, water, traffic and temperature cycles all shorten
pavement life. Existing road pavements may be milled and overlaid to correct surface
irregularities, to strengthen the pavement structure, and to seal out air and water. New road
construction will also require proper preparation to ensure it will last its full life expectancy.
Preparation for asphalt paving includes cleaning dirt and debris off the receiving pavement
layer and applying a tack coat. Tack coat is usually a bitumen emulsion that is sprayed on
the receiving surface prior to paving in order to provide a bond between the layers of the
pavement.
Where preparing an old pavement that has severe dips or ruts, it may require levelling with
asphalt concrete prior to paving the new asphalt layer. It may also be necessary to raise
manhole covers, storm water inlets, and similar objects.
Existing roads to be resurfaced may need to be assessed for cracking or other defects.
These might be due to a variety of reasons including a failed sub-base or granular roadbase
layer, fatigue cracks in old pavements, substandard asphalt materials laid previously or
thermal cracks where there are concrete substrates. Figure A.4 in Appendix A outlines types
and potential causes of pavement failures however it is essential to repair cracks by filling
and sealing, or by removing and replacing the failed substrate before adding new asphalt
layers otherwise the newly finished pavement will fail prematurely.
Alignment and grade (or levelling) of the sub-grade, sub-base or the asphalt receiving course
must be checked and approved by the inspector in accordance with the parameters of the
Inspection and Test Plan prior to priming or tacking. An approved layer may deteriorate
under traffic or weather, therefore inspect and approve the grade immediately before priming
or tacking. You must also consider if the surface needs to be moistened prior to priming or
tacking. The finished asphalt surface will only be as good as the surface upon which it is laid.
The bitumen spray distributor shall be well maintained and in good condition to ensure that
adjustment of spray rate will achieve the necessary application.
The measurements, comments, and other information are normally kept in a site record,
which is described in the next section. Any unacceptable or out-of-specification condition
should be noted in the log. The contractor should be notified immediately of any such
condition and corrective action taken prior to priming or tacking.
The prime or tack application should be watched constantly to see if the amount of material
applied appears appropriate. If not, the yield may need to be adjusted. It takes good
judgment and experience to make the proper adjustments to the yield.
The inspector should keep the supervising engineer informed of the progress of work,
especially if there are problems.
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The following checklists should assist with carrying out the inspections:
Preliminary Inspection Checklist

Have the prime or site record log, a 30 metre tape, and an air temperature
thermometer available.
The spray distributor shall have a tachometer, pressure gauges, circulating spray
bar, and flow meters. If fitted the bitumeter should be clean and calibrated.
Tank is calibrated and has a thermometer.
All nozzles are the same size and set at same angle.
Plan yield (litre/m2) has been converted to litres per linear length for the proposed
spray width.
Maximum distance that can be sprayed with one load has been calculated.
Spray bar is set at proper height using test strip such that angle of spray nozzle
covers the area to be primed or tacked.
All nozzles spray a uniform fan of material without misting or fogging.
Yield on first small area is carefully checked and pump/vehicle speed adjustments
made(first time)
Speed adjustments checked on additional small areas until proper yield is obtained
(as necessary)
Inspection Checklist for Each Spray Run

Rain is not likely before tack or prime cures.
(Tack coat): The receiving course is cleaned, and repaired if necessary.
(Prime coat): Base course is tight-bladed and/or watered if needed.
Surface is above the minimum application temperature if specified.
Building paper is used at beginning of spray run.
Number and effect of any equations are noted in log.
Time and weather are noted in log.
Tank and air temperatures are within specification and logged.
Beginning and ending tank readings have been taken and logged.
Calculated spread rate (yield).
Location of the area primed or tacked noted on vehicle weight ticket.
The approved sample result or parameters shall be noted on checklist.
An approved traffic control plan is in place and traffic control signs are in place at all
access points as necessary.
Routine Inspection Checklist

(Prime coat): Road base or sub-base has received grade approval and has passed
density tests.
Manholes, kerbs, etc. are hand-primed or tacked.
Bitumeter wheel (a separate tachometer for measuring speed in metres per minute)
is free of asphalt build-up.
All nozzles spray a uniform fan of material without misting or fogging.
Spray bar cut-off is positive and immediate.
Traffic is kept off uncured prime or tack coats.
Blotter sand is spread on any uncured prime that is threatened by rain or early
traffic.
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3.2 PRIME AND TACK COAT LOGS

Prime and tack coat logs should be made and retained for record purposes and should be
supplied by the manager or engineer. It must include the following information and is to be
signed by the inspector and the contractor’s representative.
The location of each prime or tack spray run, including station or chainage
The area covered by the spray run including linear length and spray width
The date and time of the spray run and the weather conditions including air and
surface temperatures, and the surface condition (wet, moist, dry, dusty etc.)
The quantity of material used on each spray run and its temperature
The specified spread rate and the actual spread rate
Any unusual events that occur during the prime or tack operation. If any material is
wasted, you should note how much and why. You should also note if the operation
stops due to equipment problems or weather. If blotter sand is used, note where and
the reason for it.
3.3 PREPARING AN AGGREGATE SURFACE (PRIME COAT)

Liquid bitumen materials with high penetration qualities are used for prime coats. They are
sprayed onto an aggregate surface, where they coat and bond the aggregate. Prime coats
provide a temporary waterproofing of the aggregate base surface and provide a bond
between the granular roadbase or sub-base and the asphalt concrete pavement. Prime
coats may also preserve the finished aggregate base or sub-base for a few days if traffic
must be allowed on it before paving begins, especially in poor weather.
3.4 ALIGNMENT, GRADE, AND COMPACTION
Alignment is the horizontal positioning of the road or runway; grade is the vertical positioning.
The plans describe the alignment and grade of a “profile line” for the road, runway, or
taxiway. This is most often the centreline of the road. The alignment and grade of other
points relative to the profile line is shown in one or more “typical sections” in the plans.
The alignment and grade must be checked by the grade inspector prior to priming. This
ensures that the road is in the correct location. This sounds simple, but stakes are lost during
construction and mistakes do occur.
The surface width of the road should also be checked at every station especially in curved
sections; sometimes it is narrower than the planned paving width and must be corrected.
The position and slope of the crown must be checked too (or just the slope in a super-
elevated section).
Compaction of the granular roadbase or sub-base base must be checked and approved prior
to priming and is usually carried out by laboratory technicians.
3.5 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR PRIME COAT

A good prime coat requires an aggregate base or sub-base surface that is smooth, properly
crowned, and free from ruts, soft or segregated areas and standing water. This must be
checked immediately before the prime coat is applied. The contractor should clean the
aggregate base to remove excessive dust, sand or other contaminants. A power broom or
suction sweeper is normally used. Power blowers are not considered to be best practice as
the dust is distributed to other parts of the receiving surface or other areas as well as being
an environmental, health and safety hazard. If the surface is excessively dry it may be
necessary to wet the surface to facilitate the penetration of the liquid cut back bitumen.
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3.6 PRIME COAT

QCS 2014 and the project specific specification should be referred to for the requirements
for liquid asphalt prime coat and the required rate of application.
A spray tanker distributor vehicle sprays the prime material on the aggregate base. See the
description of the spray tanker distributor vehicle in Section 3.11 of this chapter for details.
Generally, the rate of application is usually determined from the amount of prime coat that
will be absorbed in a 24-hour period. A trial section should always be completed to ensure
the appropriate application rate is determined. The prime coat is normally carried out just
after the aggregate base has been finished. Application rates will be applied in accordance
with QCS 2014 and should give a uniform coat without ponding or dry patches. The
inspector may instruct the adjustment of the application rate if the coverage is too heavy or
too light. The application temperature should be between 60°C and 85°C.
When applying prime coat, there should be a slight overlap between spray lanes to ensure
full coverage however at transverse spray joints care must be taken not to overlap spraying.
It may be necessary to use paper to mask the previously sprayed section when commencing
a new section.
Traffic should not be permitted to use the primed surface however should it be necessary to
traffic it after 48 hours, blotter material can be applied and the traffic may use the treated
lane.
3.7 BLOTTER MATERIAL
The contractor is required to have clean sand available to use as blotter material. It should
be applied evenly from a reversing vehicle so that the tyres do not pick up the prime coat
from the aggregate base. Where an adjacent lane is to be primed, a 200mm longitudinal strip
shall be left clear of blotter to allow the overlap during spraying.
NOTE: Blotter material must be removed prior to paving operations. This is normally done
during the cleaning operations prior to tack coating and paving.
3.8 LEVELLING FOR EXISTING ROAD PAVEMENTS

Where overlaying existing asphalt surfaces it will be necessary to check the surface
condition for level profile and regularity as well for weak areas and cracks. An existing
surface should only be used as a base or binder course where the surface can provide a
sufficiently level substrate to allow the new asphalt layer to meet the requirements for
surface regularity and finished road level. Where a road surface is to be planed (milled) and
inlaid, this too must be checked that it is sound and without significant defects before tack
coat and surfacing may commence. Where the resulting planed (milled) surface is uneven or
requires strengthening, it may be necessary to apply a levelling intermediate course prior to
the final surface course however the contractor should propose a method for levelling,
regulating or re-profiling the existing pavement in order to achieve the required finished road
surface.
3.9 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR TACK CO
The contractor must clean the existing receiving course and remove any dust, sand or other
contaminants. A power broom or suction sweeper is normally used, but in extreme cases
power washing with water may be necessary. Power blowers are not considered to be best
practice as the dust is distributed to other parts of the receiving surface or other areas, as
well as being an environmental, health and safety hazard. If tack coat is sprayed on a dirty
surface then it will not adhere and will then pick up on the wheels of the delivery vehicles or
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the tracks or wheels of the paver. Kerbs, manholes, gullies and other street iron work are
often dirty and will require cleaning prior to the application of a tack coat.
3.10 TACK COAT

Where required or specified, a tack coat of bitumen emulsion will be applied as soon as
possible to the cleaned receiving course, which may be a primed sub-base, which has been
laid for some time, a milled surface or a recently laid asphalt layer. It should not however be
applied in poor weather conditions such as rain, heavy fog or dust storms, or when weather
like this is expected prior to paving.
A spray tanker distributor vehicle applies the bitumen emulsion tack coat and proper
operation of the equipment is essential to achieve an even and well applied coating. See the
description of the spray tanker distributor vehicle in section 3.11 for details.
Application rates will vary according to conditions but will be between 0.15kg/m2 and
0.38kg/m2 residual bitumen (0.4 litres/m2 and 0.9 litres/m2 wet emulsion) according to
conditions but should give a uniform coat without ponding or dry patches. The inspector may
instruct the adjustment of the application rate if the coverage is too heavy or too light. Too
much tack coat can cause slippage between old and new pavements or bleeding through to
the surface during or after compaction. The application temperature should be between 10°C
and 60°C but normally it will be slightly heated to ensure the pump, pipework and spray
nozzles remain clear.
In constrained areas it may be necessary to use a hand sprayer if it is impossible to

manoeuvre the vehicle. Care must be taken to prevent spray overlap or missed areas at
longitudinal joints between spray runs. Missed spots can be tacked with the hand sprayer,
but the result will be better if the application is done right in the first place.
The tack coat should be applied just before the asphalt layer is to be paved and it must be
allowed to dry or ‘break’ before paving begins. This means it will change from chocolate
brown to black. Paving before the tack coat dries results in the vehicles and paving
equipment picking it up off the road. Approval to apply the tack coat should be given as early
as practicable in order to allow the paving to commence as soon as the tack coat has
broken.
Kerbs, manholes, and other surfaces on which asphalt concrete will be placed or abutted
must be tack coated by hand prior to paving. Surfaces of kerbs, etc. that will not have
asphalt placed adjacent to them should be protected from over spray from the distributor.
3.11 SPRAY TANKER DISTRIBUTOR VEHICLE

Vehicle mounted spray tanker distributors spray the tack coat and prime coat. They are
insulated and have a heating system (burner and flues) to maintain the bitumen material at
the proper temperature. The pump circulates the material inside the tank and pumps it to the
spray bar and hand sprayer.
The spray tanker distributor has a pump tachometer, pressure gauges, and a tank
thermometer. It must have a circulating spray bar (the material is pumped through the bar
and back into the tank as well as out the nozzles). The distributor vehicle has a flow rate
gauge; it should measure in litres per minute.
The tank should be calibrated in 250 litre increments or smaller, so volume measurements
can be made.
The distributor vehicle is one of the most dangerous pieces of equipment on a paving
spread. It has the potential for explosion from hot asphalt turning trapped water (in the piping
system) into steam, from fumes being ignited, and from pressure building up during heating
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operations. There is also the potential of being burned at almost any time during distributor
operations, either by the oil itself or the piping or the heating system. It is possible to be
overcome by the fumes if proper care is not taken.
Proper operation of the spray tanker distributor is the key to a good tack or prime coat. It
should spray the correct amount of tack or prime liquid on to the surface in a uniform film.
This requires good equipment, trained operators, and proper adjustment of the following:
i. The height of the spray bar above the surface
ii. The speed (pressure and capacity) of the pump
iii. The speed of the vehicle
iv. The size and angle of nozzles on the spray bar
The yield or spray coverage rate can be calculated and assessed with four factors in the
equation:
speed of the vehicle (metres per minute),
width of the spray run (metres),
flow rate setting of the pump (litres per minute),
and the specified coverage rate (litres per square metre).
For a more accurate calculation, the specific gravity of the prime or tack coat material at the
actual spray temperature should be used for temperature correction however since this will
be approximately 0.95 to 0.96, for a guide approximation it is convenient to assume it is 1
and therefore discount it.
Spray coverage rate = Flow rate (litres/min)

Speed of vehicle (metres/min) x Width of spray (m)
A Prime/Tack Coat log is included in Appendix A, Figure A.7 which gives a simplified means
for checking and recording yield/coverage rates.
Site testing inspectors or technicians should conduct a physical coverage estimation test for
each spray distributor used, in accordance with ASTM D2995-99.
The spray tanker distributor’s speed and flow rate control the spray coverage therefore it is
important to control these factors. The spray application should not start until a vehicle has
achieved the necessary and correct spraying speed. The vehicle must therefore have a
cleared approach area in which to build up to the required operational speed before the
spray is activated and the bitumen is applied.
Spray tanker distributors mostly use a triple lap spray system (see Figure 3-2) or a double
lap. Closing off two out of every three nozzles can check spray bar height on the triple lap
system (or every other one on a double lap). This change should result in a single, uniform
coverage. If there is a gap between spray fans the bar is too low; if there are doubly covered
streaks the bar is too high. The test may be made on the approved surface. After the bar is
set, the test area can be re-tacked or re-primed to bring the total coverage (“yield”) up to the
required amount.
The pump should be operated at the highest speed (pressure) that will not atomize the prime
or tack spray. The bitumen coming out of each nozzle should look like a triangular black
spray, not a fog or mist.
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Experienced contractors usually know the pump and vehicle speeds necessary to achieve
the required “yield” but it is usually necessary to trial spray an area to calibrate the spray
tanker distributor before applying on the permanent works.
Spray nozzles must all be the same size and set at the angle specified by the spray
distributor manufacturer. The fan of material sprayed from a nozzle should be uniform from
edge to edge. If it isn’t, the nozzle is clogged, worn or damaged. The fan from all the nozzles
should look the same. If they don’t, the pressure may be too low or the nozzles may be
different sizes or clogged. If nozzles need to be replaced, the complete set should be
changed at the same time to assure uniform operation. Spray distributors must be kept clean
to operate properly, either with steam cleaning or scrubbing with solvent. This is particularly
important if emulsions are used, since residues can dry or “break” inside the equipment,
fouling or clogging it.
Figures 3.1 to 3.5 Spray Distributor Adjustments
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4 ASPHALT PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

The specifications for asphalt paving are found in QCS 2014 or its revisions. The Contractor
must submit the method statements for carrying out the works, together with the quality and
inspection and test plans well in advance of the works commencing so that these may be
reviewed by the supervising engineer. The method statements should confirm that the
Contractor has considered all of the operational aspects for delivering a compliant
constructed pavement. Additionally, trial sections should be done for each asphalt concrete
layer at the start of every project.
The primary duties are to help ensure that all work on the project is performed in close
conformity with the plans and specifications and that payment is made to the contractor
commensurate with the work performed. This requires that the plans and specifications for
the work to be inspected are understood, that the contractor’s activities are closely
monitored, and that accurate records kept. Problems must be recognised when seen,
anticipated in advance whenever possible, and diplomacy is exercised when resolving them
with the contractor.

There are many aspects of a paving operation that require monitoring and inspection. The
inspector will have the responsibility for inspecting the quality of:
Paving mix quantities and thickness
Rolling and compaction
Joint preparation and construction
Raking and overall paving finish
Surface tolerances
The inspector may also have the responsibility for:

The receiving course approval including prime or tack coat
Traffic control, signage and observing requirements for safe working practice
If others have the prime responsibility in these areas, the inspector still must work with them.
Traffic may ruin a surface that has been approved for paving. If so, paving must not proceed
until the problem is repaired and it can be re-inspected and approved. An approved traffic
control plan may need revision as the work moves down the road. Signs can blow over and
traffic cones can be moved. An inspector must remain alert to these needs.
The inspector will always share responsibility for the quality of the paving mix. Other
technicians or inspectors may carry out the asphalt mix quality testing, but the inspector
must make sure this is being done as required. The plant inspector is responsible for seeing
that good mix leaves the plant, but be alert to the mix quality too. The asphalt mix can
become segregated, cold, or contaminated after it leaves the plant. Plant inspection is
discussed in Section 2.
Paving inspection can be busy and demanding. Read and understand the specifications,
have the necessary tools and equipment, and know the asphalt spread rates according to
thickness prior to the start of paving. The inspector must communicate with the contractor;
and other inspectors and technicians.
The inspector may reject the condition of the receiving course, including the prime or tack
coat, as being unsuitable for paving. The inspector may also reject loads of asphalt concrete
based on quality, contamination, or temperature. Document any rejection you make and the
reasons for it, which must be based upon the specification requirement and using sound
judgement as to the effect it may have should the asphalt be incorporated within the works.
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Knowing what good asphalt concrete looks like, both in the vehicles and as laid, requires
experience. The Problem Solving Guide (Appendix A) lists the most common problems and
their probable causes.
4.2 RECORDS
Records of the paving operation may be organized differently on different projects, but they
usually include delivery tickets and a daily record.
Delivery tickets are issued for each vehicle load of asphalt concrete at the weighbridge. They
are collected at the paver and the time and location that the mix is placed may be written on
them. The ticket taker or banksman may do this, if there is one. If there isn’t, the inspector
must do this.
The daily record is used to record the placement location of each individual load to calculate
the yield, and to note temperature measurements, weather conditions, etc. Examples of daily
records are included in Appendix A, Figures A.6 and A.7.
The daily summary is used to also summarize the day’s activities. This includes a listing of
the contractor’s men and equipment and their hours and locations of work. It also includes a
record of the conditions of work – the pace of it and its quality, work stoppages and the
reason for them, etc. Construction problems should be noted, along with the steps taken to
correct them.
The daily records should be signed by both the inspector and contractor with names printed
clearly, and dated for future reference, before passing to the supervising engineer’s
representative for signature.
4.3 CHECKLISTS
Equipment Checklist
1metre straight edge (to check across joints)
Air thermometer
Surface thermometer
Asphalt thermometer
30metre tape or calibrated measuring wheel
Pavement depth gauge, ruler, or tape
Clipboard
Paving log
Calculator
Preliminary Checklist (Before Paving)

Paving plant corresponds to quantity and type used in the approval trial
Method statement, including compaction pattern, is available for reference
Testing requirements are available and testing staff are present as required
Paver(s) adequate (checklist in Appendix C)
Material Transfer Vehicles (MTV), if used, adequate (checklist in Appendix C)
Rollers adequate (checklist in Appendix C)
Receiving course and prime coat or tack coat acceptable for paving
Weather is suitable for paving
Paver guidance and control datum in place
Screed heated before paving begins
Screed blocked to uncompacted depth before paving begins
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Cold joint surfaces cleaned and prepared as required

Automatic screed controls, as fitted operational
Augers extensions fitted to permit feed to full width of screed
Paver extension retaining plates and screed end plates correctly fitted
Construction Checklist (During Paving)

Paver starting and stopping minimized
Constant or managed feed from Material Transfer Vehicles (MTV) where used
Placement location and time marked on all weight tickets
Mix temperature within specs for paving
No visible segregation or contamination, in paver hopper or in laid mat
Mix appearance not too wet or dry, tender or harsh.
Hopper never completely emptied, cold material disposed of where it accumulates in
hopper
Feed augers always at least two-thirds full but never over the auger flights
Coverage/superage calculated periodically to check thickness
No throwing (broadcasting) or long distance raking of hand-placed material
Joints and edges raked properly
The mat thickness is checked as laying proceeds
Compaction begins as soon as possible without shoving
Compaction sequence followed, monitored and recorded by the rolling supervisor
Breakdown rolling finished before mat cools to 120°C
Good mat surface texture without roller marks
Surface smoothness within tolerance (including joints)
Paving testing is proceeding as required by specification
The contractor ensures that the finished asphalt is protected and that traffic stays off
compacted asphalt at all times until at least 24 hours after laying
4.4 PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
4.4.1 Delivery vehicles
The specification requires that asphalt delivery vehicles shall be in good condition with tight,
clean and smooth insulated bodies. They shall be free from dust or other aggregate
contaminants, and oils such as diesel, hydraulic or engine oil, or other volatile mineral spirits
that may adversely affect the quality of the asphaltic concrete mix.
Diesel fuel (and other hydrocarbon substances), if it contaminates asphaltic concrete, can
dissolve bitumen, causing it to ooze (“bleed”) to the pavement surface after paving. The
uncoated aggregate left behind may ravel or fret, resulting eventually in potholes. Diesel is
not permitted as a bed release agent and for the same reason, vehicles leaking fuel,
lubricating oil, or hydraulic oil must not be allowed in the paving area. If a release agent is
required to ensure the asphalt discharges fully from the truck, soapy water or, with approval,
proprietary release agents may be used.
After tipping, trucks must pull away from the paving area to a designated location before
cleaning tailboards or truck bodies. Cleaning waste asphalt from trucks within the paving
area should not be permitted.
Vehicle Inspection Checklist

Vehicles are equipped with load covers
Only approved bed release agents are used
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Vehicles are not leaking oils or fuels

Vehicle beds are clean (free of dirt)
The driver is operating safely according to the site rules
4.4.2 Pavers
The operational requirements for pavers are basic in that they should be in good condition,
well maintained and produce an even well finished surface. Pavers, also called paving
machines, consist of a tractor unit that pulls an activated screed (see Figure 4-1). The screed
spreads the asphaltic concrete and is partially compacted using tampers or vibrators, or
combination of both. That said modern pavers are very complex and well-designed
machines, with built in microprocessors and controllers, full hydraulic systems, electrically
heated screeds and sophisticated automatic controls using ultrasonic, infrared and
sometimes laser systems. They can be operated in conjunction with satellite GPS and laser
guided levelling, which with high compaction screeds make them very complex to operate.
It is therefore expected that the operators will be trained and highly skilled in the operation
of this equipment.
The basic operations of the paver are given as follows:
Tractor Unit
The tractor provides power for forward motion and for spreading the asphalt concrete. The
tractor unit has a hopper, feed conveyors, feed gates, augers (screws), engine, transmission,
and controls. The feed conveyors, feed gates, and augers should be adjusted so that the
augers and feed conveyors are running most of the time and the feed augers are about half
full. Sensors that detect the amount of asphalt reaching the end of the screed control the
augers. These need to be properly located and adjusted to keep the augers running most of
the time and half to three quarters full to ensure an even feed to and under the full width of
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the screed which will greatly assist level control, compaction and surface regularity. (See
Figure 4.2)
Sometimes a segregated or lean mark will occur down the centre of the mat. This is caused
by an inadequate feed under the centre auger gear box or support point. To rectify this it is
normal to have inward facing auger flights to force material under at this point thereby
maintaining sufficient material under the screed.
Screed Unit
The screed includes the tampers and/or vibrators, depth or thickness controls, crown
controls, and heater. Pavers should have automatic screed controls. Most pavers are fitted
with tampers which move up and down to pre-compact the asphalt forcing it under the
screed. Some pavers have vibrators to make the screed oscillate, which also partially
compacts the mix. Some pavers have both tampers and a vibrating screed. About 80 per
cent of the compaction is accomplished by the screed system however high compaction
screeds can achieve over 90% compaction.
Modern pavers normally have variable width screeds which allow varying widths when
paving irregular width carriageways or bellmouths, around traffic islands or other constraints.
When screeds are extended, care must be taken to ensure the asphalt feed to the screed
through the conveyors and augers is carefully controlled, and if fully extended, the asphalt
feed is evenly spread to the full width, usually by adding auger extensions.
Screed Heater
The screed heater is used to warm the screed surfaces before paving begins. It is generally
not used at other times. Overheating will cause the screed to warp and require the plates to
be replaced. The heat setting is normally set as required by the operator based upon
knowledge of the paver, the asphalt mix and the ambient conditions at the time of paving.
Thickness Controls
The screed is attached to the tractor by long screed arms, attached to tow points located
approximately half way along the paver, and this pulled on the head of asphalt material
maintained by the augers. The layer thickness is controlled by the head of asphalt built up on
the augers and by the screed angle of attack. This however is affected by several other
factors, all of which must be controlled in order to produce a smooth finished course, at the
correct thickness, density and compaction.
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There are six basic forces (see Figure 4.3) acting on the screed that determine its position
and angle, and therefore layer thickness:
1. Towing force. This is provided by the tractor and exerted at the tow point. Towing
force is controlled by paver speed.
2. Force from the asphalt mix head resisting the towing force. This is provided by the
asphalt mix in front of the screed and is controlled by the asphalt mix feed rate and
asphalt mix characteristics.
3. Weight of the screed acting vertically downward. This is obviously controlled by

screed weight.
4. Resistive upward vertical force from the asphalt mix being compacted under the
screed. This is also a function of asphalt mix characteristics and screed weight.
5. Additional downward force applied by the screeds tampers and vibrators. This is
controlled by tamper force and vibratory amplitude and frequency.
6. Frictional force between the screed and the asphalt mix under the screed. This is
controlled by asphalt mix and screed characteristics
Factors Affecting Layer Thickness and Smoothness
The screed is free floating and it will slide across the asphalt mix at an angle and height that
will place these six forces in equilibrium. When any one of these forces is changed, the
screed angle and elevation will change (which will change the layer thickness) to bring these
forces back into equilibrium. Therefore, changing anything on the paver that affects these
forces (such as paver speed, asphalt mix feed rate or screed tow point) will affect layer
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thickness. The following shows how speed, asphalt mix feed rate and tow point elevation
affect screed angle, screed height and therefore layer thickness is provided.
Paver Speed
Paver speed affects layer thickness by changing the screed angle. If a paver speeds up and
all other forces on the screed remain constant, the screed angle decreases to restore
equilibrium, which decreases layer thickness. Similarly, as paver speed decreases, screed
angle increases which will increase layer thickness.
Asphalt Mix Feed Rate
The amount of asphalt mix in front of the screed (the head of asphalt mix at the augers) can
also affect screed angle and thus layer thickness. If the asphalt mix head increases either
due to an increase in asphalt mix feed rate or a reduction in paver speed, screed angle will
increase to restore equilibrium, which increases layer thickness. However, if the asphalt mix
head decreases either due to a decrease in asphalt mix feed rate or an increase in paver
speed, screed angle will decrease to restore equilibrium which decreases layer thickness.
Therefore, to maintain a constant layer thickness for a change in paver speed or asphalt mix
head in front of the screed, the natural equilibrium of forces on the screed cannot be relied
upon and the screed angle must be adjusted via the automatic controls or a thickness
control. Screed angle adjustments do not immediately change layer thickness but will take
up to two and a half paver lengths to reach equilibrium and for the change to take effect.
Because of this slow screed reaction time, the screed operator who constantly adjusts
screed level to produce a desired layer thickness will actually produce an excessively wavy,
unsmooth pavement.
Tow Point Height
Finally, tow point height will affect screed angle and therefore layer thickness. As an
approximation, a 25mm movement in tow point height equals about a 3mm movement in the
screed's front edge. As the tow point rises in height, the screed angle increases, resulting in
a thicker layer. Similarly, as the tow point lowers in height, the screed angle decreases,
resulting in a thinner layer.
The interaction of paver speed, asphalt mix feed rate and tow point elevation determine the
screed position which is why screeds are sometimes referred to as "floating" screeds. For
this reason, to achieve a good smooth and level asphalt pavement, it is important to keep all
of these factors as constant as possible. As the forces change under normal paving practice,
the screed must be adjusted to correct for the required layer thickness. This is done
electronically by the screed operator who raises the tow point to increase the thickness and
lowers it to reduce it. (See Figure 4.3) An adjustment to the screed can take typically 5 tow
lengths or about 2.5 paver lengths for the change to take effect, therefore if adjustments
are made constantly this will result in a wavy finished surface. For this reason, the use of
automatic screed controls is essential for a smooth pavement with good ride qualities.
Crown Controls
This is where the screed can be ‘broken’ in the centre to put a vertical angle (“crown”) in the
front and/or back of the screed. The front of the screed should be crowned slightly higher
than the rear so that asphalt flows into the “shadow” left by the auger differential. A stripe will
appear down the centre of the mat if this is not done correctly. The screed crown should
match the crown (if any) on the underlying receiving layer or the existing pavement. If the
screed crown is improperly set, the mat may be too thin in places and tear during placement
or too thick in places, causing an over-use of asphalt material. (See Figure 4.4)
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Automatic Screed Controls
Automatic screed controls allow the screed to follow a smooth line, maintain the correct level
and slope angle as necessary even if there are irregularities in the surface being paved.
Many automatic screed controls have a long averaging beam which rides smoothly over the
grade and where placing an adjacent paved lane, a joint matching shoe may be used to
ensure the level across the joint is evenly laid. Often a wire line is set by an engineer for a
sensor to run on, or a shoe riding on a kerb top may also be used, as an alternative to the
averaging beam. A combination may also be used, with a wire on the carriageway edge and
an averaging beam on the opposite side of the paver. When using a wire line, it is important
to check it is always taut during paving.
Modern non-contact systems are often used where a long rigid beam fixed to the paver uses
ultrasonic pulses to read the surface level and then set the screed to maintain the correct
layer thickness, also taking into account any pre-set slope control. (See Figure 4.5) The
automatic sensor detects any vertical movement of the averaging beam (or string line). The
sensor signals the screed control, which raises or lowers the tow point on both or either side
of the screed to compensate for the receiving course changes.
The manual controls are used until the correct pavement thickness is achieved. The
automatic controls are then switched on to maintain the required depth. If everything is
working correctly, few other adjustments are needed. Once the automatic screed controls
(and the hydraulic valve to the tow point hydraulic ram) are turned on, the manual screed
controls no longer have any effect. The automatic controls will override them. The tow point
ram should be watched to make sure it is working in conjunction with the automatic controls.
It should be centred well enough so that it won’t go into the stops. Check both sides of the
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paver that all controls are switched on and watch to ensure that the operator is not making
changes to the screed controls. It is not uncommon that controls are fitted and lights are
flashing but the operator is still operating the screed manually.
The side slope control is sensed by reference to a (vertical) pendulum. The automatic
controls raise or lower one side of the screed to keep the side slope at the amount pre-set.
When the side slope changes, as it does approaching the super elevation on a road curve,
the “automatic” side slope controls must be operated manually unless a modern pre-
programmed control system is in use.
It is important to note that the use of automatic controls is specialised and the contractor’s
expertise in their use should be recognised. Not all controls can be used together, and often
cannot be used at all when working with difficult paving constraints. Automatic controls give
a good finish when they are working and being operated properly. There should be little need
to play with the controls. However, inspectors and operators must remain alert to what the
paver is doing. When the controls go wrong the pavement surfacing will deteriorate quickly
causing significant problems to be rectified.
Paver Inspection
The standard specifications require pavers to have certain equipment capable of producing a
pavement with a specified grade, smoothness etc., but they rarely describe the equipment’s
required condition. A paver in bad condition will not produce a good mat and is therefore
unacceptable. The following checklists will help to inspect pavers.
Paver and Material Transfer Vehicles (MTV) Inspection Checklist
The tractor unit should be checked for:

Loose or worn tracks
Seized or worn rollers
Clean hoppers, conveyors and slat feeders
Tyre pressure (rubber-tyred pavers)
Engine performance
Screeds should be checked for:

Worn tampers
Tamper settings in accordance with paver catalogue recommendations
Vibrators adjusted and working
Warped or worn-thin screed plate. A string line can be used to check the screed
alignment.
Uniform heater action across screed
Both ends of screed closed
Augers working, correctly spaced and the auger flights are not worn
Thickness, crown and slope controls working
Screed extensions have full augers and vibration
Counter-flow augers used to push material under the centre box are oriented
correctly
4.4.3 Rollers
Steel Wheel Rollers
Tandem steel wheel rollers are the normal type used in asphalt paving. There are different
types of tandem rollers which may be articulated or have steering drums, whilst some may
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be able to offset one drum from the other which assists in controlling compaction against
ironwork and kerbs, All tandem rollers are capable of vibration compaction which increases
the effective compactive effort over and above the static weight of the roller.. An on board
tank supplies clean water to wet the drum surface, which prevents asphalt pick-up and
scrapers keep the drums clean. Diesel and other hydrocarbon oils are not allowed as drum
wetting or cleaning agents.
The contractor will decide on the necessary rollers and rolling pattern to achieve the required
compaction but this should be in accordance with the specification and detailed in the
method statement which will also contain the catalogue or datasheet of the rollers employed.
This detail should include the manufacturer, type and weight of the rollers as well as the
frequency and amplitude settings necessary for compaction as used in the approval trial.
Both the frequency and the amplitude of the vibration can be varied to achieve the best
compaction.
The pavement surface will be smooth only if the drum surface is smooth and true. The drum
face should be checked with a straight edge or string line before paving to see if it is warped.
Also look for pits in the drum surface. Check the pavement surface carefully, after rolling at
the beginning of the project.
The transmission, brakes, rubber mountings and drum bearings must be in good condition.
Wheel bearing wobbling or rough starts and stops leave marks in the pavement.
Roller speed is critical to the compactive effort and the final finish of the surface. If the roller
is moving too fast for the vibration rate, a short wavy pattern will appear in the asphalt
surface. Use a straight edge to monitor this, and refer this to the contractor to alter the
frequency or slow the roller if it appears to be a problem.
The vibration amplitude should be optimised to get the desired compaction. If set too high,
however, the roller may bounce, crush the aggregate, and over compact the mat causing
cracking to appear. Follow the roller manufacturer’s recommendations and the contractor’s
experience. Usually low amplitude is used for pavements less than 50mm thick, medium
amplitude for pavements that are 50mm to 100mm thick and high amplitude for pavements
more than 100mm thick.
Pneumatic (Rubber Tyre) Rollers/PTRs
Pneumatic rollers have smooth rubber tyres instead of steel drums. They usually have two
axles with three to five tyres per axle. PTRs weigh from about 10 tonnes to over 20 tonnes
(1200 to 3,000 kg per wheel) depending on the manufacturer, which is adjusted by adding
ballast, normally sand or steel blocks. The tyres tracks, front to back, are offset by
approximately 50mm to ensure that the mat is fully covered on each pass.
The individual tyre pressures depend upon the manufacturer, the ballast loaded and the
needs of compaction and will be in the range of 2 to 8 bar (30 to 115psi) but should not vary
more than 0.3 Bar (5 psi) between tyres. Most pneumatic rollers have an air system that
automatically adjusts the tyre pressure to a given setting that is controlled by the operator.
All of the tyres are connected to this air system and should be the same air pressure, unless
a tyre has been punctured or an air line damaged. A soft tyre leaves a ridge of uncompacted
asphalt which can give an unacceptable ride quality and may become a string of potholes in
the future.
Pneumatic tyre rollers are generally used for intermediate rolling. They work the aggregate
with a kneading action, which can seal surface cracks caused by the flow of material in
breakdown rolling and provides a more tightly knit mat than can be obtained by a steel drum
roller. When used for intermediate rolling, tyre pressure should be about 6 bar (90 psi) when
hot and 5 Bar (75 psi) when cold.
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Pneumatic tyre rollers have independent wheel suspension. They find weak spots and holes
in the base course that a steel wheel roller would bridge over. This is especially beneficial in
compacting levelling courses on irregular surfaces.
Fresh asphalt concrete sticks to cold tyres. Sticking may be a problem the first few minutes
until the tyres heat up therefore it is recommended that the PTR runs up and down on
adjacent hard paved surfaces until the tyres are warmed. The application of soapy water or
vegetable oil (light application) can also assist in pickup but this must be done away from the
new hot asphalt. Skirts around the base help prevent heat loss from the tyres, and are
especially helpful in cooler weather. If a pneumatic roller continues to pick up asphalt it is
because the tyres are still too cold. The problem can be alleviated by working the roller
closer to the paver (this may require the breakdown roller to work closer to the paver as well)
or by improving the skirts so more heat is held around the tyres.
SAFETY NOTE: When applying soapy water solution or vegetable oil to tyres, a long lance
must be used is ideally used so that the application operator is kept well away from the
running path of the PTR. The sprayman must apply the spray with the roller direction of
travel moving away from – NEVER with the roller moving towards him. A full Risk
Assessment and a Safe System of Work is necessary for this activity.
Roller Inspection Checklist

Number of rollers adequate for the job and are in accordance with the method
statement
Weight of rollers adequate and/or meets specification
Rollers start and stop smoothly
Steel drums not warped or pitted
Drums have scrapers and are wetted with water
Pneumatic roller tyres have smooth surfaces and are pre-warmed
Tyre pressures are in accordance with recommendations and method statements
and do not differ by more than 0.3 bar (5psi)
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4.5 SPREADING AND FINISHING
4.5.1 Machine Laying
The standard specification for spreading and finishing is in accordance with QCS 2014 or its
revisions. Trial sections should be done at the start of any project, with the plant and
equipment that will be used for the works to establish the validity of the method statement
and in particular the rollers, number and type, and the rolling pattern necessary to complete
the works to specification. Subsequent to the trials, the method statement and rolling
patterns should be confirmed and if necessary the Job Standard Mixtures adjusted with the
experience of the trials, for the main works. This may be amended in due course to allow for
further experienced gained within the main works.
The receiving course must be inspected just before paving and any defects must be
corrected before paving begins. The production and spreading of asphaltic concrete mix
shall not be permitted when the ambient temperature is less than 8 °C, nor during rain, fog,
dust-storms or other unsuitable weather.
Before paving the contractor should determine what the “loose depth” of uncompacted
material is needed to produce the desired compacted depth. Loose depth is usually about 25
per cent more than compacted depth but depends upon mix type, actual required depth and
type of compaction screed.
The screed should be set on blocks (usually made of wood) of loose depth thickness when
starting on an unpaved receiving surface. When starting paving against a transverse joint,
the screed is set on blocks or board on the end of the old pavement, as thick as the
difference between loose and compacted depth. This ensures that the paver places the full
loose depth when starting off. The loose depth will be determined for the mix at the approval
trial.
The first paved mat is normally on the lower side of the carriageway where there is a
crossfall or super elevation. The contractor must have a guide wire, kerb or other datum to
align the paving and control the paved thickness.
The paver operation must be continuous and kept at a uniform speed, of not more than 6
metres per minute, in order to produce the specified paving requirements. Each time the
paver stops, a bump can form where the screed settles and then starts off again therefore
stopping should be avoided. Where this occurs, the mat level should be checked with a 3
metre straight edge and the surface corrected prior to breakdown rolling commencing. A
balance between paver speed, plant output, the number of vehicles, and the haul distance is
needed to accomplish this. The contractor should arrange for the vehicles to be dispatched
from the asphalt plant at an appropriate rate, allowing for traffic and highway disruption
during paving so that the paver speed can be set to maintain a continuous operation.
Vehicles should not jolt the paver when they back up to it or a bump in the mat may result.
The front rollers on the paver should push against both sets of rear wheels on the vehicles.
Coarse aggregate tends to roll to the tailgate of a vehicle. Vehicles should be unloaded in a
surge, which minimizes this potential cause of segregation.
Keeping the paver’s hopper partially full at all times also reduces the potential for
segregation. Any coarse aggregate, which rolls to the tailgate of a vehicle, drops into the
hopper first. If the hopper is empty the coarse aggregate will all be fed to the screed at the
same time. A line of coarse (segregated) material across the mat will result. If the hopper is
partially full the coarse aggregate tends to mix back in with the rest of the asphalt concrete.
The paver should place the mix wherever possible. If it must be placed by hand, it should be
shovelled to the required location. Throwing the mix with a shovel or raking it for long
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distances causes segregation. Surface tolerance and segregation require special care
whenever pavement is placed by hand.
Material Transfer Vehicles (MTV) greatly assist with paving quality and should be used if the
type of work justifies their use or are required by the specification. They act as extended
storage whilst also ensuring the paver is continuously fed with asphalt. The delivery vehicles
back on to the MTV ensuring that the paver can keep running without interruption and
eliminates bumping by delivery vehicles. This greatly increases the control of level and
thickness, asphalt material consistency, by reducing the potential for segregation due to pre-
mixing in the MTV, and overall pavement quality and rideability. The MTV speed must be
controlled in to that of the paver, which in turn must be controlled to the rate that compaction
can be achieved. (See Figure 4.7)
4.5.2 Hand Raking

Hand raking should not be done unless absolutely necessary. The most uniform surface
texture can be obtained by keeping the handwork behind the screed to a minimum. The
raker should be alert to a crooked edge on the mat so it can be straightened immediately.
The raker does this by either removing or discarding the mix that bows outside the edge line
or by adding mix from the hopper if the edge of the mat is indented. The raker will
occasionally need to work along the longitudinal joint. If the paver follows the guideline, the
back work will not be necessary.
Surplus hot-mix should not be cast across the mat surface, as this will result in non-
uniformity of the surface texture, even after proper compaction.
Similarly, workers must not walk on the newly laid mat before compaction. Workers boots will
pick up asphalt from the mat and also leave indents which will show even after compaction.
The running plate on the back of the screed should be used to cross the mat if necessary
and side working where necessary should be restricted to off mat areas.
4.5.3 Echelon Paving
Echelon paving is when two or more pavers lay multiple mats of asphalt simultaneously, side
by side. One of the main benefits of echelon paving is that longitudinal joints are either
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eliminated or significantly reduced (see Joints). All the preceding paving procedures should
be followed however there are some additional requirements that are important to note. (See
Figure 4.8)
The first and second pavers (and subsequent pavers if used) should work as close to each
other as possible but in practice this will normally be up to of 30 metres apart with the edges
between the first and the second paver shall not be exposed more than 15 minutes or 50m
by distance without being rolled. The first laid mat edge (50mm to 100mm) to be matched
will be left unrolled and then slightly overlapped by approximately 40mm by the second or
following paver so that when rolled, the joint will be virtually invisible and fully compacted.
This method ensures the joint will be to the same compaction quality and equal density as
the overall pavement which will give a long performance life, exceeding that of a cut joint.
Check that the rolling is completed in accordance with the method statement and the
temperature of the joint before and after matching is controlled. It may be necessary to hold
the leading paver back to allow the following paver to catch up.
The echelon paving rolling patterns will differ from single mat paving to account for the
proximity of the pavers and the extra considerations for health and safety of the workers
around the pavers. Check the rolling patterns to ensure the entire laid mat will be covered by
required number of roller passes to attain full compaction for both steel rollers and pneumatic
tyre rollers.
The key to echelon paving is sufficient asphalt material supply. Asphalt plant capability to
supply as well as sufficient delivery vehicles, traffic conditions, site access and egress as
well as site preparation, engineer support and testing resources are even more critical when
using this type of operation and should not be underestimated. When echelon paving is
intended, it may be necessary to obtain supplies from more than a single asphalt plant
therefore this should be approved well in advance of the commencement of the paving
works. Check the method statement procedures for echelon paving account for these
eventualities otherwise pavers will be standing and the pavement quality will be affected.
4.6 JOINTS
4.6.1 Transverse Joints

Transverse joints are made wherever paving is ended and begun again at a later time.
Vertical transverse joints are normally made by saw cutting the cold asphalt back to well
compacted material, usually at least 300mm from where the paving previously finished. (See
Figure 4.9) The joint is then cleaned and coated with bitumen emulsion tack coat before the
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paver is setup to start. Methods of creating a transverse joint at the end of paving, using
timbers or board edges, are not recommended as there is no assurance that full compaction
at the joint can be achieved, and this will then subsequently fail under traffic at a later date.
Transverse joints should be rolled parallel to the joint (crosswise to the paving direction)
before any other rolling begins on the new mat. Transverse joints must be compacted in
static mode (with the vibrator off) since the vibrator may crack cold pavement. Run off
boards may be necessary as the roller passes over the longitudinal joint.
The transverse joint should be checked using a straight edge after compaction to ensure that
no bump is left in the paving which might adversely affect surface regularity testing and
rideability.
4.6.2 Longitudinal Joints
Longitudinal joints run in the direction of paving. They are generally weak spots in the
pavement and should be kept out of trafficked areas such as wheel paths and turning arcs
unless completely unavoidable. Longitudinal joints in subsequent asphalt layers should be
offset by at least 300mm so that localised pavement weakness is avoided which otherwise
may cause the joints to open during service life. The position of the surface or wearing
course joints must be considered before the lowest layers are placed and a joint pattern
should be produced to avoid placing in the trafficked areas (wheel paths etc.). The best
position for joints is either under lane markings or in between the lane wheel tracks where
they will receive less stress.
Unless longitudinal joints are avoided by the use of echelon paving (see 4.5.3) they shall be
formed by cutting back by at least 50mm or the depth of the asphalt layer, whichever is the
greater. This may be done by a cutting wheel fitted to the roller which must have a good
cutting edge and not damaged, by saw cutting or other approved means. Cutting the
longitudinal joint removes low density asphalt caused by displacement during edge
compaction and possible segregation at the edge of the screed. Joint matching a previously
laid paved mat is not good practice if the edge temperature of the existing mat is below
minimum initial compaction temperature. Complete compaction must be achieved at the joint
and therefore joint matching against a warm mat without first cutting and coating the joint,
should be only approved subject to a satisfactory trial.
Longitudinal joints should be cut to a near vertical face, cleaned and tack coated with
bitumen emulsion. Other joint forms such as a wedge or notched wedge joint may be
considered if the contractor is competent to construct these. For permanent unconfined or
open joints at pavement edges, a joint compactor attached to the breakdown roller is
recommended.
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The paver screed end gate should be firmly seated on the cold mat overlapping it by about
40 to 50mm to ensure a full amount of asphalt is placed at the joint. It may be necessary for
rakers to push back the asphalt from the cold mat back to the joint however this should be
minimised by good joint matching control at the paver and the end gate correctly adjusted.
Under no circumstances should material from the joint be back scattered or thrown on to the
hot mat as this will cause surface imperfections. Any asphalt material left on the adjacent
cold mat should be quickly cleaned away so that it does not become embedded during
further construction equipment movements.
Current recommended practice when compacting longitudinal joints is as follows:

Compact unsupported edge of mat with the first pass of breakdown roller drum
extended out over the edge of the mat approximately 150mm. An alternative method
is to make the first pass of the breakdown roller back 150mm from the unsupported
edge, and then extend the drum out over the unsupported edge on the second pass.
With this method, watch for stress cracks that may develop parallel to the joint. This
alternate method should only be used if the paving crew has experience with the
specific asphalt mix and has not had a problem.
Compact the supported edge of joint with the first pass of breakdown roller drum on
the hot mat, but staying back from the joint 150mm to 200mm on first pass. The
second pass should then overlap onto the cold mat 150mm to 200mm. With this
method, watch for any stress cracks developing in the mat that are parallel and
150mm to 200mm off the joint. An alternative method is to have the first pass of the
breakdown roller on the hot mat overlapping 150mm to 200mm onto the cold mat. A
major concern with this method is that if an insufficient depth of asphalt mix is placed
next to the cold mat, the roller will bridge over and not compact the hot material
completely.
Surface tolerances are the same at joints as everywhere else in the mat. It is a good practice
to check joints with a straight edge while the material is still hot as if there is a problem, it
may still be able to be corrected.
4.7 COMPACTION
Trial sections should be done for each asphalt concrete layer at the start of any project, with
the plant and equipment that will be used for the works to establish the validity of the method
statement and in particular the rollers, number and type, and the rolling pattern necessary to
complete the works to specification. Subsequent to trial, the method statement and rolling
patterns should be confirmed, with the experience of the trials, for the main works. This may
be amended in due course to allow for experienced gained within the main works.
“The volume of air in an HMA pavement is important because it has a profound effect on
long-term pavement performance. An approximate “rule-of-thumb” is for every 1 per cent
increase in air voids (above 6-7 per cent), about 10 per cent of the pavement life may be lost
(Linden et al., 1989)” – Pavement Interactive.
Proper and effective compaction is therefore important to the life of the pavement. It
increases the strength and stability of the mix and closes gaps through which water and air
can penetrate and cause damage such as binder stripping and oxidation which will cause
embrittlement and pavement fatigue. Insufficiently compacted pavements shove, rut, and
ravel from traffic and age faster than properly compacted mats. Over-compacted pavements
flush (bleed asphalt binder at the surface) and will lose stability although this is often
symptomatic of poor mix design. Over-compaction can also loosen the mat and crack the
pavement surface.
Asphalt pavements are at about 80 per cent final compacted density as they leave the paver
although for high compaction screeds this can approach 95% compaction. The remainder of
the compaction is mostly done by initial or “breakdown” rollers (usually vibratory steel wheel)
and somewhat by intermediate rollers (usually pneumatic rubber tyred rollers). The
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pavement is then rolled with a steel wheel finish roller to remove surface irregularities leaving
a good riding surface. The amount of rolling required depends on several factors, including
the size of the rollers, the paving mix and mat thickness, the surface temperature, and the
weather. One reason for placing trial sections when paving first begins is to find out how
many roller passes will be needed to get the required density. Rollers should have the drive
drum or wheels forward facing the paver. If a steering drum precedes the drive drum onto
the mix, it can shove the asphalt instead of compacting it, as shown in Figure 5.0. This is
usually less of a problem with pneumatic rollers, but the drive wheels should be forward for
them too.
It should be defined in the method statement and rolling pattern as to what a roller
pass is (one path in a single direction or a double path, there and back) and how many
passes are required. One pass is normally defined as a double path.
It is important to achieve full compaction across the laid pavement as in the future traffic
lanes and wheel paths may change temporarily or permanently. Also, compaction is an
essential part of forming the pavement structure and inconsistent load bearing properties
may cause the pavement to eventually fail prematurely. Roller operators sometimes tend to
roll the centre of the lane more than the wheel paths. The inspector should ensure that this
doesn’t happen.
4.7.1 Temperature
The asphalt concrete will “shove” (move out from under the roller) if the mix is rolled when it
is too hot. This causes a rough surface. Rolling should begin as soon as the pavement has
cooled enough to support the rollers without shoving. If the mat shoves below 135°C, it is
probably a poor mix design or there is a fault in the mix production. Inform the supervising
engineer and contractor immediately.
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Rolling a pavement after it has cooled below 80°C will provide little or no additional
compaction, but may cause cracking of the surface.
The asphalt temperature should be monitored during the compaction process, from being
laid after the screed to final rolling, in conjunction with any density monitoring. This may be
by probe or contact thermometer, infra-red thermometer or thermal imaging camera, and
should be relatively uniform across the mat and throughout the load. The last two types
should only be used if the operator is fully trained in their use and can apply the findings
effectively.
4.7.2 Initial or Breakdown Rolling
Transverse joints should be rolled first and should be rolled in static mode.
The main breakdown rolling is normally then done with low to medium vibration on. Where
thin layers are to be compacted, or where stone mastic (matrix) asphalt is laid, no vibration
would be used. The operator should drive the roller toward the paver and then return on the
same path. It then moves over for the next pass. Turning movements should be made on
previously compacted areas to avoid roller marks that are difficult to remove but on hot
asphalt, this movement should be no greater than 25° to the previous direction of travel.
Successive passes should overlap previous ones by about one third of the drum width.
Breakdown rollers should make two complete passes over the entire area (or more if needed
to get the required density). Maximum roller speed should be 5 km per hour for vibratory
rollers and 7 km per hour for static rollers, or a medium to fast walking speed. Rolling
patterns will vary with the width of paving, the type and number of rollers and the number of
passes needed, etc. For highways it is normal that the passes progress from the lowest side
of the mat to the highest.
4.7.3 Intermediate Rolling
Pneumatic tyred rollers usually do intermediate rolling. Intermediate rolling should consist of
three complete passes over the mat (or more if needed to get the required density). The
rolling should progress across the mat in the same way as the breakdown rolling.
Pneumatic tyred rollers can sometimes help “heal” surface cracking that may have occurred
during breakdown rolling.
Pneumatic tyred rollers can have problems with material pick-up problem. Tips to prevent the
pickup problem include:
Tyres should be clean. Diesel fuel must not be used to clean the tyres.
Inflate tyres to the proper air pressure. Over inflated tyres may cause rutting, and
under inflated tyres reduce the compactive effort and increase the chance for
material pickup. All tyres must have equal inflation pressure.
Prior to production, the pneumatic tyred roller operator should run the roller up and
down a compacted surface for about 20 to 30 minutes. This builds heat and pre-
warms the tyres.
The use of skirts is recommended particularly in cooler weather. Skirts hold the heat
in longer around the outer tyres.
The travel speed should never exceed 7 kilometres per hour or a fast walking pace.
The cocoa mats where fitted, should be in good condition. They consist of a material
that rubs against the individual rubber tyres, ensuring that release agents are spread
evenly and helping prevent material build-up.
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4.7.4 Finish Rolling

The finishing roller removes any roller marks and smoothes the surface imperfections. You
should inspect the new pavement, using a straight edge as needed. Inform the paving
supervisor or foreman if any areas need surface improvement. Occasionally the finish roller
will crack the new asphalt as it rolls. This is usually caused when the top and bottom
surfaces of the asphalt have hardened (cooled) while the centre is still soft (hot). Typically
this happens in the surface temperature range of 65-75°C. The finish roller needs to work
either closer to or further back from the paver to prevent this problem. The pneumatic tyred
rollers can usually drop back and fix these cracks if they occur, however all rolling should be
completed before the pavement temperature reaches 80°C, or higher for Polymer Modified
Binder mixes as recommended by the PMB supplier. Vibration should not be necessary in
finish rolling and used only if controlled by the paving or rolling supervisor.
4.7.5 Hand Compaction
In areas inaccessible by heavy compaction plant, such as around manholes and gullies, it
will be necessary for the Contractor to use hand guided compaction plant including small
pedestrian rollers and vibrating (Wacker) plate compactors. This equipment should be
available at all times near the paving works.
4.7.6 Traffic Opening and Control

Traffic should be kept off the finished pavement for a minimum of 24 hours unless it is
necessary to opening to maintain traffic flows. Traffic on a hot pavement can cause bleeding,
rutting, or cracking, and may leave permanent marks in the surface. Where required to be
opened earlier, the surface temperature should be less than 60°C. The asphalt should be
allowed to cool naturally; the application of cold water to speed up cooling is not permitted.
Traffic control should be maintained in the area, until regular traffic patterns can be resumed.
4.8 SPREAD CALCULATIONS AND CONTROL

Asphaltic concrete is expensive, so quantities must be carefully controlled. Although the
paving operation may be controlled by automatic screed controls, screed operators usually
monitor paving by checking the mat thickness with a metal probe rod or other device. The
mat just behind the paver must be thicker than shown in the plans (by between 15 and 25
per cent) so that it will be the specified layer depth after compaction. The “loose depth” or
surcharged thickness is usually established at the laying trials.
The inspector should check loose depth periodically and record it in a field book or a paving
log as a record of the comparison with the compacted layer thickness.
By carefully monitoring the weight of asphalt concrete used and the area over which it is
2
spread, the “spread rate”, sometimes called “yield” or “superage” can be calculated in m per
tonne and used to compare with the theoretical tonnage required or the theoretical thickness
according to the expected density relative to the mix design.
Yield calculations are kept in the Placement record (Appendix A, Figure A.6) and should
form part of the report to the supervising engineer or his representative.
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Spread and Yield Ratio Calculations
The following information is needed to make the calculations:

Source
Data
1. Pavement thickness Typical section (plans)
2. “Target” compacted density Mix design sheet (JSM or trial report)
3. Width paved Measured in the field
4. Distance paved Measured in the field
5. Asphalt weight tickets Project weighbridge delivery ticket
Theoretical Yield
The first two figures are used to calculate the “theoretical yield” in m2 per tonne. This can be
done using the following formula:
Theoretical yield = 1000 / thickness (mm)

target density
Example:
1000 / thickness 50mm = Theoretical yield 7.91 m2 per tonne
target density 2.529
Therefore to calculate the theoretical tonnage for a given area, divide the area by the
2
theoretical yield i.e. 1500m to be laid with 50mm of compacted asphalt with a yield factor of
2
7.91 m /tonne will require approximately 190 tonnes from the asphalt plant.
Note: The target layer density must be used, not the maximum theoretical density
Actual Yield
The vehicle driver should have the delivery ticket marked with gross, tare, and net weights
for each load of mix, as well as the type of asphalt and other information. The lane and
location (chainage or station from/to) where the load is placed should be marked on the back
of the tickets, along with the time. All the information needed to calculate the yield is
therefore on the ticket.
Actual yield is calculated as follows:
Paved area (length* paving width) 52metres* 3.7metres = Actual yield 7.66m2 per tonne
25.12 tonnes
The first entry in the following example shows that a vehicle loaded with a net weight of
25.12 tonnes which was used to pave between chainage 100 and 152 (metres) at a paving
2
width of 3.7 metres. The actual yield for that vehicle was 7.66m per tonne which shows that
slightly more asphalt has been laid than the theoretical yield predicted. This may be due to:
The laid thickness marginally exceeds the specified thickness due to error in control,
the receiving layer was slightly low or the datum has been set slightly high.
The laying width varied
The density of the mix has slightly changed
The vehicle was carrying slightly less asphalt than was stated on the ticket
Or, the theoretical yield figure is incorrect!
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Usually the weight of four or five vehicle loads is added together and yield is calculated for
the combined total. This has been done for the other loads in the example:
Vehicle # Ticket # Tonnes Chainage from Chainage to Area Actual Yield

56987 00186 25.12 1+100 1+152 192.4 7.66
46586 00187 24.93 1+152 1+206 199.8 8.01
32654 00188 25.91 1+206 1+264 214.6 8.28
15245 00189 23.42 1+264 1+312 177.6 7.58
From the above example it can be seen the average yield of 7.88m2/tonne corresponds well
to the theoretical yield 7.91m2/tonne therefore it can be assumed that the asphalt weigh
bridge is relatively accurate although possibly there may be a slight but not significant
deviation in the mix density. The most probable cause of the varying individual load yields is
probably laying conditions of control, datum, laying width (easily checked) or receiving
course level.
It is good practice to keep the paving foreman or supervisor advised of your calculations to
assist in the paving control.
Adjusting the layer thickness
If the actual yield you calculate differs from the theoretical one, your distance estimate may
be inaccurate. For an accurate estimate the paver must have the same amount of asphalt in
it at the beginning and end of the yield calculation section. Small errors in distance paved are
less significant on longer sections, but if the actual yield in m2/tonne is consistently low after
several loads the pavement is being placed too thick. Similarly, if the actual yield is
consistently high, the pavement is too thin.
When this happens the screed operator will need to adjust the thickness controls. It can take
as much as 15 metres for the paver to completely stabilise after an adjustment. Let the
screed stabilise to the new conditions before making a new yield calculation to check the
adjustment. Making adjustments too rapidly can create a bump in the mat.
However, ensure all measurements for width, length and density are correct in your
calculations before informing the paving supervisor of your concerns.
4.9 INSPECTING THE FINISHED MAT

The main properties of concern in the finished mat are the final compacted density, the
surface smoothness, and the surface appearance.
Physical testing of the asphalt layer is the responsibility of the testing inspectors and
technicians, but you need to communicate any concerns to the paving supervisor so that any
corrective measures can be done quickly. The requirements for the finished asphalt layers
are as stated in the QCS 2014 or its revisions.
It takes some experience to judge the appearance of a finished mat, but some problems are
obvious. The appearance of the mat should be uniform; that is, there should be no sign of
segregation or ravelling. There should not be pieces of wood, large stones, or other
contamination in the mat, nor “fat” (oily) spots or bleeding. There should be no cracking or
tearing of the mat. The Troubleshooting Guide (Appendix A) lists these and other common
problems to look for, along with the most probable causes of them.
Defective areas of pavement must be alerted to the contractor and as appropriate, marked,
cut out, and replaced. Patched areas, however, are almost never as high in quality as a
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pavement that is mixed and placed correctly in the first place however where this occurs,
these too must be checked for surface regularity.
Most defects in the finished mat can be avoided by careful inspection of the production and
placement processes, as they are being carried out. Correcting defects is also easier the
earlier in the process they are detected. If a consistent mix is produced, the pavement is
placed in a dry weather on a firm base, and a good rolling pattern is established and
followed, there should be no problem achieving required density. With good quality control,
there should be no segregated or contaminated areas to be cut out and replaced. If the base
is good and joints are properly built, the surface smoothness should be within tolerance.
4.10 SAMPLING AND TESTING
An important requirement is for the sampling of the asphalt as delivered to site for quality
assessment. Sampling must be representative and carried out in accordance with defined
procedures by qualified experienced technicians. Consideration must also be given to the
sampling method and on no account must this method have an impact upon the finished
quality of the paved layer, particularly the surface course. This means, for instance, that
sampling must not be carried out from the hot asphalt behind the paver as this not only slows
paving work progress and is a hazard in respect of health and safety, but also influences
surface regularity which would in turn have an adverse effect on compliance with rolling
straight edge tests or IRI.
The finished asphalt mat will be subjected to testing by the contractor’s or other independent
laboratory for compaction and air void content determination by coring and nuclear density
gauge, surface regularity and surface smoothness (IRI). For further information on these
processes refer to the Inspection and Test Plan (ITP) for the specific works and the specific
test methods.
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5 RECYCLING PAVEMENTS O VERVIEW

5.1 RECYCLED ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
Recycling can produce a good quality pavement at a lower cost. It also reduces the amount
of asphalt and high-quality aggregate needed as well as providing an environmentally
sustainable alternative reconstruction.
5.2 RECLAIMED ASPHALT PAVEMENT (RAP)
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is old asphalt pavement that is broken up by heavy
equipment or by special cold planing machines. Generally RAP is screened and oversized
material reprocessed prior to reuse.
RAP should not be stockpiled more than 3 metres high. Above this height the weight will
cause the particles to stick together. For the same reason, heavy equipment must not go on
the stockpile. RAP tends to hold moisture, so in wet climates it may be necessary to cover
stockpiles or allow to dry out before use.
5.3 HOT ASPHALT RECYCLING
Hot-mix recycling is a process where reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is combined with a
recycling agent, new bitumen binder, and new aggregate in an asphalt mixing plant. Asphalt
plants have to be modified to permit recycling. RAP contains old bitumen binder, which will
burn if exposed to the burner flame in the dryer therefore, unless the plant is adapted with a
second RAP dryer, RAP is usually fed cold into the aggregate weigh hopper (box) or direct
into the mixer. Batch plants operate in the normal manner; however the new aggregate is
heated to a higher temperature than normal which then transfers heat to the RAP in order to
mix thoroughly with the new materials at the required mixed asphalt temperature.
Asphalt pavements “age” over time. The bitumen binder in old pavements is harder and
more brittle than when it was new. Recycling agents, or rejuvenators may be added to new
the asphalt mix to rejuvenate the old bitumen binder properties for the new asphalt mix.
Rejuvenators are organic compounds and with special additives.
The rejuvenators can be preblended into the bitumen, fed through an in-line blender or
added to the pugmill with the bitumen. Pugmill mixing and paving is done in a normal
manner. Batch plants can handle up to 25 per cent RAP added to 75 per cent of new
materials.
In a dryer drum-mix plant, clean aggregate is brought into the drum and heated in the normal
manner. RAP is fed into the midpoint of the drum along with the asphalt and recycling agent.
The drums used in these plants may be longer than normal or utilise other drum technology
such as the double barrel drum.
Paving and compaction of hot mixes containing RAP are the same as for conventional
mixes.
5.4 COLD-MIX RECYCLING

Cold-mix recycling may be done in-place (insitu – see Figure 5.1) or at a remote plant (exsitu
– See Figure 5.2)). Recycling agents and new materials may or may not be added to the
RAP according to the demands of the mix design.
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If new bitumen binder is added in the cold mix recycling process, it is normally as a bitumen
emulsion or foamed bitumen where a small amount of water is injected into the hot bitumen
causing it to foam and expand to 15 to 20 times its volume. This allows the bitumen to coat
the aggregate particles which will then bind the cold asphalt together when compacted. In
addition, a small proportion of cement may be added to increase the cold asphalt product
strength which increases over time. Cold mixes using RAP, recycling agents, emulsions, and
new aggregate can be designed, placed, and compacted in a manner similar to hot asphalt
pavements however they appear very different to hot mix and it is probable that some of the
larger aggregate particles will not be fully coated. This is normal for this type of asphalt
material as with this technology, the bitumen binder element transfers mainly to the fines
fractions which then bind the larger particles together during compaction.
Cold mix recycling and paving, and insitu stabilisation are specialist processes and you
should seek further guidance if you are required to supervise or inspect these installations.
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APPENDIX A - PROBLEM SOLVING
GUIDES AND TEMPLATES
Producing asphalt hot-mix pavement is part science and part skilled art. The science is in the
plant and machinery which can range from computer controlled systems, GPS, ultrasonic
and laser devices as well as sophisticated supplier innovations. The skilled art is in the
training and experience of the operators and supervisors controlling the production and
installation operations. The answer to every asphalt problem cannot be found solely in a
series of books, manuals and charts. Talking with other asphalt professionals will always
provide the key piece of information you need.
However, the following information, coupled with common sense, experience, and
communication between the Producer and Contractor, and the Client Authority or the Client
Authority’s representative (PMC,GEC), will provide guidance for resolving most asphalt and
paving problems.
Figure A.1: Plant Mix Deficiencies and Possible Causes
Figure A.2: Paving Mat Defects and Possible Causes
Figure A.3: Deficiencies in Pavement Finishing and Possible Causes
Figure A.4: Pavement Distress, Possible Causes & Rehabilitation Alternatives
Figure A.5: Daily Paving Record – Daily Summary
Figure A.6: Daily Paving Record – Placement record
Figure A.7: Daily Prime/Tack Record
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comply
Binder content does not
Gradation does not comply
Excess fines in mix
difficult to maintain
Uniform temperatures
batch weights
Truck weights do not match
Free bitumen on mix in truck
Free dust on mix in truck
Large aggregate uncoated
Mixture in truck not uniform
side
Mixture in truck fatty on one
Mixture flattens in trucks
Mixture burned
Mixture too brown or grey
Mixture too fat
Mixture smokes in truck
Mixture steams in truck
Mixture appears dull in truck
Mixture is segregated in skip
Mixture segregated in truck

Plant mix deficiencies
Possible Causes
Poor quality aggregate A A A A A A
Aggregate too wet A A A A A A A A
Inadequate stockpile separation A A
Aggregate feed gates not properly set A A A A
Over-rated drier capacity A A A A
Drier set too steep A A A A
Improper drier operation A A A A A A A
Temperature indicator out of adjustment A A A A A A A
Aggregate temperatures too high A A A
Worn out screens A B
Faulty screen operation A A A A
Bin overflows not functioning A A A B
Holes in hot bins or leaking doors A A B A
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comply
Excess fines in mix
batch weights
side
Mixture burned
Mixture too fat

Possible Causes
Segregation of aggregates in bins A A A B
Carryover in bins due to overloading screens A A A B
Aggregates scales out of adjustment B B B B B B B
Improper weighing B B B B B B B B
Feed of mineral filler not uniform A A A A
Insufficient aggregates in hot bins A A A A
Improper weighing sequence B B B B
Insufficient bitumen binder A A A A A
Too much bitumen binder A A A A

Poor distribution of bitumen binder to
A A A A A A A B
aggregates
Bitumen scales out of adjustment B B B B B B B
Bitumen meter out of adjustment C C C C C C C
Undersize or oversize batch B B B B B B B B B B
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comply
Excess fines in mix
batch weights
side
Mixture burned
Mixture too fat

Possible Causes
Mixing time not uniform B B B B B A
Improperly set or worn paddles A A A A A A B
Faulty mixer door A B B
Asphalt and aggregate feed not synchronized C C C C C C C C C
Occasional dust shakedown in bins A A A
Irregular plant operation A A A A A A A A A A A
Faulty sampling A A A
Incorrect batcher operation B B
Hot storage malfunction/poor loading A A
A = Applies to batch and drum-mix facilities B = Applies to batch facilities C = Applies to drums-mix plant facilities
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shadows)
(ripples/auger
short waves
Wavy surface-
waves
Wavy surface-long
width
Tearing of mat-full
centre/streaks
Tearing of mat-
outside/ streaks
Tearing of mat-
uniform
Max texture-non
correction
responding to
Screed not
compaction
Poor pre-
joint
Poor longitudinal
Poor traverse joint
cracking
Poor traverse
roller
Mat shoving under
spots in mat
Bleeding or fat
Roller marks
compaction
Poor mix
Screed-marks
Paving Mat Defects
Possible Causes
Cold mix temperature O O O O O O O O O
Variation of mix temperature O O O O O O O O O O
Moisture in mix O O O O O
Mix segregation O O O O
Improper mix design (asphalt) O O O O O O O
Improper mix design (aggregate) O O O O O O O
Parking roller on hot mat O O O
Reversing or turning too fast of rollers O O O O
Improper rolling preparation O O O O O O O
Improper base preparation O O O O O O O O
Truck holding brakes O O
Trucks bumping paver O O
Improper mat thickness for maximum
O O O O
aggregate size
Improper joint overlap P
Sitting long period between loads P P
Grade reference inadequate P P
Grade control wand bouncing on reference P P
Grade control hunting (sensitivity too high) P P
Grade control mounted incorrectly P P P P
Vibrators running too slow P P
Screed extensions installed incorrectly P P
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shadows)
(ripples/auger
short waves
Wavy surface-
waves
Wavy surface-long
width
Tearing of mat-full
centre/streaks
Tearing of mat-
outside/ streaks
Tearing of mat-
uniform
Max texture-non
correction
responding to
Screed not
compaction
Poor pre-
joint
Poor longitudinal
Poor traverse joint
cracking
Poor traverse
roller
Mat shoving under
spots in mat
Bleeding or fat
Roller marks
compaction
Poor mix
Screed-marks
Paving Mat Defects
Possible Causes
Screed starting blocks too short P
Kickers screws worm out mounted incorrectly P
Feeder gates set incorrectly P P P
Running hopper empty between loads P P
Shoe on screed end plate too low P
Cold screed P P P P
Screed plates not tight P P P P
Screed plates worn out or warped P P P P
Screed riding on lifting cylinder rams P P P P P P P
Excessive play in screed mechanical connection P P P P P
Overcorrecting thickness controls P P
Too little lead crown in screed P
Too much lead crown in screed P
Finisher speed too fast P P P P P
Feeder screws overloaded P P P P P
Fluctuating head of material P P P P
Find the problem above. P indicates causes related to the paver, O indicates other problems to be investigated
Note: A problem can often be caused by more than one item therefore it is important that each cause listed is eliminated to ensure solving the problem.
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base
Surface slipping on
during laying
Tearing of surface
by roller
Aggregate crushed
long cracks)
Cracking (large
fine cracks)
Cracking (mainly
Pushing or waves
Roller marks
Uneven joints
ravelling
Fretting or
surface
Rough uneven
texture
Poor surface
Rich or fat spots
appearance
Brown, dead
Bleeding
Types of pavement imperfections
Possible causes of imperfections

Insufficient or non-uniform tack coat X X X X X
Improperly cured prime or tack X X C X X
Mixture too coarse X X X X X X
Excess fines in mixtures X X X X X
Insufficient bitumen X X X X
Excess bitumen X X X X X
Improperly proportioned mixture X X X X X X X X X X X
Unsatisfactory batches in load X X X X X X X
Excess moisture in mixture X X X X
Mixture too hot or burned X X
Mixture too cold X X X X X X X X X X
Poor spreader operation X X X X X X X
Paver in poor condition X X X X X X X
Inadequate rolling X X X X X X
Rolling at the wrong time X X X X X X X X X
Over-rolling X X X X X X
Rolling mixture when too hot X X X X X X
Rolling mixture when too cold X X X X X X X
Roller standing on hot pavement X X
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base
Surface slipping on
during laying
Tearing of surface
by roller
Aggregate crushed
long cracks)
Cracking (large
fine cracks)
Cracking (mainly
Pushing or waves
Roller marks
Uneven joints
ravelling
Fretting or
surface
Rough uneven
texture
Poor surface
Rich or fat spots
appearance
Brown, dead
Bleeding
Types of pavement imperfections
Possible causes of imperfections

Overweight rollers X X X X X X X
Roller vibration X X X
Unstable base course X X X X X X X
Excessive prime coat or tack coat X X X
Poor handwork behind spreader X X X X
Excessive hand raking X X X X X
Poor workmanship X X X X X
Excessive segregation in laying X X X X X X
Insufficient allowance for compaction X
Operating paving machine too fast X X X X
Mix laid too thick X X
Traffic allowed on mix whilst too hot X
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Type of Distress Possible Causes Rehabilitation Alternatives
Deformation/Rutting Structural deficiency in pavement design Cold milling including profiling, replace asphalt surface course.
Structural deficiency due to increased loading
Unstable asphalt concrete mix design – low voids
Inadequate binder properties/ high binder content
Poor stability of pavement layers
Poor compaction during construction
Surface Ravelling/Fretting Low binder content in asphalt mix Cold milling including profiling, replace asphalt surface course.
Excessive air voids in asphalt concrete
Hardening (oxidation) of bitumen binder
Water susceptibility (binder stripping from aggregate)
Aggregate characteristics (poor quality aggregate)
Surface Binder Flushing or High binder content in asphalt mix If minor and showing no other defects, nor presenting a risk to traffic
Bleeding Excessive densification of asphalt concrete during construction safety, it can be allowed to oxidise/ harden and wear under traffic.
or by traffic (low air void content)
For severe conditions, including fatted material, cold mill and replace
Unstable mix design
surfacing
Temperature susceptibility of binder (soft at high temperature)
Excessive tack coat during construction
Alligator Fatigue Cracking Load associated structural deficiency in pavement design Investigate cause of failure. If surface/binder course only defect, cold
Excessive air void in asphalt layers mill and replace otherwise reconstruct pavement.
Bitumen binder properties -aging and oxidation
Consider using a polymer modified binder asphalt surface course.
Stripping of bitumen binder from aggregate
Construction deficiencies
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Type of Distress Possible Causes Rehabilitation Alternatives
Longitudinal Fatigue Cracking Load Associated: For relatively minor and contained cracks with no other apparent
defect, crack sealing with rubberised bitumen compounds.
Structural deficiency in design, possibly due to increased loading
Excessive air voids in Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Replacement (dig-out and replace distressed areas) and profile and
Asphalt cement properties inlay.
Stripping of bitumen binder from aggregate
Surface course overlay with special treatment to seal cracks and
Construction deficiencies
minimize reflection cracking.
Non Load Associated:
Remove/repair cracks, apply SAMI and if necessary reinforcing
Volume change potential of foundation soil membrane, overlay with surface course.
Slope stability of fill materials
Consider using a polymer modified binder asphalt surface course.
Settlement of fill or in-place materials as a result of increased
loading
Segregation due to asphalt paving operation
Poor joint Construction
Other construction deficiencies
Transverse Cracking Hardness of asphalt cement Crack sealing.
Stiffness of Hot Mix Asphalt
Overlay with special treatment to seal cracks and minimize reflection
Volume changes in base and sub-base
cracking.
Unusual soil properties
Remove/repair cracks, apply SAMI and if necessary reinforcing
membrane, overlay with surface course.
Uneven surface Presence of physical distress (cracking, rutting, corrugations, Re-profiling with cold milling and/or levelling, with replacement of
potholes, etc.) asphalt surface course.
Volume change in fill and subgrade materials
Cause may be due to underlying substrate conditions therefore some
Non-uniform construction defects
reconstruction may be appropriate.
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Figure A.5: Daily Paving Record – Daily Summary
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Figure A.6: Daily Paving Record – Placement record
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Figure A.7: Prime/Tack Coat Daily Record
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APPENDIX B - G LOSSARY OF TERMS
AASHTO The acronym for the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. A “T” designates AASHTO tests (Example:
AASHTO T195). An “M” designates AASHTO specifications (Example:
AASHTO M156).
Abrasion Testing Aggregates break and erode as moved around by heavy equipment,
plant machinery and lay-down equipment. The Los Angeles Abrasion
machine tumbles the aggregate in a standard way to determine if the
aggregate is durable enough to be made into processed aggregate for
use in road construction according to its intended purpose.
Absolute Viscosity (Dynamic) Absolute viscosity or the coefficient of absolute viscosity is a measure
of the internal resistance. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the
tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane
with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit
distance apart by the fluid.
Absorption Refers to either the amount of water that can be absorbed by the
aggregate particle as measure by the Absorption test or the amount of
asphalt absorbed by the aggregate in a mix, expressed as a percentage
of aggregate.
Adhesion The bitumen binder’s ability to stick to the aggregate in the paving
mixture
Aggregate Any combination of one or more hard granular mineral materials,
either natural or crushed, from very fine to large rocks. It is selected
because of its characteristics for a specific purpose, such as sand,
gravel, crushed stone, ballast, etc., used for mixing in graduated
fragments
Aggregate Loss Refers to undesirable loss of aggregates in an asphalt pavement or
surface treatment. The most common causes of aggregate loss from a
pavement are: lack of compaction, too little bitumen binder, lack of
anti-stripping agents, poor quality aggregate, and dirty aggregate. In
mixes using emulsified bitumen, aggregate loss may result from use of
an inappropriate ionic grade
Aggregate Storage Bins Bins that store the necessary aggregate sizes for feeding to an asphalt
plant in substantially the same proportions as are required in the
finished mix. Also called “Cold Bins”, “Cold Feed Hoppers”
Aggregate, Blended The combination of coarse and fine aggregates meeting gradation
requirements for the material specified
Aggregate, Coarse Typically, aggregate retained on the No. 4 sieve, but the designation is
dependent on the specification requirements
Aggregate, Coarse Graded One having a continuous grading in sizes of particles from coarse
through fine with a predominance of coarse sizes
Aggregate, Dense Graded An aggregate that has a particle size distribution near the maximum
density line when plotted on a 0.45 power gradation chart
Aggregate, Fine Aggregates passing the 2.36mm or other specified sieve, but the
designation depends on the specification requirements
Aggregate, Fine Graded One having a continuous grading in sizes of particles from coarse
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through fine with a predominance of fine sizes
Aggregate, Mineral Filler Very fine aggregate, predominantly passing the 0.075mm sieve and
free of organics
Aggregate, Natural Aggregates in their natural form, with little or no processing
Aggregate, Open Graded One containing little or no mineral filler in which the void spaces in the
compacted aggregate are relatively large
Aggregate, Poorly Graded An aggregate gradation with high variability in the amounts passing
each successive sieve, having angles when plotted on a gradation chart
Aggregate, Processed Aggregates that have been crushed and screened in preparation for
use
Aggregate, Synthetic or Artificial aggregates that are the by-product of industrial production
Artificial processes such as slag from ore refining. The most common form is
the lightweight aggregate used in concrete.
Aggregate, Well Graded Aggregate graded from the maximum size down to filler with a smooth
curve when plotted on a gradation chart
Anionic A bitumen emulsion material with a negative electrical charge (see
Bitumen Emulsion)
Anti-stripping Agents: Anti-stripping agents are usually blended with bitumen binders to
improve bonding between the binder and the aggregate. Lime and
cement are common anti-stripping agents together with proprietary
chemical agents. Bitumen suppliers often add the chemical anti-
stripping agents at source.
Asphalt Binder Another term for bitumen, primarily in USA and Canada. Bitumen that
is refined to meet specifications for paving, industrial, and special
purposes. The term is often abbreviated to AC or referred to as binder
when used in asphalt hot mix.
Asphalt Concrete Also referred to as asphalt, asphalt concrete pavement (ACP), hot mix
asphalt (HMA), flexible pavement, and hot bituminous pavement. It is
the material most commonly used for surfacing roadways and airports.
It is a high-quality, controlled, hot mixture of bitumen binder and
graded aggregate, thoroughly compacted into a uniform dense mass.
Asphalt Joint Sealer (Filler) An asphalt product used for sealing cracks and joints in pavement and
other structures, often blended with polymeric or rubber compounds
Asphalt Levelling or A course or layer (asphalt mixture) of variable thickness used to
Regulating Course eliminate irregularities in an existing surface prior to placing a further
asphalt course
Asphalt Plants A constructed array of equipment for the purpose of producing hot
mix paving asphalt. There are many different types and innovations on
modern plants but all are based upon either the batch or continuous
dryer drum mix concepts. See Batch Plant and Dryer Drum Plant.
Asphalt Surface Treatments A broad term for several types of asphalt or asphalt-aggregate
applications, usually less than 1 inch thick, to a road surface. The types
range from a single application of emulsified bitumen binder followed
by graded aggregate to multiple surface layers made up of alternating
applications of bitumen binder and different-sized aggregates. See
also Single Surface Treatments and Multiple Surface Treatments
Asphaltenes The high molecular weight hydrocarbon fraction of bitumen binder
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ASTM The acronym for the American Society for Testing and Materials
Automatic Cycling Control In a batch plant, a control system in which the opening and closing of
(batch plant) the weigh hopper discharge gate, the bituminous discharge valve, and
the pugmill discharge gate are actuated by self-acting mechanical or
electrical machinery without any intermediate manual control. The
system includes preset timing devices to control dry and wet mixing
cycles. Also called "Process control system", "Automatic plant control
system"
Automatic Dryer Control In a batch plant, a system that automatically maintains the
(batch plant) temperature of aggregates discharged from the dryer within a preset
range
Automatic Proportioning In a batch plant, a system in which proportions of the aggregate and
Control (batch plant) bitumen binder fractions are controlled by gates or valves that are
opened and closed by self-acting mechanical or electronic machinery
without any intermediate manual control
Bag House A contained fabric filter that removes dust from the exhaust gases of
dryer drums on batch plants and drum plants. The fabric filters are
sewn in the shape of cylindrical bags, several hundred of which are
contained in the bag house. Bag houses are used to avoid air pollution
during hot mix asphalt production. Bag houses are equipped with
mechanical means of shaking and cleaning the filters during
production of mix.
Bag House Fines The dust that falls out of the bag house, off the filters. This material
may be fed back in to the asphalt mix or wasted. Wasted bag house
fines are often put into contained settling ponds.
Batch Plant (Asphalt) A stationary manufacturing facility for producing asphalt paving
mixtures that proportions the aggregate constituents into the mix by
screening and weighing batches, then adds bitumen binder material by
either weight or volume in a pugmill. Batch plants make asphalt
concrete one batch at a time. Measured quantities of aggregates are
first run through a dryer drum and into hot bins for storage. A bag
house filters dust emitted from the dryer drum. The aggregates are
then sent through hot screens to control the gradation, and dropped
into a pugmill where they are mixed with hot bitumen. The batch is
dumped from the pugmill and the process repeats. Dumped batches
are either placed directly into vehicles or conveyed to a silo for
storage. Batch plants are rated according to the maximum batched
tonnes can produce per hour. Larger batch plants can produce more
than 300 tonnes per hour in five tonnes batches.
Binder Bitumen material used to stabilize or cement together aggregate to
form asphalt mixes
Binder Affinity Aggregate's tendency to accept and retain the bitumen coating.
Limestone and dolomite have high affinities for bitumen and are
referred to as hydrophobic (water hating) because they resist the
efforts of water to strip bitumen binder from them. Hydrophilic (water
loving) aggregates, such as quartz, have low affinities for bitumen
binder. They may separate from bitumen binder films when exposed
to water however this does not infer that these aggregates are not
suitable for asphalt mixes.
Binder Classification (Grades) A means by which bitumen binders are classified according to their
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viscosity, stiffness or performance characteristics to use appropriately

in asphalt mixes or bitumen based applications. Europe tends to prefer
to use penetration (stiffness) grade bitumen classification whereas
North America and the Middle East are adopting Performance Grade
(PG) binders. Superpave Binder: See Performance Graded Binder.
Binder Content Sometimes referred to as bitumen content, asphalt cement content.
Refers to the content of bitumen in an asphalt concrete paving
mixture, normally as a percentage by weight or volume of the total
asphalt mixture.
Bitumen A dark brown to black cementitious material in which the
predominating constituents are bitumen’s that occur in nature or are
obtained as residue in petroleum distillation. Bitumen binder imparts
controllable flexibility to mixtures of mineral aggregates, with which it
is usually combined. It is highly resistant to most acids, alkalis, and
salts. Although it is a solid or semi-solid at ordinary atmospheric
temperatures, bitumen binder may be liquefied by applying heat,
dissolving it in petroleum solvents of varying volatility, or emulsifying it
with water.
Bitumen Emulsion AASHTO and ASTM have developed standard specifications for the
Specifications following grades of emulsions:
HFMS-1 ----------
HFMS-2 ----------
HFMS-2h ----------
HFMS-2s ----------
SS-1 CSS-1
SS-1h CSS-1h
The “h” that follows certain grades means harder base bitumen is
used. The “HF” preceding some of the MS grades indicates high float.
The “s” that follows certain grades means it contains solvent or other
oil distillates intended to improve coating of aggregates. If a polymer
additive is included in the emulsion, the letter “p” is added
Bitumen Emulsion A product of mixing base course material with emulsified bitumen
Treated/Stabilised Base binder and sometimes 1 or 2% per cent Portland cement. It can be
mixed on grade by heavy equipment or by specially made travelling
plants. It can also be produced in a central mixing plant. Bitumen
Emulsion Treated/Stabilised Base binds the fines in base course
material and reduces effects of high moisture and can create an
effective structural support layer.
Bitumen Emulsion/Emulsified Bitumen emulsion is made by combining liquid bitumen, emulsifying
Bitumen agents, and water using a high shear milling process. They cure by
“breaking,” which is water removal by evaporation or steaming off.
Bitumen binder emulsions fall into three categories: anionic, cationic,
and non-ionic. The first two types are ordinarily used in roadway
construction and maintenance. The anionic (electro negatively
charged) and cationic (electro positively charged) classes refer to the
electrical charges surrounding the bitumen particles. With non-ionic
emulsions, the bitumen particles are neutral. Cationic emulsions are
used with aggregates that are negatively charged. Anionic emulsions
are used with positively charged aggregates. Opposite charges attract.
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The relative setting time of slow setting (SS), medium setting (MS), or
rapid setting (RS) emulsions further categorizes bitumen emulsions.
Bitumen or Binder Distributor A vehicle-mounted bitumen tank including heating elements, a pump,
and a spray bar on the back for spraying bitumen on a prepared
surface. The bitumen distributor applies the desired volume of
bitumen (litres/sq. m) for bituminous surface treatments, tack coats,
and prime coats.
Bitumen, Blown or Oxidized Bitumen that is treated by blowing air through it at an elevated
temperature to give it desired characteristics for special uses such as
roofing, pipe coating, under sealing Portland cement concrete
pavements, membrane envelopes, and hydraulic applications
Bitumen, Catalytically Blown An air-blown bitumen produced by using a catalyst during the blowing
process
Bleeding or Flushing The upward movement of bitumen in an asphalt pavement or surface
treatment resulting in the formation of a film of bitumen binder on the
roadway surface. The most common cause is too much bitumen in one
or more of the pavement courses, probably due to inadequate mix
design or plant malfunction, resulting in bitumen binder coming to the
surface under traffic and with heat expansion. Bleeding or flushing is
more likely to occur in hot weather and/or under heavy traffic
conditions.
Blotter Material Fine material (clean sand, crusher dust, etc.) sometimes spread on an
uncured prime coat to allow traffic on the prime before it is cured and
to protect the uncured prime from being washed off the grade by rain.
Blotter sand can only be used less than four hours after applying the
prime coat only with written permission. Blotter material may also be
used to mitigate bleeding.
Break-Down Roller The roller that is the first to start compaction of freshly laid asphalt
concrete pavement. Often vibratory rollers are used for the first few
passes of break-down rolling.
Breaking The process of emulsified bitumen binder curing or setting by
evaporation, turning from dark brown on application to black when
cured
BS EN British Standard Specification that corresponds to an EN (European)
harmonised standard.
Cationic A material testing positive in a particle charge test (See Bitumen
Emulsion)
Chip Seal See Single Surface Treatments
Cohesion The ability of the bitumen binder to hold the Aggregate particles firmly
in place in the finished pavement
Cold Feed Refers to the aggregate batching equipment and the aggregate feed
itself, from the cold aggregate bins to the drum mixer or dryer drum in
an asphalt plant.
Cold Mix A mixture of emulsified bitumen binder and aggregate used for
patching. This mixture is workable at ambient temperatures above
freezing.
Cold Recycling Cold mix recycling may be done in place (insitu) or at a central plant
with a pugmill (exsitu). Existing asphalt pavement is crushed to a
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specified maximum size and placed on the roadway with or without

the addition of emulsified bitumen binder. When the process is done
by a train of equipment performing the crushing, treating and relaying
of the material, it is referred to as Cold In Place Recycling (CIPR).
Cold-laid Plant Mixture Plant mixes, using emulsified bitumen binder, that may be spread and
compacted at ambient temperature i.e. without heating and drying
Compaction Achieving density by compressing material into a smaller volume. The
compaction processes begins with break-down rolling, then
intermediate rolling, and finally finish rolling. The percentage of
compaction attained by the rolling of the hot mix can be estimated
with a nuclear density meter, but is usually measured for acceptance
by coring out samples whose density is measured in a laboratory and
related to a determined maximum density.
Composite Pavement A pavement structure composed of an asphalt upper layers and
cementitious lower layers
Continuous Mix Plant A manufacturing facility for producing asphalt paving mixtures that
proportions aggregate and bitumen binder constituents into the mix
by a continuous system without definite batch intervals. Also called a
Drum Mix Plant. See the definition for Drum Mix Plant for further
details
Coring Machine Coring machines are used to remove core samples of the completed
mix, which are tested to measure the level of pavement compaction
and thickness for acceptance. Also used for investigatory surveys and
forensic analysis
Crack Sealing Pavement maintenance operations, cleaning out cracks, and filling
with bitumen binder or bitumen/filler material.
Cracks Breaks in the surface of an asphalt pavement The common types are:
Cracks, Alligator A slang term for fatigue cracking of asphalt concrete pavement that
results in interconnected cracks forming a series of small shapes that
resemble an alligator’s skin. Traffic loads that exceed the structural
strength of the roadway section cause these cracks as failure of the
underlying sub layers is induced.
Cracks, Block Interconnected cracks, sometimes called “shrinkage cracks,” forming a
series of large blocks, usually with sharp corners or angles. Shrinkage
and daily temperature cycles cause them. Block cracking is a sign that
the bitumen binder has aged and hardened significantly. It often
occurs on older pavement with little or no traffic.
Cracks, Construction Joint Longitudinal or transverse separations along the seam between two
paving panels caused by a weak bond between the panels and/or lack
of compaction at the joint
Cracks, Edge Joint (Kerb line) The separation of the joint between the pavement and the shoulder,
commonly caused by the wetting and drying beneath the shoulder
surface. Other causes are shoulder settlement, mix shrinkage, and
vehicles straddling the joint. Longitudinal cracks between the travelled
way and a paved shoulder may be caused by use of a different
structural section of the shoulder.
Cracks, Fatigue Interconnected cracks forming a series of small blocks resembling an
alligator’s skin. They are caused by heavy traffic that is excessive for
the given thickness of pavement and structural support provided by
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underlying layers.
Cracks, Longitudinal Cracks that run in the direction of travel. See cracks generally for
causes.
Cracks, Reflection Cracks in asphalt overlays that reflect the crack pattern in the
pavement structure underneath. They are caused by vertical or
horizontal movements in the pavement beneath the overlay, brought
on by expansion and contraction with temperature or moisture
changes. Lack of support for an overlay over an existing crack also
contributes to reflection.
Cracks, Slippage Crescent-shaped cracks that open in the direction of the thrust of
wheels on the pavement surface. They result from braking and turning
on pavement that lacks a good bond between the surface layer and
the course beneath. Often due to a rich asphalt mix or lack of tack coat
application between layers.
Cracks, Thermal See Block Cracks.
Cracks, Transverse Cracks that run perpendicular to the direction of traffic. Unless caused
by a poor construction joint, these cracks are usually caused by
longitudinal shrinkage of the pavement or reflection of underlying
construction joints or cracks, often in composite pavements.
Curing In asphalt concrete, curing involves the chemical and physical changes
the mix goes through as it cools and is initially subjected to traffic. This
process continues for months or even years dependent upon the
characteristic being measured. See Cutback Bitumen and/or Emulsified
Bitumen binder definitions. Also see Breaking.
Cutback Bitumen Cutback asphalt has been liquefied by blending with naphtha,
kerosene, or fuel oil to allow mixing or spraying at lower temperatures
than those for pure asphalt. Cutback asphalt cures by the evaporation
of the solvent, which amounts to 33 percent to 50 percent by weight
of the material. There are potential environmental problems with its
use. Currently, cutback bitumen is only used for prime coat and some
crack sealing. The following grades of cutback bitumen are standard:
Rapid-Curing (RC) Bitumen: Cutback bitumen composed of bitumen
and a naphtha or gasoline-type diluents that will evaporate quickly.
Example: RC-800 has been used for crack sealing.
Medium-Curing (MC) Bitumen: Cutback bitumen composed of
bitumen and kerosene-type diluents of medium volatility. Example:
MC-30 is sometimes used for prime coat.
Slow-Curing (SC) Bitumen: Cutback bitumen composed of bitumen and
oils of low volatility. Example: SC-250 has been used as to control dust
on gravel roads. However, it is no longer used due to concern that
contaminated runoff may get into waterways.
Densification Increasing the density of a mixture during the compaction process
Density The unit weight of a material in terms of mass per unit volume, e.g.,
kg/m3. The density of a compacted asphalt paving mixture is
determined for the following purposes:
1. On laboratory compacted specimens to:
• Provide a basis for computing the percentage of air voids and voids
in the mineral aggregate in the compacted mixtures, an integral part
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of some asphalt paving mixture design procedures

• Provide an indication of the optimum bitumen binder content in
some mix design procedures
• Establish a basis for controlling compaction during construction of
the asphalt pavement
• Provide a basis for calculating the spread required for a given
thickness of pavement
2. On specimens obtained from pavements to check density of
pavement and effectiveness of rolling operations
Drainage The ability of a structural section to allow moisture to be removed
from its surface, subsurface, or roadway edges. The level of drainage
provided by design, construction and maintenance of a paved section
is the most important factor in determining how long it will last
Drainage Coefficients Factors used to modify layer coefficients in the AASHTO pavement
design processes an indicator of how well the pavement structure can
handle the adverse effect of water infiltration
Drum-mix Plant Drum-mix plants, also called a continuous mix plant, combine and heat
aggregate and bitumen binder continuously. The different-sized
aggregates, measured from the cold bins, are fed into the dryer mixer.
The bitumen binder is added near the middle of the drum, where it
mixes with aggregate that has been heated and dried, together with
mineral filler. The hot bitumen storage tanks and pumping systems are
also similar to those for batch plants, however instead of being
weighed, it is pumped into the mixer through a flow meter and
sprayed on the aggregate and mixed within the drum. The burner is at
the upper end of the dryer, so the aggregate and the hot gases move
down through the drum. This is known as “parallel flow.” Parallel flow
and a short flame are used so that the gases are cool enough by the
time they reach the lower end of the drum that they will not burn the
bitumen binder. New drum mix plants operate a counter-flow system
where the aggregate flows towards and past the flame, which is
shielded from the mixing section, where the mixing then occurs before
falling out of the drum and away by conveyor to the hot storage or
loading facilities. Most drum-mix plants have an inlet, near where the
bitumen is added, to allow the addition of recycled asphalt pavement
(RAP). Counter-flow drum mix plants are very efficient but require
specific procedures to avoid mix contamination.
Dry Mixing Time Residence time of aggregate as it drops into the pugmill of a batch
plant, before the addition of bitumen binder
Dryer A large cylindrical drum that dries the aggregates and heats them to
the specified temperatures in asphalt plants
Ductility The ability of a substance (bitumen, polymer modified bitumen) to be
stretched thin without breaking. Many types of bitumen grading use
ductility tests.
Durability Asphalt paving mixture’s ability to resist disintegration due to age,
weathering, and traffic. Time and low traffic volumes affect
pavement’s durability. Included under weathering are changes in the
characteristics of the bitumen binder, such as oxidation and
volatilization, and changes in the pavement and aggregate due to
water, including freezing and thawing. The bitumen binder content is
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significant in asphalt's durability
Dust Ratio An asphalt mix property used for assessing acceptance during the mix
design process. It is the number resulting from dividing the percentage
passing the 0.075mm test sieve in the aggregate gradation and the
percentage of bitumen binder as a percentage of mix. Typical
acceptable values range from 0.6 to 1.2.
Effective Binder Content The amount of bitumen binder in a paving mix not absorbed by the
aggregates. It is the portion of bitumen binder available for coating
and adhesion between aggregate particles.
Embankment Foundation The material below the original ground surface whose physical
characteristics affect the support of the embankment
Emulsion A suspension of solids in water
Emulsion Slurry Seal A mixture of emulsified bitumen binder, fine aggregate and mineral
filler with water added to produce a slurry that is applied to a
previously paved surface thereby extending the life of that surface.
Equivalent Single Axle Loads Traffic on highways and streets varies in the number of vehicles and in
(ESAL) the magnitude of loading. The cumulative effects of traffic loads factor
in the structural design of pavement. The effect on the pavement
performance of any combination of axle loads is equated to the
number of standard 18,000-pound (8.16 tonnes), dual tyred, single-
axle loads required to produce an equivalent effect (i.e. the single axle
load). In design of pavement structural sections the total number of
ESALs is a summary of equivalent 18,000-pound (8.16 tonnes) single-
axle loads expected from the combination of all vehicle classes for the
design period.
Extraction (Asphalt The procedure separating the bitumen binder from the mineral
Composition Testing) aggregates in an asphalt paving mixture using a chemical solvent, such
as trichloroethylene or methylene chloride (dichloromethane).
Extraction provides a basis for determining the bitumen binder
content of a mixture and provides bitumen binder-free aggregates for
a gradation analysis. Trichloroethylene and other chlorinated solvents
are now considered hazardous and they are no longer used in some
laboratories having been replaced by ignition ovens to determine
bitumen binder contents. A closed-system extraction method using
toluene when gradation or bitumen binder recovery is necessary but
strict health and safety procedures must be developed and followed.
Falling Weight Deflectometer A trailer mounted device that drops a known weight from known
(FWD) heights on a pavement surface while automatically measuring the
resulting peak stress and deflections. The drop stress is usually
intended to simulate dynamic traffic loading. The data collected with
the FWD back-calculates elastic modulus of the supporting layers.
Once the elastic modulus is known, structural design can proceed in
determining critical stresses and strains in the structure for forensic
analysis, remediation or future design.
Fat Spots Fat spots in an asphalt mixture are isolated areas where bitumen
binder has come to the surface of the mix during the lay-down and
compaction. These spots can occur erratically, or they may be
numerous and regular. Excessive moisture in the mix or the
accumulation of bitumen binder on the plant lay-down machines or
rollers that drop the accumulation on the mat can also cause fat spots.
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Fatigue Cracking See Cracking.

Fatigue Resistance The ability of asphalt pavement to withstand repeated flexing or slight
bending caused by the passage of wheel loads. As a general rule, the
higher the bitumen binder content and the lower the air void content
in an asphalt mix, the greater the fatigue resistance. However, a mix
with too high a bitumen binder content or too low an air void content
will tend to rut under traffic loading.
Fines Content: The average percentage by weight of material passing the 0.075 sieve
Flash Point Bitumen, if heated to a high enough temperature, will release fumes
that flash in the presence of a spark or open flame. This temperature,
the flash point, is well above the temperatures normally used in
paving operations. The Cleveland Open Cup is a flash point test used in
grading bitumen. The results ensure safety during mixing and handling
of bitumen.
Flexibility The ability of an asphalt pavement structure to conform to settlement
of the foundation. A high bitumen binder content can enhance
flexibility of an asphalt paving mixture however this can cause
unwanted deformation or rutting.
Flexible Pavement Another term for a full depth asphalt concrete pavement.
Fog Seal A light application of bitumen emulsion, without mineral aggregate
cover, on an existing pavement. Fog seals reduce oxidation on older
pavement
Gap-Graded Asphalt A gap-graded asphalt mix is one where the constituent aggregates do
not produce an evenly graded blend, and normally comprise of a fine
aggregate and a larger sized coarse aggregate thereby creating a 'gap'
in the mix. Gap-grading can occur because of aggregate gradations but
can also be a design feature. The production, placement, and
compaction of a gap-graded HMA mix are similar to the processes for
normal asphaltic concrete however rubber tyred rollers are seldom
used. Stone Mastic (Matrix) Asphalt and Porous Asphalts are examples
of gap graded mixes.
Gradation (or grading) The relative size distribution of the particles in an aggregate sample.
The percentages passing various sieve sizes, from the largest (100
percent passing) to the smallest (0.075mm sieve) show the gradation
of the material.
Gradation Chart A chart where the percentage passing various sieve sizes can be
plotted, giving a visual demonstration of an aggregate’s size
distribution. Gradation charts with the sieve sizes (in millimetres)
raised to 0.45 power on the x axis are most commonly used with
paving aggregates. A straight line plotted on a 0.45 power gradation
chart is a maximum density line, which is usually avoided in asphalt
mix production. Gradations near the maximum density line have little
space for bitumen binder, making the optimum bitumen binder range
small. Specification lines may also be plotted to give a clear indication
of conformity.
Grooves Grooves cut into pavement increase traction and moisture runoff,
preventing hydroplaning. They are usually transverse to the direction
of traffic. Grooving is most common on runway pavements at larger
airports.
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Hot Aggregate Storage Bins In a batch plant, bins that store the heated and separated aggregates
prior to their final weighing into the pugmill
Hot Asphalt Recycling Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is combined with new bitumen and
new aggregate in an asphalt mixing plant to produce new hot mix
asphalt. RAP additions are normally limited by available equipment to
up to 30% in batch plants unless a separate RAP heater/dryer is used.
Drum mix type plants can accommodate RAP addition up to 50%
dependent upon plant equipment configuration.
Hveem Method Hot mix asphalt design method but rarely used having either been
replaced by the Marshall method or recently by Superpave.
Ignition Oven A furnace that determines estimated bitumen binder content of an
asphalt concrete mixture by burning off and exhausting the bitumen
out, leaving only aggregates. It heats weighed samples of mixture to
approximately 530 degrees Celsius when the bitumen ignites and
burns leaving the remaining aggregate to be weighed after cooling,
producing an estimate of the bitumen binder content of the mix.
Pollution control devices on ignition ovens’ exhaust stacks make them
much less hazardous to the environment than previously used
chemical extraction methods. Aggregate can afterwards be washed in
water and graded.
Impermeability A material’s resistance to the flow of air and water through it
In Situ In the natural or original position. Insitu recycling is where the road is
milled out, processed and re-laid and compacted at its original
location.
Intermediate Course Sometimes called binder course, an asphalt pavement course between
a base course and an asphalt surface course
Job-Mix Formula An acceptable product of an asphalt concrete mix design, including
aggregate gradation, optimum per cent bitumen binder content, and
other data determined in the mix design process
Kinematic Viscosity Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to
density - a quantity in which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity
can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid with its
mass density
Longitudinal Joint Longitudinal joints run in the direction of paving. They are weak spots
in the pavement and should be kept out of high-traffic areas, normally
placed at lane lines, centreline or in the centre of the running lane (oil
lane). Paving in echelon avoids the formation of longitudinal joints.
Placing hot asphalt concrete against cold pavement forms most
longitudinal joints.
Lute (Asphalt Rake) A metal rake with triangular teeth used by an operator to finish hot
asphalt at joints, ironwork or kerbs before rolling. Use should be
minimised as it can cause segregation or rough texture.
Manual Proportioning Control In an asphalt batch plant, a control system which proportions of the
aggregate and bitumen binder fractions manually controlled by gates
or valves. The system may include power-assist devices for the
opening and closing of gates and valves. Rarely used in preference for
computer controlled systems therefore only used as back up.
Map Cracks See Cracks/Block Cracks.
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Marshall Method Commonly used method for asphalt paving mixtures for laboratory
design and field control of mixtures containing bitumen and
aggregates not exceeding 25mm, unless the modified method is used.
The test features density-voids analysis and stability-flow test on
specimens of compacted asphalt paving mixtures. Equipment and
procedures for the Marshall tests are outlined in AASHTO Method of
Test T245 and ASTM Method of Test D1559
Maximum Density Line A straight line, plotted on a 0.45 power gradation chart that indicates
a blended aggregate gradation with maximum theoretical density and
minimum void space. This grading would normally be too dense for an
asphalt mixture with insufficient space for bitumen content and
thermal expansion.
Maximum Size of a Gradation The smallest sieve size with 100 percent of the material passing it. See
also Nominal Size
Maximum Specific Gravity or The theoretical maximum density (TMD) of a paving mixture, at the
Theoretical Maximum Density zero air voids state, as determined by AASHTO T-209/ASTM D2041.
(Rice) Sometimes referred to as the Rice Specific Gravity, it provides the
reference datum density of the actual laboratory or plant produced
mix used to calculate the percentage of air voids in a mix and the
percentage of compaction. It is the reference for acceptance of asphalt
concrete pavement compaction. The basis of the calculation is the
density of compacted pavement as a percentage of the TMD gives the
relative % compaction, whereas the difference of the density of
compacted pavement as a percentage of the TMD gives the air void
content or Voids in Mix (VIM)
Medium-Setting Emulsions See Bitumen Emulsion/Emulsified Bitumen
Mesh The square openings or apertures of a sieve or aggregate screen. This
term can be applied to either laboratory sieves or aggregate screening
meshes.
Mineral Dust The dust portion of the fine aggregate passing the 0.075mm sieve
Mineral Filler A finely divided mineral product, at least 70 percent of which will pass
a 0.075 sieve. Pulverized limestone is the most commonly
manufactured filler, although other stone dust, hydrated lime,
Portland cement, and certain natural deposits of finely divided
minerals may also used for specific purposes.
Mix Design Methods See definitions for each of the following:
Marshall Method
Superpave Procedures (Gyratory)
Hveem Methods
Mix Design Report Contains information project materials inspectors need. On aviation
and highway projects, the Asphalt Mix Design becomes part of the
contract. The bitumen binder content, aggregate, and temperature
specifications listed on the mix design must conform to the standard
specifications.
Multi Stress Creep Recovery Multi Stress Creep Recovery is a binder test using a Dynamic Shear
(MSCR) Rheometer (DSR) where a binder sample is subjected to a series of
applied stresses (creep) over short time intervals, with defined
recovery periods. This is then interpolated into compliance with
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specification needs outlined in AASHTO M19
Multiple Surface Treatment Two or more surface treatments using bitumen binder and aggregate
placed one on the other. The aggregate maximum size of each
successive treatment is usually half that of the previous one and the
total thickness is over the same as the nominal maximum size
aggregate particles of the first course. A multiple surface treatment is
a denser-wearing and waterproofing course than a single surface
treatment. Often used to prolong the life of an existing asphalt
pavement surfacing by sealing the surface against water ingress and
providing an enhanced running surface.
Natural Asphalt (Bitumen) Naturally occurring bituminous asphalt deposits considered to have
enhancing properties when blended with petroleum derivative
bitumen’s. The most significant deposits are mined in Trinidad
(Trinidad Lake Asphalt), Utah (Gilsonite) and Eastern Europe (Uintate
rock asphalt).
Nominal Maximum Size of a In aggregate specification terms, one sieve size smaller than the
Gradation maximum size or the first sieve with any aggregate retained on it. In
Superpave mix design technology, the nominal maximum size is the
first sieve smaller than the maximum size, which retains at least 10 per
cent of the material.
Nuclear Gauges/Nuclear Nuclear gauges are monitor compaction levels of mixes. The nuclear
Density density gauge senses the reflection of gamma rays sent into the
pavement; the greater the density, the more rays are reflected. The
gauge must be calibrated for each paving mix. Nuclear gauges are
being systematically replaced by microwave based gauges which
dispenses with the need for radioactive monitoring for its users,
protected secure storage and secure transport. Nuclear gauges must
not be used by non-trained personnel.
Open-Graded Asphalt Mix Open-graded hot-mix asphalt concrete, sometimes referred to as
(Friction Course) porous asphalt, rapidly drains surface water to allow frictional surfaces
to reduce hydroplaning and may be placed as surfacing to new, or
overlays on existing pavements. Open-graded asphalt concrete
contains a large proportion of coarse aggregate and a small proportion
of fine aggregate. This leaves voids (openings) in the mix, which allow
water to drain. This, combined with the coarse surface macro texture,
provides a skid-resistant and noise reducing surface. The coarse
material provides the structural strength of the pavement. The fines,
combined with the bitumen, coat the coarse aggregate and cement it
together. Open-graded asphalt concrete typically contains 20 per cent
or more air voids. When used for noise reduction, the greatest effect is
gained by using smaller nominal sized aggregate asphalt mixes.
Optimum Binder Content A term used in the Marshall Design Method as the bitumen content
that best satisfies the required mix characteristics for stability flow and
voids.
Overlay A way to rehabilitate distressed asphalt concrete pavement. Overlays
should be used to increase the design life before distress shows. They
are best applied before the existing pavement has become too rough,
cracked, and rutted. An application of bitumen emulsion tack coat is
applied on the existing pavement prior to the overlay. The thickness
requirement for the overlay is a function of the structural condition of
the existing pavement and the predicted future traffic loading. Inlay:
where the existing surface course, and possibly binder course, is milled
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off prior to replacement with new materials, used where it is

necessary to maintain the existing road level. Process follows that of
overlay.
Patching Mending or repairing a roadway surface, usually with asphalt hot mix
but sometimes with a cold asphalt product.
Pavement Performance The trend of serviceability in relation to load applications
Pavement Rehabilitation Work to extend the service life of an existing facility. This includes
placement of additional surfacing material or other work necessary to
return an existing roadway, including shoulders, to structural or
functional adequacy. This could include the removal and replacement
of the pavement structure.
Pavement Structure The combination of select material, sub base, base, and surface course
placed on a subgrade to support the traffic load and distribute that
load to the underlying subgrade.
Paving Machine Asphalt pavers are sometimes called lay-down machines. These self-
propelled machines place asphalt concrete pavement. They consist of
a tracked or wheeled tractor unit that pulls an activated screed. The
screed spreads the asphalt concrete and partially compacts it by using
its weight and sometimes vibrators.
Penetration The consistency (stiffness) of a bituminous material expressed as the
distance in tenths of a millimetre (0.1 mm) that a standard needle
vertically penetrates a sample of the material under specified loading
(100grams), time (5 seconds), and temperature (25°C) using a bitumen
penetrometer. It can also refer to the depth a prime coat penetrates
the base.
Performance Graded Binder A product of the SHRP research programme, PG Graded binder
(PG Grades) (Asphalt). A new bitumen binder grading system based on
temperature extremes that the design pavement is expected to
withstand. The laboratory grading system subjects samples of the
binder to various tests at the extremes. Performance Graded Asphalt
receives a PG grade. For example, a PG58-28 is a binder that is
designed to withstand temperatures from 58°C to –28°C. The high
temperature is the maximum pavement temperature the mix is
expected to withstand for any seven-day period during the design life.
The low temperature is the one day expected low pavement
temperature during the design life of the pavement.
Performance Period The time that an initially constructed or rehabilitated pavement
structure will last before reaching its terminal serviceability; this is also
referred to as the design period or design life.
Performance-Related Specifications that describe the desired levels of key materials and
Specifications construction quality characteristics that correlate with fundamental
engineering properties predicting performance. These characteristics
for example, air voids in asphaltic pavements and strength of concrete
cores are amenable to acceptance tes ng at the me of
construction. True performance-related specifications not only
describe the desired levels of these quality characteristics, but also
employ the quantified relationships containing the characteristics to
predict subsequent pavement performance. They may provide the
basis for rational acceptance and/or price adjustment decisions.
Plant Screens In an asphalt batch plant, the screens located after the dryer and
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above the hot bins that separate the heated aggregates into the hot
bin sizes. Plant screens are also used with rock crushers and washing
plants to separate different aggregate sizes/fractions.
Pneumatic-tyred Roller (PTR) Self-propelled pneumatic rubber tyred rollers have four to eight
wheels front and rear. Self-propelled pneumatic-tyred rollers vary in
weight. Ballast can be added to the machines to increase the weight
whilst some PTRs have the ability to change tyre inflation while the
roller is operating.
Poise A centimetre-gram-second unit of absolute viscosity. It is equal to the
viscosity of a fluid in which a stress of one dyne per square centimetre
is required to maintain a difference of velocity of 1 centimetre per
second between two parallel planes in the fluid that lie in the direction
of flow and are separated by 1 centimetre.
Prime Coat A bituminous application used to prepare an untreated base for an
asphalt surface. The prime penetrates into and seals the base and fills
the surface voids. It also seals the top surface to keep the base from
ravelling, and helps bind the base to the overlying asphalt course.
Pumping The ejection of foundation material, wet or dry, and/or water through
joints or cracks, or along edges of rigid slabs resulting from vertical
movements of the slab under traffic
Quality Materials Laboratories generally perform tests to ensure the standard
of pavement quality is maintained and these may include raw
constituents, such as aggregate and binder, mix designs assessment
and development of new products and processes. Quality is ensured
by good processes and systems, training, well maintained plant
equipment and effective business management, and is the
responsibility of all persons involved in the complete process.
Quality Acceptance Materials inspectors and technicians perform acceptance inspection
and tests on works completed by the supplier contractor to ensure
that the quality standard is being met, conforms to a specification and
therefore are acceptable for payment.
Quality Assurance Quality Assurance is the quality management process of an
organisation (company, authority etc.) to ensure that the outputs from
that organisation meet with the customers’ expectations whilst
abiding by recognised legitimate processes. An organisation normally
has a quality management system that conforms to ISO 9001 and is
audited regularly. Specific industries, such as construction and paving,
may have defined procedures or guidance that relate to the activities
they carry out.
Quality Control Quality Control testing is that carried out by the supplier or contractor
to ensure the materials meet the contract requirements, and makes
adjustments to the construction process if the materials begin to
deviate from specification target.
Quality Control (Process Tests done by the contractor to ensure the quality of the materials
Control) Tests during production and installation. The tests allow the contractor to
correct deviations from specifications before placing the produced
asphalt material or correct installation defects whilst also ensuring
corrective action is taken with the process.
Rapid-Setting Emulsions The rapid-setting grades react quickly with aggregate and revert from
the emulsion state to bitumen state. The RS grades produce a
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relatively heavy film. They are used primarily for spray applications,
such as aggregate (chip) seals, sand seals and surface treatments.
Some have high viscosities to prevent runoff.
Ravelling The loss or dislodgment of surface aggregate particles from the edges
inward or the surface downward. It is caused by lack of compaction,
construction of a thin lift during cold weather, dirty or disintegrating
aggregate, too little bitumen binder in the mix, or overheating of the
asphalt mix. Studded tyres can also contribute to ravelling.
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement The removed or processed materials containing crushed asphalt
(RAP) pavement. In reuse, the RAP can be used for hot or cold recycling, or
mixed with blended aggregate or used as pure RAP for base or sub
base.
Resilient Modulus A measure of the modulus of elasticity of roadbed soil or other
pavement material
Rice Specific Gravity Same as Maximum Specific Gravity
Rigid Pavement A pavement structure that distributes loads to the subgrade, having as
one course a Portland cement concrete slab of relatively high-bending
resistance.
Road Base The layer or layers of specified material of designed thickness placed
on a sub base or a subgrade to support an asphalt base or surface
course. Most base courses are constructed with crushed aggregates
and therefore called crushed aggregate base course, however the
term may also refer to a lower asphalt layer.
Rolling Thin Film Oven Test The Rolling Thin Film Oven Test Thin Film Oven (RTFOT) test actually is
(RTFOT) not a test. It is a procedure intended to subject a sample of bitumen to
hardening conditions approximating those in normal hot-mix plant
operations. Viscosity, penetration and more recently with PG binders,
the Multi Stress Creep Recovery (with a DSR) tests made on the
sample before and after the RTFOT are considered a measure of the
anticipated hardening and therefore a prediction of performance
characteristics.
Ross Count A visual determination of how well the bitumen binder is coating the
aggregate. The Ross Count is performed on asphalt concrete at the
asphalt plant, and is an acceptance test for batch plants and an
informational test for dryer-drum plants.
Ruts Ruts are depressions that develop in the wheel tracks of a pavement.
Ruts may result from consolidation or lateral movement under traffic
in one or more of the underlying courses, or by displacement in the
asphalt surface layer. They may also develop under traffic in new
asphalt pavements that had too little compaction during construction
or from plastic movement in a mix that does not have enough stability
to support the traffic.
Sand Equivalent Test The sand-equivalent test indicates the relative proportion of
detrimental fine dust or clay-like materials in the mineral aggregates
used for asphalt paving mixtures and mineral aggregates or soil used
for base courses.
Scarify To mechanically loosen the surface, normally to remove the surface or
to recompact, as in sub base scarification.
Screed Unit (Paver) The screed unit is attached to the tractor unit on a paving machine by
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long screed pull arms on each side of the machine. The screed pull
arms provide the screed with a floating action as it travels along the
road, automatically compensating for surface irregularities within the
“wheel base” of the paver. As the tractor unit pulls the screed into the
material, the screed seeks the level where the path of its flat bottom
surface is parallel to the direction of the pull, planing up or down to
the required paving thickness as the screed angle of attack is adjusted.
Seal Coat See Single Surface Treatment.
Segregation The separation of the coarse and fine aggregate particles in an asphalt
mix. The segregation of the mix can occur at several locations during
the mix production, hauling, and placing operation. Some mixes are
more prone to segregate than others. Asphalt mixes that have large
top-size coarse aggregates (25mm or greater), low bitumen binder
contents, and are gap graded will segregate more readily when
handled than a dense-graded mix of optimum bitumen binder content
and a smaller top-size coarse aggregate. Segregation reduces
pavement durability by increasing the air void content of the mix,
increasing the potential for moisture damage, as well as significantly
reducing the asphalt's structural integrity. Segregated locations in
surface course are susceptible to ravelling and to disintegration under
traffic.
Selected Material A suitable native material obtained from a source such as a particular
roadway cut or borrow area, having characteristics suitable for use
within a pavement structure.
Serviceability The ability, at time of observation of a pavement, to serve traffic that
uses the facility
Settlement Test Detects the tendency of bitumen globules to settle during storage of
emulsified bitumen binder. The procedures and equipment are
prescribed in AASHTO Method of Test T59 and ASTM Method of Test
D244.
Shoving Displacement of an asphalt layer in any direction. An unstable or
tender mix can cause shoving. It can take place during the compaction
operation or later, under traffic.
SHRP The acronym for the Strategic Highway Research Program. It was a
federally funded research program, begun in 1987 as a five-year
operation with goals of improving methods of design, construction,
and maintenance of asphalt concrete and Portland cement concrete
pavements. SHRP research funds were partly used for the
development of performance based specifications to relate laboratory
analysis with field performance. The program was completed in 1995,
with only the portion on long-term pavement performance (LTPP) still
ongoing. Superpave and Performance Grade binder were products of
SHRP.
Sieve In laboratory work, an apparatus with apertures used for separating
sizes of material. Sieve sizes are given in millimetres.
Sieve Analysis A weighed quantity of aggregate is shaken, usually mechanically,
through a set of sieves with various sizes of square openings. The sieve
with the largest opening is on top and those with successively smaller
openings are nested beneath. A pan below the bottom sieve collects
the material as it passes through. The material retained on each sieve
is weighed and expressed as a percentage of the weight of the original
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or total sample.
Sieve Test The sieve test complements the settlement test and has a similar
purpose. It determines the percentage of bitumen binder present in
the form of relatively large globules. The procedure and equipment for
the sieve test are found in AASHTO Method of Test T59 and ASTM
Method of Test D244.
Single Axle Load The total load transmitted by all wheels of a single axle extending the
full width of the vehicle
Single Surface Treatments A single application of bituminous binder to any kind of road surface
followed immediately by a single layer of aggregate of uniform size.
The thickness of the treatment is about the same as the nominal
maximum-size aggregate particles. A single surface treatment is a
wearing and water-proofing course. The purpose is to extend the
service life of the pavement at low cost. A chip seal surface treatment,
sometimes referred to as surface dressing, is the spraying of
emulsified bitumen material (CRS-2 or RS-2) followed immediately by a
thin stone cover. This is rolled as quickly as possible to ensure the
aggregate bonds to the bitumen film. The chippings (or stones) can
range from 20mm aggregates to 6mm and are predominately one size.
It produces an all-weather surface, renews weathered pavements,
improves skid resistance and lane demarcation, and seals the
pavement.
Skid Resistance The ability of paved surface, particularly when wet, to offer resistance
to slipping or skidding. The factors for obtaining high skid resistance
are generally the function of aggregate surface type (microtexture),
gradation and placement (macrotexture) and some road geometry
factors (megatexture). The aggregate must not only have a rough
surface microtexture, but also resist polishing which is determined by
the Polished Stone Value (PSV). Aggregates containing nonpolishing
(high PSV) minerals with different wear or abrasion characteristics
provide continuous renewal of the pavement’s texture, maintaining a
skid-resistant surface for an extended period of time, usually for the
life of the surfacing.
Slow-Setting Emulsions The slow-setting grades are designed for maximum mixing stability.
They are used with high fines content, dense-graded aggregates. The
SS grades have long workability times to ensure good mixing with
dense-graded aggregates. All slow setting grades have low viscosities
that can be further reduced by adding water. These grades, when
diluted, can also be used for tack coats, fog seals, and dust palliatives.
The SS type of emulsion depends entirely on evaporation of the water
for coalescence of the bitumen particles. The SS emulsions are
generally used for dense-graded aggregate-emulsion bases, soil
asphalt stabilization, asphalt surface mixes, and slurry seals
Slurry Seal A slurry seal is a maintenance operation intended to fill minor
depressions and provide an easily swept surface. It is made with fine
crushed aggregate mixed with quick-set emulsified bitumen (RS
grades). The liquid slurry is machine-applied with a sled-type box,
mounted on the back of a vehicle, containing a rubber-edged strike-off
blade. The purpose is to extend the service life of the pavement at low
cost.
Softening Point The temperature at which bitumen’s reach an arbitrary degree of
softening. The softening point is determined by the ring and ball test
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method.
Solubility A measure of the purity of bitumen binder. It is that portion of the

bitumen that is soluble in a specified solvent such as trichloroethylene.
Inert matter, such as salts, free carbon, or nonorganic contaminants, is
insoluble.
Specific Gravity (Relative Specific gravity (relative density) is the ratio of weight of any volume
Density) of material to the weight of an equal volume of water, both at a
specified temperature. Thus, a specific gravity of 1.05 means that the
material is 1.05 times as heavy as water at the indicated temperature.
The specific gravity of bitumen is usually determined for two reasons:
• To permit a calculation of voids of compacted asphalt paving mixes
• To adjust quantities of aggregate components of a paving mix, where
such components vary appreciably in specific gravity
The specific gravity is determined by the hydrometer method as
prescribed in AASHTO Method of Test T227 and ASTM Method of Test
D3142.
Stability The ability of asphalt paving mixture to resist deformation from
imposed loads. Stability is dependent on internal friction and
cohesion, the determined value is empirical and does not relate to
pavement modulus
Static Steel Wheel Roller Static steel wheel rollers normally range in weight from 3 to 10 tonnes.
The gross weight can be adjusted by adding ballast, but this
adjustment cannot be made while the roller is operating, and is not
normally changed during the term of a paving project.
Stoke A unit of kinematic viscosity, equal to the viscosity of a fluid in poises
divided by the density of the fluid in grams per cubic centimetre.
Stone Mastic (Matrix) Asphalt SMA is a product that was developed by contractors in Western
Pavement (SMA) Europe in the late 1960s. It is often used to rehabilitate areas with
premature rutting failure due to heavy load trafficking. SMA optimizes
stone on stone contact in the mix and is a gap graded, hot mix asphalt
with a large proportion of coarse aggregates (amount passing 2.36mm
limited to approximately 20 to 25 per cent) and a rich bitumen binder
/filler mastic. The coarse aggregates form a strong structural matrix.
Bitumen, fine aggregate, filler, and stabilization additive form a mastic
that binds the structural matrix together. The coarse aggregates are
highly fractured and roughly cubical stone. Relatively high bitumen
binder contents (about 6.5 per cent of the total mix) provide for a
durable pavement. A stabilizing additive, usually 0.3 per cent cellulose
made from ground paper is added to SMA to prevent the hot bitumen
from draining through the mix before installation. SMA can be used in
base and binder course layers as well as surface courses, and often
uses a polymer modified binder as well as just straight grade binder in
high stress situations.
Sub base (SB) The layer or layers of specified or selected material of designed
thickness placed on a subgrade to support a base course (or in the
case of rigid pavements, the Portland cement concrete slab). If the
subgrade soil is of adequate quality, it may serve as the sub base.
Subgrade The prepared surface of the existing ground upon which the pavement
structure is constructed
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Subgrade, Improved An improved Subgrade is a working platform achieved (1) by the

incorporation of granular materials or stabilizers such as bitumen
binder, lime, or Portland cement, prepared to support a structure or a
pavement system, or (2) any course or courses of select or improved
material placed on the subgrade soil below the pavement structure.
Subgrade improvement does not affect the design thickness of the
pavement structure.
Superpave The term Superpave stands for Superior Performing Asphalt
Pavements and is a product of the SHRP asphalt research. The
Superpave system incorporates performance-based bitumen binder
materials characterization with design environmental conditions,
specifically with binder characterisation (See Performance Grade
Binder) to improve performance by controlling rutting, low
temperature cracking and fatigue cracking. The Superpave mix design
process uses a gyration compactor to compact mixes. A gyratory
compactor uses a rotating flat steel plate that is forced down upon the
mix contained in a steel cylinder. The number of gyrations required for
a mix design is determined from the expected equivalent single axle
loads (ESALs) and the design seven-day maximum air temperature.
The Superpave mix design differs most significantly from the currently
used Marshall Mix Design Process in that it requires the designer to try
various gradations in order to determine the one(s) that will meet the
voids criteria at all three gyration levels.
Surface Course (SC) The topmost layer of a pavement structure designed to accommodate
the traffic load, which resists skidding, traffic abrasion, and the
disintegrating effects of climate. The top layer of flexible pavements is
sometimes called “wearing course.”
Tack Coat A tack coat is a thin application of bitumen binder material applied to
a previously paved surface to ensure that an overlay will adhere to the
existing surface. It is recommended to place a thin coat on any cold
edges of new paving such as joints, kerb lines and around ironwork
such as manholes, etc. For application, a slightly damp (not wet)
surface is preferable to a dry, dusty one.
Tandem Axle Load The total load transmitted to the road by two consecutive axles
extending across the full width of the vehicle.
Tar A material resulting from the process of combusting coal, sugar, wood,
or other organic material. Produced in large quantities in Europe in the
early part of the 1900s in the production of town gas, and the tar
residue was used as a binder in roads. Now considered to be
carcinogenic, the arisings from tar bound roads are treated as active
waste materials.
Transverse Joint Transverse joints are placed wherever paving is ended and begun
again at a later time.
Vibratory (Vibrating) Roller Vibrating rollers are made with one or two smooth-surfaced steel
wheels. They vary in static weight. Vibratory rollers are used for
compacting any type asphalt mixture but should not be used in the
vibratory mode when the mat thickness is 30mm or less, or with
specialist rich binder mixes. Always seek advice from an experienced
asphalt technologist.
Vibratory Screed The vibratory screed is highly effective in pre compacting the asphalt
mat placed by the paver. Its operation is similar to the tamping screed
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but the compaction effort generated by the screed is derived from

electric vibrators, rotating shafts with eccentric weights, or hydraulic
motors.
Viscosity A measure of the resistance to flow. It is a method of measuring the
consistency of liquid bitumen binders
Voids/Voids in the Mineral Nearly all the volume of asphalt pavement is filled by aggregate
Aggregate (VMA) particles. Bitumen binder or air fills the remaining spaces (voids). VMA
is the void space not occupied by aggregate.
Wet Mixing Time The interval between the beginning of application of bitumen binder
and the opening of the mixer gate
Workability The ease with which paving mixtures may be placed and compacted. A
subjective assessment, not measured by any specific means.
Yield Refers to the quantity of asphalt concrete pavement that is laid in the
paving operation. An estimating factor is calculated, based on the
expected unit weight of the compacted mixture, the width of the
screed and the required thickness of the mix. This estimating factor is
in terms of area and weight of paving material. Using this and net
weights of mix from vehicle delivery tickets, asphalt inspectors can see
that the paving operation is proceeding properly toward the planned
quantity of asphalt concrete mix and avoid overruns
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APPENDIX C - EXAMPLES OF C HECKLISTS
A. EXAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR ASPHALT PLANT
Materials Engineer/Inspector Checklist Checked Comments
Full PPE including protective eye glasses

Health and Safety Induction for the plant site
Calibrated asphalt thermometer
Clipboard
Calculator
Asphalt Plant Checklist Yes No Comments
Aggregate Stockpiles
Are aggregate stockpiles separated by walls or clear space with signed labelling?
Are the stockpiles free of significant contamination and segregation? (Plant

drain-out aggregate is acceptable if the aggregate size is similar and uncoated.)
Is the aggregate in good condition with no signs of degradation on the stockpile
due to vehicle/plant movements?
Is the truck tipping area at the stockpile level? (Non-level surfaces can cause
trucks to tip over.)
Do the aggregate delivery and test records conform to the approved mix
designs?
Have the aggregates been sampled and tested in accordance with
requirements?
Aggregate Cold Feed
Has each aggregate size its own designated and labelled bin/hopper?
Are bins/hoppers in good condition with no holes, with bin wall divider plates
between each?
Is aggregate overflow between hoppers being prevented by divider plates?
If meshes (grizzlies) are fitted over the bins/hoppers, are they in reasonable
condition and fit for purpose?
Are feeder gates, feeder belts and vibrators in good condition?
Are there no-flow paddles/sensors on each feeder and are they working?
Date of the last feeder calibrations: dd / mm / yy
Is the collecting conveyor in good condition, with no holes or splits, or evidence

of tracking (side movement) and belt scrapers in good order?
Dryer Drum
Is there any significant aggregate spillage under the dryer conveyor, the dryer
drum or around the base of the hot elevator?
Are the dryer lifters and flights are in good condition without undue bending or
deformation and none missing. (when dryer is cold and stopped)
Is the drum exit chute temperature pyrometer, thermocouple or probe clean,
working and in calibration?
Pyrometer, thermocouple or probe calibration date: dd / mm / yy
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Has the drum exit chute temperature equipment been checked recently with a
referenced laboratory probe?
Date: dd / mm / yy
Drum chute: °C
Laboratory probe: °C
Dust Collection
Does the pre-skimmer or knockout box return the collected fine sand to the
plant hot elevator?
Is the baghouse extracted dust:
A. returned to a silo for re-use?
B. fed back into the asphalt plant?
C. wasted?
Does the laboratory monitor the gradation of the coarse pre-skimmer or

knockout box fines and baghouse filler?
Is there a dust emission monitoring system on the plant?
Date of last plant stack certified emission test? dd / mm / yy
Is the plant stack emission is visually clean with no obvious dust or smoke??
Aggregate Screening
Is there any spillage around the screen deck area?
Did the last screen inspection indicate any defects?
Last Screen inspection Date: dd / mm / yy
Are there any signs of damage or wear, especially adjacent to screen bearings or
shafts?
Is there any significant dust emission from the screen housing lids, covers or
doors?
Is there any evidence of holes, splits or tears in the screen meshes and is there
any apparent and significant pegging or blockages?
Are there any loose screen meshes that need tightening or support bars that
are loose and need welding?
Is there evidence of side seal seepage which could contaminate screened
aggregate or wear other parts?
Hot bin inspection:
Is there any indication of hot bin oversize or undersize in hot bin drain-outs?
Bin 1 Aggregate size 0 / X mm
Bin 2 Aggregate size X / X mm
Are the individual hot stone bin overflow chutes/pipes blocked or damaged?
Are there holes or damaged seams or welds in the hot bin walls, especially in
the corners and in the lower half of the bins?
Do the hot stone bin doors stick or seize? Is there evidence of holes in or
leakage from the doors?
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Weighing and Measuring Apparatus

Is the calibration of the aggregate, filler and bitumen weighing apparatus
current and in date?
Aggregate weighing apparatus calibration date: dd / mm / yy
Bitumen weighing apparatus calibration date: dd / mm / yy
Filler weighing apparatus calibration date: dd / mm / yy
Mixed asphalt pyrometer calibration date: dd / mm / yy
Has the mixed asphalt pyrometer been checked recently with a referenced
laboratory probe? Date: dd / mm / yy
Pyrometer: °C
Laboratory probe: °C
Weighing Efficacy
Do the printed batch weights equal the weight indicators and are total load
batch weights similar to the truck scale net weight?
Does the bitumen bucket/kettle pass the static load test?
(Hold a fully weighed batch of bitumen for at least 30 seconds and note any
change in weight. Repeat when empty and note any major change in tare)
Does the aggregate and filler weighing apparatus pass the static load test?
Is there any bitumen seepage or leakage from the charge and the discharge
pipes, and the butterfly valve underneath on direct gravity discharge bitumen
bucket/kettle systems?
Is the bitumen bucket/kettle adequately insulated and heated? Seepage or
leakage from the charge and the discharge pipes? Check the butterfly valve
underneath for direct gravity discharge systems.
Bitumen Storage and Pumping
Where fitted, are breather vents clear on the bitumen weigh bucket/kettle and
delivery pipe to the mixer?
Are the bitumen tanks and are all tanks clearly labelled according to
the grade of binder stored?
Are stored binder tank temperatures compliant with specification or supplier
recommendations?
Where PMB is stored, are the stirrers operational and in good condition?
Is there a supplier defined procedure for the storage and use of polymer
modified binders?
Are all tanks, pipes, pumps and flow meters properly insulated and the
surrounds clean and in good order?
Is there any evidence of excessive bitumen or oil seepage/leaks from pump(s),
valves or manifolds?
Are bitumen tank temperatures monitored and recorded daily by the plant
staff?
Are the bitumen binders tested for foaming when heated to 175°C?
Is there a control or procedure for tank/binder grade selection according to

asphalt mix recipe to avoid using the incorrect grade?
Asphalt Mixing
Are the weighing apparatus and mixer external surrounds in clean and good
order with no apparent seepage or leakage of aggregate, filler or bitumen?
Are inspection hatches secure and sealed to prevent dust emission?
Are electric cables, hydraulic and air lines well maintained and in good order?
Are all mixer arms, paddles and tips, liners and door seals present and in good
condition?
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Is the aggregate weighing sequence, coarse size to fine size?
Is there excessive overflow from the aggregate overflow chutes?
Check the required batch weights on the mix card.

Are batch deviations within acceptable guide tolerance?
Batch aggregate component ±1.5% of total batch weight
Bitumen deviation ±0.1% of total batch weight
Mineral filler deviations ±0.1% of total batch weight
Are the in-flight adjustments being made automatically by the plant control
system?
What is the delay time after aggregate discharge? For Bitumen: seconds
For Filler: seconds
Total wet mixing time in seconds? (From the complete discharge of the bitumen
seconds
and filler to the emptying of the finished batch)
On completion of the mixing cycle, does the mixer fully empty?
On visually inspecting single batches of asphalt, is the appearance consistent

from side to side and front to back, and not segregated?
Does each batch conform to the mix temperature specification requirement?
Does the plant indicated mixed asphalt temperature correspond with a

laboratory check?
Where used, is the skip hopper acceptably clean?
Are the empty hot storage silos acceptably clean without cold asphalt sticking to
the sides and corners?
Loading
Are all trucks acceptably clean prior to loading without any evidence of diesel
being used as a release agent?
Are all trucks equipped with load cover sheets or canvasses?
Are the loaded trucks free of significant segregation?
Is the asphalt temperature acceptably consistent and within range tolerance

throughout the load front to back?
Has the correct delivery ticket been issued to the driver with accurate asphalt
description, truck reference or number, site address, driver name, and ticket
number?
Is the plant sampling technician equipped with all necessary PPE including
safety helmet, steel-capped boots, overalls, gloves, hi-visibility jacket, and
protective eye glasses?
Are the plants sampling procedures being following by the technician to ensure
a representative sample?
(Ask for and retain a copy of the sampling procedures.)
Are plant sample details, including truck delivery details, are recorded on each
plant sample?
Request plant compliance rate for each product supplied to the project or
contract for record purposes.
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B. EXAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR PRIME AND TACK COAT

Health and Safety Induction for the construction or paving site
Calibrated air thermometer
Calibrated surface thermometer
30 metre tape or calibrated measuring wheel
Prime/Tack Coat Log
Clipboard
Calculator
Prime and Tack Coat Inspection Checklist Yes No Comments
Preliminary Checks
Has the spray distributor a tachometer (speedometer), pressure gauges,

circulating spray bar, and flow meters in good working condition?
If the distributor has a bitumeter is it clean, working and calibrated in metres per
minute?
Is the spray distributor calibrated and has it a working thermometer?
Are all spray nozzles are the same size, working and set at same angle?
2 2 2
What is the required/confirmed application rate in litres/m or kg/m ? l/m *
2
*delete as appropriate kg/m
What is the maximum length in linear metres that can be sprayed with the prime
m
or tack coat available in the spray distributor?
Has a test strip been completed and the coverage and spray rate confirmed?
Do all nozzles spray a uniform fan of material without misting or fogging?
Has the yield on the first small area been checked and the pump/vehicle speed
adjustments made (first time)?
What is the vehicle speed required to achieve the correct spray rate? m/min*
*delete as appropriate km/hour
Is there an approved traffic control plan in place and traffic control signs are in
place at all access points to prevent access to the finished prime or tack coat?
Pre-Spray Inspection Checklist
Is the surface to be sprayed clean, in good suitable condition and approved for
spraying?
Have the manholes, kerbs and other vertical surfaces etc. been hand-primed or
tacked?
Have surfaces needing protection from spraying been masked or protected?
Has the correct prime or tack coat been supplied and at the correct temperature
in accordance with the method statement and recorded on spray log?
Is there a supply of building paper available for masking if required?
Is there a supply of blotter material available should it be required?
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Prime and Tack Coat Inspection Checklist Yes No Comments
Inspection Checklist for each Spray Run
Is rain or dust storm forecast before tack or prime cures?
(Prime coat): Is Roadbase/Sub-base course is tested and approved for priming?
(Prime coat): Is Roadbase/Sub-base tight-bladed and/or watered if needed?
(Tack coat): Is the asphalt receiving layer tested, cleaned if necessary and
approved before spraying?
Is building paper being used at beginning of spray run if necessary?
Have time, location and weather been noted on the spray log?
Is the spray tanker temperature been recorded and within specification?
Have the beginning and end of spray run tank readings been taken and
recorded?
Is the spray bar cut-off positive and immediate?
Does the calculated spread rate (yield) comply with specification?
Is blotter sand spread on any uncured prime that is threatened by early traffic or
rain?
Is traffic being kept off prime or tack coat?
Quick Spray Rate (Yield) Calculation
Item Data Calculation Information Source
Q: Bitumen Content of prime or tack coat % Product Data Sheet
2
Specified residual bitumen (kg per m ) QCS – Contract Specification
2
Target coverage rate (litres per m ) Specified residual bitumen ÷ Q*100
A: Flow rate of the pump (litres per minute) Flow meter on spray distributor
B: Speed of the vehicle (metres per minute) Tachometer or bitumeter if fitted
C: Width of spray (metres) Measured
2
D: Area sprayed in one minute (m ) B*C=D
2
E: Coverage Rate (litres per m ) A÷D= E
1- 2
Residual bitumen (kg per m ) E*Q ÷100 Check compliance
1-
The specific gravity for volumetric to weight conversion for this purpose is assumed as 1.00. Actual tests for residual bitumen will differ slightly
dependent upon the specific gravity of the bitumen material used.
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C. EXAMPLE CHECKLIST FOR ASPHALT PAVING

Health and Safety Induction for the construction or paving site
Calibrated air thermometer
Calibrated surface thermometer
Calibrated asphalt thermometer
1metre straight edge
30 metre tape or calibrated measuring wheel
Pavement depth gauge and ruler or tape
Clipboard
Paving log
Calculator
Asphalt Paving Inspection Checklist Yes No Comments
Preliminary Checklist (Before Paving)

Is there a current approved method statement, including compaction pattern,
available for reference?
Does the paving equipment correspond to quantity and type used in the
approval trial?
Is the ITP available and are testing staff available as required?
Roadbase: Is the primed aggregate roadbase in an acceptable condition for

paving and is it approved for overlaying?
Base/Intermediate course: Is the receiving course clean, tack coated, free of
dust and suitable for paving?
Has the sprayed tack coat fully broken with no ponding? (colour is black, not
brown)
Is the paver guidance and control datum set up in accordance with the method
statement?
Guide wires: Are the guide wires tensioned and supported by the correct
hangers at the correct spacings according to the method statement?
Is the paver fitted with the appropriate guide system sensors according to the
method statement?
Vehicle Inspection Checklist
Are delivery trucks are equipped with load cover sheets or canvasses?
Is the delivery truck driver using appropriate release agents? Not diesel.
Are any delivery trucks leaking oils or fuels on to the receiving layer?
Is each delivery truck driver operating safely according to the site rules and
wearing the required PPE?
Paver and MTV Inspection Checklist
Pavers generally: are there any signs of leaking oils or fuels that might affect
asphalt quality?
Tracked Pavers: Are there any loose or worn tracks?
Tyred Pavers: Do the tyres look correctly inflated with no signs of damage?
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Are hoppers, conveyors and slat feeders clean and the push rollers not seized or
worn?
MTV: Is the hopper empty and acceptably clean with augers and conveyors
working?
Do tampers and screed appear to be in good condition, and are tamper settings
in accordance with paver catalogue recommendations?
Are screed vibrators adjusted and working equally across the screed, including
screed extensions?
Do screed extensions extend and retract smoothly?
Is screed alignment is satisfactory with no evidence of worn screed plates?

Check visually with straightedge or string-line.
Is screed heating at the correct temperature stated in the method statement
and uniform heating across the width of the screed with no excessive hot spots?
Check with surface thermometer or thermal imager.
Are both ends of screed closed with end plates in place set down onto the
surface?
Are augers working, set at the correct height and all flights fitted?
Are auger automatic feed controls fitted and working?
Are extension augers fitted to feed to the full paving width at the correct
material head height, with tunnel plates fixed and supported?
Are counter-flow centre augers used to push material under the centre box are
oriented correctly?
Are the thickness, crown and slope controls working as required?
Is the screed blocked up to achieve the uncompacted depth before paving

begins?
Roller Inspection Checklist
Rollers generally: are all rollers free of any signs of leaking oils or fuels that
might affect asphalt quality?
Are the number, type and weight of rollers are adequate for the works and in
accordance with the method statement?
Are steel drum rollers filled with water and ready to operate before paving
commences?
Are rollers able to start and stop smoothly?
Steel drum rollers: The drums are not warped or pitted, have scrapers fitted and
the wetting system is operational?
Have the pneumatic roller tyres smooth surfaces and are they pre-warmed
before compaction on the hot mat commences?
Are PTR tyre pressures in accordance with recommendations and method
statements, and do not differ by more than 0.3 bar (5psi)?
Paving Checklist
Are the transverse and longitudinal joints offset in accordance with specification
requirements?
Is the delivered material mix temperature within specification for paving?
Is there a constant and managed feed from the MTV where used, or from the
delivery truck, to avoid stop/starts?
Is the start transverse joint level and fully compacted? Check across the joint
with a straightedge for regularity.
Is the initial uncompacted paving depth satisfactory to achieve the correct
compacted depth?
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Is the material free of visible segregation or contamination in the paver hopper

and in laid mat?
Does the material appearance look normal and consistent, and not wet or dry?
Is the hopper never completely emptied and any cold material is disposed of
where it accumulates in the hopper when necessary?
Do feed augers rotate slowly, always at least two-thirds full and never heaped
above the auger flights?
Is the mat behind the paver above the minimum break down rolling
temperature?
Is the placement location and time marked on all weight tickets and recorded in
paving record?
Are the automatic level controls operating and maintaining the correct level and
layer thickness?
Is there a normal and even head of material across the full width of the screed?
The upper part of the auger flights should be visible.
Are screed tampers and vibrators working normally during the paving
operation?
Is the mat behind the paver of even texture and acceptably smooth without
throwing back (broadcasting) or long distance raking of hand-placed material?
Are the screed operators checking the uncompacted depth of material laid as
paving progresses?
Echelon Paving Additional Checklist
Is there a sufficient asphalt material supply programmed to maintain echelon
paving?
Are both pavers setup and ready to commence paving as indicated in the
previous single paver checks?
Are the edges between the first and the second paver not exposed for more
than 15 minutes or 50 metres in distance without being rolled?
Is the edge to be matched between the two pavers being left unrolled by 50 to
100mm?
Is the second paver screed overlapping the first laid mat by approximately
40mm to form the joint?
Compaction and Finishing Checklist
Is the breakdown, intermediate and finish rolling pattern following the
compaction sequence in the approved method statement?
Has breakdown rolling started before mat cools to 120°C for 60/70 mixes or the
recommended minimum for PG76-10?
Is the longitudinal edge being pinch rolled by a 150mm overlap as
recommended?
Is the longitudinal edge fully compacted, is level across the joint and within
tolerance?
Are breakdown rollers being operated smoothly without sharp braking and with
the driving drum closest to the paver?
Has the compacted mat the required smooth surface finish without roller marks
or other significant imperfections?
Has a check been made on the compacted layer for level and does it conform to
specification?
Has the paving testing proceeded as indicated in the ITP and required by
specification?
Have the sampling technicians been directed to avoid taking bulk material
samples from the laid mat? (this is poor practice that can affect surface quality
and IRI/regularity conformance and should be avoided at all times)
Finished asphalt is protected and traffic stays off compacted asphalt at all times
until at least 24 hours after laying
Page 93

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PROGRAMME MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY (PMC) SERVICES

FOR LOCAL ROADS AND DRAINAGE PROJECTS

PUBLIC WORKS AUTHORITY

Guide to Asphalt and Paving

Guide to Asphalt and Paving

1 04/02/2016 Bill Short Charles Nunoo Khattab Shammout

Date Pages Details

0 N/A Initial Issue

Parsons Brinckerhoff International Inc.

4.6.1 Transverse Joints 40

1.1 ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVING: A BRIEF DESCRIPTION

1.3 PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS

1.4 TRAFFIC CONTROL

1.5 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION

1.6 ASPHALT CONCRETE INSPECTION

1.7 GENERAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INSPECTOR

1.8 RECORD KEEPING

Project records must be sufficiently clear and complete to be understood by people

Note the date and the time.

It is particularly important to have a record of any problems on the job (such as

1.9 AUTHORITY OF THE INSPECTOR

1.10 RELATIONSHIP WITH THE CONTRACTOR

2 ASPHALT MIX PRODUCTION

2.1 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INSPECTOR

2.2 BATCH PLANTS

2.3 DRYER DRUM-MIX PLANTS

2.4 PLANT OPERATION

2.4.2 Cold Bins

2.4.3 Cold Feed

2.4.4 Bitumen Binder Storage

Bitumen binder oxidizes quickly at high temperatures, so exposure to air needs to be

2.4.5 Batch Plant Dryer

A defective exit chute thermometer is sufficient reason to stop production until it is

2.4.6 Drum-Mixer Dryer

2.4.7 Dust Collector

The pressure drop/vacuum in a baghouse is typically 2 to 6 inches of water. If the bags

2.4.8 Screening Unit

2.4.9 Hot Bins

2.4.10 Aggregate Weigh Hopper or Box

2.4.11 Bitumen Binder Weigh Kettle or Bucket

2.4.12 Pugmill Mixer

2.4.13 Finished Asphalt Temperature

2.4.14 Hot Mix Storage and Loading

3 PREPARING FOR ASPHALT PAVING

3.1 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INSPECTOR

Preliminary Inspection Checklist

Inspection Checklist for Each Spray Run

Routine Inspection Checklist

3.2 PRIME AND TACK COAT LOGS

3.3 PREPARING AN AGGREGATE SURFACE (PRIME COAT)

3.4 ALIGNMENT, GRADE, AND COMPACTION

3.5 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR PRIME COAT

3.6 PRIME COAT

3.7 BLOTTER MATERIAL

3.8 LEVELLING FOR EXISTING ROAD PAVEMENTS

3.9 SURFACE PREPARATION FOR TACK CO

3.10 TACK COAT

In constrained areas it may be necessary to use a hand sprayer if it is impossible to

3.11 SPRAY TANKER DISTRIBUTOR VEHICLE

i. The height of the spray bar above the surface

ii. The speed (pressure and capacity) of the pump

iii. The speed of the vehicle

iv. The size and angle of nozzles on the spray bar