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#HAPTER

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4HECAUSEOFMOSTRECENTINSURGENCIESCANEASILYBEATTRIBUTEDTOREVOLUTIONARY
SITUATIONSTHATMIGHTHAVEEXPLODEDINTOSPONTANEOUSREVOLUTIONSBUTBRED
INSTEADAGROUPOFLEADERSWHOTHENPROCEEDEDTOORGANIZEANDCONDUCTTHE
INSURGENCIES)NVIEWOFTHISFACT ITWOULDBEWRONGANDUNJUSTTOCONCLUDE
THATINSURGENCIESAREMERELYTHEPRODUCTOFPERSONALAMBITIONSONTHEPARTOF
THEIRLEADERSWHODEVELOPEDTHEWHOLEMOVEMENT ARTIlCIALLY SOTOSPEAK
&ORTHESAKEOFDEMONSTRATION LETUSSUPPOSETHATIN#OUNTRY8ASMALL
GROUPOFDISCONTENTEDMENˆPOSSESSINGTHEATTRIBUTESOFLEADERSHIP INSPIRED
BYTHESUCCESSOFSOMANYINSURGENCIESINTHEPASTTWENTYYEARS WELLAWARE
OFTHESTRATEGICANDTACTICALPROBLEMSINVOLVEDINSUCHANENTERPRISEˆHAVE
METANDDECIDEDTOOVERTHROWTHEEXISTINGORDERBYTHEPATHOFINSURGENCY
)NLIGHTOFTHECOUNTERINSURGENTSMATERIALSUPERIORITYATTHEOUTSET THEIR
CHANCESOFVICTORYWILLOBVIOUSLYDEPENDONWHETHERCERTAINPRELIMINARY
CONDITIONS ARE MET 7HAT CONDITIONS !RE THESE CONDITIONS A MUST )N
OTHERWORDS WHATARETHEPREREQUISITESFORASUCCESSFULINSURGENCY
+NOWINGWHATTHEYAREWOULDHELPINASSESSING FROMACOUNTERINSURGENTS
POINTOFVIEW HOWVULNERABLEACOUNTRYWOULDBETOANINSURGENCY

!#!53%

.ECESSITYOFA#AUSE
(OWCANTHEINSURGENTEVERHOPETOPRYTHEPOPULATIONAWAYFROMTHE
COUNTERINSURGENT TOCONTROLIT ANDTOMOBILIZEIT"YlNDINGSUPPORTERS
 #/5.4%2).352'%.#97!2&!2%

AMONGTHEPOPULATION PEOPLEWHOSESUPPORTWILLRANGEFROMACTIVEPAR
TICIPATIONINTHESTRUGGLETOPASSIVEAPPROVAL4HElRSTBASICNEEDFORAN
INSURGENTWHOAIMSATMORETHANSIMPLYMAKINGTROUBLEISANATTRACTIVE
CAUSE PARTICULARLYINVIEWOFTHERISKSINVOLVEDANDINVIEWOFTHEFACTTHAT
THEEARLYSUPPORTERSANDTHEACTIVESUPPORTERSˆNOTNECESSARILYTHESAME
PERSONSˆHAVETOBERECRUITEDBYPERSUASION
7ITHACAUSE THEINSURGENTHASAFORMIDABLE IFINTANGIBLE ASSETTHATHE
CANPROGRESSIVELYTRANSFORMINTOCONCRETESTRENGTH!SMALLGROUPOFMEN
SANSCAUSECANSEIZEPOWERBYALUCKYPLOTˆTHISHASHAPPENEDINHISTORYˆ
BUTTHENAPLOTISNOTANINSURGENCY4HELACKOFANATTRACTIVECAUSEISWHAT
RESTRAINS A PRIORI APOLITICAL CRIME SYNDICATES FROM ATTEMPTING TO ASSUME
POWER FORTHEYREALIZETHATONLYCRIMINALSWILLFOLLOWTHEM
4HEn#OMMUNISTINSURGENCYIN'REECE ATEXTBOOKCASEOFEVERY
THINGTHATCANGOWRONGINANINSURGENCY ISANEXAMPLEOFFAILUREDUE AMONG
OTHERLESSESSENTIALREASONS TOTHELACKOFACAUSE4HE#OMMUNIST0ARTY THE
%!- ANDITSARMY THE%,!3 GREWDURING7ORLD7AR)) WHENTHEENTIRE
POPULATIONWASRESISTINGTHE'ERMANS/NCETHECOUNTRYWASLIBERATED THE
%!-COULDlNDNOVALIDCAUSE'REECEHADLITTLEINDUSTRYANDCONSEQUENTLY
NOPROLETARIATEXCEPTTHEDOCKERSOF0IRAEUSANDTOBACCO FACTORYWORKERS
THEMERCHANTSAILORS WHOSEJOBSKEPTTHEMMOVINGABOUT COULDPROVIDENO
CONSTANTSUPPORT4HEREWASNOAPPALLINGAGRARIANPROBLEMTOEXPLOIT4HE
WEALTHY'REEKCAPITALISTS WHOSEFORTUNESHADUSUALLYBEENMADEABROAD
WEREANOBJECTOFADMIRATIONRATHERTHANOFHOSTILITYINATRADE MINDEDNATION
.OSHARPLYlXEDCLASSESEXISTEDTHE-INISTEROFTHE.AVYMIGHTWELLBETHE
COUSINOFACAFÏWAITER4OMAKEMATTERSWORSE THE'REEK#OMMUNISTSWERE
PERFORCEALLIEDTO"ULGARIA 'REECESTRADITIONALENEMYTO9UGOSLAVIA WHICH
CLAIMSAPARTOF'REECES-ACEDONIATO!LBANIA FROMWHICH'REECECLAIMS
PART OF %PIRUS 7ITH NATIONAL FEELINGS RUNNING AS HIGH AS THEY DO IN THE
"ALKANS THESE ASSOCIATIONS DID NOT INCREASE THE POPULARITY OF THE 'REEK
#OMMUNISTS
5SINGWHATFORCESTHEYHADATTHEENDOFTHEWAR TAKINGADVANTAGEOFTHE
DIFlCULT TERRAIN WITHDRAWING INTO SAFE ASYLUM ACROSS THE SATELLITES BOR
DERS WHEN NECESSARY THE #OMMUNIST INSURGENTS WERE ABLE TO WAGE
COMMANDO TYPE OPERATIONS BUT NOT TRUE GUERRILLA WARFARE IN FACT THEIR
INlLTRATINGUNITSHADTOHIDEFROMTHEPOPULATIONWHENTHEYCOULDNOTCOW
IT ANDTHEIROPERATIONSLASTEDGENERALLYASLONGASTHESUPPLIESTHEYCARRIED
WITHTHEM4HE%,!3WASOBLIGEDTOENLISTPARTISANSBYFORCE7HENEVER
THEUNWILLINGRECRUITSFOUNDTHEPOLITICALCOMMISSARBEHINDTHEIRBACKLESS
DANGEROUSTHANTHENATIONALISTFORCESINFRONT THEYDESERTED
4HEMAINREASONTHEINSURGENCYLASTEDSOLONGWASTHAT ATTHESTART
THEREGULARGOVERNMENTFORCESCONSISTEDOFONLYASINGLEBRIGADE WHICH
HADFOUGHTWITHTHE!LLIESINTHE-EDITERRANEAN4HEATERANDWASGREATLY
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OUTNUMBEREDBYTHEINSURGENTS!SSOONASTHEARMYWASREORGANIZED
ANDSTRENGTHENED lRSTWITH"RITISH THENWITH53AID THENATIONALIST
COMMANDUNDERTOOKTOCLEANTHECOUNTRYAREABYAREA BYPURELYMILITARY
ACTION ! CLEANED AREA WAS KEPT CLEAN BY ARMING LOCAL MILITIAS THIS
PRESENTED LITTLE DIFlCULTY SINCE THE POPULATION WAS DElNITELY ANTI
#OMMUNISTANDCOULDBERELIEDUPON

3TRATEGIC#RITERIAOFA#AUSE
4HEBESTCAUSEFORTHEINSURGENTSPURPOSEISONETHAT BYDElNITION CAN
ATTRACTTHELARGESTNUMBEROFSUPPORTERSANDREPELTHEMINIMUMOFOPPO
NENTS4HUS ACAUSEAPPEALINGTOTHEPROLETARIATINANINDUSTRIALIZEDCOUN
TRYORTOTHEPEASANTSINANUNDERDEVELOPEDONE ISAGOODCAUSE!PURELY
.EGRO MOVEMENT TRYING TO EXPLOIT THE .EGRO PROBLEM AS A BASIS FOR AN
INSURGENCYINTHE5NITED3TATESWITHAPOPULATIONOFMILLION.EGROES
ANDMILLIONWHITES WOULDBEDOOMEDFROMTHESTART)N3OUTH!FRICA
WITH  MILLION .EGROES AND  MILLION WHITES ITS CHANCES WOULD BE
GOODˆOTHERFACTORSASIDE)NDEPENDENCEFROMCOLONIALRULEWASAUTOMATI
CALLY A GOOD CAUSE IN )NDONESIA )NDOCHINA 4UNISIA -OROCCO !LGERIA
#YPRUS THE"ELGIAN#ONGO ANDNOW!NGOLA
4HEINSURGENTMUST OFCOURSE BEABLETOIDENTIFYHIMSELFTOTALLYWITHTHE
CAUSEOR MOREPRECISELY WITHTHEENTIREMAJORITYOFTHEPOPULATIONTHEO
RETICALLYATTRACTEDBYIT)N-ALAYA INDEPENDENCEFROM'REAT"RITAINWAS
THECAUSECHOSENBYTHEINSURGENTS THE-ALAYAN#OMMUNIST0ARTY(OW
EVER PERCENTOFTHE0ARTYMEMBERSWERE#HINESE NOTTRUE-ALAYSTHE
-ALAYS CONSEQUENTLY REMAINED LARGELY INDIFFERENT TO THE STRUGGLE 4HE
SAMESTORYOCCURREDIN+ENYAIFONECHOOSESTOQUALIFYWHATTOOKPLACE
THEREASAREVOLUTIONARYWARTHEINSURGENCYWASCONDUCTEDINSOCRUDEA
FASHIONASTOMAKEITSINCLUSIONINTHISCATEGORYQUESTIONABLE )NDEPEN
DENCEWASPURSUEDBYMEMBERSOFASINGLETRIBE THE+IKUYUSNOOTHER
TRIBEMOVEDINSUPPORT
4OBEPERFECTLYSOUND THECAUSEMUSTBESUCHTHATTHECOUNTERINSURGENT
CANNOT ESPOUSE IT TOO OR CAN DO SO ONLY AT THE RISK OF LOSING HIS POWER
WHICHIS AFTERALL WHATHEISlGHTINGFOR,ANDREFORMLOOKEDLIKEAPROM
ISINGCAUSETOTHE(UKBALAHAPSAFTERTHEDEFEATOF*APANANDTHEACCESSION
OFTHE0HILIPPINESTOINDEPENDENCEBUTWHENTHEGOVERNMENTOFFEREDLAND
TOTHE(UKSACTUALANDPOTENTIALSUPPORTERS THEINSURGENTSLOSTTHEIRCAUSE
AND THE GAME4HE SAME DISASTER STRUCK THE -ALAYAN #OMMUNIST 0ARTY
ONCE"RITAINPROMISEDINDEPENDENCETOTHECOUNTRYANDSETADATEFORIT
!CAUSE lNALLY MUSTALSOBELASTING IFNOTFORTHEDURATIONOFTHEREVO
LUTIONARYWAR ATLEASTUNTILTHEINSURGENTMOVEMENTISWELLONITSFEET4HIS
DIFFERENTIATES A STRATEGIC CAUSE FROM A TACTICAL ONE A DEEP SEATED CAUSE
 #/5.4%2).352'%.#97!2&!2%

FROM A TEMPORARY ONE RESULTING FROM THE EXPLOITATION OF AN EPHEMERAL
DIFlCULTY SUCHAS FORINSTANCE THEHIGHPRICEANDTHESCARCITYOFFOODAFTER
AYEAROFNATURALCALAMITIES

4HE.ATUREOFTHE#AUSE
7HATISAPOLITICALPROBLEM)TIShANUNSOLVEDCONTRADICTION vACCORDING
TO-AO4SE TUNG)FONEACCEPTSTHISDElNITION THENAPOLITICALCAUSEISTHE
CHAMPIONINGOFONESIDEOFTHECONTRADICTION)NOTHERWORDS WHERETHERE
IS NO PROBLEM THERE IS NO CAUSE BUT THERE ARE ALWAYS PROBLEMS IN ANY
COUNTRY7HATMAKESONECOUNTRYMOREVULNERABLETHANANOTHERTOINSUR
GENCYISTHEDEPTHANDTHEACUITYOFITSEXISTINGPROBLEMS
0ROBLEMSOFALLNATURESAREEXPLOITABLEFORANINSURGENCY PROVIDEDTHE
CAUSESTHEYLEADTOMEETTHEABOVECRITERIA4HEPROBLEMMAYBEESSENTIALLY
POLITICAL RELATED TO THE NATIONAL OR INTERNATIONAL SITUATION OF THE COUNTRY
4HEDICTATORSHIPOF"ATISTAFORTHE#UBANINSURGENTS THE*APANESEAGGRES
SIONFORTHE#HINESEAREEXAMPLESOFPOLITICALPROBLEMS)TFOLLOWSTHATANY
COUNTRYWHERETHEPOWERISINVESTEDINANOLIGARCHY WHETHERINDIGENOUSOR
FOREIGN ISPOTENTIALGROUNDFORAREVOLUTIONARYWAR
4HEPROBLEMMAYBESOCIAL ASWHENONECLASSISEXPLOITEDBYANOTHEROR
DENIED ANY POSSIBILITY OF IMPROVING ITS LOT 4HIS HAS BEEN EXHAUSTIVELY
DISCUSSED SINCE +ARL -ARX AND LITTLE NEED BE ADDED HERE4HE PROBLEM
BECOMESPARTICULARLYDANGEROUSWHENTHESOCIETYDOESNOTINTEGRATETHOSE
WHO BYTHELEVELOFTHEIREDUCATIONORBYTHEIRACHIEVEMENTS HAVEPROVED
TOBELONGTOTHETRUEELITE&ORITISAMONGTHISREJECTEDELITETHATTHEINSUR
GENTSCANlNDTHEINDISPENSABLELEADERS
4HE PROBLEM MAY BE ECONOMIC SUCH AS THE LOW PRICE OF AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTSINRELATIONTOINDUSTRIALGOODS ORTHELOWPRICEOFRAWMATERIALIN
RELATIONTOlNISHEDPRODUCTS ORTHEIMPORTOFFOREIGNGOODSRATHERTHANTHE
DEVELOPMENTOFANATIONALINDUSTRY4HEISSUEOFNEOCOLONIALISMTODAYIS
CLOSELYRELATEDTOTHISPROBLEM
4HEPROBLEMMAYBERACIAL ASITWOULDBEIN3OUTH!FRICA/RRELIGIOUS
ASITWOULDBEIN,EBANON ALTHOUGHHERETHEPOPULATIONISEVENLYDIVIDED
BETWEEN #HRISTIANS AND -OSLEMS /R CULTURAL AS IN )NDIA WHERE THE
MULTIPLICITYOFLANGUAGESHASALREADYPRODUCEDCONSIDERABLEAGITATION
4HE PROBLEM MAY EVEN BE ARTIlCIAL SO LONG AS IT HAS A CHANCE TO BE
ACCEPTEDASAFACT4HELOTOFTHE#HINESEFARMERSˆVICTIMSOFEXACTIONSBY
THEAUTHORITIESANDOFTHERAPACITYOFTHELOCALUSURERSˆWASNODOUBTAHARD
ONE 4HE #HINESE #OMMUNISTS DID EXPLOIT THIS PROBLEM (OWEVER THEIR
CHIEFCAUSE BORROWEDFROM3UN9AT SEN WASLANDREFORM)TSREVOLUTIONARY
VALUE LIES IN THE IDEA THAT LAND OWNERSHIP WAS CONCENTRATED IN A SMALL
MINORITYACLASSWARONTHEISSUEWOULDTHEORETICALLYBRINGTOTHEIRSIDETHE
4(%02%2%15)3)4%3&/2!35##%33&5,).352'%.#9 

MAJORITYOFTHEFARMERS4HESOLECOMPREHENSIVEWORKONTHESUBJECTOF
LAND TENURE IN #HINA BY * ,OSSING "UCK CONTRADICTED THE #OMMUNIST
PICTUREOFTHESITUATION BUTTHISFACTDIDNOTDECREASEINTHESLIGHTESTTHE
PSYCHOLOGICALVALUEOFTHESLOGANh,ANDTOTHE4ILLERv!NEFlCIENTPROPA
GANDAMACHINECANTURNANARTIlCIALPROBLEMINTOAREALONE
)T IS NOT ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY THAT THE PROBLEM BE ACUTE ALTHOUGH THE
INSURGENTSWORKISFACILITATEDIFSUCHISTHECASE)FTHEPROBLEMISMERELY
LATENT THE lRST TASK OF THE INSURGENT IS TO MAKE IT ACUTE BY hRAISING THE
POLITICALCONSCIOUSNESSOFTHEMASSESv4ERRORISMMAYBEAQUICKMEANSOF
PRODUCING THIS EFFECT "ATISTAS DICTATORSHIP DID NOT BY ITSELF SUDDENLY
BECOMEUNBEARABLETOTHE#UBANPEOPLETHEYHADLIVEDUNDEROTHERDICTA
TORSHIPSINTHEPAST INCLUDINGAPREVIOUS"ATISTAREGIME!NDTHECOUNTRY
WASPROSPEROUSIN ALTHOUGHTHEREWASGREATDISPARITYINTHEDISTRIBU
TIONOFWEALTH"ATISTAMIGHTPERHAPSHAVELASTEDMANYMOREYEARSHADIT
NOTBEENFOR#ASTROANDHISFOLLOWERS WHOSPECTACULARLYRAISEDTHEISSUE
ANDFOCUSEDTHELATENTOPPOSITIONONTHEIRMOVEMENT

4ACTICAL-ANIPULATIONOFTHE#AUSE
4HEINSURGENTISNOTRESTRICTEDTOTHECHOICEOFASINGLECAUSE5NLESSHE
HAS FOUND AN OVER ALL CAUSE LIKE ANTICOLONIALISM WHICH IS SUFlCIENT IN
ITSELFBECAUSEITCOMBINESALLTHEPOLITICAL SOCIAL ECONOMIC RACIAL RELI
GIOUS ANDCULTURALCAUSESDESCRIBEDABOVE HEHASMUCHTOGAINBYSELECT
INGANASSORTMENTOFCAUSESESPECIALLYTAILOREDFORTHEVARIOUSGROUPSIN
THESOCIETYTHATHEISSEEKINGTOATTRACT
,ETUSSUPPOSETHATTHEREVOLUTIONARYMOVEMENTISTENTATIVELYMADEUP
ASITWASIN#HINA OFTHE#OMMUNIST0ARTYhVANGUARDOFTHEREVOLUTION
PARTYOFTHEWORKERSANDTHEPOORFARMERSv ANDITSALLIESMEDIUMANDRICH
PEASANTS ARTISANS PLUSTHEhNATIONALBOURGEOISIEvANDTHECAPITALISTSWHO
SUFFER FROM hBUREAUCRATIC CAPITALISMv AND FROM THE ECONOMIC ENCROACH
MENTSOFTHEIMPERIALISTS 4HEINSURGENTHASTOAPPEALTOTHEWHOLE ANDA
CAUSEISNECESSARYFORTHAT3INCEITISEASIERTOUNITEhAGAINSTvTHANhFOR v
PARTICULARLY WHEN THE COMPONENTS ARE SO VARIED THE GENERAL CAUSE WILL
MOSTPROBABLYBEANEGATIVEONE SOMETHINGLIKEhTHROWTHERASCALSOUTv
THERASCALSINTHISCASE#HIANG+AI SHEKANDTHE+UOMINTANGREACTIONAR
IESTHEFEUDALWARLORDShBUREAUCRATICCAPITALISMvTHECOMPRADORES hRUN
NINGDOGSOFIMPERIALISMvANDTHELANDLORDS )NADDITION THEINSURGENT
MUSTAPPEALTOEACHCOMPONENTOFTHEMOVEMENT ANDINTHISASPECT THE
VARIOUSCAUSESWILLPROBABLYCONTAINACONSTRUCTIVEELEMENTFORTHEPROLE
TARIAT A-ARXISTSOCIETYFORTHEPOORFARMERS LANDFORTHEMEDIUMFARM
ERS FAIRTAXESFORTHERICHFARMERS JUST REASONABLE ANDLASTINGSETTLEMENT
FORTHENATIONALBOURGEOISIE DEFENSEOFTHENATIONALINTERESTS ORDER FAIR
 #/5.4%2).352'%.#97!2&!2%

TAXES DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE AND INDUSTRY PROTECTION AGAINST IMPERIALIST


COMPETITION
.OTHINGOBLIGESTHEINSURGENTTOSTICKTOTHESAMECAUSEIFANOTHERONE
LOOKSMOREPROlTABLE4HUS IN#HINA THE#OMMUNISTSINITIALLYTOOKTHE
CLASSIC -ARXIST STAND IN FAVOR OF THE WORKERS n  4HEN THEY
ACTIVELYESPOUSEDTHENATIONALCAUSEOFTHE+UOMINTANG FORTHEUNIlCA
TIONOF#HINAAGAINSTTHEWARLORDSn !FTERTHE+UOMINTANGn
#OMMUNISTSPLIT THEYLARGELYDROPPEDTHEWORKERSINFAVOROFTHEPOOR
PEASANTS ADVOCATING LAND REFORM BY RADICAL MEANS n  4HEN
*APANESEAGGRESSIONBECAMETHECENTRALISSUEIN#HINA ANDTHE#OM
MUNISTS ADVOCATED A PATRIOTIC UNITED FRONT AGAINST *APAN n
ADOPTING MEANWHILE A MODERATE AGRARIAN POLICY ,AND REDISTRIBUTION
WOULDBEENDED BUTINSTEAD THE#OMMUNISTSWOULDIMPOSESTRICTCON
TROLOFRENTSANDINTERESTRATES!FTERTHE*APANESESURRENDER THEYlNALLY
REVERTEDTOLANDREFORMWITHTHETEMPERATEPROVISOTHATLANDLORDSTHEM
SELVESWOULDBEENTITLEDTOASHAREOFLANDn 7HATTHE#OM
MUNISTSACTUALLYDIDAFTERTHEIRVICTORY BETWEENAND WASTO
CARRYOUTTHEIRLANDREFORMhTHROUGHVIOLENTSTRUGGLESvINORDERTOCON
DUCT A CLASS WAR AMONG THE RURAL POPULATION AND THEREBY DElNITELY TO
COMMIT THE ACTIVISTS ON THEIR SIDE IF ONLY BECAUSE THESE ACTIVISTS HAD
SHARED IN THE CRIMES /NCE THIS WAS ACHIEVED THE 0ARTY BURIED LAND
REFORMFORGOODANDSTARTEDCOLLECTIVIZINGTHELAND
4HUS IFIDEALISMANDASENSEOFETHICSWEIGHINFAVOROFACONSISTENT
STAND TACTICSPULLTOWARDOPPORTUNISM

$IMINISHING)MPORTANCEOFTHE#AUSE
4HEIMPORTANCEOFACAUSE ANABSOLUTEESSENTIALATTHEOUTSETOFANINSUR
GENCY DECREASESPROGRESSIVELYASTHEINSURGENTACQUIRESSTRENGTH4HEWAR
ITSELF BECOMES THE PRINCIPAL ISSUE FORCING THE POPULATION TO TAKE SIDES
PREFERABLYTHEWINNINGONE4HISHASALREADYBEENEXPLAINEDINTHEPREVI
OUSCHAPTER

7%!+.%33/&4(%#/5.4%2).352'%.4
,ET US ASSUME NOW THAT OUR MINUTE GROUP OF INSURGENT LEADERS IN
#OUNTRY 8 HAS FOUND SEVERAL GOOD CAUSES SOME ACUTE SOME LATENT
SOMEEVENARTIlCIAL ONWHICHTOBASETHEIRINSURGENCY4HEYALLHAVE
AGREEDONAPOTENTPLATFORM#ANTHEYSTARTOPERATING.OTUNLESSANOTHER
PRELIMINARYCONDITIONHASBEENMET4HEINSURGENT STARTINGFROMALMOST
ZEROWHILEHISENEMYSTILLHASEVERYMEANSATHISDISPOSAL ISASVULNER
ABLEASANEW BORNBABY(ECANNOTLIVEANDGROWWITHOUTSOMESORTOF
4(%02%2%15)3)4%3&/2!35##%33&5,).352'%.#9 

PROTECTION ANDWHOBUTTHECOUNTERINSURGENTHIMSELFCANPROTECTHIM
4HEREFORE WE MUST ANALYZE WHAT MAKES A BODY POLITIC RESISTANT TO
INFECTION

3TRENGTHSAND7EAKNESSESOFTHE0OLITICAL2EGIME
 !BSENCEOFPROBLEMS!COUNTRYFORTUNATEENOUGHTOKNOWNOPROBLEMIS
OBVIOUSLYIMMUNEFROMINSURGENCY"UTSINCEWEHAVEASSUMEDTHATOUR
POTENTIAL INSURGENT LEADERS HAVE FOUND A CAUSE LET US ELIMINATE THESE
COUNTRIESˆIFTHEREAREANYˆFROMOURCONSIDERATION
 .ATIONALCONSENSUS4HESOLIDITYOFAREGIMEISPRIMARILYBASEDUPONTHIS
FACTOR4HAILANDMAYLIVEUNDERADICTATORSHIPORADEMOCRATICSYSTEM
BUT HER NATIONAL CONSENSUSˆWHICH IS NOT APATHY FOR THE4HAIS WOULD
REACTVIGOROUSLYTOANYATTEMPTAGAINSTTHEIR+INGANDTHEIRWAYOFLIFEˆ
HASSOFARALWAYSSTRENGTHENEDTHEREGIMEINPOWER/NTHEOTHERHAND
NONATIONALCONSENSUSBACKSUP%AST'ERMANYSGOVERNMENT
 2ESOLUTENESSOFTHECOUNTERINSURGENTLEADERSHIP2ESOLUTENESSISAMAJOR
FACTORINANYSORTOFCONmICT BUTPARTICULARLYSOINAREVOLUTIONARYWARFOR
THE REASONS THAT A THE INSURGENT HAS THE INITIAL BENElT OF A DYNAMIC
CAUSEB ANINSURGENCYDOESNOTGROWSUDDENLYINTOANATIONALDANGER
ANDTHEPEOPLESREACTIONAGAINSTITISSLOW#ONSEQUENTLY THEROLEOFTHE
COUNTERINSURGENTLEADERSISPARAMOUNT
 #OUNTERINSURGENT LEADERS KNOWLEDGE OF COUNTERINSURGENCY WARFARE )T
ISNOTENOUGHFORTHECOUNTERINSURGENTLEADERSTOBERESOLUTETHEYMUST
ALSOBEAWAREOFTHESTRATEGYANDTACTICSREQUIREDINlGHTINGANINSUR
GENCY'ENERALISSIMO#HIANG+AI SHEKSDETERMINATIONCANNOTBEQUES
TIONEDHEPROVEDITAGAINST*APANANDSTILLSHOWSITIN4AIWAN"UTDIDHE
KNOWHOWTOCOPEWITHTHE#OMMUNISTSMETHODS
 4HEMACHINEFORTHECONTROLOFTHEPOPULATION&OURINSTRUMENTSOFCON
TROL COUNT IN A REVOLUTIONARY WAR SITUATION THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE THE
ADMINISTRATIVEBUREAUCRACY THEPOLICE THEARMEDFORCES
A 4
HEPOLITICALSTRUCTURE)F#OUNTRY8ISLOCATEDBEHINDTHE)RON#UR
TAIN WHEREPOLITICALOPPOSITIONISNOTTOLERATEDANDWHERETHEPOPULA
TIONISKEPTUNDERASYSTEMOFTERRORANDMUTUALSUSPICION THEINITIAL
GROUP OF INSURGENTS HAS NO CHANCE TO DEVELOP AT BEST THE GROUP
WILL BE ABLE TO SURVIVE IN TOTAL SECRECYˆAND HENCE BE COMPLETELY
INACTIVEˆWHILEWAITINGFORBETTERTIMES

3INCETHEREAREPEOPLEWHODREAMOFUNLEASHINGINSURGENCIESINCERTAIN
#OMMUNISTCOUNTRIESˆh$ONTTHEPEOPLEHATETHEREGIMETHEREvˆITMAY
BEUSEFULTOGIVEANIDEAOFTHEEXTENTOFPOPULATIONCONTROLACHIEVEDBYTHE
#OMMUNISTTECHNIQUESOFTERRORANDMUTUALSUSPICION OFWHICHTHE2ED
#HINESEAREPASTMASTERS
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)N#ANTON IN ANEIGHBORSAWANOLD#HINESELADYGIVINGSOMERICE


TOHERCAT
h)AMSORRY BUT)WILLBEOBLIGEDTOREPORTYOUATTHENEXTSTREETMEETING v
SAIDTHENEIGHBORTOTHEOWNEROFTHECAT
h7HYvASKEDTHEOLDLADY
h"ECAUSERICEISRATIONEDANDYOUHAVEBEENWASTINGITONYOURCATv
h)FYOUREPORTME THEYWILLCUTOFFMYRICERATION7HYDONTYOUJUST
KEEPSILENTv
h3UPPOSESOMEONEELSESAWYOUANDREPORTSYOU7HATWILLHAPPENTO
ME YOURNEIGHBOR IF)HAVENOTREPORTEDYOUlRST)AMYOURFRIEND)FTHEY
SUPPRESSYOURRATION)WILLGIVEYOUHALFOFMINEv
4HISISEXACTLYWHATHAPPENED INACITYWHERE ACCORDINGTOSOME7ESTERN
VISITORS #HINESE #OMMUNIST CONTROL WAS LESS EFlCIENT THAN ELSEWHERE IN
#HINA
!TTHEENDOF A%UROPEANWASEXPELLEDFROM(AINAN)SLAND WHERE
HEHADLIVEDFORMANYYEARS/NREACHING(ONG+ONG HEREPORTEDTHATTHE
PEASANTShHATEDvTHEREGIME ANDHEGAVEMUCHCONVINCINGEVIDENCEOFIT
(EMENTIONEDLATERTHATTHE.ATIONALISTSHADTWICEATTEMPTEDTODROPAGENTS
INHISAREAFROM4AIWAN)NEACHCASE THEMILITIAONDUTYATNIGHTHEARDTHE
PLANES SAWTHEPARACHUTESCOMINGDOWN GAVETHEALERT ANDTHE.ATIONALIST
AGENTSWERECORNEREDANDCAPTUREDBYSEVERALHUNDREDARMEDVILLAGERS
4HE %UROPEAN WAS CHALLENGED ON THIS h)SNT THERE A CONTRADICTION
BETWEENYOURSTATEMENTCONCERNINGTHEFEELINGSOFTHEPEASANTSTOWARDTHE
REGIMEANDTHEATTITUDEOFTHEMILITIAMEN WHO AFTERALL AREPEASANTSTOO
7HYDIDNTTHEYKEEPSILENTv
h0UT YOURSELF IN THE PLACE OF ONE OF THESE MILITIAMEN v HE EXPLAINED
h(OWDOESHEKNOWWHETHERTHEOTHERMEMBERSOFTHEMILITIAWONTGIVE
THEALERT)FTHEYDOANDHEHASNT HEWILLBEINGREATTROUBLEWHENTHE
#OMMUNISTCADRESMAKETHEIRUSUALPOST MORTEMINVESTIGATIONSv
)N*ULY  DURINGTHE+OREAN7AR THE.ATIONALISTSDECIDEDTOMAKE
ARAIDONTHEMAINLANDOF#HINA4HEYSELECTEDASTHEIROBJECTIVETHESMALL
PENINSULA OF 4UNGSHAN JUTTING OUT OF THE &UKIEN COAST WHICH IS TRANS
FORMEDINTOANISLANDATHIGHTIDE4HE#OMMUNISTGARRISONWASMADEUP
OFAREGULARBATTALIONPLUSATHOUSAND MANMILITIA4HELATTER THE.ATIONAL
ISTSTHOUGHT WOULDPUTUPNOREALlGHT)NDEED EVERYPIECEOFAVAILABLE
INTELLIGENCEINDICATEDTHATTHEPOPULATIONWASTHOROUGHLYFEDUPWITHTHE
#OMMUNISTS4HEPLANWASTODROPAREGIMENTOFPARATROOPERSTONEUTRAL
IZETHE#OMMUNISTBATTALIONANDTOCONTROLTHEISTHMUSINORDERTOPREVENT
REINFORCEMENTFROMTHEMAINLANDANAMPHIBIOUSLANDINGWOULDFOLLOWTO
WIPEOUTTHEOPPOSITION
"ECAUSEOFAMISCALCULATIONINCOMPUTINGTHELOCALTIDE THEAMPHIBIOUS
LANDINGWASDELAYED ANDTHE.ATIONALISTPARATROOPERSBORETHEBRUNTOFTHE
4(%02%2%15)3)4%3&/2!35##%33&5,).352'%.#9 

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DEVELOPTHEIRFORCESANDTOSTAGELARGE SCALEOPERATIONS NOTBECAUSETHEY
SUFFEREDFROMMANPOWERPROBLEMSˆTHEYHADMOREPOTENTIALSOLDIERSTHAN
THEY COULD USEˆBUT BECAUSE THEIR PRIMITIVE ARSENALS COULD NOT lLL THEIR
NEEDS ANDTHEYCOULDNOTCAPTURESIGNIlCANTAMOUNTSOF&RENCHWEAPONS
!LTHOUGHTHE6IETMINHCOULDHAVEFOUGHTAPROTRACTEDGUERRILLAWARFARE AND
THUSCOULDHAVEDENIEDTHE&RENCHANYBENElTFROMAPROLONGEDOCCUPATION
4(%02%2%15)3)4%3&/2!35##%33&5,).352'%.#9 

OFTHECOUNTRY THEYWOULDNOTHAVEBEENABLETORAISEAPOWERFULREGULAR
ARMYWITHOUT#HINESEAID"Y3EPTEMBER   MENINTHE6IET
MINHFORCESHADBEENEQUIPPEDWITHMACHINEGUNS HEAVYMORTARS ANTI
AIRCRAFTWEAPONS4HE6IETMINHCOMMANDWASABLETOORGANIZEA(EAVY
$IVISION THEST)N ACCORDINGTO&RENCHESTIMATES #HINESEAID
AMOUNTEDTO RImES  MACHINEGUNS nHEAVYMORTARS
ANDABOUTRECOILLESSGUNS
)N-ALAYAANDTHE0HILIPPINES THEINSURGENTSRECEIVEDNOOUTSIDEMILI
TARYSUPPORTANDDIDNOTDEVELOP
)N'REECE THE#OMMUNISTINSURGENTSRECEIVEDSUPPORTFROMANDTHROUGH
THESATELLITECOUNTRIES BUTTHESPLITBETWEEN4ITOAND3TALININTERRUPTEDTHE
LOWJUSTWHENTHEINSURGENTS HAVINGORGANIZEDTHEIRFORCESINTOLARGEˆ
ANDVULNERABLEˆUNITS NEEDEDITMOST
)N!LGERIA THE &RENCH NAVAL BLOCKADE AND THE SEALING OF THE BORDERS
PREVENTED THE mOW OF SUPPLIES TO !LGERIA FROM 4UNISIA AND -OROCCO
WHERE LARGE REBEL STOCKS HAD BEEN ACCUMULATED .O DEVELOPMENT WAS
POSSIBLE4HESITUATIONOFTHE&,.FORCESAFTERBECAMESOCRITICAL
THAT MOST OF THEIRAUTOMATICWEAPONSWEREBURIED FOR LACK OF AMMUNI
TION
4HE%AST 7ESTCONmICTTHATTODAYCOVERSTHEENTIREWORLDCANNOTFAILTO
BE AFFECTED BY ANY INSURGENCY OCCURRING ANYWHERE4HUS A #OMMUNIST
INSURGENCY IS ALMOST CERTAIN TO RECEIVE AUTOMATIC SUPPORT FROM THE
#OMMUNISTBLOC#HANCESFOR#OMMUNISTSUPPORTAREGOODEVENFORNON
#OMMUNIST INSURGENTS PROVIDED OF COURSE THAT THEIR OPPONENT IS AN
hIMPERIALISTvORANALLYOFhIMPERIALISMv
#ONVERSELY THE%AST 7ESTCONmICTSOMETIMESACCELERATESTHEOUTBREAK
OFINSURGENCIESˆANDTHISISNOTALWAYSABLESSINGFORTHEINSURGENTS AS
WEHAVESEENINTHECASESOFTHE#OMMUNISTMOVEMENTSIN!SIAAFTERTHE
 #ALCUTTA MEETINGˆAND SOMETIMES SLOWS THEM DOWN OR INHIBITS
THEMENTIRELY WHENINSURGENCIESDONOTlTINWITHTHEOVER ALLPOLICYOF
THE#OMMUNISTBLOC4HISLASTPOINTCANNOTBEDOCUMENTED NATURALLY BUT
THEREARESTRONGPRESUMPTIONSTHATTHESURPRISINGLYQUIETATTITUDEOFTHE
)NDONESIAN#OMMUNIST0ARTYTODAY WHICHSEEMSPOWERFULENOUGHTOGO
INTOVIOLENTACTION MAYBEATTRIBUTEDTOSOMESORTOFVETOFROM-OSCOW
ANDOR0EKING
)FOUTSIDESUPPORTISTOOEASILYOBTAINABLE ITCANDESTROYORHARMSELF
RELIANCEINTHEINSURGENTRANKS&ORTHISREASON PARTLY #OMMUNISTINSUR
GENTSIN!SIAHAVEALWAYSEMPHASIZEDTHENECESSITYOFCOUNTINGONTHEIR
OWNEFFORTS4HERESOLUTIONOFTHE&IRST3ESSIONOFTHE6IETNAMESE#ENTRAL
#OMMITTEEOFTHE,AO$ONG#OMMUNIST 0ARTYINREMINDED0ARTY
MEMBERSTHAThOUR2ESISTANCE7ARISALONGANDHARDSTRUGGLEvANDhWE
HAVEMAINLYTORELYONOUROWNFORCESv
 #/5.4%2).352'%.#97!2&!2%

)NCONCLUSION  ACAUSE  APOLICEANDADMINISTRATIVEWEAKNESSIN


THECOUNTERINSURGENTCAMP  ANOT TOO HOSTILEGEOGRAPHICENVIRONMENT
AND OUTSIDESUPPORTINTHEMIDDLEANDLATERSTAGESOFANINSURGENCYˆ
THESE ARE THE CONDITIONS FOR A SUCCESSFUL INSURGENCY 4HE lRST TWO ARE
MUSTS4HELASTONEISAHELPTHATMAYBECOMEANECESSITY

./4%3
 "UCKS,AND5TILIZATIONIN#HINA,ONDON/XFORD5NIVERSITY0RESS 
WASBASEDONINVESTIGATIONSCONDUCTEDINnIN FARMS LOCALITIES
HSIENCOUNTIES PROVINCES
4ABLE GIVESTHEPERCENTAGESOFFARMERSWHOWEREOWNERS PART OWNERS AND
TENANTS
/WNERS 0ART OWNERS 4ENANTS

)N THE WHEAT REGION OF .ORTH #HINA WHERE THE #OMMUNISTS WERE STRONGLY
ESTABLISHED THEPERCENTAGESWERE
/WNERS 0ART OWNERS 4ENANTS

4ABLE GIVESTHEAVERAGESIZESOFFARMSINHECTARES BYCLASSOFOWNERSHIP


)NTHEWHEATREGION
/WNERS 0ART OWNERS 4ENANTS

!NOTHERTABLEGIVESTHENUMBERSANDPERCENTAGESOFFARMSINEACHSIZECLASS
&ORTHEWHEATREGION
6ERY3MALL 3MALL -EDIUM -EDIUM,ARGE ,ARGE
6ERY,ARGE 6ERY 6ERY,ARGE 6ERY 6ERY 6ERY,ARGE

4HE#HINESE#OMMUNISTlGURESONLANDDISTRIBUTION BASEDONAREPORTBY,IU
3HAO CHIIN*UNE  WERETHESEh,ANDLORDSANDPEASANTS WHOACCOUNTFOR
LESSTHANPERCENTOFTHERURALPOPULATION OWNTOPERCENTOFALLTHELAND
WHILEPOORPEASANTS AGRICULTURALLABORERSANDMIDDLEPEASANTS WHOACCOUNTFOR
ABOUT  PER CENT OF THE RURAL POPULATION OWN ONLY  TO  PER CENT OF THE
LANDv %DITORIAL IN *EN MIN *IH 0AO AS QUOTED IN # + 9ANG ! #HINESE
6ILLAGEIN%ARLY#OMMUNIST4RANSITION;#AMBRIDGE -ASS4HE4ECHNOLOGY0RESS
-ASSACHUSETTS)NSTITUTEOF4ECHNOLOGY =
 "ERNARD&ALL ,E6IET -INH0ARIS,IBRAIRIE!RMAND#OLIN  P

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