Chapter 1:Basic Logical Concepts

Logic
• Logic is the anatomy of thinking
• A Science that evaluates arguments
• Study of reality based on reasoning
• Study of methods and principles used to
distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning
1. Proposition and Arguments
 Process of Reasoning
Propositions/Statements
A statement, typically asserted using a declarative sentence, hence
always either true or false, Its truth or falsity may be unknown.

Arguments
The assertion of a conclusion based on group of logical premises
 Proposition/Statement
• Proposition is a statement and statement is proposition
• Non-declarative sentence can not be a proposition or
statement

Forms of sentence:
Declarative sentences: Conveys information, claims something
e.g. David plays piano
Non-declarative sentences: Neither claim anything nor covey
any information
 Non-declarative sentences
What is the atomic weight of carbon? (question)
Let’s go to the park today. (proposal)
We suggest that you travel by bus. (suggestion)
Turn to the left at the next corner. (command)
All right! (Exclamation)
These sentences can not be statements or
propositions because:
• They do not claim anything
• They can not be true or false unlike propositions
• Propositions can be contextual statement which can be true or false
depending upon time: e.g.
Karachi is the capital of Pakistan( False)
Islamabad is the Capital of Pakistan(True)

• Propositions can take following forms:

Simple proposition: A single statement e.g. The Amazon basin produces 20%
of earth’s oxygen
Compound proposition: Combination of two or more statements e.g. The
Amazon basin produces 20% of earth’s oxygen, creates much of its own
rainfall and harbors many unknown species.
Conjunctive proposition: Combination of two or more statements joined by
the words And or comma e.g. The Amazon basin produces 20% of earth’s
oxygen, creates much of its own rainfall and harbors many unknown species.
Disjunctive proposition: Combination of two or more statements joined by
the words Either, OR e.g. Ali is in examination hall now or he is in canteen.

• Truth or falsity of proposition can be unknown or uncertain e.g.

There is life on some other planets in our galaxy
 Statement verses sentence
• What is Karakoram?
• Lets go to the movie tonight
• I suggest you to read carefully
• Turn off the TV now
• Fantastic
• Lahore is located in Punjab
All except the last one are sentences.
 Argument
The assertion of a conclusion based on group of logical premises
Group of propositions of which one is premise and other is conclusion

Premises
• Statements that set forth
the reason or evidence
• Propositions used as
evidence in the argument
Conclusion
• Statement that the
evidence is claimed to
support or imply.
• Result based on logical
relationship between
premises

All crimes are violations of the law. (Premise 1)

Theft is a crime. (Premise 2)
Therefore, theft is a violation of the law.(Conclusion)
 Argument
• Some quadrilaterals are square
• Figure 1 is a quadrilateral
• Therefore, Figure 1 is a square

• All mammals have fur

• Platypuses have fur
• So, Platypuses are mammals

• All birds lay eggs

• Platypuses lay eggs
• So, platypuses are birds

Syllogism: The Simplest sequence of logical premises and conclusion is known

as Syllogism. Every argument has two premises and only one conclusion
2. Recognize the Arguments
 Recognize Arguments
• All arguments can not be true or false. People use
different perspectives to express their believes.
So, there is always a need to differentiate
statements from arguments
• Not all passages contain arguments because logic
deals with arguments, it is important to be able
to distinguish passages that contain arguments
from those that do not. In general, a passage
contains an argument if it purports to prove some
thing; if it does not do so,it does not contain an
argument
 Premises Conclusion
Evidences Claims
(which must be declarative form) (which must be declarative form)

Factual Claims Inferential claims

Claim that simply expresses a certain

Statements that claim to present the
kind of reason in process. Claim can
evidence or reasons
be either explicit or implicit.
 1. Search for the explicit or implicit claims

• An explicit inferential claim is usually asserted

by premise or conclusion indicator words
(thus, since, because, hence, therefore, and
soon).e.g.
The human eye can see a source of light that is as faint as an ordinary
candle from a distance of 27 kilometers, through a non-absorbing
atmosphere. Thus, a powerful search light directed from a new moon
should be visible on earth with the naked eye.
The word ‘thus’ expresses the claim that something is being infered, so the
passage is an argument.
 Indicator terms
• Conclusion Indicator
therefore , wherefore,
accordingly ,we may
conclude, Entails that,
hence, thus, consequently,
we may I infer, It must be
that, whence, so, It
follows that, implies that,
as a result
• Premises Indicator
Since, as indicated by,
because, for,
In that, may be inferred
from, as given that,
Seeing that, for the reason
that, inasmuch as, owing
to
 Search for Implicit Claims(If indicator terms
are absent)
• Claim exists if there is an inferential relationship between the
statements in a passage e.g.
Since Edison invented the phonograph, there have been many technological
developments.
Since Edison invented the phonograph, he deserves credit for a major
technological development.
In the first passage the word ‘‘since’’ is used in a temporal sense.
It means ‘‘from the time that.’’ Thus, the first passage is not an
argument. In these second passage ‘‘since’’ is used in a logical
sense, and so the passage is an argument. It is clear that mere
reliance on indicator term may be misleading to infer a
statement as claim
 2-Analyze the statements from the
perspective of non-arguments
• Simple non inferential passages(Non Arguments)
are unproblematic passages that lack a claim that
anything is being proved. Such passages contain
statements that could be premises or conclusions
(or both), but what is missing is a claim that any
potential premise supports a conclusion or that
any potential conclusion is supported by
premises. Passages of this sort include warnings,
pieces of advice, statements of belief or opinion,
loosely associated statements, and reports.
 Forms of Non arguments
• A warning is a form of expression that is intended to put
someone on guard against a dangerous or detrimental
situation e.g.
Watch out that you don’t slip on the ice.
• A piece of advice is a form of expression that makes a
recommendation about some future decision or course of
conduct e.g.
You should keep a few things in mind before buying a used car.
Test drive the car at varying speeds and conditions, examine the
oil in the crank case, ask to see service records, and, if possible,
have the engine and power train checked by a mechanic
• A statement of belief or opinion is an expression about what someone
happens to believe or think at a certain time e.g.
We believe that our company must develop and produce outstanding
products that will perform a great service or fulfill a need for our customers.
We believe that our business must be run at an adequate profit and that the
services and products we offer must be better than those offered by
competitors.
• Loosely associated statements may be about the same general subject,
but they lack a claim that one of them is proved by the others e.g.
Not to honor men of worth will keep the people from contention; not to value
goods that are hard to come by will keep them from theft; not to display what
is desirable will keep them from being unsettled of mind.
• A report consists of a group of statements that convey information about
some topic or event e.g.
Even though more of the world is immunized than ever before, many old
diseases have proven quite resilient in the face of changing population and
environmental conditions, especially in the developing world. New diseases,
such as AIDS, have taken their toll in both the North and the South.
• An expository passage is a kind of discourse that begins with a topic sentence
followed by one or more sentences that develop the topic sentence. If the
objective is not to prove the topic sentence but only to expand it or elaborate
it, then there is no argument e.g.
There are three familiar states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Solid objects
ordinarily maintain their shape and volume regardless of their location. A liquid
occupies a definite volume, but assumes the shape of the occupied portion of its
container. A gas maintains neither shape nor volume. It expands to fill completely
whatever container it is in.
• An illustration consists of a statement about a certain subject combined with a
reference to one or more specific instances intended to exemplify that
statement. Illustrations are often confused with arguments because many of
them contain indicator words such as‘‘thus.’’e.g.
Chemical elements, as well as compounds, can be represented by molecular
formulas. Thus, oxygen is represented by ‘‘O2,’’ water by ‘‘H2O,’’ and sodium
chloride by ‘‘NaCl.’’
• An explanation is a group of statements that purports to shed light on some
event or phenomenon. The event or phenomenon in question is usually
accepted as a matter of fact. Every explanation is composed of two distinct
components : the explanandum and explanans. The explanandum is the
statement that describes the event or phenomenon to be explained, and the
explanans is the statement or group of statements that purports to do the
explaining.
The sky appears blue from the earth’s surface because light rays
from the sun are scattered by particles in the atmosphere.
Cows can digest grass, while humans can not, because their
digestive systems contain enzymes not found in humans.

Argument Explanation

Explanan (Claims to
Premises (Accepted fact)
shed light)

Conclusion(Claimed to Explanandum
prove) (Accepted Fact)

In argument, premises are accepted fact whereas in explanation,

explanandum are accepted facts.
• A conditional statement is an ‘‘if...then...’’ statement. Every
conditional statement is made up of two component statements.
The component statement immediately following the ‘‘if’’ is called
the antecedent, and the one following the ‘‘then’’ is called the
consequent. e.g.
If air is removed from a solid closed container, then the container will
weigh less than it did.

• The relation between conditional statements and arguments may

now be summarized as follows:
1. A single conditional statement is not an argument.
2. Conditional statement may serve as either the premise or the
conclusion (or both) of an argument.
3. The inferential content of a conditional statement may be re-
expressed to form an argument.
If cigarette companies publish warning labels, then smokers assume
the risk of smoking.
Cigarette companies do publish warning labels.(P)
Therefore, smokers assume the risk of smoking.(c)
• Conditional statements are especially important in logic
because they express the relationship between necessary
and sufficient conditions. A is said to be a sufficient
condition for B whenever the occurrence of A is all that is
needed for the occurrence of B. For example, being a dog is
a sufficient condition for being an animal.
• On the other hand, B is said to be a necessary condition for
A whenever A can not occur without the occurrence of B.
Thus, being an animal is a necessary condition for being a
dog.
• These relationships are expressed in the following
conditional statements:
• If X is a dog, then X is an animal. (Sufficient)
• If X is not an animal, then X is not a dog.(Necessary)
The first statement says that being a dog is a sufficient
condition for being an animal and the second that being an
animal is a necessary condition for being a dog.
 Unstated Propositions
• Unstated propositions can be argument. Unstated
propositions are also called Enthymeme. A shorthand
syllogism which omits the first premise allowing the audience
to fill in e.g.
All man are mortal,
Socrates is a man
Then, Socrates is mortal
This is an example of syllogism which comprises two premises
and one conclusion. If we rewrite it as enthymeme : Audience
already know that Socrates is a man.
All man are mortal,
Then, Socrates is mortal
 Forms of Logic
• Formal logic(Symbolic) is the study of inference with
purely formal content.
All television networks are media companies.
NBC is a television network.
Therefore, NBC is a media company.

• Informal logic(Symbolic) is the study of inference with

purely informal content. T; Television Network, M for media
companies, N for NBC
All T are M
N is a T
Then, N is M
 Types of Reasoning:
Deductive and Inductive
Deductive Argument
• An argument in which the
premises are claimed to
support the conclusion in such
away that it is impossible for
the premises to be true and
the conclusion false. In such
,arguments the conclusion is
claimed to follow necessarily
from the premises
• Reasoning that occurs by
necessary relationship existed
among statements
• Deductive arguments is more
formal form of reasoning
• Reasoning by necessity
If all premises are true,
conclusion will be true
Inductive Argument
• An inductive argument is an
argument in which the
premises are claimed to
support the conclusion in such
away that it is improbable that
the premises be true and the
conclusion false.
• Reasoning that occurs by
probable relationship existed
among statements
• Inductive arguments is more
informal form of reasoning
• Reasoning by probability
• If all premises are true,
conclusion may be false
Deductive Argument
• In which reasoning moves
from general premises to
specific conclusion
Example:
All Television networks are
media companies(True P)
NBC is a Television
Network(True P)
Therefore, NBC is a media
Company(True C)
Inductive Argument
• In which the reasoning
moves from specific
premises to general
conclusion
Example:
Ufone does funny
advertisement (True P)
Ufone is a mobile network
company(True P)
Therefore, All mobile network
companies do funny
advertisement(C can be T/F)
Assessment of inductive and deductive
arguments
Three factors that influence our decision about a
claim are :
• the occurrence of special indicator words
• the actual strength of the inferential link
between premises and conclusion
• the character form of argumentation the
arguer uses
 1. Occurrence of special indicator
words
Deductive Argument
• Indicator words before conclusion
are necessarily, certainly,
absolutely, definitely
Example
All sales women are extroverts.
Elizabeth Taylor is a saleswoman.
Therefore, definitely Elizabeth Taylor
is an extrovert.
Inductive Argument
Indicator words before conclusion
are improbable, plausible,
implausible, likely, unlikely,
reasonable to conclude
Example
The vast majority of sales women are
extroverts.
Elizabeth Taylor is a sales woman.
Therefore, probably Elizabeth Taylor
is an extrovert.
2.Actual strength of the inferential link
between premises and conclusion
All sales women are extroverts.
(True P)
Elizabeth Taylor is a saleswoman.
(True P)
Therefore, Elizabeth Taylor is an
extrovert.(True C)
If we assume that all sales
women are extroverts and that
Elizabeth Taylor is a saleswoman,
then it is impossible that
Elizabeth Taylor not be an
extrovert.
The vast majority of sales women
are extroverts. (True P)
Elizabeth Taylor is a sales woman.
(True P)
Therefore, Elizabeth Taylor is an
extrovert.(Can be true or false C)
If we assume that majority of
sales women are extroverts and
that Elizabeth Taylor is a
saleswoman, then there is a
probability that Elizabeth does
not fall in that majority.
 3. Character form of argumentation
the arguer uses
• Arguments based on • Predictions
mathematics • Arguments from
• Arguments from analogy
definition • Inductive
• Categorical syllogism generalizations
• Hypothetical syllogisms • Arguments from
• Disjunctive syllogisms authority
• Arguments based on
signs
• Causal inferences
Validity and truth
 Validity
• Term validity is applicable to the deductive
arguments. Deductive arguments can be valid or
invalid. Validity is a logical truth.
• Validity of Arguments will be tested from its
skeleton structure(Logical structure)
• Valid Argument can be sound or unsound
• The words valid or invalid are not applicable to
inductive arguments. Inductive arguments are
weaker, stronger, worse or better
• Truth and falsity apply to individual proposition.
Valid deductive argument
• A deductive argument such
that it is impossible for the
premises to be true and the
conclusion false. In these
arguments the conclusion
follows with strict necessity
from the premises.
Invalid deductive argument
• A deductive argument such
that it is possible for the
premises to be true and the
conclusion false. In invalid
arguments the conclusion
does not follow with strict
necessity from the
premises, even though it is
claimed to.
 Assessment of arguments

Valid(true logical Invalid(False logical

structure) structure)

Unsound(Statements are
Sound in fact not true)
(All Premises and 1. All Premises false,
conclusion in fact conclusion false
True) 2. All premises false,
conclusion true
Always unsound
1-True premises and True
conclusion in fact
2-True premises and False
conclusion in fact
3-False premises and True
conclusion in fact
4-False premises and false
conclusion in fact

Validity is a logical truth, whereas soundness is reality of statements.

 1.Valid and sound argument
Structure form true, All premises are true and Conclusion true
First we need to symbolize the statements from content statements .e.g.
T=Television, Media company=M, NBC=N
These notations are assumed symbols.
Content form(formal form)
All television networks are media companies.
NBC is a television network.
Therefore, NBC is a media company.
Informal form
All T are M
N is a T
Then, N is M
It is true form of argument because structure is true. And
argument seems sound because premises and conclusions are
actually true. Sound argument=valid argument+ All true premises
 2. Valid and unsound argument
Structure form true, All premises false and Conclusion False

• All four legged • All F have W

creatures have wings • All S have F
• All spiders have exactly • Therefore, All S have W
four legs
• Therefore ,All spiders
have wings

Although the form/structure is correct(valid)

but in fact all the premises are false and
conclusion is false, so argument is valid but
unsound
 3.Valid and Unsound
Structure form true, premises false and conclusion true

• All fishes are mammals • All F are M

• All whales are fishes • All w are F
• Therefore, All whales are
mammals
• Therefore, All w are M

Although the structure form is correct, but premises are

not in fact true.
 Invalid Arguments
Structure incorrect, true conclusion, false premises

• All mammals have • All M have D

wings • All W have D
• All whales have wings • Therefore, All W are M
• Therefore, all whales
are mammals.
Structure is incorrect, All premises are in fact false, but
conclusion is true
 Invalid Arguments
Structure incorrect, false conclusion, true premises

All wines are beverages. • All W are B

Coca-cola is a beverage. • C is a B
Therefore, coca cola is a • Therefore, C is a W
wine.

Structure is incorrect, conclusion is in fact false,

premises are true.
 Invalid Arguments
Structure incorrect, true conclusion, false premises

• All mammals lay eggs • All M have E

• Platypuses lay eggs • P have E
• Therefore, platypuses is • Therefore, P is M
mammal.

Structure is incorrect, Premises are in fact false

and conclusion is true
 Invalid Arguments
Structure incorrect, false conclusion, false premises

• All mammals have • All M have W

wings • All Wh have W
• All whales have wings • Therefore, all M are Wh
• Therefore, all mammals
are whales

Structure is incorrect, All conclusions and premises are false